^Ma^^ «^«*,*^^^^*«^^<^A**^^^^'^'^ ,.^W, ■;'?^-;-i?^^A,-r^ W'o^WK'^^H^" ^^';.^A^ ^r^'^'.^^^A' -.-^O-.^o, W^.^y s'^^r'^A/^XAA \^A'^A, ^^^-^r. ^^^.'AAA^nn' I^Aftf^<^,A^- (i^W ^■^^r^^WK'. n^^soxti ■%^>AR^A,^- i>m~ ^' :?;j*^^a;a;:£"' : ,. 'm??^5??w??:^:;^3:^:j-vm«^*«,*«^: ;;;i:»;i sSPS^S^ss^s^S .^f^^^i -^^■^-V^^AA W.'^'N' i^P^^«; '>», «A^r\; ;>-,«^^^'^M^«^AA(V^|^^ ^^^A^««*A^,A.-^^r^^^^nA^^^;' 'l'^" ' 'z^*^. ^ >■ >'^'^-^^«!f.- ^J^/VfV'V^ '^O.'nkQ'^'^ ^^^."■01-; 9 A, ^^ ■ ^^r ry^f^^A2' ;->^^^i:' ;^Ai'..^'^^^^r^C-'v.^ "''**' ''^C:^A l^^^lm^tttty ^AAV/^A A./>^A A;A'>.'S'5h i^^^-^-^OOo;; (Son'^K^^^^^'W»l'^'^*l^»(liW^« ;'^.'^A^:;^'-^, ,' rl ^ ,, A A ^J^AA-Ar^-.^ ''SS:^:!:^^^ U*A^^,M»A»^'^^^^g,^ r>>^/A^ _ ^'^«?<.;5Ar' ^^'T'^rC'^'^^^.Ai*/! C3 ccz THE ROYAL NATURAL HISTORY BEING A SYSTEMjlTIC ARRANGEMENT OF DESC[[IPTIVE ZOOLOGY, FROM MAN TO THE LOWEST FORMS. WITH AN INTRODUCTION ON THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY, BY DR. ANDREW WILSON, F.R.S., Edin. ; F.R.P.S.E.. Etc., Lecturer on Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the Edinburgh Medical School, S^c, EMBELLISHED BY OVER TWO THOUSAND ENGRAVINGS AND COLOURED PLATES. EDITED BY JAMES WYLDE, Editor of the " Circle oj the Sciences,'^ Author of the *' Magic of Science," **Shelis ami their Inhabitants," "Fossils," 4'C. [m\' ] THE LONDON PRINTING AND PUBLISHING COMPANY, LIMITED, 26, PATERNOSTER ROW, LO.NDO.V. A. W. GITTENS, 17, PARK I'l.ACK, NEW TORIv. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION ON THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. ^'"^^ CHAP. I.— THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN , IL— THE QUADRUMANA (Four-handed), INCLUDING THE APES, GIBBONS, MONKEYS, &c 22 III.— QUADRUMANA.— THE GIBBONS (Genus Hylobates) 3^ IV.— QUADRUMANA.— THE MONKEYS (Sub-family Cynomorpha, OR Dog-like) 38 v.— QUADRUMANA— THE AMERICAN MONKEYS (Group PLATYRRHiNiE) ^8 VI.— QUADRUMANA.— MADAGASCAR MONKEYS, OR LEMURS (Group or Family, LEMURiDiE and Lemuroida) 57 VII.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CHIROPTERA, OR BATS 67 Vin.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, INSECTIVORA— THE SHREWS, MOLES, &C 74 IX.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CARNIVORA— FLESH EATERS 85 X.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CARNIVORA— THE FELID^; INCLUDING LIONS, CATS, &C 109 XL— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CARNIVORA— THE HYENAS; THE VIVERRID^, OR CIVETS; AND THE MUSTELID^ OR WEASELS ,27 XII.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CARNIVORA— URSID^, OR BEARS, &C. ; AND THE CERCOLEPTID^, OR KINKAJOUS 14s XIIL— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, PINNIPEDIA— SEALS, &c 156 XIV.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, RODENTIA— THE GNAWERS OR RODENTS i56 XV.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, EDENTATA, OR BRUTA— TOOTHLESS ANIMALS 201 XVI.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, RUMINANTIA— OXEN, &C 216 XVII.— MAMMALIA— ORDER, RUMINANTIA— FAMILY, CERVID^ ; INCLUDING STAGS, &C 2J5 XVIII.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, RUMINANTIA— FAMILY, BOVIDiE ; INCLUDING ANTELOPES, CATTLE, AND SHEEP, ALL HOLLOW-HORNED ANIMALS OR CAVICORNIA 247 XIX.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, SOLIDUNGULA— THE HORSE, &C 290 XX.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, PACHYDERMAT A— ELEPHANTS, &C 302 XXL— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CETACEA— WHALES, &c. ; INCLUDING SUB-ORDERS-I., CETE, AND II., SIRENIA 338 XXIL— MAMMALIA.— SUB-CLASS, APLACENTARIA— KANGAROOS, &C 35' ^05)08(i ii CONTENTi>. CHAP. PAGE XXIII.— AVES OR BIRDS 369 XXIV.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, RAPTORES .. 379 XXV.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, PASSERES, OR INSESSORES— PERCHING BIRDS 419 XXVI.— AVES OR BIRDS.— SUB-ORDER, TENUIROSTRES, OR SLENDER-BILL BIRDS 441 XXVII.— AVES OR BIRDS.— SUB-ORDER, DENTIROSTRES, OR TOOTH-BILLED BIRDS 454 XXVIII.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, PASSERES, OR PERCHING BIRDS; SUB-ORDER, DENTIROSTRES ; FAMILY SYLVIDiE OR SYLVIAD^, OR WARBLERS 472 XXIX.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, PASSERES, OR INSESSORES ; SUB-ORDER, CONIROSTRES 486 XXX.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, SCANSORES, OR CLIMBING BIRDS ; INCLUDING CUCKOOS, PARROTS, &C. 513 XXXI.— AVES OR BIRDS.-ORDER, COLUMB^, OR DOVES 532 XXXIL— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, RASORES, OR GALLINACEOUS BIRDS, OR FOWLS, &c 541 XXXIII.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, CURSORES, OR RUNNERS 559 XXXIV.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, GRALLATO RES, OR WADING BIRDS 564 XXXV.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, NATATORES, OR SWIMMING BIRDS 588 XXXVI.— REPTILIA, OR REPTILES ; INCLUDING SERPENTS, LIZARDS, CROCODILES, &c 621 XXXVn.—BATRACHIA.— FROGS, &c 666 XXXVIIL— PISCES, OR FISHES 676 XXXIX.— INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.— THE MOLLUSCS ; SOFT-BODIED ANIMALS .. 725 XL.— MOLLUSCA PROPER _ 11^ XLL— THE ARTICULATA 767 XLII.-THE ARTIGULATA.-ARTHROPODA, OR TRUE ARTICULATA; INCLUDING LOBSTERS, CRABS, SPIDERS, &c 774 XLIII.— ARTICULATA.— THE INSECTS 793 XLIV.—RADIATA, OR RADIATED ANIMALS • 824 XLV.— THE PROTOZOA ^^^ THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY BY DR. ANDREW WILSON, F.R.S., Edin. ; F.R.P.S.E., Etc., Lecturer on Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the Edinburgh Medical School, &c. ROM the earliest years in which our attention is directed to the objects which surround us in nature, we are in the habit of classifying these objects into three divisions or series. The child is accustomed to speak of the Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms as the three great divisions of nature, and for all practical purposes this division is consistent with the facts of nature themselves. But a further distinction is capable of being drawn between natural objects when their characteristics are more carefully noted and observed. To classify them into Animals, Plants, and Minerals is a procedure which takes no account of the special characters of any one of the three groups. A little reflection shows us that two of these groups possess life, and are thus sharply separated from the other and remaining division, in which lifeless objects are alone contained. The animals and plants thus together form the life-possessing or Organic Series ; whilst minerals, rocks, stones, and all objects destitute of life, form the Inorganic Series, or non- ig group. Proceeding next to inquire into the methods we possess of studying these objects, we enter upon the consideration of the sciences which deal with the world and its belongings. In the early days of knowledge, when the sciences were but in their infancy, a perfect classification of the branches of inquiry pursued by man was an impossibility ; and as the study of nature was of the most general kind, one common study of "Natural History." may be regarded as having represented the distinct and specialized branches we pursue to-day. When learning revived in comparatively modern times, knowledge may be said to have divided itself into two chief branches, one of which concerned itself with human affairs, with the constitution of man's life, and with his political and social history; whilst the other dealt with the universe around, and with the objects which meet our gaze in the world at large. Hobbes, of Malmesbury, for instance, in his " Leviathan," very clearly enunciates the distinction to be drawn between " Natural History," which he asserts to be " the history of such facts or effects of nature as have no dependence on man's will; such as are the histories of metals, plants, animals, regions, and the like;" whilst conversely he takes care to point out that another great branch of inquiry exists, in which is comprised, under the name of "Civil History," "the history of the voluntary actions of men in commonwealths." Such was the division of human knowledge in the time of Hobbes. But the growth of knowledge proceeded apace, after the era of the philosopher of Malmesbury. After Newton's day, and in greater part as the effect of his influence on science, knowledge came to be divided into " Experimental or Mathematical THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. Sciences," or those which could be pursued by active imitation of the conditions of nature — and " Observational Sciences," or those in which experiment gave place to simple observation of the facts seen in nature. To the former category. Chemistry, Astronomy, and Natural Philosophy were assigned ; and in the latter division. Natural History, comprising the study of animals (Zoology) ; plants (Botany) ; and the earth itself (Geology or Mineralogy), found a place. Thus the name " Natural History " ultimately came to mean and to indicate those sciences which dealt with animals, plants, and minerals ; and, as such, the limits of the science were of the widest possible kind of nature. Buffon and Linnaeus were "naturalists" in this wide sense, and these writers included a knowledge of every department of nature under that designation. But science did not cease to grow and expand after this latter classification of its subjects was constructed. On the contrary, research in the department of " Natural History " began to be prosecuted with increased vigour. As time passed, it was seen that the limits of human existence were too short to admit of a man's attaining excellence in the whole range of " Natural History ; " and specialization and limitation of studies became the order of the day. A division accordingly grew into repute between those branches of Natural History which dealt with living things, and those which inquired into the history of the tion-livi7tg section of the universe. The study of animals and plants thus tended to separate itself from the study of rocks and stones, and a new division of " Natural History " science was again imminent. About 1801, Lamarck, the celebrated French zoologist, coined a word, Biologic, derived from the Greek, bios, life, and logos, a discourse. Treviranus, another famous naturalist, likewise employed this name — rendered Biology in English — and under this term both authorities included the study of animals and plants as the living parts of nature. Hence " Biology " came to mean, at the beginning of this century, as it means to-day, the " Science of Living Beings." As such it was, therefore, sharply enough separated from the neighbour-sciences, Geology and Mineralogy, and other branches, which had been united with the study of living beings under the common name, " Natural History." This idea grew in favour, and has been handed down to the present era of scientific thought, so that " Biology " is understood to-day to be the science dealing with the living things which inhabit the earth. What, it may now be asked, is the present arrangement of the " Natural Sciences," and of those branches of inquiry which deal with the inorganic or lifeless section of the universe ? The following table will show the modern arrangement of these sciences : — NATURAL HISTORY. INCLUDES : — (0 Biology dealing with Animals (ZOOLOGY) ^ These forming the and \ Plants (BOTANY) J ORGANIC Series. (2) Chemistry (3) Geology These dealing chiefly with (4) Mineralogy the (5) Natural Philosophy Inorganic Series. (6) Astronomy As above defined, we note that the significance of the old term, " Natural History," as used by Hobbes, remains unchanged. It means with us to-day, the complete and entire history of nature around us. As such, it includes the consideration, not merely of living, but of non-living objects. The former are dealt with by Biology, which includes the companion sciences of Botany and Zoology. The inorganic objects are dealt with by such sciences as Chemistry, Astronomy, Geology, &c. ; but it is also necessary to note that these sciences are likewise related more or less intimately to living beings and to Biological inquiries. There is a chemistry of living beings, for instance, as well as an inorganic chemistry; and Geology deals with the life of the past in the form of fossils, as well as with the rocks and stones, which possess no connection with life or living objects. The line of separation, albeit that it is distinct enough, is not an absolute one ; and, indeed, the furthest researches of science tend to show that no one branch of inquiry remains entirely separate and distinct from its neighbour-branches, but depends, to a greater or less extent, for its own progress, upon that of other departments of human knowledge. Having thus defined the special position which " Biolog)'," as the science of living beings, occupies, we may now proceed to investigate the manner in which animals and plants are to be studied. It is the aim of science to be exact, and the methods of scientific inquiry — the fashion in which knowledge is acquired — must THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. be themselves essentially of exact and well defined kind. In scientific inquiries, therefore, a certain routine must be observed. Information acquired now must bear a definite relation to that obtained in the past : just as the knowledge of the future will unquestionably relate itself to that of the present, to form a harmonious and connected system of knowledge. Definite method is, therefore, a first condition for success- ful investigation into the truths of nature. Animals and plants are studied according to a method or plan in which the details of their form, struc- ture, mode of life, habitation, and origin, are readily ascertained and appreciated by the biologist. The history of any animal or plant — low or high in the scale of creation — is practically ascertained by asking- four questions concerning it — queries, these, of a thoroughly natural kind. Firstly, we ask of every \\\-\n" being, "What is it? " expecting in the reply to gain a knowledge of its structure and nature. Secondly, we inquire, " How does it live ? " with the view of discovering its manner of life and the degree of perfection in which the duties of life are performed. Thirdly, we determine to know, " Where is it found ? " with the view of ascertaining in what quarters of the world it exists, from what regions it may be absent, and whether or not it existed in that part of our earth with which Geology makes us acquainted. Fourthly, and lastly, we inquire, " How has it assumed its present place in nature ? " and if this question be answered, we shall expect to find, in the reply, information concerning the causes which have made the living being what it is, which have determined its place in the scale of life, and which have, in fact, wrought out its physical destiny. If these four questions may be fully answered concerning any living thing, the history of that organism may be regarded as full and complete in every particular. As science now exists, every fresh addition to our knowledge of living beings may be regarded as tending to answer one of these queries partly or wholly. The gaps in our knowledge are many and great concerning even the humblest living being ; but the advances of inquiry are proceeding with unfaltering step, and day by day the histories of the varied living forms which people our globe are being added to with a rapidity that gives fair promise of a rich scientific harvest in the near future of Biology. The answer to the first question asked concerning any and every living being — from the lowest animalcule or plant, up to, and including, man himself— is supplied by that branch of Biology we term Morphology, or the Science of Structure. The following table will show the various branches of inquiry throu"-h the pursuit of which our knowledge of living beings is gained. BIOLOGY (OR THE SCIENCE OF LIVING BEINGS) I. Morphology, (Science of Structure) including INCLUDES : — 1. Anatomy 2. Development 3. Taxonomy Which answer the question, "What is it?" II. Physiology, (Science of Functions) including 1. Nutrition 2. Reproduction 3. Innervation Which answer the question, ' How does it live ? " HI. Distribution, including 1. In space (Geographical Distribution) 2. In time (Geological Distribution) Which answer the question " Where is it found ? " IV. .(Etiology, (Science of Causes) including Development and Descent : The study of likenesses : etc. Which answer the question, " How has it assumed its present place in the organic series ? " Under the head of Morphology, we expect to gain an accurate idea of the structure of the animal or plant. Every detail concerning its composition and mechanism is acquired under this head. Suppose a watchmaker to describe to us the mechanism of a watch — to show us the arrangement of wheels, springs, pivots, and other gear — the mechanic in such a case would be describing to us the " morphology " of the watch. But morphology is seen to include (as set forth in our table) at least three well marked divisions. Anatomy teaches us the form and structure of the fully-formed being ; makes us acquainted with the position and THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. relations of its various organs, and shows us, for example, where heart and brain, lungs and liver, digestive and other organs lie. Then Devclopjiient takes up the story, and initiates us into the processes in virtue of which the animal or plant grew, and was fashioned from the primitive sybstance of the germ or seed. Just as the history of a watch might be held to include the details of its manufacture, so the study of an animal or plant includes a knowledge of its formation, and of the processes whereby it assumed its adult and characteristic form. In such a study some of the most important knowledge of the naturalist is obtained. Studying the development of the animal or plant, the observer sees how, from the apparently simple protoplasm of egg or seed, organ after organ is evolved and formed, until the perfection of adult life is obtained. The last department of morphology is Taxonomy or Classification. It is easy to perceive that a true knowledge of what things are includes a knowledge of their relations one with another. When we classify any series of objects — living or non-living — we place together those that are really like, and separate those that are unlike. It is evident, therefore, that upon a knowledge of morphology and development (which teach us what animals and plants are) our ability to arrange together those that are truly alike must depend. A whale and a fish would be — and very frequently are, in popular Natural History, classified together — because both are alike in form and • appearance, and because both swim and inhabit the water. But when we understand the structure of the fish, as revealed by morphology and development, we find that its body is covered with scales, that its blood is cold, that its heart is two-chambered, that it breathes by gills, and that its young are hatched from eggs, over which the parent-fish usually exercises no care. When, similarly, we understand the structure of the whale, we find vast differences between it and the fish. The whale's body-covering consists typically of hairs ; its blood is warm ; its heart is four-chambered ; it breathes by lungs, like ourselves, and has to ascend periodically to the surface of the water for the purpose of breathing air directly from the atmosphere ; and its young are born alive, and nourished by means of the milk of the parent. The fish we find, in short, to be a much lower animal than the whale ; whilst the latter we discover to be an animal belonging to the same class as ourselves. The whale is, in truth, a quadruped, or mammal, fitted for an aquatic life ; whilst the fish is the lowest member of the Vertebrate group (or that of "backboned " animals) to which man himself belongs. Thus does a true and exact classification of animals or plants depend upon a knowledge of what animals and plants truly are, as demonstrated by morphology, or the Science of Structure. The second question — "How does it live?" is answered by Physiology, or the Science of Fjinctions. As morphology taught us the mechanism of the living body, so physiology teaches us concerning the manner in which that mechanism works. When we speak of the " physiology of the eye," or of the " heart," we mean respectively to indicate the knowledge which shows us how eye and heart perform their respective " functions " or " duties." Every living being may be said to perform three chief functions — each including a large number of subordinate branches of inquiry. The life-history of any animal or plant may, in other words, be summed up in three terms — Nutrition, Reproduction, and Relation, or Innervation. The first duty of the living organism is the " Nutrition " of its frame. Under this head, we consider the questions of food, digestion, assimilation, the blood or sap (as the case may be), circulation, respiration, excretion, secretion, &c. Nutrition comprehends every function which contributes to the support and maintenance of the individjial animal or plant. But whilst the individual is thus being conserved, the interests of the race or species also demand attention. Death is continually thinning out the ranks of animal and plant species ; hence provision must be made for filling up the gaps which such loss by death causes. The function of " Reproduction " is therefore that devoted to this latter work. Through its operation, new animals and plants are produced to take the places of lost members of the race; and reproduction clearly preserves the "species," just as nutrition conserved the " individual." The last function included in the list of physiological duties performed by animals and plants is named Relation, Irritability, or Innervation. By each term is indicated the functions which the 7iervous system (or its representative in lowest animals and in plants) perform, in bringing the living being into " relation " with its surroundings, and with the world in which it lives. Every living being possesses and exhibits some such relations. The animal is visibly related to the world in which it lives and moves, and from which it draws its sustenance and support. No less clearly related to its surroundings is the fixed plant, which derives its food from the soil in which it is placed, and which, as a living being, must possess some relations with its environments. It may be laid down as a stable fact in physiology that no living being is destitute of means for performing the function of relation. The higher we advance in the animal and plant series, the more perfect does the performance of this function become. But the differences perceptible between the nervous relations of one animal and another are differences of degree and not of kind ; and it may be said THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 5 that there exists an unbroken chain of physiological relations connecting even the lowest form of life with the highest interests of man. From the study of morphology and physiology wc thus gain a complete knowledge of the structure and life of every living thing. A third question is found, however, which covers ground ignored by either structural or by functional considerations. This question — " Where is it found ? " — is answered by the science of Distribution. Every living being has a more or less strictly defined place and position on the surface of the earth. Some forms are well-nigh world-wide in their range; others are restricted (like some species of humming-birds, for instance) to, it may be, a few square miles of that surface, and are never met with outside these narrow bounds. The questions, which, therefore, the science of Distribution sets itself to answer arc of all-important nature. Why, for example, it may be asked, are humming-birds confined to the New World ? Why are antelopes well-nigh limited to Africa ? Why are deer, which otherwise are world-wide in range, absent from Africa? Why does one elephant occur in India, and another and different elephant in Africa? Why are New World monkeys different from those of the Old World ? Why are kangaroos only found in Australia, and opossums in America alone ? These, and a multitude of like queries, might be asked with reference to the habitations of animals, and to such questions it is the province of Distribution to afford a reply. Distribution, has, moreover, two chief aspects of study. Geographical Distribiitio7i, or Distribution in space, deals with the animal and plant-populations of the world as they exist to-day. Distribution i7i time, or Geological Distribution, investigates for us, on the other hand, the distribution of life in that past of the globe to which Geology directs our attention. From a study of the " fossils," or petrified remains of animals and plants, we are enabled to ascertain, fully or in part, their past history, and to compare that history with the story which their life on the earth to-day presents. Whilst only through the study of " fossils " can we gain any idea of the existence of countless animals and plants which lived and died out or became extinct ages before man appeared. The last question relating to the history of the living being is that, " How has it assumed its present place in Nature ? " In this query entire knowledge of its history may be said to be summed up. Every detail furnished by Morphology, Physiology, and Distribution aids in answering this last question, which only within recent years has been put forth for reply by the scientific world. To understand how the living worlds came to be what they now are, is a process of thought which assumes two things. We firstly presume that living beings have had a progressive history — that they were not created " as they are." And we, secondly, take for granted, that some hiowledge of tlieir past history is traceable in their present, to which we have access. The science of y^tiology, or that dealing with the " causes of things," may therefore be applied to Biology, and, it is almost needless to remark, this latter department of Biological Science is one which has sprung into existence through the researches and suggestive studies of Darwin and other evolutionists. Finding, for instance, in the " develop- ment " of animals many facts absolutely inexplicable in the idea that living beings were created as we now find them, Evolution asserts that there is evidence of ample kind to prove that the existing forms of animals and plants have been developed by the modification and alteration of pre-existing forms. The causes of such modification are, it is true, often obscure, and frequently unknown ; but the imperfections of our knowledge do not affect the probabilities at issue, and do not militate against the great principle of progressive change which Evolution maintains has been the ordered way of nature at large. For example, what explanation can be given of the fact that man, birds, and reptiles, which do not breathe by gills at any period of life, possess, in their embryonic (or early) condition, gill-clefts similar to those which in fishes bear the gills ? The idea of special creation has no answer to give save that " they were created so." Evolution replies with a rational reason — that these higher animals were derived from lower and gill-breathing forms, and that they still retain in their development, as a matter of inheritance, the evidence of their ancestry. Or again, why should the early stages in the development of such classes of animals resemble those in the development of neighbouring classes, save on the supposition of a common descent ? Why should whalebone whales, which have no teeth when adult, possess, before birth, teeth which never cut the gum ? The reply is, not that nature pursues a meaningless course, but that these teeth are representatives — produced by the operation of laws of heredity and descent — of teeth once well developed in the race from which these whales have sprung. Why has a horse, which walks on one finger and toe — the third — rudiments of other two toes, the second and fourth, in the shape of two useless " splint bones ? " The answer is, because horses are descended from three-toed ancestors ; progressive change having developed the third toe to the exclusion of the others. In proof of this, we can point to the scries of fossil horses in Yale College Museum, U.S., these fossil and e.xtinct ancestors of the horse possessing three, four, and THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. even five toes, being there seen in perfect array. Why should animals so different in adult life as a shrimp, a barnacle, a water flea, a sacculina (existing as a mere bag-like appendage on crabs) be developed from a similar embryonic form and in like fashion ? Evolution replies, because they have sprung originally from one root-stock, and still repeat in their history the ancestral features of long ago. Why should " variation " in living species be such a common feature? The reply of the biologist is, because variation is merely the beginning of the process of change, which, with increasing tendency to depart further and further from the specific type, gradually evolves new species. Such are a few of the contentions of Evolution as representing the newest phase of modern Biology. It is not too much to say that the idea of Evolution, as the law of life, has thoroughly revolutionized modern life-science. It has supplied us with explanations of points and features before assumed to be of inexplicable kind ; and has proved, so far as research has proceeded, to be a thoroughly consistent view of the living universe and its constitution. The data upon which the science of .Etiology depends for its knowledge, have been casually mentioned in treating of the examples of evolutionary problems. Thus " rudimentary organs," like the " splint bones " of the horse, or the undeveloped teeth of whales, are clues and traces to the nature and true position of these animals. The likeness between the limbs of quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and fishes, for instance (presenting us with a study of Homology), illustrates again the sources of information upon which the biologist depends for his knowledge of an animal's past. And above all, "development," and the story it tells concerning the evolution of a living being, is regarded as our best guide to the history of an animal or plant ; so that we are not surprised to find Mr. Darwin maintaining that the development of an animal is a panoramic or moving picture of its descent — of those stages through which it has passed and come to assume its present place in the created scale. By way of applying the foregoing remarks upon the method in which we study living beings, we may select the kangaroo as an animal which presents a typical example of Biological investigation. In the endeavour to systematically ascertain the kangaroo's place in nature, the meaning of the preceding remarks upon the various divisions of Biological science will be readily apparent,. The kangaroo is an animal familiar enough to ordinary readers, and which has attained a popularity in Natural History from its somewhat remarkable appearance, as well as from certain peculiarities con- nected with its habits and distribution. Applying to Biology for a succinct description of the kangaroo, the naturalist would firstly deal with its Morphology, or " structure ; " investigating under this head— its anatomy, its development, and its classification or taxonomy. We would learn under these heads, for instance, the structure of its skeleton and the disposition of its viscera. We should discover the presence of two peculiar bones, named marsupial bones, rising from the front of the animal's haunch-bones, or pelvis, and which are used for the support of a " pouch," in which, as is well known, the mother protects her young for a considerable period after birth. We should discover that the brain of the animal is of lower type than that of ordinary quadrupeds, such as the dog, cat, horse, &c. We would likewise note, amongst other details, the elongated foot of the kangaroo, and the curious fact that it possesses but four toes, of which the fourth and fifth are large and well developed, whilst the second and third toes are small, rudimentary and enclosed with a single fold of skin ; the first or great toe being absent. The developmetit of the kangaroo would teach us, in its own way, that the body of the animal was formed on the type of that of all other quadrupeds, and that its lower place in the quadruped-class was due to the earlier stage at which develop- ment, so to speak, terminates, as compared with that which is attained by ordinary quadrupeds. The classification of the kangaroo would present us with few difficulties, if our examination of other animals had placed us in possession of adequate information respecting their structure in turn. Thus we should find that the marsupial bones of our kangaroo (and its pouch also, as a rule) were common to a large number of other animals, such as Wombats, " Tasmanian Devils," Bandicoots, Phalangers, Kangaroo-rats (all inhabiting Australia and adjacent islands), and Opossums — inhabiting America ; and we should be therefore justified in assuming from this fact as well as from likeness to the kangaroo in brain-structure, and in other peculiarities of body, that these varied forms were near kith and kin of that animal. Thus a knowledge of likeness in structure aids us in forming a group of quadrupeds (including the animals just mentioned, and the kangaroos as typical members) to which we give the name of Marsupials, or " pouched " mammals. The Physiology of the kangaroo would teach us its life-history and habits. We should, through the study of nutrition, discover its food, and those processes in virtue of which that food is applied to the THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. uses of the animal's frame. Its reproduction would disclose to us such curious features as that involved in the facts that the young are born in a very immature state (those of a kangaroo six feet high when adult, being about an inch long at birth) ; that the young arc nourished within the " pouch " by the milk-secretion of the mother ; and that the milk is forced down the throat of the young by the action of special muscles which compress the milk-glands. Lastly, the innervation of the kangaroo would lead us to investigate the functions of its brain and nerves, and to compare its nerve-acts and intelligence with those of other animals; and with the investigation of this latter phase of existence the physiological examination of the animal would be concluded. The distribution of the kangaroo, supplying the answer to the question, " Where is it found ? " would present many points of extreme interest. We should discover that kangaroos were absolutely confined to Australia and adjacent islands, which are the typical home of the whole " marsupial " or " pouched " race of quadrupeds. No kangaroo, living or fossil, has been met with out of the Australian region. Hence the question occurs, "Why are kangaroos, and marsupials at large, only found in that part or region of the world ?" The ability to answer this query depends upon our recognition of the two great factors which have been and still are instrumental in bringing about the existing order of the living world — namely, geological change, and variation in species. Geology informs us that at a far-back period in the history of our earth, known to geologists as the Trias, marsupials were found in Europe and elsewhere ; this fact being known from their fossil history. These were the first quadrupeds which appeared on the earth's surface and that Australia obtained its marsupial population in the Triassic period appears a stable induction, Australia being then joined to what we now name the Asiatic Continent. In the Triassic rocks of Europe, and in later rocks as well, we may note that the remains of opossums are also found — the opossums, however, although " marsupial " quadrupeds, being unknown in Australia, and being at present restricted to the New World in their range. We know also that in the Oolitic rocks of Europe, or those succeeding the Trias, marsupial remains are found. This latter fact (together with the knowledge that in Australia there are living many types of Oolitic animals, extinct elsewhere) leads us to believe that Australia became separated from the Asiatic mainland at the close of the Oolitic period. Remembering that no higher quadrupeds were then in existence, and that Australia had acquired its marsupial population, what was the effect of the separation of Australia from the mainland ? Simply to prevent any addition of higher quadrupeds to the Australian region — for after the close of the Oolitic and Chalk periods the higher quadrupeds were evolved — and to consequently restrict the quadruped population of Australia to its marsupials. These latter, varying in turn amongst themselves, have, in turn, produced the diverse fauna which meets the eye of the naturalist in Australia to-day — for it need hardly be added that all quadrupeds above the rank of the marsupials (such as our ordinary cows, horses, sheep, &c.) found in Australia to-day, are introductions due to the hand of man. Thus in Australia we see a " survival " of an animal-population once {i.e., in Triassic and Oolitic times) of world-wide extent ; the survival in that island- continent being due, firstly, to geological change producing isolation of the marsupial type ; and secondly, to variation in the original marsupials of Australia producing the existing variety of these animals in that land. In America we find the opossums, as already noted, these being the only marsupials existing outside the bounds of Australia. Why is this ? To answer this question fully we have simply to leave Australia altogether out of sight in the matter, inasmuch as Australia never included opossums in its fauna. These animals existed in Europe until the Tertiary epoch, and hence we must believe that as opossums are found in a fossil state in America in much more recent rocks than in Europe, they must have migrated to America from Europe or Northern Asia by a then continuous land-surface in the Tertiary period. The opossums, like all other marsupials, have disappeared from the Old World, because the higher quadrupeds have exterminated them, or because the changing physical conditions were unsuited to their development. In Australia the marsupials, and in America the opossums, respectively flourish as survivals of the earliest quadrupeds, because the conditions of life suit them, and because they continue to exist, in America, in face of the " struggle for existence " there taking place, and in Australia because of the immunity they have enjoyed from the inroads of higher forms. Lastly, the Etiology of the kangaroo deals with the question, " How came it to assume its existing place in Nature ? " The naturalist would answer this question by saying that the conditions under which marsupial life has been preserved, and under which it has varied in the past, contains the reply. Of these conditions we THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. yet know but little ; but all the facts of nature point to modification of, and to descent from some primitive marsupial type, as those processes which have given origin to our kangaroos and their allies. Even the single fact that the feet of marsupials are constructed on one and the same type (already described in the case of the kangaroo), and exhibit endless modification for different modes of life, clearly points to the evolution of the kangaroo from some pre-existent type, from which probably the other marsupial races also sprang. Could we glance backwards in time to the Triassic and Oolitic periods, trace the progress of events in the world's sur- face since the first peopling of Australia with its marsupials, we should undoubtedly discover that in the modifi- cation and progress of these primitive species lies hidden the distinct answer to the question, " How has the kangaroo assumed its existing features and present place in nature ? " Of the uses and advantages of Natural History study, very little need be said in the present instance, by way of conclusion to this brief study of the methods of biological research. But it is permissible to say a few words concerning the utility of biological study, as a means of culture, and as extending our concepts and enlarging our ideas of the universe in which we live. If it be admitted that a knowledge of our own place in nature, and of man's true relations to lower forms of life, be a desirable item in our mental belongings, such knowledge can only be acquired through biological study. No adequate idea of the general constitution of nature, or of man's relation to, and place in that constitution, can be acquired save through a patient investi- gation of the wide range of Biology. The history of the lowest animal or plant may throw a side light on problems of weighty kind ; and in its lowest as well as higher departments, the science of life teems with truths as important to the proper study of mankind as are the facts of political history or of human morals. Mr. Spencer, in his " Study of Sociology," has, for example, well shown how preparation in Biology is the best vantage- ground for the study of man in his social relationships. The human individual is regulated by broad laws of life and living common to all other forms. Hence, as society is made up of individuals, the laws of society and human life are, in reality, the extensions of biological truths. The importance of Biology as fitting us for the understanding of the world and of ourselves, is, however, only equalled by its interest. No fairer field of study can appeal to our gaze than the living worlds that surround us. Whether it be an Alpine flora, telling us its tale of glacier-lands and ice-fields existing when the earth was young, or a tropic vegetation, of surpassing loveliness in its gorgeous hues — whether a study in higher forms of life absorbs our attention, or our investiga- tions lead us to examine the animalcule, or to know the pulsating jelly-li'ke bells that, tinted with azure, grace the summer sea, there is everywhere to be found in living nature, beauty and loveliness, and a fair prospect. Hence Natural History, whilst it instructs us in the life of the universe, does so through the charm of its varied interests, which, in their fullness and variety of form, colour, and design, are presented to our notice in literally unending succession. No higher studies, indeed, can well be conceived than those of the biologist, who, in his search after the causes of living phenomena, views with wonder the forces which, in one phase of their action, produce the " figur'd leaf," and, in another, evolve the glory and majesty of a world. THE (' 1 NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS. ^(^ CHAPTER I. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN: WITH THE COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIA. four, and the Ape tribe none ; but the latter have four hands. Hence man belongs to an order called Bhnana (two-handed), while the Apes form an order called Qtiadru- viana, or four-handed. Take again the teeth. Man can eat any kind of food, for his set of teeth is complete in every respect — canine, incisors, and molar; but in the Lion, and other ani- mals that feed on flesh, the canine teeth are the most prominent, because they are required to tear the flesh from the bones of their prey. On the other hand, in the animals called gnawers [Rodc7itid), the canine teeth are wanting in both jaws, and the incisors (front teeth) are reduced to two ; and being subject to continued growth, are occasionally converted into tusks. It will thus be seen, from the examples of hand, feet, teeth, skeleton, &c., that the variety of constitution in animal life is enormous. But we have entirely left out the consideration of birds, fishes, and numerous other forms of life. Their multiplicity would seem to lead to endless confusion. But e.xtcnsive as is the subject, its details can easily be arranged for study. It is evident that, to do this properly, we must classify our materials ; that is, arrange each kind of animals under certain heads or particulars, in which they may agree among themselves. The following five Divisions have been adopted for this purpose : — I. The Protozoa (first-life) includes minute creatures constituted of single cells, and as much like plants as animals. II. The Radi.^TA (radiated animals) take the ne.xt upward step in life, and are illustrated bytheStar-iish, so common on our coasts. III. The ArticuLATA (so called from the body being divided into separate parts or segments, as in the case of the Centipede, all insects, &c.) embraces a large variety of creatures. The next higher creatures are included in, TV., the MOLLUSCA (soft-bodied), illustrated by the Oyster, Mussel, &c. Lastly, in Division V., we arrive at the highest forms of life, embrac- ing fishes, birds, the lower animals— but crowned by Man ;— all being called VertebRATA, because they possess a bony, or equivalent kind of skeleton. Because the animals of the first four divisions possess no skeleton, they are called Invertebrata. It is evident, therefore, that we have arrived at classifications, embracing, in one case, all animal life, but resolvable into five divisions, each present- ing numerous differences in character. At present we shall restrict our remarks only to the Vertehratcd animals, leaving a description of the remaining divisions to their proper place in the work. For convenience' sake, this division has been reduced to five classes ; namely— I. The Pisces, or fishes. II. The Batrachia, or Frogs, &c. III. The Reptilia, or reptiles, as the Serpents, Lizards, cVc. IV. The AVES, or Birds. V. The Mammalia, or animals that suckle their young; these extcndmg from the Whale to the human mother. The reader will be perplexed yet from noticing the variety of creatures included in these classes. We are, therefore, compelled to simplify still further, by dividing these classes into OrdI' R.s ; and for the chief Mammalia twelve are used. I. embraces the Cetacea, or Whale tribe. 11. The P.\CHYDERM.\ta, or thick-skinned, as the 'F all the branches of science, none equals in interest the study of Natural History. Its ob- jects surround us ; in- deed, we form the most important part of them. To a portion of them we are in- debted for sustenance. Some we em- ploy to labour for us ; and others minis- ter to our luxury, comfort, or amusement. Taking the quadrupeds, we need but refer to the Horse, and other domestic animals, to show what interesting a full knowledge of their natural presents. But they are types only of a very large circle, distinguished by some peculiarity either of form, disposition, use, or other quality not found in our tamed quad- rupeds. The forest abounds, in this and in other countries, with creatures possessing habits, &c., with which we are unfamiliar. In fact, air, earth, and sea, teem with objects that make the study of the science as fascinat- ing as it is instructive, and thus it affords an un- limited field for the intelligent observer of nature. It is not the object of this work to make the reader a proficient in natural history. Its purpose is to entice to the study rather by pleasing descrip- tion than by serious teaching. But, at the same time, it is proposed to use so much science as to give the reader the "why and wherefore" of animal life in all its forms. As in literature, so in science, we must first learn our alphabet. For this purpose, the natural history of man will be first considered ; not only because human nature stands at the head of all creatures, but because our organs, &c., present the highest form of develop- ment, whether in regard to physical structure or organic characters. But in the inferior animals these differ in many ways, and it is to these differences we owe the formation of two of the most interesting branches of natural history — namely. Comparative Anatomy and Physiology. For example, wc find that man has a bony skeleton, muscles, fat, lungs, stomach, teeth, &c. So have all creatures commonly called animals. But all these differ from man in the shape of the skeleton, &c. Thus man stands upright on two feet ; while quadrupeds have Elephant, &c. III. The Solidungula (hoofed), as the Horse. IV. The Ruminantia, or cud-chewing animals, as the Ox. V. The Edentata (without teeth),as the Ant-eaters. VI. The Rodentia, or gnawers, as the Hares. VII. The Pennipedia (fin-feeted), as the Seals. VIII. ThcCARNIvORA, or flesh-eaters, as the^Lion,<:v:c. lA. The Insectivora, or insect-eaters, as Moles. X. The Chiro- PTERA, or hand-winged, as the Bats. XI. Tl-.c QUADRl'MANA (four- handed), as the Apes ; and, last and highest, of which man is the only member— XII. The BiMANA, or two-handed. _ The reader should carefully master this classification, because it is VERTEBRAL COLUMN OF THE MAMMALIA. really the foundation of natural history ; and, consequently, the basis of this work. For the present we ^hall take no notice of minor divisions of families, genus, species, &:c., as these will be more conveniently treated hereafter, but at once proceed to examine JMAN as an animal, and a perfect type of the VERTEBRATA. In the first place, it will be best to take the skeleton of man ; that portion which extends from the back of the neck to the foot, leavmg the skull for future remarks. In Fig. i the entire skeleton is repre- sented ; and in Fig. 2, by way of comparison, that of the Gorilla. The vertebral column of the Mammalia is distinctly divisible into five regions, the vertebra: (or joints of the spine) composing which I. — The Human Skeleton. a. Frontal Bone. i, Lumbar VertebriE. s. Patella. K Parietal Bone. /, Ilium. t. Tibia. <". Orbit. w. Ulna. Uj Fibula. d. Temporal Bone. «, Radius. V, Tarsus. e. Lower Jaw. 0, Carpus. ■w. Metatarsus. A Cei-vical Vertebrae. A Metacarpus. X, Phalanges of K' Clavicle. ?ibar, sacral, and caudal vertebrae. Of these five regions, the only one in which the number of vertebra; is constant, is that forming the neck ; the cervical vertebras are invariably seven in number — in the long slender neck of the Giraffe, as in the short thick support of the bulky head of the Elephant. The dorsal vertebrae are distinguished from the cervical by the possession of spinous processes for the attachment of ligaments, which are of very large size in the species with long necks or heavy heads ; they also exhibit surfaces for the articulation of the ribs. The number of the dorsal vertebrse and ribs is very variable in animals, some species having only eleven, whilst others have as Fig. 2. — Skeleton of the Gorilla. The lumbar vertebra differ from the dorsal in their much greater strength, and in the absence of ribs, which are here replaced oy very long transverse processes. They are also variable in number. The sacrum is usually formed of three or four vertebrse ; it is want- ing in the Cetacea. This is followed by the caudal vertebras, which vary in number according to the length of the tail, and conse- quently to a greater extent than those of any other region of the body. The number of vertebra which enter into the composition of the OS coccygis — the representative of the tail in the human body — is only four ; whilst some of the long-tailed Mammalia have upwards of forty. The caudal vertebrse gradually diminish in size and com- pleteness as they approach the end of the tail, where they usually consist only of a simple cylindrical body, without any traces of arches or processes. The anterior limb is attached to the trunk by a broad shoulder- blade, or scapula, which is applied to the surface of the ribs, and is usually kept in its position by a clavicle, that springs from the anterior extremity of the sternum, and rests with its upper extremity against a process of the free end of the scapula. The clavicle is want- ing in many Mammalia. The humerus is articulated to the lower part of the scapula by a ball and socket joint ; and, at its opposite ex- tremity, bears a transverse convex articulating surface for the recep- ARMS, LEGS, AND SKULL OF THE MAMMALIA. tion of the bones of the fore-arm [radius and ulna), with which it forms a sort of hinge-joint. The radius and ulna are distinct and movable in man and some other animals, and separate in the middle, and anchylosed at the extremities in others ; whilst, in the hoofed animals generally, they are represented by a single cylindrical bone. They are followed by a variable number of small bones (the carpal bones), forming the wrist-joint ; and these, in their turn, give attach- ment to the jucfacarpa! bones — the five parallel bones which consti- tute the palm of tlie human hand ; but which, in the other members of the class, are gradually reduced until, in most of the hoofed quad- rupeds, they arc represented, like the radius and ulna, by a single cylindrical bone. These are followed by i\\e phalanges, or bones of the fingers, each of which is usually composed of three joints ; but the number of fingers varies from five to one. The structure of the posterior extremities is perhaps rather more uniform than that of the anterior pair. Their supporting arch is the pelvis composed of three bones on each side — the ilium, the ischium, Fig. 3.— Skeleton of the Cobra [Xj!Jd tripidians). and the os pubis. The ilia are firmly attached to the sacrum ; and the space between them, at the lower or anterior part of the pelvis, IS occupied by the two ossa pubis, which always meet, and frequently unite by a suture. The ischia form the hinder or lower part of each side of the pelvis ; they are prominent bones upon which we sit. IhQ femur, or thigh-bone, the first movable bone of the hind limb IS attached to the pelvis by a large ball and socket joint ; and the ball at the head of the femur is always set at a greater or less angle to the axis of the bone. This is especially observable in the human skeleton (tig. i) The tibia and fibula, forming the shank, are articulated to the extremity of the femur by a joint resembling that at the elbow in the fore limb, but turned in the contrary direction • and m front of the joint is a small bone called \}a 2, /3, and ^4, together with ^23, are more or less incomplete, and concealed in their closed alveoli. The premolars must displace deciduous molars in order to rise into place ; the molars have no such relations. It will be observed that the last deciduous molar, d i\, has the same relative superiority of size to c?3 and dz, which m t, bears to ;«2 and m i ; and the crowns of ^3 and ^4 are of a more simple form than those of the milk-teeth, which they are destined to succeed. The germ of the permanent canine has not yet appeared below the deciduous one, c; those of the permanent incisors, z'l, z2, zj, are seen ready to push out the deciduous incisors, di, d2, d t,. When the whole of the second set of teeth is in place, its nature is indicated by the formula : — i-l I T ---J m 3 3 = 44: 3-3' i-i " 4-4 i-i which signifies that there are, on each side of both upper and lower jaws, three incisors, one canine, four premolars, and three molars ; making, in all, forty-four teeth ; each distinguished by the symbol marked in the cut. So far as the skeleton is concerned of man, as typical of other ani- mals, it only remains to notice the limbs — i.e., the arms, legs, and their appendages, compared with those of the Camel, for example, as shown in Fig. 14. The great distinction which subsists between the Bimana, man, and the Qiiadruinana, or man-like Ape (also called Anthropoids), has already been pointed out. It need scarcely be stated, that all the operations of locomotion, holding, seizing, &c., &c., depend on the conformation of the limbs ; hence the variations of form, &c., become characteristic in the animal. The prehensile powers of man lay in the hand ; those of the Ape tribe are similarly placed. But in the majority of quadrupeds, the fore-feet, if furnished with paws, answer this purpose. To this, however, there is an exception, as in the Elephant, whose trunk answers for prehensile purposes. In man (see Fig. i, p. 2, aiite), the anterior limb (the arm) is attached to the trunk by a broad shoulder-blade or scapula {o. Fig. 14), which is applied to the surface of the ribs, and is usually kept in its position by a clavicle, which springs from the anterior extremity of the sternum, and rests with its upper extremity against a process of the free end of the scapula. The clavicle is wanting in many Mam- malia. In the Ornithorhyiichus, the two clavicles are united to a central piece, forming a single T-shaped bone, which reminds one of the furcula of a bird, and in this animal also the coracoid bone is fully developed, and assists in the formation of the scapular arch, whilst in the rest of the class it is reduced to a very small size, and amalgamated with the scapula. The humerus [h, Fig. 14) is articu- lated to the lower part of the scapula by a ball-and-socket joint, and at its opposite extremity bears a transverse convex articulating sur- face for the reception of the bones of the fore-arm {radius and ulna, cu. Fig. 14), with which it forms a sort of hingc-joint. The radius and ulna are distinct and movable in man and some other animals, and separate in the middle and anchylosed (made solid) at the ex- tremities in others; whilst, in the hoofed animals generally, they arc represented by a single cylindrical bone. T'hey are followed by a variable number of small bones (the carpal bones, ca, Fig. 14), form- ing the wrist joint, and these in their turn give attachment to the metacarpal bones, [inc, Fig. 14), the five par.allel bones which con- stitute the palm of the human hand, but which in the other members of the class are gradually reduced until, in most of the hoofed quad- rupeds, they are represented like the radius and ulna, by a single cylindrical bone. These are followed by the phalanges {ph. Fig. 14), or bones of the fingers, each of which is usually composed of three joints, but the number of fingers varies from five to one. The structure of the posterior extremities (the legs) is perhaps rather more uniform than that of the anterior pair. Their supporting arch is 1\\& pelvis, composed of three bones on each side — the ilium, ischium, and the as pubis. The ilia are firmly attached to the sacrum ; and the space between them, at the lower or anterior part of the pelvis, is occupied by the two ossa pubis, which always meet and frequently unite by a suture. The ischia form the hinder or lower part of each side of the pelvis ; they are the prominent bones upon which we sit. The /e?nur (/e. Fig. 14), or thigh-bone, the first movable bone of the hind limb, is attached to the pelvis by a large ball-and-socket joint, and the ball at the head of the femur is always set at a greater or less angle to the axis of the bone. This is especially observable in the human skeleton. The tibia {ti. Fig. 14) a.nAfibula, forming the shank, are articulated to the extremity of the femur by a joint resembling that at the elbow in the fore limb, but turned in the contrary direction ; and in front of the joint is a small bone called the patella {ro. Fig. 14), or knee-cap. Below these are the tarsal boties {ta, Fig. 14), corresponding with the car- pals in the anterior extremity, and these are followed in like manner by the metatarsal bones imt. Fig. 14) a.T\(X phalanges. The tibia and fibula, and the metatarsal Dones, exhibit the same variety in their number and arrangement as the radius and ulna, and the metacarpal bones in the fore limb ; and the phalanges in both pairs of extremi- ties are liable to the same modifications. The general structure of the skeleton, and the modifications to which it is subject, will thus be readily understood by a comparison of the cut of the human skele- ton at page 2, ante, where the whole of the above parts of the limbs are illustrated, with that of the camel, given below. Fig. 14— Skeleton and Form of the Camel. vc, cervical vertebrae ; vd, dorsal vertebra: ; vl, lumbar vertebras ; vs, sacral vertebra ; vq, caudal vertebrie ; c, ribs ; 0, scapula ; h, humerus ; cu, arm- bone ; ca, carpus ; mc, metacarpus ; //;, phalanges ; /c, femur ; ro, patella ; /(', tibia ; ta, tarsus ; tnl, metatarsus. THE MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS. The bony structure of man and the inferior animals having been described, it remains to inquire by what means motion is given to the bones in the operations of life. Motion in the animal is due to its volition or power of will, acting on the nervous and muscular textures, animation being conveyed from the living principle by means of the nerves to the muscle or fleshy portion of the animal,— as, for example, the muscles of the arms and legs. First, the Muscular Texture may be considered. Two kinds of muscular fibre arc known in the animal kingdom ; and these, in the MUSCLES, NERVES, SKIN, AND HAIR OF ANIMALS. higher animals, are well distinguished from each other. One of these occurs in the voluntary muscles, and is named, from con- spicuous cross markings, the striped muscular fibre ; the other, lound in the alimcntar>- canal, the womb, and the bladder, being destitute of such cross markings, is termed the unstriped. In the heart and the gullet both kinds are met with. The elementary striped muscular fibres are arranged in sets parallel to each other (see Fig. 15); the unstriped muscular fibres, on the contrary, cross each other at various angles, and inter- lace, being arranged like mem- branous organs enclosing a cavity, which, by their con- striction, is contracted. The striped fibres are usually ^'S- 'S as long, or nearly as long, as the muscle in which they exist. They vary in diameter from one-sixtieth to one-fifteen-hun- dredth of an inch ; they are of the greatest breadth in crus- taceous animals, fishes, and reptiles, and of least breadth in birds. Their average width in the human body is one-fourteen-hundredth of an inch. They are not cylindrical, but more or less flattened. This primitive fibre consists of a great number of primitive particles, or sarcous elements, enclosed in a tubular organ, termed sarco- lemma. The ordinary diameter of the unstriped fibre is from the one- two-thousandth to one-three-thousandth part of an inch. Now motion is produced by the power of contractility of the muscular fibre, or its being capable of being shortened, and being equally capable of resuming its former state suddenly. The stimulants which call the contractility of the fibre into action may be mechanical, as by a blow, the prick of a pin, &c. ; chemical, as by an acid, say on the tongue; electrical, as by a shock from a voltaic battery, &c. ; and last, physical, by the will of the animal. An example of this may be illustrated as follows : — AVhen a mus- cular fibre, the opposite extremities of which are attached to adja- cent points of two bgnes (see Fig. 16), is made to shorten itself -Conlr.iction of Striped Muscle. -Philos. Trans., 1840. Fragment of elementary fibre of an Eel partially contracted in water — magni- . fied 300 diameters, a, uncontracted part ; b, the contracted part. Fig. 16. — Bones of Arm, holding weight. forcibly by the application of a stimulus, the more movable point is drawn nearer to the more fixed point ; and this is the great law on which locomotion by muscular fibres depends. Thus the fore-arm is bent upon the arm by a muscle, b, which arises from the top of the latter, and which is inserted at e, at a short distance from the elbow- joint. A very slight contraction will raise the hand, but a consider- able increase of power is required to overcome a resisting force. From the head to the foot, animals are furnished with numerous muscles, each performing their separate functions. For example, the muscles of the eye move the eye, the eyelids, , altered by a menstruum of higher density. (2) (D Fig. ig. — Red Corpuscles of the Pigeon, magnified 400 diameters. n, unaltered, with two or three colourless parti- cles ; /', treated witli ace- tic acid, which more clearly develops the cell- wall and nucleus. mass is seen. But when it is diluted with a weak solution of salt or of sugar, each corpuscle is seen detached from the rest. The fluid used to dilute the drop of blood must be, as nearly as possible, of the same specific gravity as the serum of the blood ; if plain water be employed, the red corpuscles swell and burst. Each cor- puscle is round and flat, like a piece of money ; or, to speak more correctly, each corpuscle has the form of a double concave lens, the margin being thick and rounded, and the centre considerably thinner : their size in the human body varies from the three-thousandth to the four-thousandth part of an inch in diameter. In mammals generally, the blood-corpuscles are similar in figure to those in man ; but there is a considerable variety of size in different tribes of these animals. They are small in ruminants ; in the Napu Musk-deer, being no more than the twelve-thousandth part of an inch in diameter. In the Camel tribe, instead of being round, they are oval, as they are in birds, reptiles, and fishes. In reptiles the blood-corpuscles attain a large size. In the Frog (see Fig. 22), the red corpuscles consist of a delicate membrane forming a cell, within which is a granular nucleus. The nucleus (central point) is globular, and much smaller than the cell ; and the space between the inner surface of the cell and the outer surface of the nucleus is filled by fluid, holding the colouring matter in solution. The nucleus cannot be detected in the red corpuscles of the human body, but analogy suggests that its structure must be of the same general character as in the animals, in which these corpuscles are of larger size. A question has arisen, whether what have been termed the colour- less corpuscles of the blood be a distinct set of bodies, or merely the red corpuscles in a less developed state. The colourless corpuscles are spherical bodies, destitute of colour; they are cells composed of a very delicate membrane, and the cells are nucleated. The addition of weak acetic acid renders the cell-membrane, the nucleus, and the nucleolus more distinct, by dissolving some granules (little grains) contained within the cells. The colourless corpuscles slightly Fig. so. — Red Cor- puscle in Fishes. (7, lamprey ; /', skate. exceed the size of the red corpuscles in mammals, but not in the other vcrtcbrata. They are thought to be essentially the same as the nucleated particles found in lymph, and in the chyle. They are fewer in number than the coloured corpuscles, being, it is said, in the proportion of one to fifty. In inflammatory states of the blood Fig. 21. — Red Corpuscles of the Crab. a, three granule cells ; ^, three nucleated cells. Fig. 22. — Blood-Corpuscles of the Frog, magnified 400 diameters. a, in serum fully developed ; i, treated with acetic acid ; c, colour- less corpuscle. Fig. (O) 23. — Phases of the Human Blood-Corpuscles. a and i, granule cells in the coarsely and finely granulated slate ; c and tf, nucleated cells ; c, without colour, and t/, with colour ; e, free cellse- form nucleus, a perfect red cor- puscle. they become more abundant ; and after g^reat loss of blood, the pro- portion of these colourless corpuscles is greatly increased. Without entering upon the difiicult question — what is the relation between these colourless corpuscles and the red corpuscles ? — it will be sufficient to say, in the meantime, that the weight of authority is in favour of these two kinds of cor- puscles being identical in species ; that is, merely different stages of one organism. It is unnecessary for our purpose to enter into the chemical cha- racter of the blood beyond the analysis that has been just given, except by stating that the a/iu- 7)1671 there mentioned is precisely similar to that of an unboiled fowl's t%^. The/ibrinc, or fibre, is that part of the blood which gets solid or coagulates after the liquid has been drawn from an animal. It forms the clot. The scrum of the blood, which is the albumen, will, if it be heated to 160° Fah., coagulate like the white of an egg. Hence the difference in appear- ance between the raw and cooked flesh of an animal. The Fat is a substance pervading most of the body. It serves the purpose of rounding the prominent portions of the body, improving their appearance, or producing plumpness ; it protects, like a buffer, many parts of the muscular surface ; and has other objects and uses afterwards to be alluded to. Fat is not to be confounded with adipose tissue. The tissue is the thin membrane, thrown into closed vesicles, or cells ; the fat is what these vesicles, or cells, contain. The tissue, or membrane, is about the one-twentieth-thousandth part of an inch in thickness, and is quite transparent ; it is of the simplest struc- ture, and incapable of further mechanical analysis. Each vesicle is a distinct organ in itself, varying from one-three-hundredth to one-eight-hundredth part of an inch in diameter. (See Fig. 24.) The fat itself is a form of oil, resolvable into stearine, oleine, and margarine. Fat is extensively diffused throughout the animal kingdom. It exists not only in perfect insects, but also in the lar\'a;. It is found in molluscs. In all the tribes of vertebrated animals it is met with. In many fishes it is found only in the liver — as the Cod, the Whiting, the Haddock, and the Rays. In reptiles it exists chiefly in the abdo- men. In the Frog, Toad, &c., it is found in long bands on each side of the spine. In birds it exists chiefly between the peritoneum and the abdominal muscles : also, however, in the bones of the ex- tremities, particularly of the swimming tribes. In mammals gene- rally it abounds, yet with some exceptions ; for example, the Hare, in which sometimes hardly a particle of fat is discoverable. THE VITAL ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS. The description of man, and of him as a type of the Mammalia, we have hitherto restricted to the mere mechanical arrangements of the body. It will now be necessary to show how these act in pro- ducing and maintaining the life of an animal ; or, in other words, to Fig. 24. — Fat Vesicles. 8 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD-THE HEART AND LUNGS. inquire into tlie nature and action of the various internal organs and their functions. Generally, the functions common to all animals maybe stated as — Tst. The circulation of the blood; 2nd. Respiration; 3rd. Diges- tion and Absorption ; 4th. Secretion and Excretion ; 5th. Repro- duction. But beyond these are other functions of relation — namely, Locomotion, Sensation, Thought, and Voice. We shall consider first 'C!\& circulation of the blood, a.s it takes place in the human body, because its principles are typical of the circulation in all warm-blooded animals. The anne-\ed diagrams of the circulatory apparatus of man, after Carpenter, will enable us better to understand subseauent details. Fig. 25. — Lungs, Heart, ar.J principal Vessels in Man. Fig. 26. — Idcnl Section of the Heart. The letters in this cut agree with those «. >'ght auricle ; b, right ventricle ; used for description in. the annexed f, left ventricle ; lacenta. Hence these are called Aplacentaria. This sub-class contains two orders (see page i), viz. — ist. The Monofrcmafa, in which the intestinal canal, the generative and urinary organs all open into a common channel or cloaca. 2nd. The Marsiipialia, or pouched animals, as the Kan- garoos, whose general structure resembles the quadruped. In them the urinary and generative organs have a common orifice, quite dis- tinct from the anal opening, and the females have a pouch external to the belly, in which they carry their young. The whole of the re- maining orders of the Mammalia, as mentioned at page i, belong to the Placenfaria, the mother having the young attached to the uterus by 3. placenta during gestation, and that from a period of a few weeks to many months, as in the case of the human female. All unnecessary reference to the various liquids, &c., of the body, their chemical constitution, and a variety of other matters, which, although important in themselves, could not be of « 6 value to the reader of this work, have been, for simplicity's sake, omitted. .^iLm^/ THE ORGANS OF INTELLIGENCE. In the preceding sections, the purely ani'ma/, or, as they are sometimes termed, the vegetable organs and functions have been treated. ' It remains to consider what are called the " func- tions of relation ; " that is, such as enable us to form part of the family of man and animals : our remarks hitherto having been solely in re- gard to the individual. Under the present head, the brain, the organs of the senses, voice, &c., have to be considered. The Brain first requires notice. It is uni- versally admitted that it is the seat of life and intelligence in all animals ; and this idea is at once justified by the fact, that if the brain be injured, the entire character of the animal is changed, so far as its external relations are concerned ; the spine and the whole nervous systems are affected, and consequently the muscular and bony parts show an abnormal state. The effects of apople.xy, paralysis, &c., are illustrations of this fact. The size, weight, and conformation of the brain, in relation to the skull, are again cha- racteristics of the intellectual condition of the animal. In man, all these conditions attain to the highest scale ; and the brain has a great preponderance over the remainder of the nervous system. By referring to page 4, ante [V'lgs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11), some idea may be formed of the great variation which occurs in the size of the cavity of the skull, from man downward, especially in the cere- brum or true brain, which is universally re- garded as the organ of the mind. In man this obtains a high development, as is ordinarily noticed in the forehead of eminently intellectual persons. In the lower forms of animal life the brain is small, as in the fishes. In many cases its bulk is made up principally of parts, solely used for exciting special organs of sense, as the eye in fishes, and the car in many -animals. Fig. 32. — Ccrebro-spi- nal Axis of Man. a, cerebnim ; b, an- terior lobe ! c, mid- dle lobe ; d, posterior lobe; c, cerebellum ; /', medulla oblon- gata ;ff, spinal cord. In Fig. 32 is a representation of the brain and spinal axis of man, showing the connection of the brain and nervous system with the skeleton. At a is the cerebrum, which is situated behind the fore- head, and constitutes the true brain. It v,ill be noticed that the brain is divided into two equal parts by an imaginary line drawn from a to e, the cerehellum, or back portion of the head ; b, c, and d are lobes or masses, which exist on either side of the brain, being re- peated or duplicate ; from e by/', the medulla oblongata, a nervous branch extends to the extremity of the spine, forming the spinal cord, which is the organ of numerous other nervous branches di- verging right and left, as shown in the engraving. The convolutions of the brain are illustrated in the following cut. F'g- 33-— The Brain of Man. As in all other organs, those of Sight are in the greatest perfection in man. In the lower animals the form of the eye is modified ac- cording to their circumstances, as in the case of nocturnal animals, insects, &c. In Fig. 34, a representation of the exterior, and in Fig. 35, a section of the interior, of the human eye are given. _ We commence with that part which forms the external visual por- tion of the eye, termed the cornea. This is a transparent horny sub- Fig- 35- The Eye and its Stiiicture. a, the comea, containing the aqueous humour ; 1^, the pupil ; c, the ciystalline lens ; e f, the iris ; g, chamber of the vitreous humour ; //, the optic nerve ; i i, the sclerotica ; k k, the choroides ; / /, the retina. stance, and encloses what is called the aqueous or watery humour. It forms the first lens in the eye, and refracts rays of light incident on its surface. Referring to Fig. 34, it will be found as marked a therein. On the other side of the cornea, the pupil b is next observed, which is an aperture through which light passes into the eye from the cornea. A most admirable contrivance exists in front of the pupil — called the iris, e/. This is a movable diaphragm, which lets in or closes out light from the eye ; and which, by its contraction or expansion, regulates the amount of incident rays in their passage to the retina. The student may easily satisfy himself as to the object of the iris, by observing the eye of the domestic cat during dusk and in full sunshine. When but a dim light exists, the iris will be ex- panded, and the pupil will appear large. In full daylight, however, the iris is contracted, and the pupil of the eye presents only the ap- pearance of a narrow slit — almost, in fact, shutting out light from the inner portion of the eye. Beyond the pupil, b, is the crystalline lens, c, which lias a double convex form. This lens is filled with a fluid of mixed chemical cha- racter, and of higher refractive power than that found in the cornea. The centre, g, of the eye forms a cell of a nearly circular form, filled with what has been termed the vitreous humour. At the back of the eye, facing the crystalline lens, is the retina, so called from its net-like construction, This is at // in Fig. 35. It is on this membrane that the images of objects, whose rays pass through a, b, c, are depicted. It, in fact, forms a kind of screen, very similar in its use to the ordinary screen employed in the exhibition ot" dissolving views, (S:c. THE SENSES OF ANIMALS— SIGHT AND HEARING. Surrounding, and next to the retina, is the choroid membrane, k k, which has a blaclc colour, whose office is to absorb the rays of h.^-ht after they have passed on to the retina. An external coat, the sclerotica, encloses this, and will be observed at i i. This extends to the cornea, and forms what is called the " white of the eye." At the back of the ball of the eye, is a projection extending from it. This is called the optic nerve, h, and, by its action, the image painted on the retina becomes perceived by the mind. In fact, it forms the connecting link between mind and matter, and is the channel of nervous sensation between the eye and the brain. The reader will thus perceive that there are three different cells, each filled with fluids. 'These differ in their refractive power ; the index of that of the cornea, a, being 1.337; that of the crystalline lens, c, 1.384 ; and of the vitreous or centre of the ball, g, 1.339- Fig. 36. In Fig. 36, retaining the same letters as those we employed in describing the eye in Fig. 35, we observe the rays of an object, o, pro- ceeding to the cornea, a, and passing to the crystalline lens, c. Hero they undergo refraction, just as they would if passing througli a double convex lens made of glass ; and eventually we find that an image is painted on the retina, as seen at / /. It will loe noticed that the image painted on the retina is inverted, and we naturally inquire how it is that we see all objects in an apparently vertical position ? The answer hitherto given to this question is at least unsatisfactory. It is generally stated, that the distinctions between top and bottom, and such expressions, are merely the results of habitual experience ; or, in other terms, we express ourselves in such a manner as accords with the impression of our minds. " Seeing properly," therefore, becomes a mere question of education, just as the sense of touch, &c., may be similarly explained. This, however, is a subject on which it is use- less to spend space and time in discussing, and any attempt at ana- logical illustration would by no means clear away the difficulty of the question. One of the most astonishing capabilities of the eye, is its power of adapting itself to view objects at different distances. It is evident that some change must take place in the shape of the lens of the eye, when rays of greatly different positions as to distance pass through it. The mode of action may be twofold. The crystalline lens may be enabled to alter its shape, and therefore its convexity, of its own accord, or the entire ball of the eye may perform the same operation by the contraction of the muscles surrounding it. Each view has had its advocates and its opponents. It has been properly remarked, that the crystalline lens has no muscular structure sufficient for the purpose ; and, on the other hand, that the contraction of the muscles surrounding the eyeball would, if exerted sufficiently, tend to dis- organise the whole structure of the organ. This subject is one of great difficulty, and not to be easily decided. The eyes of insects present some curious characteristics, as illus- trated in the annexed cut, Fig. 37, They are for the most part Fig. 37. — Plead and Eyes of the Eee. aa, antenna; ; A, facets enlarged ; B, the same, with hairs growing between them. extremely large ; varying, however, between one-sixth and one-fourth part of the weight of the whole body. Their structure is eminently beautiful ; consisting, as they do, not of coats and humours, but principally of a series of pyramids of nervous substance connected together, the apices being on the bulbous extremity of the optic nerve, and the bases, invested each by a thick transparent membrane of an hexagonal shape, at the circumference of the eye. This membrane, presenting thus numerous facets, which look in every direction, is called the cornea, and seems to be in insects the only instrument of Fig. 3S. — Lateral and Full View of F.yeball of Owl. a, ver}' convex cornea ; b, sclerotic coat, surrounded, at c, by bony plates. refraction, the images of objects being most probably impressed, by this means, directly on the base of each pyramid, which is thus a kind of distinct eye. They have no lens and no pupil, or rather the whole surface of the cornea is one large pupil, there being no opaque coats to render a proper pupil necessary ; and they are destitute both of eyelids and of muscles to move the eye, the numerous directions of the facets of the cornea rendering the latter superfluous. How strikingly different is this description of eye which characterises insects which fly, and require therefore an ample field of vision, from the simple eye found in tlie grovelling kinds, which either do not see, strictly speaking, at all, or certainly only quite contiguous objects ! Further, in insects which fly by night, like the Moth, there is, in place of the black pigment similar to that which is found in the Cuttle, a substance of a resplendent green or silvery colour, serving not to absorb, but to reflect the rays of light ; and thus enabling them to see by much more obscure light than would otherwise have been necessary. The eyes of birds are remarkable principally, like the compound eyes of insects, for their great size, the use of this being in both the same — that of enabling them, when on the wing, to see objects at a great distance. With respect to the cornea and lens, they are directly opposed to those of fishes ; since, while the cornea is comparatively flat, and the lens almost globular in fishes — in birds the cornea is remarkably prominent, and the lens has very little convexity. The motions of the iris in most birds are ex- tremely rapid, and in some apparently voluntary. The pupil is in some, as in the Dove and the Goose, transversely oval ; while it is vertically oval in others : gene- rally speaking, indeed, it has the former shape in herbivorous animals, whether birds or quadrupeds, and the latter in carnivorous. All birds have proper eyelids, the lower of which alone is movable ; and they have, in addition, another membrane called memb?-a}ui nictitans, which is merely a movable fold of the external membrane of the eyeball : it is not quite proper to birds — being found also in some fishes and reptiles — but it is most remarkable in them. With very few exceptions — the Owl among others — the direction of the eyeballs is, in birds, outwards. (See Fig. 38.) Such birds also, as well as insects and fishes, as go in search of their prey by night, like the Owl, have a shining substance at the bottom of the eyeball, for the purpose already alluded to. In some birds with piercing sight, as the Falcon and Crane, the flattened optic nerve has one of its surfaces folded into numerous plaits, bearing the same relation to the other as the leaves bear to the back of a book ; and the extent of surface thus gained may be easily imagined. The sense of Heari7ig is an eminent characteristic of the Mammalia. In man, the external part of the ear is of such a form as to receive the vibrations of the air as they proceed from any sounding body. From the outer part there is a tortuous passage, by which the sounds arrive at the tympanum or drum. This is a thin membrane ; and it is stretched over bones in a similar manner to that of the parch- ment covering of the musical instrument of the same name. The vibrations which have arrived thus far, set the drum in motion : and here we may mention a peculiar provision that is made, by which the intensity of sound is modified. When describing the eye,* we men- tioned that the iris could be either opened or closed, so as to admit or restrain the rays of light, and prevent injury to the organ of sight. Now, similarly, the drum of the ear may either be tightened or extended, so as to increase or diminish the force of communicated vibrations ; and by this beautiful arrangement, the ear itself is preserved from the injurious effect of too powerful a sound, or is enabled to catch the slightest whisper. From the drum of the ear, a channel, called the Eustachian tube, passes towards the mouth. This tube serves as an exit, by means of the air it contains, for the vibrations which have been communicated by the drum. It is, in fact, analogous in its office to the holes in the sounding-board of the piano, the harp, violin, &c. ; and deafness always ensues when, by any means, this tube is closed, which occurs from cold, the deposi- tion of wax, &c. A cavity, called the vestibule of the ear, also covered with a mem- brane, is provided with nerves ; and these, like the optic nerve,t connect the external vibrations of matter with the sensorium of the brain ; and thus the sense of hearing is produced. The entrance of the car is protected from the intrusion of insects and foreign matter by means of hairs, and a peculiar wax-like secretion. This, in excess, often becomes hardened, and is thus the cause of difficulty of hear- ing, which some persons suffer from. It is, however, readily removed by syringing the ear with warm water. The following cut will give an idea of the different parts of the human ear. Amongst the Mammalia, we find the ear, generally speaking, de- fended externally by a large flap, which ser\-es to protect it from being injured by insects or the twigs of trees, as the animal passes * See ante, p. 10. t See anlc, p. 10, THE SENSES OF ANIMALS— HEARING— VOICE. through a thicket : this may be best noticed in the Elephant and the Dog. All animals of prey are possessed of great powers of hearing, on which they partly depend for success in the search for food. Am- phibious animals can readily adapt their organs of hearing to the Fig. 3g. — The Human Ear. a, is the canal by which sounds reach the drum, b ; c is the Eustachian tube ; d and e represent the connections of the auditory nerves with the brain ; f and g are the upper and lower portions of the external fleshy part of the ear. medium in which they may for the moment dwell. Without such a provision, these animals would sustain much inconvenience, and suffer extreme pain, when beneath the surface of water. This is chiefly owing to the great conducting power of that liquid, by which sounds act more strongly on the tympanum than when conveyed by air; and if the organ were not protected under such circumstances, its sensitiveness would speedily be destroyed. _ In birds we meet with constantly a short canal, leading from the side of the head, and meeting that coming from the pharynx, in the tympanum. They have but one bone in this cavity ; and the general structure of the parts of their labyrinth is very similar to that of the higher orders of reptiles. Birds in generalVant a proper pinna, or ear-flap, its place being commonly supplied by a small tuft of feathers : the Owl, however, has something very similar to this part as found in mammiferous animals. The following figure illustrates the ears of some birds. As we descend in the scale of nature, we Fig. 40. — Ears of Birds. a. Peregrine Falcon ; h. Day Owl ; r, Tawny Owl ; d. Long-eared Owl ; e. Earn Owl. find that these organs become of simpler construction ; and, passing by fishes, we at last find their development to be but rudimentary in the tribe of insects. Voice is a characteristic of a large proportion of the Vertebrata, including the Mammalia, birds, &c. ; but the power of speech is solely possessed by man. The organs concerned in voice and speech may be described as the chest and lungs, the windpipe, the larynx, the posterior cavity of the mouth, the nostrils, which communicate w-ith that posterior cavity, the palate, the tongue, the teeth, and the lips. The sounds which constitute voice, belong to the order of musical sounds, independently altogether of the singing voice. All that is rightly termed voice, takes place in the larynx, which is pro- perly the instrument of voice. But even independently of the modifi- cations by which voice is changed into articulate speech, the voice is variously affected by the other parts which have been enumerated : by the chest, as regulating the force of the air ; by the windpipe, as susceptible of several degrees of length and tension; by the posterior cavity of the mouth, as offering an expanded vault ; by the nostril, as affording a double passage of exit for the breath ; and by the various conditions of the tongue, the palate, the teeth, the lips, according to the position in which they happen to be at the moment. The chest and lungs together constitute, in reference to the voice, a musical bellows, capable of supplying air with more or less force to the organs of voice. The peculiarity of these bellows is, that by them the air must be renewed at short intervals, entering from with- out by the same passage by which it is expelled when the voice is exercised. It can, however, supply air without interruption, in a continued stream, for about fifteen seconds. The lung (sec Fig. 28, ante) consists of two laige bags of air, and does not materially differ from the wind-box of an organ, or rather from the bag of a bagpipe. No air can enter the lung, or escape from it, except through the windpipe. The chest is capable of expansion in every direction. Whenever an enlargement commences, the air begins to enter from without. By this process, in two or three seconds, many cubic inches of air can be drawn into the lungs. It is by the contrast which the muscles of the lar}'nx have on the vibration of the air, thus intro- duced, that articulate sounds are produced. If the human larynx be dissected out, and the vocal cords be stretched, they will vibrate like a piece of artificial tissue, such as india-rubber or leather, in a cur- rent of air. The .(Eolian harp is an instance in which musical sounds are produced by similar vibrations, due to a current of air passing over the strings of the instrument. The production of the most simple tones of the voice requires the associated action of a most extensive range of organs ; for it is calculated that, in its ordinary modulation, more than one hundred muscles are brought into action at the same time. To those who are not familiar with the laws of acoustics, and the production of sound by means of the vibrations of the air, as in wind instruments (the flute, cornet, &c.), in stringed instruments (such as the piano, harp, &c.), or tongued instruments (as the harmonium, concertina, Ike), the following illustration may be useful and inter- esting, as showing whence the power of singing is derived in man and birds. We shall confine our illustration of these principles to the eight notes in the treble clef forming an octave — from C below the lines, to C on the third space, as represented below. To each of the notes we have appended their names, for the assistance of those of our readers who do not understand music. When, however, an instrument, especially a pianoforte or harp, can be had access to, such will ma- terially aid in making our remarks understood. ^^ Fig. 41. English names ... C D Italian do ... do re F G A B C fa sol la si do Now, the sounds of each of these letters, in Fig. 41, are produced by a definite number of vibrations, and the length of each string. Thus, that affording C vibrates 240 times per second ; whilst the upper, or octave C, will vibrate 480 times per second. The length of the string producing the low C, may be 45 inches ; whilst that pro- ducing the upper C, will be but 22^ inches. Each of the other notes will proceed from an intermediate length of string and number of vibrations. The following table gives the value of each of these — commencing with the lower C. Some consider that 256 vibrations equal C. We have chosen the lower number, for the purpose of avoiding fractions ; but the reader can easily calculate a table on that standard, by using the table, or ratio, which follows this. Name of note. C D E F G A B C The law of the relation existing between the number of vibrations, the length of the cord, and the nature of the sounds produced, is thus at once made evident. The ratio existing between each of these is shown in the following table — commencing with low C, as before, it being the standard. Name of note Ratio of the length of the cord Ratio of vibrations From which we perceive, as before stated, that the length of the cord is inversely as the number of vibrations, and vice veisa. We Length of cord Number of vibra in inches. tious per second - 45 240 ••• 40 270 - 36 300 - 33f 320 - 30 360 - 27 400 •• 24, 450 ... 22,V 4S0 C D E F G A B C I 9" f 4 f f -S. 1 .1 i I 8 i J i % \^ 2 VOICE OF ANIMALS— THEIR LOCOMOTION. '3 have already obsen'ed that harmonies are afforded when certain sounds are produced together. This occurs when C, and G (below), which are five notes apart, C, and E (above), which are three notes apart, and C, E, and G, are struck together — forming, as they do, a chord in which thirds and fifths are combined. The effects of such combinations are naturally pleasing to the ear : but this is not a pure matter of taste only ; for if some pieces of paper are allowed to fall on strings thus vibrating, they will arrange themselves in such posi- tions as will accord with those of the length of the octave, the third, and fifth, pointed out in our last table. We have confined these remaks to stringed instruments only ; but, as already stated, they are equally applicable to those in which wind is alone employed. Thus, in the organ, the length of the pipes cor- responds to the length of the string in the pianoforte, because they enclose a similar length of air ; and it is the vibration of this which causes the sound of different notes. In the flute, cornopean, (tc, the length of the column of air is regulated by the skill of the per- former ; hence the difiiculty experienced in acquiring the art of blow- ing those instruments properly. Many instruments, of entirely differ- ent kind of construction, such as the harmonium, concertina, the pan-pipes, bells, &c., all owe the production of their various notes to the laws we have here explained. Equally so do the powers of voice, whether of speech or singing in the animal. The notes of the human voice are capable of being produced in three separate kinds of sequences. In ordinary speaking, the successive notes have nearly all the same pitch. This kind of suc- cession, then, is properly termed the monotonous. Some deviation from this monotony occasionally arises, as when certain syllables receive a higher intonation for the sake of accent, and when, in read- ing or reciting poetry, rhythm is added to the accent. In these cases, however, the deviation from monotony of pitch is too slight to require a separate head. In the expression of passion, accompanied by vehement exercise of the voice, there is heard a sudden transition from high to low notes, or the reverse. This, then, constitutes the second kind of sequence in the notes of the human voice. Musical notes constitute the third mode of sequence. In music, the sound has the requisite number of vibrations ; and as the sounds succeed each other, they exhibit that relative proportion in the number of vibrations which jointly characterise the notes of the musical scale. Of the adaptation of one sound to succeed another, so as to preserve the musical character of the succession, the human ear is the only original standard. The voice of mammals, inferior to man, is equally subject to the laws already explained ; but some are mute. The Cetacecs, or Whale tribe, have been thus described ; but they possess a single " lowing" note, and have the power of bellowing ; but, with certain exceptions, the larynx is well developed. The Giraffe is described as mute, the vocal ligaments being absent. The Armadillo is another of the mute Mammalia ; as is also the common Porcupine of Europe. In the Ru))ih2aiitia we find a sonorous voice, exemplified in the Ox. Its larynx is well developed : there are no superior vocal liga- ments, but the inferior vocal ligaments are strong. These, in the Sheep, differ from those in the Ox only in size. In the Camel the larynx is well developed, and the superior vocal ligaments are present, and the inferior are strong. In the Horse and the Ass the larynx is well developed ; that of the Mule resembles the same organ in the Ass ; and the same may be said of the Elephant, Rhinoceros, &c. In the order of the Carnivora, or flesh-eating animals, are examples of a very powerful voice. The Lion and Tiger have a highly- developed lar)'nx, and the superior vocal ligaments prominent ; hence the terrific roar of the Lion ; while the Tiger, like the common Cat, has the power of purring and mewing. Among the Apes and Monkeys, the essential form of the organs of voice do not vary much. In the Mycetes, or Howling Apes of America, the voice-producing apparatus is the greatest. In the Chimpanzee the true vocal liga- ments are prominent. The windpipe has sixteen rings, and the voice is more acute than that of women. In some of the Ape tribe, the voice, in quality, is like that of the flute : hence such are called Whistling Apes ; and from the peculiar expression of this whistle, which is a plaintive melody, they are termed " Weeping Apes." In birds, the great peculiarity of the organs of voice is the inferior larynx, which is of a most complex structure, not only in such sing- ing-birds as the Nightingale, Blackbird, &c., but also in some that possess a disagreeable cry, such as members of the Crow family. Thus, not only is a complex organ necessary for the musical voice of birds, but also a fine general organisation and a singing instinct. That the inferior larynx of birds is the true organ of voioe, has been proved by many experiments. For example, anatomists have divided the windpipe in singing-birds, as the Blackbird, about the middle of its length, so that the air could no longer pass through the superior larynx, and yet the bird would continue to sing, but with feeble notes. Similar experiments have been made on ]\Iagpies and Ducks. After such an experiment, the Magpie is found to cry with as great an intensity of tone, and with the same acuteness as before the operation. There is, unquestionably, a great difference in the mode in which voice is produced in different birds. It seems certain that the simple organ of voice in the Duck, the Gooso, and the like, is a reed instru- ment. In these, the vocal cords or bands, which form the exterior margin of the openmg of the larynx, can be seen to vibrate strongly; whde the sound produced closely resembles that arising from the vibration of membranes. But it is by no means clear that the piping and whistling sounds of birds are produced in the same manner- and It IS not impossible that these may be effected in the same mode as whistling by the mouth in man. The voice of birds, as of other animals, is in a minor key. The range of notes is commonly within an octave, though some birds can greatly exceed it. In the Parrot, which has a voice of great power the inferior larynx is single. The two membranes of the lar\'n.x leave a narrow chink between them, through which the air is forced from the lungs. These membranes, vibrating in all their dimensions produce that harsh, disagreeable quality of sound, peculiar to them' They can also whistle, during which the glottis is probably silent' and the column of air vibrates as in a flute, when a vibratory move- ment is communicated by the air traversing the clastic walls of the tube. Besides the power of speech possessed by some birds, many can imitate almost every sound they hear; the Blackbird has been known to imitate the sound of the Nightingale, the crowin"- of the common Cock, and the cackle of the Hen. "The Jay is said to mock the notes of the Greenfinch and the neighing of a Horse so closely that it was scarcely believed to be a bird by those who heard it. It can also imitate the calling of fowls to their food, and the barking of the house Dog. As regards the voice of reptiles and amphibious animals generallv these sounds have their source in the larynx. In the truiTserpents there are no vocal cords. In the Frogs, the vocal sound is produced by the vibrations of reed-shaped tongues, which act like a tunin.'^-- fork. Only a very few fishes are known to utter sounds, such as the trigia, cot t us, a.ni pogonms. Most insects are mute ; some produce sounds by friction ; others by Fig. 42. — Thoracic Spiracle of Blue-bottle Fly {Musca voinitona). the passage of air through their spiracles. It is a common belief that the buzzing of insects is produced by the oscillations of tlieir wings during flight. This idea has been often called in question. John Hunter found that insects emitted sounds after their wings were cut off. More recently, it has been stated that the sounds pro- duced by many insects are the effect of a rapid transmission of air through the thoracic air-holes as they dash through space. Mr. Bishop has observed a peculiar mechanism for this purpose in the Fig. 43. — Thoracic Spiracle of Humble Dee {'Dombiis terrestiii). Blue-bottle Fly and the Humble Bee. Figures 42 and 43, show one of the large thoracic spiracles in each of these insects — the Musca vomitoria and the Bombus terrestris. Locomotion. — The power of moving from place to place was long considered as strictly a point of division between the animal and vegetable kingdom. But by careful observation it was found that this really was not an exact boundary. Among the lowest orders of animal existences, as in some zoophiles and mollusca, we find those which are permanently stationary, and, like plants, unable to leave the substance to which they are attached. And even some of these that do move about, as the Sea-blubber, the Sea-pen, and many others, do so passively ; and, like the Duckweed and Star-grass among plants, are moved in water chiefly by the currents, and tides and winds ; but the number of those in whom locomotion is other- 14 LOCOMOTION OF ANIMALS. wise than active, is certainly very small. Again, during one period of their existence, the fixed zoophiles do possess a power of locomo- tion. Thus the young Sponge, after its separation from the parent stem, for several days swims about as if to find the appropriate spot to which it may attach itself; while the cilia, or arm-like append- ages, to the action of which its locomotive powers are due, fade and disappear, as if no longer required, after the animal has attached itself to the rock. Similar properties are found among the polypes lodged in the madrepores and corals, with which all are familiar. In the hydra, a species of polype inhabiting our fresh waters (see Fig. 44), we find an early example of locomotive powers curious in the extreme. If the animal be introduced into a glass, it may be seen, Fig. 44. — Locomotion of Hydra viridis, as in the figure, when standing erect, slowly to bend its body, until its mouth touches the surface of the vessel ; its foot is then detached, and brought towards the head, which is then projected forwards, and the process repeated, until a desirable position is obtained. Among the MeduscB, some are remarkable for their organs of locomotion, being furnished with an apparatus not unlike the fins of a fish, with which they strike the water vertically, and give an ascending impulse to their bodies. Among the molluscs, the motions of the Snail are familiar to every one. They are effected by what is called its foot, or a mass of muscular fibre, situated on the strong membrane which contains the entrails, and also attached to the shell. It glides along the surface, partly by forming a vacuum by means of this organ, and partly by a viscid mucilage secreted by the part. It is thus, also, that some bivalve molluscs, as the common Cockle, Mussels, Razor Shell-fish, and others, progress — the animal protruding its foot beyond the shell, and crawling along upon it ; and it is furnished also with the same kind of adhesive mucilage, for the purpose not only of steadying its steps during motion, but also, as drawn out into threads under the name of bysstis, of preventing it, when at rest, from being washed away, by tides and currents, from the rocks to which it attaches itself. Advancing in this great class, we find some animals, as the Cuttle, moving by a kind of arms or tentacula attached to their head, and employed as oars, or as feet, when moving along the bottom of the sea. On account of the singular place of attachment of the feet, the animals of this, the highest order of molluscs, are called Cepha- lopods (Gr. kej)/ia/e, head, and poi/s, foot). With the exception of the Pearly Nautilus [Nautilus pontpilius), which has many tentacu- lar organs attached to the head, all other cephalopods have eight arms; to which, in some kinds, as, f.^., the calamary and sepia, two long and slender tentacula are added, which can be letracted into sheaths. Both the eight ordinary arms, and the two tentacles, are provided with suckers, by which the animal can attach itself at pleasure. The Paper Nautilus {Argo7iaufa) has but eight feet, and one pair of these expand at their extremities into broad and thin membranes; the fabled use of which has afforded a beautiful subject for poetic imagery in all ages ; but similar appendages occur in Octopus ^^^s^vX: violaceus, and in Octopus velifer, in which both the first and second pairs of feet support broad and thin mem- branes at their extremities. Now, neither of these species inhabits a shell in which the expanded membranes could be used to waft the animal along the surface of the ocean, as has been said or sung of the Argonaut. The Glaucus (Fig. 45) swims rapidly by means of its oar-like appendages. Passing now to the Annelida, we find the Earthworm progressing by means of sets, or bristles, attached to the skin, w-hich the animal fixes on the ground; while, by the elongation of the rings which encircle the body, it moves onwards. Fig. 45. — Glaucus Fosteri. Fig. 46. — The Leech {Hiriido officinalis). FiS- 47- Suckers of Blue-bottle Fly. ,, Great Water lleetle. ,, Yellow Saw-Fly. Then the head is applied and fixed to the ground, and the body, by the contraction of its rings, drawn towards it. In the Nereis we find numerous tentacula as organs of locomotion, by which, and by undulating inflections of the body, the animal swims with great rapidity : while the Leech, independently of its power of swimming by ordinary vermiform motion, is furnished with an apparatus for suction at either extremity of its body. By fixing, alternately, one or the other, and drawing its body towards it, the animal advances at pleasure. (See Fig. 46.) The motion of insects is generally extremely rapid. An ordinary Gnat, for example, will not only keep pace with a man walking fast, but even fly much quicker. The reason of this is, that the muscular force is in enormous excess when compared with the weight of the insect. Spi- ders, for example, dart on their prey with great rapidity. All winged in- sects have six legs ; and many, more- over, have, either in the course of their legs, or at their extremities, numerous suckers, by which they form a vacuum every time their legs come in contact with any surface. It is in this w-ay that flies craw'l upon a per- pendicular surface, or on a smooth mirror, or walk along the ceiling of a room. The structure of these suckers is very beautiful, and is best seen in the common Blue-bottle Fly {Musca voinitoria — see Fig. 47), the great \\'ater Beetle (Ditisctts J!iargi?!a- lis), and the yellow Saw-Fly (Cimex luttaj. But the most remarkable organs of locomotion in insects are their wings. Fishes effect their locomotion by their fins, and of these they employ chiefly the pectoral and ventral pairs, which are strictly analogous to the upper and lower extremities of the superior tribes of animals. Some fishes effect their progression by the motion, not of the fins, but of the spine ; as the Lamprey, which has neither pectoral nor ventral fins, and which seems to move in its natural element, the (J mud, entirely by the lateral flexion of its _,-;-. spine, which it first draws into an S-like _,.-'' i \ curve, and then shoots forward the an- i \ terior portion. The same is the case also with the Eel, when it creeps on land. Others again, as most flat fishes, which, like the Lamprey, have neither pectoral nor ventral fins, use their tails principally in making progress in the water. This operation is extremely sim- ple. Everj'body knows that the ordinary way of propelling forwards a boat is by rowing ; that is to say, by means of one or more pairs of oars passed over its sides, the action of which is exactly similar to the pectoral fins of fishes. But it is likewise well known that a boat may be, with equal certainty, urged for- wards by what is called sculling ; that is to say, by means of one oar passed over its stern, and continually moved in the water from side to side. Now, it is precisely upon this latter principle that the tail of fishes moving from side to side, operates in propelling them for- ward. It is evident that the oar on the one hand, and the tail on the other, in this alternate lateral motion, is con- tinually displacing a quantity of water great in proportion to the length of the instrument employed, and consequently to the sweep which it makes in its oscillation ; and it is by the resistance which the water makes to this displacement, by the oar or tail, in coming from its extreme sweep to the longitudinal axis of the boat or fish, that either is urged onwards. " Let us suppose," says Dr. Roget, "that the tail is slightly inclined to the right, as shown in the preceding figure. If in this situation the muscles of the left side, tending to bring the tail in a right line with the body, are sud- denly thrown into action, the resistance of the water, by reacting against the broad surface of the tail in the direction P R (see Fig. 48), perpendicular to the surface, will cause the muscular action to give the whole body an impulse in that direction, and the centre of gravity, C, will move onwards in the direction C B, parallel to P R. This impulse is not destroyed by the further flexion of the tail towards the left side, because the principal force, executed by the muscles, has already been expended in the motion from R to M, in bringing it to a straight line with the body ; and the force which carries it on to L is much weaker, and therefore occasions a more feeble reactioQ. M Fig. 48. — Motion of Fishes. LOCOMOTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. JS When the tail has arrived at the position L, indicated by the dotted outline, a similar action of the muscles on the right side will create a resistance, and an impulse in the direction of K L, and a motion of the whole body in the same direction, C A. These impulses being' repeated in quick succession, the fish moves forward in the diagonal, C D, intermediate between the directions of the two forces," of which it is the resultant. In reptiles, taking the Serpents, we find that their motion is effected by means of their spine. At page 3, ante. Fig. 3, an en- graving illustrating the skeleton of the Cobra has been given. The ribs in these animals are the only organs of progression. It is one of the animals that do not employ legs for motion on the ground. Some Lizards can move up perpendicular surfaces by a species of suction ; the soles of their feet, as in the Gecko, being provided with a series of small plates, which, being drawn up at pleasure, produce the vacuum necessary for their adhering to a wall or other surface. In the water, most reptiles use their legs as fishes do their fins. The progression of birds, when on land, is effected by either walk- ing or hopping on their posterior extremities only, birds being the only proper bipeds among the lower animals ; and they are enabled to keep themselves erect without effort, since their centre of gravity corresponds to the region where the anterior extremities are attached, owing, in most birds, to the legs being directed forwards, and the toes more elongated ; but in some — as the Penguin and the Puffin — to the trunk of the body being placed almost verti- cally. (See Fig. 49). Birds are enabled to float in the water, owing to their specific gravity being in general less than that of the fluid ; and hence they displace only as much of it as is equal to their own weight, according to the well-known hydrostatic law. They move along its surface by the action of webbed feet, the Swan appearing to use its wings, in addition, almost in the manner of sails. But the characteristic organ of locomotion in birds is their wings, cor- responding, in their more essential parts, as well with the pectoral fins of fishes as with the fore-legs of reptiles and quadrupeds, and the arms of man. The motions of these are effected by a mass of muscles, weighing more than all the rest of the muscular system of the animal, and arising from a breast-bone of a larger size than is met with in any other class of animals ; the immense power thus acquired being no more than is necessary to enable them at once to support themselves in the air, and to move through it with astonishing velocity. The former they effect by continually renewing the column of air below them — and which must be displaced, in order to allow of their falling to the ground — more rapidly than this displacement can take place ; and the latter, by using their wings in the manner of oars, while the tail, at the same time, ser\'es them as a rudder. In this way birds, as the Carrier Pigeons, are known to have travelled at the rate of sixty, or even one hundred, miles an hour. Among the Mammalia, locomotion is almost invariably made by the feet, and hands in the case of the Apes, Monkeys, &c. A re- markable exception, however, occurs in the Whale, an analogous tribe, by which motion is effected in a manner similar to that of fishes. But the Cetaceffi have no air-bladder, which is an important element of motion in fishes. The tail of the Whale, &c., is the chief organ of locomotion. It is a most powerful instrument ; and in whaling dis- tricts it is a common occurrence for the boats to be broken in half by a single blow of that appendage. The downward and upward motion of the tail in Cetaceous animals, gives to many of them, as Fig. 49. — Penguin. Fig. 50. — Harpyia Pallasii. they sport near the surface of the w^ater, the appearance of a revolv- ing wheel. Hence, perhaps, the suggestion of a Sea-serpent, a monster yet to be discovered. The motion of the Whale resembles that of the screw-steamer, while that of the fishes more nearly resembles that of the paddle-steamer, the fins partly acting as paddles. Very few quadrupeds are capable of aerial motion : exceptions, however, arc found, in the case of the Hat, the Flying Squirrel, and the Flying Femur. Their progression is effected, not like the flying fishes and birds, simply by their anterior extremities, nor like the Flying Lizards, by their ribs, but by winglike membranes extended between their anterior and posterior extremities, the motions of both of which are requisite to call them into action. (See Fig. 50). Quadrupeds in general use their upper limbs only in conjunction with their lower in the act of progression ; but some few, as Squirrels and Apes, use them also as we do our arms, the arrangement of their skeleton being expressly adapted for the purpose. In standing, they use in general all the four legs ; and as the centre of gravity is thus preserved without effort, they easily sleep in this posture. Some few, however, as the Kangaroo and Jerboa, rest on their hinder legs alone, the centre of gravity falling, in them, almost perpendicularly; but such also use their strong tails, like another leg, to steady them. In climbing, some, like the Walrus or the Lizard, seem to attach themselves to any surface by forming a vacuum under their feet ; but the majority use their claws for this purpose. In the case of the Kangaroo, &c., motion is effected by a series of leaps that the ani- mal can produce, owing to the great development of the muscles of the hind-legs. Leaping is a motion also practised by fishes, insects, &c., as may be observed, in regard to the latter, in the Flea, which can jump through a space equal to several hundred times that of its own length. DISTRIRUTION OF MAN AND THE LOWER ANUtALS. One of the most interesting studies that is connected with Natural History, is that of the distribution of animals on the face of the globe. When the question is confined to man alone, the science of FxHNO- LOGY (nation-study), is that mostly dealt with. In its present use the term is of extended character, for this science not only deals with the different nations of the world, but also with the varieties of the human species. We do not purpose entering into this subject further than to give a general idea of the characteristics of human variety, due to a number of causes ; but it must be distinctly under- stood that we deal in this work with JIAN as arising from one pair of human beings ; and our views, therefore, will be in entire opposition to what is called the theory of " Evolution." To be plain, we mean that man is, ^cr se, a sole member of the Bimana, and that he has no more psychical relation to the Quadrinnana, than an Ape has to a Cod-fish. It will be desirable that we should first take a general view of the distribution of the entire animal kingdom, before' direct- ing special attention to the peculiarities of man himself. Whatever theories may be adopted, in ethnology, with respect to the races or varieties of men ; in zoology, regarding animals ; in botany, as to plants, &c. ; and the inferences we may draw, geolo- gically, from specimens of extinct species, respecting their former regions of existence ; — it is patent to the most cursory observer, that, with the exception of man, all classes and families of animals and plants may be so arranged as to be considered indigenous to certain climates. The varieties of species are certainly very numerous ; and normal characteristics are often modified by various circumstances. Thus the breed of cattle and Horses, the quality of fruit, (Src, are respectively the subjects of change when those are removed from the country in which they exist in a wild or uncultivated state. The art of training both plants and animals to undergo and bear this change, has, of late years, been carefully studied, and exceedingly interesting results have accrued. The subject is one of great importance in a commercial point of view, as it is now being constantly attempted to introduce animals, &c., into our colonies, not only to improve the existing stock, but also to add other and useful forms to it. The Alpaca, Salmon, poultry. Pheasants, &c., have thus been transported to our Australian settlements, and are likely to be extremely produc- tive, and of great service ; and the cinchona plant has similarly been carried to India, and has already afforded a most abundant supply of quinine, so essential in cases of debility, ague, Otc, in tropical climates. These show striking instances of the value which is attached to the study of physical geography in connection with that of Natural History. The distribution of plants is a matter of great importance, not only for the vegetable food of man, but as also affecting those animals on which he depends for sustenance, carriage, farm-labour, &c. ; and hence every civilised country has certain features, both physical and social, which more or less distinguish it from others. It is true that the extensive application of steam in railways, vessels, machiner)', &c., is fast obliterating these distinctive characteristics in many places ; but the progress of such improvements is slow, compared with the extent over which they must spread, before the revolution they have to effect is completed. In our country such progress is rapid, as also in many others in Europe and North America ; but most of the colonics still have to depend on brute force for the saving of human labour. We have already pointed out, at pages i and 4, ante, the great i6 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. points of distinction that exist in animals in relation to their teeth, their food, and their habits. In the particular case of our Sheep and Horses we have an illustration of this. These animals depend entirely for sustenance on the grasses or inferior cereals ; and where such can be obtained of good quality, and in sufficient abundance, the breed of each is not only supported in quantity, but the quality is simultaneously improved. In England, particular attention has been paid to this ; and the breeds have been so improved, that the Horses, cattle, and wool of this country equal any other, and, in many cases, exceed in quality those of the very countries from which the original stock was first imported. This has arisen chiefly from our climate being peculiarly suitable for such purposes, aided by judicious training, and careful attention to the natural history of each animal. We next turn to inquire how far climate, latitude and longitude, and elevation, and other circumstances of the surface of the earth, affect the distribution of the lower animals. Turning to Lapland, and the extreme north of Europe generally, we find that cattle and Horses are there replaced by an entirely different animal, the Reindeer. An almost total absence of grass is compensated for by an abundance of lichen, which is the favourite food of that useful creature ; and thus the exigencies of the climate are completely met by a peculiar adaptation of the vegetable to the animal kingdom, brought about even by its extreme severity; whilst the human being has, "in one animal, a source of food and clothing, and a beast of draught. The Camel in Africa and Arabia, the Elephant in India, the^Llama in Peru and Chili, &c., are instances of a similar kind— all tending to show how climatic variety is com- pensated for, in a manner as complete as the circumstances of the case require. The subjects of food, temperature, and clothing, must be simul- taneously considered in connection with the distribution of animals ; for these three points are those on which their existence depends ; the skin and its covering (see ante, p. 6) being an additional and most important matter in the economy of animal life. In the vegetable kingdom, the organs of respiration and digestion are of so simple a character as to' be more easily adapted to varieties of change, and the food is usually present. On the other hand, the animal has nothing but its instincts to guide it in the search for food ; and from this arise all the circumstances which affect its longevity, productive powers, &c. ; the accident of its life being induced by its cravings for sustenance, and, in fact, struggles for existence. Commencing with one of the lower forms of animal life, as the Moltusca, we find them pretty equally distributed throughout the waters of the ocean ; but always in respect to the peculiarities of each climate ; for certain kinds are found only within well-defined limits of latitude, beyond which they rarely exist. Amongst the lowest class of creatures, the coral Polypi are almost exclusively confined to certain parts of the Pacific Ocean, where, for ages past, they have been slowly but surely rearing islands, now rapidly becoming the centres of civilisation. Amongst Fish, again, we find that some are confined to certain zones, beyond which they are rarely seen : instances of this are found in the Salmon tribe, which is limited to the cool, temperate, or sub-arctic zones. But many of the tribes, apparently indigenous to our northern seas and rivers, have their representatives or substitutes in those of low latitudes, the species corresponding, except in some physiological adaptation required by altered circumstances of existence ; the type being retained, whilst the exact identity is somewhat affected. Amongst the licpiilia, as the Lizards, or Saurian tribe, the Lori- cata, &c. — of which our common Field Lizard is typical, and the analogue of the Crocodiles and Alligators of the Nile, India, and America — the development proceeds rapidly as to size and strength, as lower latitudes are reached. The variety of these classes is very extensive about the equatorial and tropical regions, where they abound both on land and in water. Equally, amongst Birds, also, the same climatic law is influential ; the Eagle of Scotland and Norway has its family represented in the Himalayas, and by the Condor in the Andes ; and we may observe the same fact throughout the whole class. In some islands, however, exceptions exist, as in the Apteryx and the Dinornis of New Zealand, the Emeu of Australia, the Dodo of Madagascar, &c. ; but still, comparative^ anatomists can find connecting links for this apparently broken chain. With respect to Mammalia, the distinction of climate is very remarkable. The Qiiadrianana (Monkeys, &c.) are invariably inhabitants of tropical countries ; as are the Carnivora (the Lion, Tiger, &c.), with comparatively few exceptions. The Pachyderniata (Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c.) are nearly limited to those regions. The Rodeutia (Beavers, Rats, Hares, &c.) are more extensively distributed, for their food is more generally diffused in its grov/th. A similar remark applies to the Insectivora. The Edentata are almost exclusively confined to tropical countries, especially on the south of the equator: they include the Ant-eater, Pangolin, Sloth, &c. The Ruminantia, in which our domestic animals (of which we have already spoken) are comprised, embrace a vast variety, as the Camel, Llama, Deer, Giraffe, Goat, Bison, Buffalo, &c. Amongst the Horse tribe, or Solidungula, we may notice how much the Ass is degenerated in our climate, compared with his appearance, temper, &c., in regions more southerly, as in Arabia, Asia Minor, &c. , where he appears to great advantage ; and, indeed, there some species are of great beauty, and even swiftness, as is seen in the Djiggetai of Central Asia. Possibly the Zebra may also be allied to it, for it partakes of many of its characteristics. The Sirenia, as the Manatees and Dugongs, resemble, in many respects, our Cetacea (Whales) and PinJiipedia (Seals) ; whilst the Marsupialia (Kangaroos) are allied to the Opossum of America. Taking the two most prolific continents of animal life, some remarkable facts appear, that show how much the physical character of the country influences the species, &c. , of animals. For example, Africa contains over 300 species of animals, of which 242 are peculiar to that continent. Of fifty-five species of Quadrumana, forty-eight are peculiar; of the Chiroptera (Bats, &c.), there are thirty species, of which twenty-six are peculiar ; of the Carnivora, sixty-six species, of which fifty-two are peculiar; of the Rodentia (Hares, &c.), forty- eight species, having thirty peculiar ; of the Edentata, three, all peculiar ; of the Pachydermata (Elephants, &c.), fifteen species, twelve peculiar ; of the Ruminantia, seventy-three species, sixty-three peculiar ; and of ten species of the Cetacea (Whales, &c.), eight are peculiar to Africa. In Asia there are no less than 180 species of the Ape and Monkey tribe, and other animals are characterised of peculiar species in a manner similar to that found in Africa. We have specially remarked on the clothing of animals, as being peculiarly related to the climate in which any species is indigenous. Several remarkable instances of this maybe cited. The Arctic Bear, Thalassarctos maritimus of naturalists, exclusively a native of the polar regions, is clothed with a profusion of hair, the texture and colour of which prevents the rapid conduction and radiation of heat from its body. Even the feet are covered with hair, which is supposed to give it a firm hold when walking over the snow and ice. The Arctic Fo.x, Vitlpes lagopiis, is similarly clothed with abundant fur ; but what is remarkable, the hair, which is of a dark-brown colour in summer, becomes quite white in winter, increasing rapidly in length and thickness, just as the exigency of the severe climate necessitates such a protection. Some species of the Hare, as the Leptis variabilis, and of the Weasels, as the Ermine {Mustela erminea), which are confined to the colder climates, have the colour of the fur changed similarly as winter approaches : this may frequently be noticed in both animals in the northern parts of our own country. Amongst the Dog tribe, or Ca?zidce, as the New- foundland and St. Bernard breed, we find a similar provision against the extreme cold, contrasting strongly with the clothing of the Grey- hound, &c., which are indigenous to milder climates. Numerous instances of this kind might be adduced ; but the above will be sufficient to show how much the natural clothing, &c., of the animal becomes self-adaptable to climatic extremes, and excessive ranges in the temperature of the seasons. With respect to the growth of food specially adapted to certain species of animals, and which we have already noticed in respect to cattle, Horses, Sheep, &c., we may add a few more instances that are well worthy of notice, as indicative of the climate of many regions. The Deer tribe are very fond of certain kinds of lichens, and both the plants and animals begin to be simultaneously developed as the climate becomes suitable for each. In the north of Scotland, for example. Wild Deer are scattered sparsely, and so is their lichen-food ; but as we proceed further north, as in Lapland, Ice- land, and Greenland, both the animal and vegetable — which are, comparatively speaking, a curiosity in our country — become essential to the existence of the inhabitants ; the lichen islandicus, or Iceland moss, for example, being an abundant and characteristic production of that country. Taking an extreme case of a similar nature, let us transfer our observations to a climate of an entirely opposite character — namely, that of the parched deserts of Northern Africa and Arabia. The herbage produced is at once scanty and coarse, and utterly unfit to support Horses ; but the Camel feeds well on it, and is also enabled, by its peculiar constitution, even to accumulate a kind of stock of food, in the shape of the fat which forms its humps, and which are gradually assimilated into the system whenever its ordinary food cannot be obtained. Its stomach is so arranged in deep cells, as to enable it to retain a store of water when necessary, the cells being expanded or contracted by the voluntary or instinctive action of the quadruped. If taken far northward, it is removed from its natural sphere, and will die, in places where the Horse tribe are produced in the greatest numbers, and in the best condition ; yet the Llama, which is the Camel of South America, is impatient of heat, and, being a native of the Andes, frequently retreats, in warm weather, to the snow-line — generally living in flocks, at a great altitude above the sea-level. In Peru and Chili, the Llama is employed as a beast of draught ; as is the Camel in Arabia and Africa ; and, like it, affords food and clothing to the natives of those rocky and mountain- ous countries. Singularly enough, it varies from the Camel (whose feet are adapted for walking on sand) in having completely divided toes, which are thus so suitable for climbing the rocks ; and also in DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 17 the absence of humps, which its more abundant, or perhaps exten- sively diffused, food renders unnecessary. Its clothing is a woolly hair, remarkable for its warmth, and it effectually protects the ani- mal from the sudden changes of climate that occur in travelling from the plains to the mountains, so universal near the western coasts of South America. From what has been already stated, it will be evident that certain species of animals are only found in definite tracts or zones. Such localities have been termed spccijic centres ; and it is from these that animals of certain species have been spread, accidentally or otherivise, in countries to which they do not naturally belong — m a like manner, indeed, to the transplantation of objects of vegetable growth into climates similar to those in which they grow naturally. In judging of the original place of any species, it must be borne in mind, that influences besides those of climate are constantly active in effecting changes ; and none, perhaps, more so than the progress of civilisation. Man has driven before him many animals from their ancient haunts ; as, in our own country, the Wolf, Bear, Hyrena, Beaver, &c., have long been extinct. In geology, we are often able to judge of the climate which must have existed ages ago, in many places, by finding fossils of certain animals, comparing them with existing species, and inferring, from the habits of such, what must have been those of their ancient families. An instance of this kind is presented by the Fossil Elk of Ireland, which has undoubtedly existed since the creation of man. It is, therefore, highly essential that the exact specific centre of any recent and existing species should be carefully ascertained, as otherwise, in the comparison of them with fossil remains, serious errors may arise. Occasionally we meet with animals whose specific centres are so exactly shown, as to leave no reasonable doubt of their being confined to one region. Of this kind arc the Ornithorhyncidai and Echidnidcc, natives exclu- sively of Australia and Tasmania. These two families resemble each other in some respects : the Ornithorhynchus, however, is dis- tinguished by having the jaws precisely like the bill of the duck, with a body resembling that of the ordinary quadruped ; many of the organs, &c., presenting analogies to that of the birds. In the Echidna, the snout is produced into a long cylindrical organ, the body being thick and short, and covered with hairs. These two families are certainly paradoxes in natural history, and afford re- markable instances of the restriction of animals within certain specific centres. Perhaps we may be indebted for the discovery of these singular creatures (and entertain the hope of many more in the Australian continent), to the fact, that man has, as yet, done little there in "im- proving " its immense extent of uncultivated, and, indeed, unexplored territory. Not only does civilisation wage war with the brute crea- tion, but even our own species, when found as Aborigines in any country, soon undergo a similar fate, as may be witnessed in nearly the whole of the northern portion of the American continent, but especially in that called the United States. This will be specially noticed hereafter. In many parts, wholesale extermination, or extra- dition, has been resorted to, especially in the southern districts ; and the destruction of the Aborigines by the Spaniards, in other parts of the continent, is too fresh in the minds of our readers to require re- cital here. In most instances, the original inhabitants, where undisturbed and completely acclimatised, live happily and healthily in regions which are almost surely the grave of the intruding white man. The coasts of South America, Western Africa, &c., afford illustrations of this fact, and astonishingly declare, even in the case of the almost ever-accommodating constitution of our species, that we are subject to the law of specific centres, the removal from which may be productive of danger, or extinction in some cases — only, imder any circumstances, to be provided against by an intelligence of which the lower kinds of animals are entirely destitute. But although quadrupeds seem unable to exist in other than climates similar to that in which they are native, except under special circumstances — as when under the care of man — and, further, cannot shift from place to place, in cases of sudden changes of tem- perature, for any great distance; we find amongst the Birds a powerful instinct, by which they remove themselves from one country to another at certain seasons, and so escape the inconveniences or death which they would otherwise have to suffer. In some birds, as the Swallow, this migratory instinct is most strongly manifested, even so far as to cause them to forget their progeny, if it have been hatched late in the summer season, and but just previously to the usual time of their autumnal flight for other regions. This instinct is not confined solely to one order of birds, nor to any particular climate, at least within the limits of the temperate and Arctic zones, but is almost universal. Amongst the Natatores, some of the Auks, which are Arctic birds, leave their native regions, and visit our coasts — going, as winter advances, even so far south as Italy and Sicily : so do the PuflBns, Terns. Teals, Widgeons, Pochards, Wild Swans and Geese, Flamingoes, &c. Of the Grallatores, the Crakes, Snipes, Tatlers, Spoonbills, Storks, Herons, Cranes, &c., similarly migrate ; some of this order spending the winter in Africa and South Asia, returning to the far north to breed in spring. The Ctirsores, Ostriches, &c., possessing wings of but a rudimentary nature,_ are, like the quadrupeds, confined to one region throughout their lives; and their physical characters accord with this law of their existence. Amongst the Rasorcs, some are migratory, as the Quails, ^c. ; but, generally speaking, they remain in their native country, having but little powers of flight. It is from this order that man has selected, out of the class of birds, those which are now domesticated ; amongst them being the Fowl tribe. Pheasants, Partridges, the Peacock, &c. The Columba:, or Doves, in this, as in most respects, resemble the Rasores : some, however, as the Turtle-dove, Coltimba turttir, are migratorj'. In this order is in- cluded the extinct Dodo. The Scuiisn/cs, comprising the Cuckoos, Woodpeckers, Parrots, and Toucans, have at least the first-named bird migratory, as is well known by its welcome visit to this country in early spring. Amongst the Passeres — one of the largest orders of birds, including our chief songsters — the Nightingale is another wel- come visitor to England, extending its passage to Sweden, Denmark, and Russia, but rarely going so far north with us as even the south of Scotland : the migration of the Swallow tribe is familiar to all. The Raptorcs, or Birds of Prey, comprising the Owls, Eagles, Fal- cons, &c., like the Cartiivora amongst the Mammalia, confine themselves to their own specific centres, having a ready supply of food generally at their command, and their clothing being abundantly provided in the thick covering of feathers which protect them in all seasons. So far we have noticed the distribution of animals inferior to man. From the brief summary we have given, it will appear that the whole system of animated nature is so regulated that every circumstance is provided for. From the Quadrumana to the lowest protozoa, all the conditions of sustenance, growth, reproduction, &c., are singularly adapted to each order, genus, and species. But if the specific centres of the individual be changed, there is a certain elasticity in the laws of nature by which the conditions of such specific centres may be modified. Hence arises our power of acclimatising animals in similar climates, although situated thousands of miles apart : within certain limits, in fact, we are able to transfer, for example, the animals of our climate to those of a similar character (as in Australia) in latitudes south of the equator. If we can provide similar food, it does not, in many instances, prevent our removing ani- mals far from their original centre ; bearing in mind, however, the additional conditions of temperature and climate in general. We next turn to the distribution of our own species, MAN : and without entering deeply into Ethnology (see p. 15, ante), we may draw attention to several matters illustrating the most interesting parts of that science. A little reflection reminds us that our world is peopled with a vast variety of human beings, whose differences are at once physical, mental, and moral. These three qualities of our race almost always vary simultaneously ; in fact, there is evidently an established law which governs moral and mental development, in connection with that of the body. In the same tribes of any nation, the difference of the sexes is due, not so much to an original mental and moral cast, as to the difference of physical organisation. It hence follows, that whatever influence acts on the body, reacts on the sentient principle ; and, by a repetition of action, a permanent habit is created, which at last becomes a distinctive feature of the individual of the tribe, and, consequently, of that -"ariety of the human species to which it belongs. With the broad causes, and their specific effects, we cannot here deal, but must confine ourselves entirely to such as arise from the action of climate, as of heat, moisture, &c., and the ordinary food that the climate in which the individual resides, affords for his sustenance. We cannot enter into the philological distinc- tion of the varieties of man ; that is, those relating to speech or language, dialects, &c. For a description of these we must refer the reader to works by Latham, Pritcliard, and others, where such matters are fully discussed. Commencing with the northern regions, we find the Esquimaux and Laplanders, inhabitants of the Arctic zones, generally speaking, to be of exceedingly small stature, and ordinarily deficient of mental and moral culture. They mostly lead a travelling life, obtaining their food by the chase ; some of it, as the Seal, &c., being of the coarsest kind : the habitations, with the Esquimaux, are generally snow-burrov/s. For a lengthened period of the year they live in darkness, owing to the long night which the absence of the sun occasions during winter; and hence their climate cuts them off from most associations of the beautiful in nature, which, to more favoured people in the south, are sources of education, and refinement of mind and taste. The entire duties of their existence seem, in fact, to be comprised in two branches — one, of seeking their food ; and the other, of eating it. Frequently owing to the depth of snow, supply fails them, and thus another misfortune is added to the peculiarities of their condition, by the nature of the climate in which they con- stantly live. To those dwelling in the temperate zones, it may seem impossible to picture a more forlorn state than that possessed by such people. Yet they seem to find an existence not only tolerable, but even have enjoyments, which are certainly peculiar to themselves. Habit and nature have so far acclimatised them, that they rarely, if ever, stray iS VARIETIES OF MAN. into more southerly climes ; the Reindeer, Doffs, Fish, Seals, &c., which are, like them, indigenous to the country, provide them in food, with clothing, and the means of moving from place to place ; and the oil of the Whale, with such drift-wood as is cast on the shores of the lakes and seas, affords fuel and artificial light. In fact, they are as much adapted to what we may call the ' ' specific centre " of their existence, as are any of the lower forms of creation to which we have previously devoted our inquiries. In person, both Esquimaux and Laplander, although of short stature, are strong, active, and hardy : they are dirty in their habits, addicted to the use of ardent spirits when they can obtain them, and the Esquimaux are e.xtravagantly fond of oil as an essential article of food. The latter particulars are, however, explicable on chemical and physiologiv.al principles. The intense cold of the climate requires a constant supply of carbonaceous matter in the food, which, by slow combustion, during the process of respiration, may educe animal heat. That the craving for fatty matter is not confined to them, under such circumstances, has been proved by the experience of all Arctic navigators ; and we were informed, as an instance of the kind, by an eminent commander of one of the expeditions in those regions, that tallow candles were often eaten by our own seamen whilst they were journeying with sledges over the snow— so powerful does our instinct lead us to its gratification, even in objects which, under other circumstances, would be turned from with extreme disgust. With respect to the use of ardent spirits in cold climates, we may notice that, in Sweden, eight gallons are consumed by each individual, on an average for the whole population, annually ; and in the northern parts of Great Britain, it is well known that stimulants may be drunk with impunity to an extent which would be exceed- ingly injurious, if not fatal, in warmer climates. Although anticipating subsequent observations, we must here contrast the necessities of the inhabitants, their tastes, and the natural productions of the country, with those of regions of a different climate, for the purpose of impressing on the minds of our readers the fact, that each zone is, in every respect, peculiarly adapted for the wants of the individuals whose " specific centre " of existence is found within it. Turning, for this purpose, to Spain, Portugal, South-France, Italy, and Greece, we notice that the characteristic vegetable productions (the only sure indications of climate) are just such as the exigencies of those climates demand. The fruits, «&c. — as the grape, melon, orange— the salads, leguminous products, &c., are all chiefly composed of water, which has an exactly opposite alimentary effect on the animal system to that of the carbonaceous food, so abundantly provided in the northern regions. In the former countries, the external temperature leaves little to be required in the way of heat-giving food ; whereas in the Arctic climes such is abso- lutely essential. Even the natural starch-food of hot countries has but little heating power, as is seen in the rice of Egypt, India, America, &c. The remarks which we have made respecting; the Esquimaux, may be, within certain limitations, applied to all tribes living northward of the parallel of 68° to 70° north latitude, in both hemispheres. They have, so far as is yet known, no analogues in the southern or Antarctic circle, as the inhabited land in those regions does not extend northward beyond about 60° S. ; or, perhaps, Tierra del Fuego, in lat. 55° S., is the extreme inhabitable limit. We must now take a broad zone — say from 65° to 40° of north latitude, between which are comprised what are called the temperate regions. With but comparatively trifling exceptions, in respect to number, the whole of the civilised world may be considered to be comprised within these limits, excluding, of course, the Chinese empire. Nearly the whole of inhabited Europe, and North America, containing together about 350 millions of people, is embraced between those parallels ; and here art, science, literature, commerce, &c., have their origin and home. Without being too minute in our inquiries, it is impossible not to notice the peculiarities impressed on each variety of the human species living within these limits, by the circumstances of climate, which, in many cases, corresponds in its boundary to the political and social divisions. Moisture and dryness as distinctly mark their traces, both physically and mentally, on each people, as they do on the productions of the earth, amongst the vegetable kingdom. Contrast, for instance, the phlegmatic Dutchman with the volatile and vivacious Frenchman ; or the plodding and steady-going Briton, even with himself, when trans- planted into the drier climate of the Canadas and the United States. The latter country, although peopled by immigrants from every civilised nation in Europe, has, during the last seventy years, pro- duced a variety of humanity, as distinctly marked in physical, mental, and social peculiarities, and, as contrasted with the original stock, as are the changes which have ever been produced by the acclimatisation of any plant. Indeed, it will come within the experience of any thoughtful person, that removal from a moist to a dry climate, produces, in the course of years, a great effect on any individual, which is typical of the change of species-characteristics, to which we have just called attention. Generally speaking, the perception becomes keener ; the interval between volition and action shorter ; and hence, boldness of enterprise, whether political or commercial, arises as a natural result : the adage, " Caelum, non animan tniefa?if," &c., of the Latin poet, might have held good when only the narrowest sea had to be crossed, but loses its force in our time, when oceans are less thought of than were lakes in former days. The Chinese empire presents as marked a peculiarity in human history, as the paradoxical Australian animal * — to which reference has already been made — does in natural history ; the specific centre, in either case, being as decidedly marked. Secluded, until within recent years, almost completely from the rest of the world by a national policy, the Chinese have preserved for ages the individual peculiarities which denote their physical, mental, and moral condi- tion. Their language — oral and written — habits, customs, dress, religion, &c., all seem siii-generis, and afford a most interesting study to the ethnologist. The greater portion of their country is comprised between the parallels of 20° and 40° of north latitude, and hence they are nearer the equator by several degrees than is any portion of Europe. But the climate does not greatly differ from that of the south of France, Spain, Portugal ; and, coincident with that fact, we notice that, in many respects, the productions of the earth resemble such as are found in the countries just named. The Chinese territories, therefore, although situated, geographically, in the subtropical zone, really belong, climatically, to that of the warm and cool-temperate ; and it is remarkable how many of the mental characteristics and acquirements of the people correspond to those possessed by nations similarly situated in Europe. Their ingenuity is surprising ; the arts and sciences have made great progress ; and, in many respects, they excel Europeans. All the appliances of agri- culture and commerce are of a very advanced character; and in works both of utility and ornament, they are frequently copied or imitated by western rivals. The Japanese, whom we include with the Chinese, have shown astonishing skill in imitating articles of European manufacture ; and some optical instruments, as telescopes, &c., which they have produced, have astonished us by their excel- lency of construction. Although but a few years have elapsed since a steam-vessel was first seen by them, they have been able to pro- duce engines, boilers, &c., so complete, as to run vessels of their own construction on their waters. They contrast wonderfully with the nomadic tribes in Central Asia, who, within the same parallels of latitude, but living at a great elevation, and in a severe climate, are still in a semi-savage state, devoid of all the arts, and chiefly exist to gratify the instincts of animal nature. Africa, owing to the intense heat, and the unhealthiness of its climate, has been, with but trifling exceptions, little explored. Around its coasts various settlements have been established by many nations, since the fall of the Egyptian and Carthaginian empires, up to the present day ; but every glimpse into its interior has revealed human nature in its darkest forms, both literally and metaphorically. The Africans of the interior are completely isolated, both by the climate and difficulties of access ; and seem to be split up into so many varieties, that scarcely anything but the physical characteristic has been arrived at, respecting them, with any degree of certainty. The negroes are distinguished from every other variety of the human race by the darkness of the skin, the woolliness or cotton-like cha- racter of the hair, protruding and thick lips, and a yellow sclerotica of the eye (see a7ite, p. 10). In contrast with these we may describe the Nubians, who, although dwelling between latitudes 13° and 24° north, are yet situated in a climate strikingly different from that of the negro and Hottentot country — that of the Nubians being from 3,000 to 4,000 feet of elevation above the sea-level. Of the inhabit- ants in the neighbourhood of Lake Tshad, it may be remarked, that they are perhaps the lowest specimens of humanity, and the most complete savages, in every respect, that the world can afford. In North and South America, situated between 70° of north and 55° of south latitude, great variety subsists. The Esquimaux we have already described ; and, between their country and Mexico, numerous tribes of Indians roam, whieh are now rapidly becoming extinct. In Mexico, between 15° and 30° of north latitude — yet, generally speaking, at about 6,000 or 8,000 feet of elevation above the sea-level, and, therefore, although situated, geographically, in the tropics, climatically nearly in the temperate zone — civilisation formerly existed to an astonishing extent. The pyramids, temples, grottoes, aqueducts, bridges, and other ruins, attest the skill of the former inhabitants, not only in architecture, but also in sculpture, picture-writing, &c. Passing to the Carib islands, we meet with the analogues of the African ; whilst in Patagonia, between 39° and 55° of south latitude, we notice a fine, tall, robust, active, and warlike race, terminating, in a cool climate, the last vestige of humanity to the south of the equator. It is impossible for us to enter fully into the description or illustra- tion of the various groups into which the human race is divided by ethnologists. We shall, therefore, choose the following as a type of some of the most important varieties, for the description of which we are indebted to Dr. Latham. In the arrangement adopted by Dr. Latham, his first group comes * See remarks on the Omithorbyncbus, &c., at p. 17. VARIETIES OF MAN. »9 under the Mongolian variety, and is spread over Ladakh, Bultistan (or Little Tibet), Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, Butan, Northern India, Arakhan, the Burmese Empire, Siam, Cambojia, Cochin-China, Tonkin, China, the Andaman Islands, Nicobar, Carnicobar, Hainan, and the Mergiii Archipelago. The divisions of the group are Tibetan (or Bhot), Siamese (or Thay), Burmese, Peguan (or Mon), Cambojian, Anamitic (or Cochin-Chinese), Chinese — various tribes imperfectly distributed and described as Sub-Himalayans, Nagas, and Sifan — Mincopic (or Andaman Islanders), and Nicobarians. The Mongolian is characterised by a short head, a broad skull, and a fiat face. (See Fig si-) So decided are these features, that Fig. SI. — The Mongolian. the conformation of his head and face is a recognised term of ethnology. Many populations have, if not exactly the same, at least similar characteristics more or less distinct from those which mark the Mongolian. The most constant characters of this vast and important group lie in the structure of their numerous languages, and in the conforma- tion of the bony parts of the head and face. In complexion there are wide differences. The colour, however, of the hair is uniformly dark. Neither is there any broad separation between the taller and the shorter tribes in respect to stature. They are more under-sized than over-sized. The chief physical differences lie in the tints of the skin. The lightest-coloured tribes are the natives of Cochin- China and Tonkin, who speak the Anamitic language, and who are not very widely separated from the true Chinese. These latter are tawny, or parchment-coloured ; so much so, in fact, as to leave no doubt as to the character of their hue. It is yellow — yellow rather than brown — or black-yellow rather than copper-coloured ; though this tinge is by no means unknown. In respect to the Anamese, it has been remarked that they wear more clothing, and expose the body less than any of the populations around them. Yet we doubt whether this gives us the true reason for their comparative fairness. They lie between a mountain range and the sea ; occupants of a district wherein no vast rivers form alluvial tracts, and where the wooded slope of the mountain-side replaces the swamps of Cam- bojia, Pegu, and the other countries in the same latitude. Now, the former are the conditions that most favour lightness of com- plexion ; just as the latter determine a tendency to the colour of the Negro. The second group are the Turanians, who extend over Mongolia, Mantshuria, Siberia, Independent Tartary, Turkistan, Anatolia, Roumelia (or Turkey in Europe), parts of Bokhara, Persia, Armenia, Syria, the Crimea ; Lapland, Finland, Esthonia, Livonia, the Russian government of Archangel, Olonetz, Novogorod, St. Peters- burg, Iver, Yaroslav, Vologda, Permia, Viatka, Kazan, Simbirsk, Saratov, Astrakan, Caucasus, Nizhnii-Novogorod, Penza, Tambov, Hungary, the Kurile Islands, Japan, and Kamskatka. The primary divisions of these are — ist, the Mongolian stock ; and, the Tungusian stock ; 3rd, the Turk stock ; 4th, the Ugrian stock ; 5th, the Peninsular stock. These five divisions constitute tlie great Turanian class, which some call Scyfhiati. The pro- posed name is Persian. Much as the Greeks and Romans called all nations except themselves barbarians, the ancient Persian de- signated, by the name Turan, all those parts of Central and Northern Asia from which so many wild and formidable enemies were in the habit of descending upon the south. The ancestors of the Turks, Mongols, and Ugrians, were assuredly among them. The third group is that of the Caucasian, in the circumscribed signification of the term. (See Fig. 52.) The physiognomy of this Fig. 52.— The Caucasian, variety is European rather than Mongolian ; whilst its language is rather Monosyllabic than European. The area occupied is the mountainous region of the Caucasus ; and its divisions are — ist, the Circassians ; 2nd, the Mizhdzhedzhi (Mizhejeji) ; 3rd, the Iron ; 4th, the Georgians; 5th, the Lesgians ; 6th, the Armenians. In physical conformation the mountaineers of the Caucasus strik- ingly resemble those of Persia, and the higher castes of India. It is, also, like that of the Southern Europeans rather than the Northern, Central, and Eastern Asiatics. It is, in short, Caucasian, in the rude and loose sense of the word. The populations of Georgia and Circassia had been considered as models of female beauty and manly strength, although both may have been exaggerated. Those who have lived among the Caucasians, and have had opportunities of judging of them as a whole, are not so favourable in their estimation of either the beauty of the one or the strength of the other sex. Pallas (as quoted by Pritchard, in' his "Natural History of Man") writes, that the men, " especially amongst the higher classes, are mostly of a tall stature, their form being of Herculean structure. They are very slender about the loins, have small feet, and uncom- mon strength in their arms. They possess, in general, a truly Roman and martial appearance. The women are wo^ uniformly Cir- cassian beauties ; but are, for the most part, well-formed, have a white skin, dark-brown hair, and regular features." He adds, " I have met with a greater number of beauties among them than in any o\hQV unbolts hednviWon." Klaproth writes, that "they have long faces, and thin straight noses ; " and speaks of the Abyssinians, a tribe of the Circassians, as being "distinguished by narrow faces; heads compressed at the sides ; by the shortness of the lower part of their faces ; by prominent noses, and dark-brown hair." Little is known of the Mizhdzhedzhi other than that their dialects cut them off from those around them. They occupy a central dis- trict equally removed from the Black and the Caspian seas, at the fountain-head of the Caucasian rivers. The Iron are also central, occupying the water-shed between the Terek and the Kaban in the north, and the Kur in the south, overlooking the wide valleys of Georgia, as well as coming in contact with the mountain defiles of Tshetshentsh. Their creed is an imperfect Christianity of recent origin. The most favoured part of Georgia is the valley of the Kur ; the province of Kartulinia, of which Tiflis is the principal city. A large portion of Georgia, however, consists of a rugged mountain- range, occupied by the Mingrelians, the Imeritians, and the Swani. The Georgians are, of all the Caucasians, the most advanced in civi- lisation, and the Mizhdzhedzhi the rudest The Lesgians occupy the most eastern parts of the Caucasus, extending from the shores of the Caspian to the Tshetshentsh and Iron frontiers. Daghcstan is their country. The prophet-warrior, Schamyl, was a Lesgian. The Armenians lie to the south of the Caucasus, rather than occupy a portion of it, and were the first of the group to make use of an alpha- 20 VARIETIES OF MAN. bet, and to be converted to Christianity. This was efifected by their contiguity to Syria. They are mostly spread over the world — in Turkey, in India, and in Russia — as bankers and merchants. Geo- graphically, their country is contiguous to Kurdistan, or the country of the Kurds, who, however, belong to the Persian stock. The fourth group is the Persian, which is Caucasian rather than Mongol. It occupies Persia, Kurdistan, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, parts of Bokhara, the Kohistan of Cabul, and Kafristan. Its divi- sions are Persians, Kurds, Afghans, Beluchi, and the populations of Kafristan, Kohistan, and of Cabul, collectively called Paropamisans. The greater prominence of feature, and the comparative narrow- ness of the zygomatic space, which contrasts the Caucasian with the Turanian and Monosyllabic groups, are found throughout Persia. At the same time, the colour of the skin is darker, but not so dark as to create difficulties. Nearly all the Caucasian area is wood and mountain : the greater part of the Persian a table-land, with an ex- treme temperature. Group fifth comprises the Indian stock, the organisation of which is referred to two types. In one the skin is dark, the face broad, the features coarse. In the other, the features are regular, the head dolikhokephalic, the skin brunette rather than black. These popu- lations inhabit India, Ceylon, the Maldive Islands, parts of the Mo- nosyllabic frontier, and the mountains of the southern part of Belu- chistan ; that is, the country of the Brahui. The si.\th is named the Oceanic group, occupying the peninsula of Malacca, Sumatra, Java, and the chain ending in Timor and Rotti ; Borneo and the chain leading to the Philippines ; the Philippines ; the Bashi and Babyani Isles ; Formosa, Celebes, and the Moluccas; the islands between Timor and New Guinea ; and Madagascar. The divisions comprehended in it, are the inhabitants of the Pelew Islands and Lord North's Isle ; the Caroline and Marianne Islands ; the Navigators', Society, Friendly, Marquesan, and Sandwich Islands groups ; Easter Island and New Zealand ; the Fije Islands ; New Guinea and the islands to the east of them, called the Louisiade Archipelago, Tanna, New Caledonia, Tasmania, and Australia. The colours of these populations vary from yellow to brown, and from brown to a darker hue, approaching black. Those parts which lie nearest to the continent, and from which Oceanic diffusion first took its rise, include, along with the Malaccan peninsula, the islands of the Javanese, Celebes, Floris, Banda, Molucca, and Philippine Archipelagos — namely, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and other islands. It commences with the parts about Sumatra and the Malaccan peninsula, and ends with the Philippines. In the sea-coast towns, and in the commercial communities, the religion is Mahometan ; the F'g- S3.— The Malay. greater portion of the population being known by the name of Malay. (See Fig. 53.) The seventh group are the Americans, occupying the Aleutian Isles and North and South America. The physiognomy is pro- nounced modified Mongolian ; the departure from the type being the most marked on the water-system of the Mississippi, and tlie coast of the Atlantic. Dr. Latham is of opinion that the originals of the great American group came from North-eastern Asia. His reasons for thus making short work of a hitherto long question, lie in the recent additions made to our geographical and ethnological knowledge of the parts to the west of the Rocky Mountains — of the northern parts more especially ; of Russian America, of New Caledonia, and of Oregon. It is only recently that our knowledge of these districts has been con- siderably extended, more particularly in regard to their ethnology. He gives other reasons for establishing the original connection be- tween the Old and the New Worlds in a population point of view; but for their perusal, we must refer the reader to his own works. In treating of the larger groups of America, the Esquimau.^ take precedence, being eminently maritime in their habits, and occupying islands like the Aleutian Archipelago ; peninsulas, like the Aliaska, or broken lines of coast, such as those which form the shores of the Arctic Sea. Even in Russian America, Greenland, and Labrador, large blocks of land as they are, it is not only along the coasts that the Esquimaux are located. They form one of the great North American populations, that extends from west to east of the continent, from the Pacific to the Atlantic. A very interesting collection of their implements, dresses, ornaments, &c., may be found in the British Museum. The articles have been collected by various Arctic navigators during the last half century. Another population is the Athabascan, which extends to the great inlet of Hudson's Bay. At Cook's Inlet, 60° north latitude, the Athabascan appears in the Pacific, and to the north of Port Nelson, or Hudson's Bay, in the Atlantic. As a general rule, the southern limit of the Esquimaux is the northern limit of the Athabascan ; the extension being, in both cases, from east to west (or vice versa), being horizontal. The Athabascans, however, extend from north to south as well as from east to west ; and what is more remarkable, they have given offsets. Just as the Magyars of Hungary belong to the essentially northern stock of the Ugrians, from which, however, they are geographically separated by a wide interspace ; so do cer- tain tribes of Mexico and California — tribes on the very verge of the tropics — belong to those very Athabascans, whose true area is the inland parts of Russian America, the northern range of the Rocky Mountains, the valley of the Mackenzie river, the parts about the Great Slave Lake, and the parts about Lake Athabasca, — whence the name. Some of them lie within the Arctic Circle. An illustra- tion of an American Indian is given in the following cut (Fig. 54). 54. — An American Indian. The general distribution of the Athabascans is more important than the details. The chief tribes, however, are— the Chipewayans (or Northern Indians, so called) ; the Beaver Indians ; the Daho- dinni ; the Strong-bows, the Hare-Indians ; the Dog-ribs ; the Yellow-knives ; the Takulli (or Carriers) ; the Tsikanni ; the Sussi ; the Loncheux; and the Kenay of Cook's Inlet, along with other minor tribes. To these we must add the outlying sections of Oregon, VARIETIES OF MAN. 31 California, and Mexico. In Oregon the Athabascans consist of throe small tribes, of which the first two — the Kwaliokwa and the Tlat- skana — lie at the mouth of the Columbia river — one north, the other south of it. The third tribe is that of the Urukna, lying on the river so called. This is in 43° north latitude In California, the Navatos and Jecorillas (wild tribes of the desert) arc shown, by tlieir language, to be Athabascan ; as are some other smaller Californian tribes. In Me.xico, some of the Apatches are Athabascan ; so far south have Athabascan offsets been found. The extent to which the tribual organisation prevails may be seen from the following list of names : — 1st, the Tantin, or Talkotin ; 2nd, the Tsilkoti)!, or Cliiltokin ; 3rd, the Naskotiii ; 4th, the l^hatlisthi ; 5th, the Tsatsnotin ; 6th, \\\Q Niclaantin; 7th, the yVA// 2tin ; 10th, the Tii/ski'dn/in; and, nth, the habinc Indians. These are the j«i5-divisions of a single Athabascan divi- sion—the Takulli, of New Caledonia The following cut is an illustration of a Takulli Chief. ^^^c:. Fig. 55.— A Takulli Chief, The great Algonkin class extends but little to the west of the Rocky Mountains ; so that its east and west, or horizontal direction, is more limited than that of the Esquimaux. It is, however, the largest of all the North American groups. It subtends both the Athabascan and the Esquimaux areas : the former from the Rocky Mountains to Hudson's Bay ; the latter in the southern and central parts of Labrador. Here the country of the Skoffi (or Nascopi) and Sheshatapush reaches 60° north latitude. On the south, the parts about Cape Fear, and in South Carolina (34" north latitude), are Algonkin, the occupancy of the now extinct tribe of the Pamtico. I he vast area of the Algonkins surrounds and enclos s that of the Iroquois, suggesting the idea of encroachment, conquest, and dis- placement. If the Iroquois family cover less ground than the Algon- kin, its historical prommcnce is equal, or even greater. The famous confederacy of the Five Nations was Iroquois. The once formidable Mohawks were Iroquois. The Sioux hold the valley of the Missouri, the foot of the Rocky Mountains, the Red River, the Arkansas to the south, and the greater portion of the Buffalo countries. The eighth group embraces the African stock, whose organisation is characterised by the head being rarely other than dolikhokephalic ; the hair rarely straight ; always, with individuals resident on their native area, black ; skin dark ; in certain localities attaining the tnaxtmum amount of blackness. In such cases the hair is crisp, and the lips thick ; that is, the physiognomy is that of the Negro. The area occupied by this group is Africa, minus the island of Madagascar (wholly or in part), ^lus Arabia and portions of Syria and Persia. The Aramaeans, or populations speaking languages allied to the Arabic and the Hebrew, and called Semitic — the Arabians, the Syrians, the Jews, and the Ethiopians of Abyssinia, constitute this class — a class pre-eminently characterised by its early civilisation, and its monotheistic forms of belief. With the Jew the face is massive. With the Arab of Arabia, in his most (so-called) Caucasian form, the face is oval: forehead vaulted; nose straight, or aquiline ; lips thin ; even when thick, not projecting. Hair wavy, or curled; complexion, various shades of brown ; limbs spare. With the Arab of Africa, the colour is sometimes nearly black ; the frame more massive, and limbs fleshy. The Amazrig group contains the tiative populations of the Desert of the Sahara, of the greater part of the country to the north thereof, and of the Canary Islands. Hence it occurs in the oasis of Siwah, near the Egyptian frontier, in Fezzan, Tunis, Algeria, and Morocco. The descent of the Amazrig is from the ancient Gertulians, Numi- dians, and Mauritanians ; their chief divisions — the Ammonians (Siwah being the ancient Ammonium), the Kabails of the range of Mount Atlas, the Tuariks (of the Sahara), and the Guanches. This last was the name of the aborigines of the Canary Isles, now extinct. Their tongues are often called Berber, from the extent to which tliey are allied to the Hebrew and Arabic. They have, also, been called J?/ (^-Semitic. The Nilotic group is one, amongst others, which connects the so-called Semitic and the «/3-Semitic classes with the true African. The Egyptians form a separate group, as also do the Aramaeans. The Kaffre families, like the Amazrigs, extend over a vast space from east to west ; indeed, all across Africa, from the Cape to the Equator, and on both coasts of the continent. The Hottentot family occupies a large and undetermined district south of Benguela, and, according to Dr. Latham, has a better claim to be considered as forming a second species of the genus Homo (man) than any other section of mankind. The ninth group embraces the European, with a Caucasian physiognomy, occupying Western, Central, and Southern Europe. Its divisions comprise — ist, the Basks; 2nd, the Skipitar; 3rd, the Kelts, or Celts ; 4th, the Greeks and Latins ; 5th, the Sarmatians ; 6th, the Germans. The Basks, or Basques, occupy Biscay, and parts of Tuscany and Navarre. The Skipitars comprise the populations of Albani. This is their native name, and their place in ethnological science has also yet to be satisfactorily determined. The Kelts, or Celts, speaking the Gaelic, occupy a portion of Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland, and the Isle of Man. The British branch occupy Wales and Brittany. In England, the blood is, more or less, Keltic, with Anglo-Saxon modifications. In France, it is Keltic with Roman. The language, in the former case, is German — in the latter, Latin — in respect toits affinities. The populations speaking the Greek and Latin languages, and the languages therefrom derived, are the ancient Romans, and the other populations of Central Italy. The language of this branch was extended, by the Romans, over Gaul, the Spanish peninsula, the Grisons, and the Danubian Principalities. In these countries the language is more Roman than the blood. The Hellenic branch comprises the ancient and modern Greeks ; both with a large amount of mixed blood. The Sarmatian stock falls into two divisions : the Lithuanian and the Slavonic ; the former occupying Lithuania and Courland, with parts of Livonia and East Prussia ; the latter occupying Russia, Poland, Gallicia, part of Lusatia, Bohemia, Mo- ravia, part of Hungary, Servia, and Illyria. In Poland and Bohemia the stock is, probably, the purest. In Russia there is a considerable amount of Ugrian ; in Bulgaria, Turkish ; in Germany, German, intermixture. The Germans include all the populations whose language is related to the German. In detail, it comprises the populations of Germany, Holland, England (and, by extension, the United States, Canada, 'Australia, &c.), Denmark, Nonvay, Sweden, the Feroe Isles, and Iceland. The Dutch province of Friesland gives us the German stock in the greatest purity — that is, freedom from foreign intermixture. Eastward, it becomes, more or less, Slavonic ; west- ward, more or less Keltic. 83 QUADRUMANOUS ANIMALS. CHAPTER II. THE QUADRUMANA (FOUR-HANDED), INCLUDING THE APES, GIBBONS, AND MONKEYS. & fe>. t;\ a at; m w. F?%? ff^i y N die preceding chapter atten- , tion has been drawn to the natural history of man him- Mirx^ self, and of him as typical of the rest of the Mammalia. It was ,,^ pointed out that Man is distin- ^).- guished, as regards all his organs, func- f)\ ('^ tions, powers, &c., but especially in re- spect to his intellectual condition, as the head of all living creatures. |^^<^[^ As most resembling man in structural and "' ~ other conditions, the Quadrumana, or four- ■"AMi^^fT) "VJf handed animals, follow next in order of descrip- y^LM' v"^ ^wn. In respect to the skeleton of these, Pro- ^^^Sc- -'-' fessor Owen remarks that the Sloth is an e.xclu- \ sivcly arboreal animal ; its diet is foliage ; it has , ^ but to bring its mouth to the leafy food, and the lips '" and tongue serve to strip it from the branches. The ^l) extremities serve mainly to climb and cling to branches, ^ " and occasionally to hook down a tempting twig. I There is, however, another much more extensive and U diversified order of arboreal mammals, destined to ' subsist on the fruits and other more highly developed products of the vegetable kingdom than mere leaves. In the Monkeys, Baboons, and Apes, the extremities are endowed with prehensile faculties of a more perfect and varied character than are the Sloths ; and this additional power is gained by a full development of the digits in normal number, with free and independent movements, which, in one of them — the first or innermost — are such as that it can be opposed to the rest, so that objects of various size can be grasped. This modification converts a foot into a hand ; and, as the mammals in question have the opposible "thumb" on both fore and hind limbs, they are called " Quadrumana," or four-handed. The rest of the limb manifests a corresponding complexity or perfection of structure ; the trunk is adjusted to accord with the actions of such instruments, and the brain is developed in proportion with the power of execut- ing so great a variety of actions and movements as the four- handed structure gives capacity for. In the skull of the Quadru- mana (see ante, p. 4, Fig. 9) are seen indications of a concomitant perfection of the outer senses : the orbits are entire, and directed forwards, with their outlets almost on the same plane ; both eyes can thus be brought to bear upon the same object. The rest of the face, formed by the jaws, now begins to bear a smaller pro- portion to the progressively expanding cranium. The neck, of moderate length, has its seven vertebrae well developed, with the costal processes large in the fifth and sixth : the dorsal vertebra:, twelve, in the species figured of the Orang-Outan (see Fig. 56, p. 23), show, by the convergence of their spines towards the vertical one on the ninth, that this is the centre of movement of the trunk. The lumbar vertebrae are four in number : in the inferior Monkeys they are seven, and the anterior ones are firmly interlocked by well- developed anapophyses and metapophyses. The sacrum is still long and narrow. The tail, in some of the lower Quadrumana, is of great length, includ- ing 30 vertebra; in the Red Monkey {(Jercopi- tliccus ruber), in which the anterior are com- plicated by having ha;mal arches. Tlic clavi- cles are entire in all Quadrumana. The hume- rus has its tuberosities and condyloid crests well developed. The radius rotates freely on the ulna. The wrist has nine bones, owing to a division of the scaphoid, besides supple- mentary sesamoids adding to the force of some of the muscles of the hand ; the thumb is pro- portionally shorter in the fore than in the hind foot. The patella is ossified ; and in most Baboons and Monkeys there is a fabella behind each condyle of the femur. The fibula is entire, and articulated with the tibia at both ends. The tarsus has the same number and relative position of the bones as in man ; but the heel-bone is shorter, and the whole foot rather more obliquely articulated upon the leg, the power of grasping being more cared for than that of supporting the body ; the inner- most toe forms a large and powerful opposible thumb. There is a well-marked gradation in the Quadrumanous series, from the ordinary quadrupedal to the more bipedal type. In the Lemurs and South American Monkeys, the anterior thumb is shorter and much less opposible than the hinder one ; in the Spider-Monkeys it is wanting, and a compensation seems to be given by the remark- able prehensile faculty of the curved and callous extremity of the long tail. This member in the African and Asiatic Monkeys is not prehensile, but the thumb of the fore-hand is opposible. In the True Apes the tail is wanting, i. e., it is reduced to the rudiment called " OS coccygis ; " but the fore-arms are unusually developed in certain species, hence called " Long-armed Apes." These can swing them- selves rapidly from bough to bough, traversing wide spaces in the aerial leap. The Orang (Fig. 56) is also remarkable for the dispro- portionate length of the arms ; but this difference from man becomes less in the Chimpanzees. The large species called Gorilla, which of all brutes makes the nearest approach to man, is strictly " Quadru- manous ; " the great toe, or " hallux," being a grasping and oppo- sible digit. But the hiatus that divides this highest of the Ape tribe from the lowest of the human species, is more strikingly and decisively manifested in the skull (see ante, p. 4, Fig. 9). The com- mon teeth in the male Gorilla are developed, as in the male Orang, to proportions emulating the tusks of the Tiger ; they are, however, weapons of combat and defence in these great Apes, which are mostly frugivorous. Nevertheless, the muscles that have to work jaws so armed, require modifications of the cranium akin to those that characterise the Lion — viz., great interparietal, 7, and occipital, 3, crista; and massive zygomatic arches. The spines of the cervical vertebrte are greatly elongated in relation to the support of such a skull, the facial part of which extends so far in advance of the joint between the head and neck. The Chimpanzees, moreover, differ from man in having thirteen pairs of thoracic movable ribs. The long and flat iliac bones, the short femora, so articulated with the leg-bones as to retain habitually a bent position of the knee, the short calcanea, and the inward inclination of the sole of the foot, all indicate, in'the highest as in the lowest Quadrumana, an inaptitude for the erect position, and a compensating gain of climbing power favourable for a life to be spent in trees. In the osteological structure of man (Fig. 57), the vertebrate archetype is furthest departed from by reason of the extreme modifi- cations required to adjust it to the peculiar posture, locomotion, and endless variety of actions characteristic of the human race. As there is nothing, short of flight, done by the moving powers of other animals that Serpents cannot do by the vertebral column alone, so there is no analogous action or mode of motion that man cannot perform, and mostly better, by his wonderfully developed limbs. The reports of the achievements of our athletes, prize wrestlers, prize pedestrians, funambulists, and the records of the Shark-pursuing and Shark-slaying amphibious Polynesians, of the equestrian people of the Pampas, of the Alpine chasers of the Chamois, and of the scan- sorial bark-strippers of Aquitaine, concur in testifying to the in- tensity of those varied powers, when educed by habit and by skilled practice. The perfection of almost all modifications of active and motive structures, seems to be attained in the human frame, but it is CHARACTERISTICS OF THE QUADRUMANA—TIIE GORILLA. aj a perfection due to especial adaptation of the vertebrate type, with a proportional departure from its fundamental pattern. Let us see how this is exemplified in the skeleton of man (Fig. 57), viewing it from the foundation upwards. In the typical mammahau foot, the digits decrease from the middle to the two extremes of the series of five toes ; and in the modifications of this type the innermost is the first to dis- appear. In man it is the seat of excessive development, and receives the name of " hallux," or " great toe ; " it retains, how- ever, its characteristic inferior number of phalanges. The tendons of a powerful muscle, which in the Orang and Chimpan- zee are inserted into the three middle toes, are blended in man into one, and this is inserted into the hallux, upon which the 56. — Skeleton of the Orang. Fig. 57. — Skeleton of Man. Note. — At p. 2, Fig. i, the names of each bone in the human skeleton are given, and in Fig. 2 a skeleton of the Gorilla is afforded, which may be compared with the above cuts. force of the muscle, now called "fJcxor longus pollicis," is exclu- sively concentrated. The arrangement of other muscles, in subordination to the peculiar development of this toe, make it the chief fulcrum when the weight of the body is raised by the power acting upon the heel, the whole foot of man exemplifying the lever of the second kind. The strength and backward production of the heel-bone relate to the augmen- tation of the power. The tarsal and metatarsal bones are coadjusted, so as to form arches both lengthwise and across, and receive the superincumbent weight from the tibia on the summit of a bony vault, which has the advantage of a certain elasticity combined with adequate strength. In proportion to the trunk, the pelvic limbs are longer than in any otiier animal ; they even exceed those of the Kangaroo, and are peculiar for the superior length of the femur, and for the capacity of this bone to be brought, when the leg is extended, into the same line with the tibia ; the fibula is a distinct bone. The inner condyle of the femur is longer than the outer one, so that the shaft inclines a little outwards to its upper end, and joins a neck longer than in other animals, and set on at a very open angle. The weight of the body, received by the round heads of the thigh bones, is thus transferred to a broader base, and its support in the upright posture is facilitated. At page 2, a7itc, Figs, i and 2 are represen- tations of the skeleton of man and the Gorilla, which will aid the reader in understanding the comparative anatomy of man and the Apes, and the difference between their osteology. In the'previous chapter we have called attention to many points of difference that essentially distinguish the Apes from man. In the structure of the brain and skull (see ante, p. 4, Fig. 9), the Quadru- mana exhibit a gradual approach to the human type, especially in the young animals. In the following cut (Fig. 58), is the representa- tion of the skull of a male Gorilla, in w-hich the recession of the fore- head is very marked. As the Quadruraana increase in age, the jaws Fig. 58.— Skull of the Gorilla. Fig. 59.— Teeth of the Gorilla. gradually lengthen, until, in the adult Gorilla, Orang, and Chim- panzee, they form a prominent muzzle, almost as long as that of a dog. The dentition of the Quadrumana is especially characterised by the canine teeth being exceedingly large and strong, and interlocking like those of a carnivorous animal, as is shown at a a in Fig. 59, which represents the teeth of an adult Gorilla. Thus it becomes necessary that gaps should be left be- tween the canines and the incisors, or false molars, for the reception of the canines of the opposite jaw, while in man the teeth run in an uninterrupted series in both jaws. The form of the teeth, how- ever, is very similar to that which prevails in the human subject, the molars being broad and obtusely tubercular, as, indeed, is generally the case in ani- mals that feed on fruit or a mixed diet. The orbits are always closed, and the eyes of moderate or large size. The ears are usually small, but vary greatly in form. The skin is covered with hairs on all parts, except the palms of the hands, and the face and buttocks of some species. The tail is sometimes rudimentary, qr wanting, but usually of consider- able length, and its ex- tremity is often capable of being employed as a prehensile organ, which is of great ser\'ice to the animal in its residence among trees. The nails are generally flat, like those of man ; but some species are furnished with curved claws, whilst others possess such claws on some fingers, and flat nails on the rest. The mamma; are usually two in number, and placed on the breast. The Quadrumana vary much in height, some of the Apes equal- ling man, while others are not larger than a Squirrel. They are almost exclusively confined to the tropical regions. In Asia there have been reckoned 180 species of the Ape and Monkey tribe ; and in Africa there are fifty-five species, of which forty-eight are peculiar so far as that continent has been explored. The Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Baboons, and Monkeys abound in West Africa. The Baboons inhabit the mountains and rocky heights, while the Monkeys chiefly frequent the woods and forests. The highest group of the Quadrumana is that in which the animals are destitute alike of tails and cheek-pouches ; these arc the aiithromoriphous A^es, so called because they make the nearest approach to man. Among these are the Gibbons {Hylobates) of the East, in which the arms are so long as to reach to the ground when the animal stands upright. The Orang-Outan also belongs to the man-like Apes. The Chimpanzee /'7>- One of the most trustworthy of our earlier travellers, Andrew Rattel, a sailor, who was taken prisoner in 1589, and lived many years in Congo (Purchas's " Pilgrims "), describes two animals, the Pongo and the Engeco, the former as high and stouter than a man, the latter being much less. The Pongo, which is doubtless the Chimpanzee, he describes as having sunken eyes, long hair on the sides of the head, a naked face, cars and hands, and the body slightly covered. The limbs diifcrcd from those of man, being desti- tute of calves, but the animal walked upright. In its disposition it is stated to be grave and melancholy, and even when young far from frolicsome ; at the same time it is swift and agile, and is sometimes known to carry away young negroes. He further states that these animals constructed arbours in which they slept. Their diet con- sisted of fruits, nuts, &c. ; and their muscular strength is such that ten men were unable to overcome one. Upon the death of one of their community, the survivors cover the body with leaves and branches of trees. Bosman, Froger, De la Brosse, and others describe the Chimpan- zee as living in troops, which resist the attacks of wild beasts, and even drive the Elephant from their haunts. They possess matchless strength and courage, and it is very dangerous for single individuals to pass near their places of abode. Bosman states that on one occa- sion a number of them attacked, overpowered, and were proceeding to poke out the eyes of two slaves, when a party of negroes arrived to their rescue. That they surprise and carry away the negresses into the woods, and there detain them sometimes for years, is as- serted by all, and an instance came under the personal notice of De la Brosse. Captain Paine was assured that similar instances hap- pen in Gaboon. De la Brosse says they build huts, and arm them- selves with clubs, and that they walk either upon two feet or four, as occasion may require. Lieutenant Matthews, R.N., who resided at Sierra Leone during the years i785-'6-'7, and whose letters, describing this part of Africa, appeared in 1788, informs us that the " Chimpanzees," or "Japan- zees," are social animals ; and that "they generally take up their Fig. 65. — The Cliimpanzcc. abode near some deserted town or village where the papau-tree grows in abundance, of the fruit of which they are very fond. They build huts nearly in the form in which the natives build their houses. 28 THE CHIMPANZEE— NSCHIEGO MBOUVE—KOOLOKAMBA—SOKO. which they cover with leaves ; but these are only for the females and young to lie in ; the males always lie on the outside. If one of them is shot, the rest immediately pursue the destroyer of their friend, and the only means to escape their vengeance is to part with your gun, which they directly seize upon with all the rage imaginable, tear it to pieces, and give over the pursuit." The terrestrial habits of the Chimpanzee are confirmed by other observers. Lieutenant Henry K. Sayers, who in 1839 brought a young Chimpanzee to England, which he had procured in the BuUom country, the mother having been shot, states that "trees are ascended by the Chimpanzees (as he is led to conclude) only for food and observation." From the natives he learned that "they do not reach their full growth till between nine and ten years' of age, which, if true, brings them extremely near the human species, as the boy or girl of West Africa, at thirteen or fourteen years old, is quite as much a man or woman as those of nineteen or twenty in our more northern clime. Their height, when full-grown, is said to be between four and five feet ; indeed I was credibly informed that a male Chimpanzee, which had been shot in the neighbourhood and brought into Free Town, measured four feet five inches in length, and was so heavy as to form a very fair load for two men, who carried him on a pole between them. The natives say that in their wild state their strength is enormous, and that they have seen them snap boughs off trees with the greatest apparent ease, which the united strength of two men could scarcely bend. The Chimpanzee is, without doubt, to be found in all the countries from the banks of the Gambia in the north to the kingdom of Congo in the south, as the natives of all the intermediate parts seem to be perfectly acquainted with them. From my own experience, I can state that the low shores of the Bullom country, situated on the northern shores of the river Sierra Leone, are infested by them in numbers quite equal to the commonest species of Monkey. I consider these ani- mals to be gregarious ; for when visiting the rice farms of the chief Dalla Mohanimadoo, on the Bullom shore, their cries plainly indicated the vicinity of a troop, as the noise heard could not have been produced by less than eight or ten of them, The 72atives ■aX^.o affirmed that they always travel in strong bodies, armed with sticks, which they use with much dexterity. They are exceedingly watch- ful, and the first one who discovers the approach of a strangerutters a protracted cry, much resembling that of a human being in the greatest distress. The first time I'heard it I was much startled; the animal was apparently not more than thirty paces distant ; but had it been \>vAfive I could not have seen it from the tangled nature of the jungle, and I certainly conceived that such sounds could only have proceeded from a human being who hoped to gain assistance by his cries from some terrible and instant death. The native \vho was with me laid his hand upon my shoulder, and pointing suspiciously to the bush, said, ' Massa, Baboo live there,' and in a few minutes the wood appeared alive with them, their cries resembling the barking of dogs. My guide informed me that the cry first heard was to inform the troop of my approach, and that they would all immediately leave the trees, or any e.^alted situation that might expose them to view, and seek the bush ; he also showed evident fear, and entreated me not to proceed any farther in that direction. The plantations of bananas, papaus, and plantains, which the natives usually intermix with their rice, constituting the favourite food of the Chimpanzees, accounts for their being so frequent in the neighbourhood of rice- fields. The difficulty of procuring live specimens of this genus arises principally, I should say, from the superstitions of the natives concerning them, who believe they possess the power of ' witching.' " But in regard to all the man-like Apes, as we have seen, for example, in the case of the Gorilla, little is known of their native habits when they have attained full age. As a rule, it is believed they become very savage, and hence live specimens of an adult cannot be brought to Europe. The last specimen that was brought to England died some time ago, and before its adult propensities could be studied. The preceding cut (see a7ite. Fig. 65) represents an individual which formerly was in the menagerie of the Zoological Society. Its figure was short and stout ; chest broad ; shoulders square ; abdomen protuberant ; forehead retreating behind the supra-orbital ridge, the cranium otherwise well developed ; nose flat ; nostrils divided by a very thin septum ; lips extremely mobile, and traversed by vertical wrinkles ; ears large, naked, and prominent ; eyes lively, deep-set, and chestnut coloured ; neck short ; arms slender, but muscular, and reaching, when the animal stands erect as possible, just below the knee : all the four hands well developed, with opposable thumbs ; the nails human-like ; the hair moderately coai^e and straight, longest and fullest on the head, down the back, and on the arms, thin on the chest and abdomen ; on the fore-arm it is reverted to the elbow ; backs of hands naked to the wrist ; muzzle sprinkled with short white hairs ; skin of the face dusky black ; ears and palms tinged with a purplish hue ; hair glossy black : total height, two feet. The lower limbs are less decidedly organised for arboreal habits than in the Orang ; but their tournure is obliquely inwards, the knees being bowed out, but the soles of the feet are capable of being applied fairly to the ground. It runs about with a hobbling gait, but very quickly, generally assisting itself by resting the knuckles of the two first fingers of the hand on the ground, to do which it stoops its shoulders for^vards : it can, however, and does walk frequently upright. Its pace is a sort of waddle, and not per- formed, as in man, by a series of steps in which the ankle-joint is brought into play at each successive step, the heel being elevated, and the body resting on the toes ; on the contrary, the foot is raised at once and set down at once, in a thoroughly plantigrade manner, as in stamping, which indeed is an action it often exhibits, first with one foot, then with the other. It grasps with its feet, which are broad and strong, with astonishing firmness, and has been seen, while resting on a perch, to throw itself completely backwards, and, without using its hands, raise itself again into its previous position — a feat requiring both great power and agility. The general bony structure of the an- thropoid Apes has already been explained, in comparison with that of man, in the pre- ceding chapter (see p. 2, et seq.) The annexed cut (Fig. 66) illustrates the skele- ton of the Chimpanzee, and Fig. 67 the skull. We have already drawn attention to the peculiarities of the skull compared with that of man, &c., at p. 4, a7ite : and in the following description of the Orang- Outan, some further peculiarities and differ- ences vill be pointed out, which nearly equally serve for the Chimpanzee. The dentition is the same as that in the human species (see ante, p. 5), as regards number ; but the essential difference of this, and other members of the Ape tribe, has already been mentioned at p. 23, a7itc. The Nsciiiego Mbouve {T7-oglodytes Cat- 7-tis, or 7>'o§-. Tsctiiego) ; The Koolo- IvAMiiA {IVog: Konto-Ka77iha, or 7"/'og. Aub7-yi) ; and the SoKO [T/'og. Soke). Fig. 6<3.— Skeleton of These animals all belong to the same Chimpanzee. genus as the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee ; and, consequently, to the man-like or an- thropoid Apes. For the discovery of the two first-named above, we are indebted to Du Chaillu during his travels in the Gaboon district of Western Africa. He describes the Nschiego Mbouv6 as of a height of about four feet, and of the habit of constructing nests — a circum- stance which led to his discovery of one of the species. He states it to be smaller than either the Gorilla or Chimpanzee, and with a Fig. 67. — Skull of Chimpanzee black bald head, which is a distinctive character. The skin is black where there is no hair. The shoulders and back have black hair, about three inches long, and the hair on the legs is dirty grey mixed with black. The arms have long black hair, but shorter than in the Gorilla. He considered the Nschiego as not so powerful as that animal ; its chest is not so large, but the arms and fingers are a little longer, as are also the toes. The nose is not so prominent, but the mouth is wider and the ears larger. The teeth are smaller, but of the same number, thirty-two (see ante, p. 23). It has a call resembling the sound hew-hew-hew, which is a call of the male to his mate. The nests for shelter which the Nschiego constructs are formed of long branches, and leaves laid over one another carefully, so as to render the roof capable of sending off water. These nests Du Chaillu considers are made for protection against the nightly rains. The Koolo-Kamba (so called from its cry, " Koola-Koolo ") has many points of resemblance with the Nschiego, Gorilla, and Chim- THE GORILLA. 29 Fig. 6S. — The Enraged Gorilla, 30 THE SOKO—THE ORANG-OUTAN. panzee — in fact, to partake of some of each of their characters, and so forming a link between them. It also resembles the Baboon by being capable of going on all-fours. In some respects the Koolo resembles man more than the rest of the Troglodytes. The foot is Fig. 69.— Orang-Outan, formerly in the collection of the Zoological Society. of great help, owing to its peculiar construction, to the animal in climbing, and resembles a small hand. The arms resemble those of the Chimpanzee, and the exterior of the animal much resembles that of a frog. Briefly, from the comparatively meagre description of the Koolo, it may be almost considered as a nondescript animal, and in many respects sui generis. The Soko was discovered by the late Dr. Livingstone, who at first considered it as a Gorilla. One of its characteristics is that of biting off the toes and fingers of its captors, if it have the chance. It similarly treats a Leopard, biting off its paws, and leaving it to die through loss of power of locomotion. The Sokos build an inferior kind of nest, and seem gregarious. Their food consists of wild fruit, especially bananas. It is a stranger to the coast-line inhabited by the Gorilla and Chimpanzee. So little is known of these animals, that we shail content ourselves with the preceding brief remarks, more especially as nearly every account that has been given of new species of the African Apes, has not only been tinged with romance, but, in some cases, almost opposed to subsequent acquired experience. Thus the young Gorilla (illustrated and described at p. 26, ante), in many respects, as regards temper, food, habits, &c., entirely reversed the opinion previously held in respect to its kind. THE ORANG-OUTAN. (Simia satyrus.) When this animal was first introduced into Europe, and especially into England, it created an immense sensation, and was familiarly known, even among children, as the Wild Man of the Woods. We well remember the specimen which was, many years ago, in the collec- tion of the Zoological Society, in the warm dress which he wore, and represented by the annexed cut, which we reproduce for the amuse- ment of our young readers. In his appear- ance, as thus seated in a chair, he greatly resembled an invalided old gentleman, although himself of comparatively youth- ful age. So different are the characters, depen- dent upon age, which the Orang-Outan assumes at different periods of its growth, and so much in many respects do the males differ from the females, that no little con- fusion has arisen ; and the young, which is the Simia satyrus of Linnasus, has been proved to be identical w'ith the Asiatic Pongo {Pongo being a term that has been applied to all anthropoid Apes, for want of a better) ; the latter, as Cuvier suspected, and indeed asserted, and as Professor Owen has proved, being the adult. (See Tratis. Zool. Soc, vol. i., "Osteology of Chimpanzee and Orang.") The Orang is only found in Borneo and Sumatra. It would appear that a species, of large size, distinct from the great Bor- nean Orang, exists in Sumatra. Some naturalists, it is true, are disposed to re- gard the Bornean and Sumatran large Orangs as identical ; and it must be allowed that some difficulty exists which remains to be cleared up. Professor Owen has pointed out certain differences in the con- tour of the respective shells, which seem to justify those who contend for a distinction of species. In the adult male Bornean Orang (Fig. 71), there are huge callosities, or pro- tuberances of callous flesh on the cheek- bones, giving a strange aspect to the countenance, and which are presumed to be absent in the Sumatran Orang. They are certainly not depicted in Dr. Abel's figure of the head of the adult Sumatran Orang (Fig. 70). With respect to difference of colour, little stress can be laid upon it : the Sumatran species is said to be of a much lighter colour than the Bornean ; but all the Bornean Orangs we have examined (and those not a few), have been of a chestnut colour, or bright sandy rufous passing into a chestnut on the back, and scarcely, if at all, darker than the Sumatran adult female formerly in the collection of the Zoological Society. The Sumatran animal is said to exceed the Bornean in stature. According to Dr. Abel, the male Orang killed at Ram- boon, on the north-west coast of Sumatra, exceeded seven feet in stature — a singular exaggeration, as is now allowed. In the span of the arms and hands, this animal, he states, measured 8 feet 2 inches ; and in the length of the feet, 14 inches. Now in the speci- men of a Sumatran female once in the collection of the Zoological Society, which could not have stood higher than 3 feet 6 inches, the span of the arms and hands was 7 feet 2 inches, and the length of the foot io\ inches. That the Suma- tran Orang does not ex- ceed the Bornean may there- fore be safely concluded. The largest Bornean male Orang, an adult, with large facial callosities, which we ever examined, measured 4 feet 6 inches from head to heel; but Temminck, in his monograph of the genus, says, " Our travellers in- form us, by letters from Bangarmasing, in the island of Borneo, that they have recently procured Orangs of 5 feet 3 inches in height, French measure " Fig. 70. — Head of adult Sumatran Orang. THE ORANG-OUTAN. (5 feet 9 inches Eng-lish). In both the Borncan and Sumatran speci- mens, the ung-ueal, or nail-bearing- phalanx of the hind thumb is sometimes absent, sometimes present, in both sexes ; sometimes it is present on one foot, and wanting on the other. The annexed cut (Fig-. 72) represents an Orang in his native haunts. 31 It is true that the protuberance of the face is considerably diminished and the facial angle thus materially enlarged ; but to make up for the feebleness of the upper jaw, consequent upon this reduced size of the bones comprising it, additional strength is needed to resist the strong pressure of the enormous temporal muscles (those of the Fig. 71.— Adult Male Bornean Orang. In reference to the skeleton of the Orang-Outan (Siniia safyrusj, Professor Rymer Jones remarks, that taking it as one of the most perfect examples met with in the class (of anthropoid Apes), it is at once evident that such an animal 's by no means adapted to walk in an erect position, although well fitted to maintain a semi-upright attitude, such as is best calculated for climbing. The skull (see Fig. ^'g- 73.— Skull of Orang-Outan. 73), whose very outline indicates brutal ferocity, is armed with canine teeth, scarcely less formidable than those of the Tiger, and the massive jaws of the creature are moved by muscles almost equally powerful. Fig. 72. — The Orang in his native h.iunts. temples). This is given by adding strong buttresses to the outer angle of the orbit (the seat of the eye), formed bv the union of the frontal and the jugal (jaw) bones ; and thus the whole outline of the face becomes more humanised. Another advance towards the con- dition of the human skull is apparent in the position of the foramen magnum (a large oval opening at the back of the head), and of the condyles of the occipital bone, which are considerably advanced for- wards, beneath the base of the cranium, thus allowing the head to be articulated to the atlas, at a very considerable angle, with a line drawn through the axis of the spine (see Fig. 56, p. 23, ante) — a condition favourable to the erect posture. The thoi'ax is well formed and capacious, giving great freedom of respiration ; but the spinal column is short and clumsy ; neither docs it present those graceful sigmoid curves (those like the Greek letter S), that convert the human spine into a perfect spring, upon the top of which the head is carried. Professor Jones further remarks, that in the Orang, the arms (Fig. 74) are of inordinate length, and extremely powerful ; the joints per- fect, and the clavicle w-ell formed. But in the construction of the pelvic extremities, the difference between this and the human skele- ton becomes strikingly apparent. 1\\.e. pelvis is long, and the ossa 2'//// narrow; the thighs and legs so short, that when the creature stands erect, the tips of the fingers almost touch the ground. Upon the ground, indeed, the living animal puts the spectator in mind of a human being crippled at the lower extremities ; but in its native trees, these members, like those of the Sloth (see Professor Owen's remarks at page 22, ante), are admirably suited to the circumstances under which the Orang is ordained to live. A comparative illustra- tion of the foot of man and that of the Orang is given in a following cut (Fig. 75). In all respects, the organisation of the Orang (we refer to both Bornean and Sumatran animals) fits him almost exclusively for arboreal habits : on the ground his progression is more awkward than that of the Chimpanzee ; for the abbreviation of the posterior limbs, their inward tournure, their pliancy, owing to the absence of % 32 THE ORANG-OUTAN. the ligamenfidn feres of tlie hip-joint, and tlie mode of treading, not upon the sole, but the outer edge of the foot, tend all to his dis- advantage. Among the trees, however, the case is reversed. In the mighty forests of his native climates he is free and unembarrassed, though by no means rapid in his movements; there the vast reach of his sinewy arms enables him to seize branches at an apparently hopeless distance ; and by the powerful grasp of his hands or feet he swings himself along. In ascending a tall tree, the inward tournure of the legs and ankle-joints, and the free- dom of the hip-joint, facilitate the application of the grasping foot, as is well depicted in Fig. 76, which is a representa- tion of a female Orang, taken from life. The length and narrowness of the hands and feet render them hook-like in character (see Fig. 75) : while the short thumbs, set as far back toward the wrist as possi- ble, act as a fulcrum against the pressure of the lingers while grasping the branch to which the animal is clinging. The following is a descrip- tion of a nearly adult male Orang from Borneo, in the Paris Museum: — The head is large, the forehead naked, retiring and flat ; large fleshy callosities, in the form of somewhat cre- scentic ridges, occupy the ma- lar bones, ex- tending from the temples, and giving a singu- lar and even hideous expres- sion to the phy- siognomy. The eyes are small and set closely together ; the nose is de- pressed ; the septum of the nostrils thin, and carried out to blend with the skins of the upper lip ; the nostrils are oblique ; the lips are thick and fleshy, and the upper one is furnished with scanty moustaches; the chin is furnished with a long and peaked beard. The hair is very long and thick on the back, shoulders, arms, and legs ; very scanty on the chest, abdomen, and inside of the thighs ; the hair of the fore-arms is reverted to the elbows ; the hair of the head is directed forwards from a common centre of radiation on the back of the neck, or rather between the shoulders. The contour of the body is heavy, thick, and ill-shapen ; the arms with the hands reach to the heel ; the thumbs of the hind feet are nailless ; the general colour is deep chestnut. Total height, 3 feet 8 inches. Breadth of face across the callosities, 9 inches. The physiognomy of the Orang is grave, melan- choly, and even apathetic, but in adults not un- accompanied by an expression of ferocity ; the huge fleshy callosities on the sides of the face adding an air of brutish grossness. The head leans forward on the chest ; the neck is short ; and loose folded skin hangs round the throat, except when the lar}'ngal sacs are inflated ; this loose skin is then swollen out, like a naked shining tumour, extending up along the sides of the face under the small angular ears, filling up the interspace between the chin and chest, and encroaching upon the latter; the lips are wrinkled, and possess extraordinary mobility ; the animal can protrude them in the form of a snout or proboscis, contracting the mouth to a circular orifice, or, on the contrary, draw them back, and turn them in various directions. The breadth of the chest and shoulders conveys an idea of great strength ; the abdo- men is protuberant ; the hair, which falls o"^ the back and shoulders in long masses, forms a covering to the animal crouching in repose, necessary as a protection by day against the burning rays of the sun, by night against the heavy dews, and during the rainy seasons as a shelter from the falling showers. The palms of the hands have lines and papilla:, as on those of the human subject. All the naked parts of the body, with the exception of the orbits and lips, which are of a sallow, coppery tint, are silvery-grey or plumbeous. The thickness of the incisor teeth, which in adults are worn down to a flattened surface, as are also the molar teeth, shows that they are put to rough work; and, as Professor Owen remarks, it is probable that their common use is to tear and scrape away the tough, fibrous, outer covering of the cocoa-nut, and perhaps to gnaw through the denser shell. As already stated, the dentition of the Orang is the same as that of the human being. Roth the Chimpanzee and the Orang, however, differ from the human subject in the order of the development of the permanent teeth. The second molar, Mj, comes into place before either of the premolars has cut the gum, and the last molar, M3, is acquired before the canines. We have treated the question of deciduous and permanent teeth at large in the preceding chapter, at pp. 4 and 5, both as regards man and the inferior animals. The huge canines are doubtless defensive weapons, which, in connection with the muscular strength of these animals, enable them to offer a more than successful resistance against the Leopard, and render them formidable opponents even to the Tiger. Of the habits of the Orang in a state of nature our knowledge is limited. I^'S- 7S- — Foot of Man and of Orans-Outan. Fig. 74- — Skeleton of Orang-Oulan. Fig. 76. — Female Orang-Outan in the act of climbing. It tenants the secluded recesses of the forest in the hilly and central districts of Borneo and Sumatra; living, as it would appear, a THE ORANG-OUTAN. Zl secluded lite, and not being, like the Chimpanzee, gregarious ; nor does it, like that animal, build huts, but, in accordance with its arboreal predilections, it constructs a rude seat or platform of inter- woven boughs and twigs among the branches of the tallest trees, on which it takes up its abode. Here the adult male will sit, as is said, for hours together listless and apathetic. His movements are slow and indolent : when attacked, he swings himself from branch to branch, clearing vast intervals with ease, but not with the rapidity which has been imagined, and which is displayed by some of the Gibbons. If at last driven to extremity, he defends himself with determined resolution, and his prodigious bodily powers and prowess render it dangerous to venture on a close assault. The females are devoted to their young. A few years since, Captain Hall repaired to Sumatra purposely to obtain one of these animals, but at his out- set he experienced a serious obstacle in the difficulty of procuring guides to conduct him to their usual haunts : this proceeded from the fears of the natives, who not only believe that the Orangs possess a natural dominion over the great forests, but that they are animated by the souls of their own ancestors. Succeeding at length in this preliminary part of the undertaking, the captain soon met with one of the objects of his search, a female, which he describes as having been five feet in height. When first discovered she was sitting on a branch of one of the highest trees, with a young one in her arms. Upon being wounded she uttered a piercing cry; and immediately lifting up her little one as high as her long arms could reach, let it go among the topmost branches. While the party approached to fire again she made no attempt to escape, but kept a steady watch, glancing her eye occasionally towards her offspring, and at last seemed to wave her hand, to hasten its departure, which it safely effected. The following summary is the result of repeated observations upon young living specimens : — The progression of the Orang on the ground is slow and vacillating, and is rather dependent on the arms (which from their length act as crutches, supporting the body between them), than upon the lower limbs, which are ill calculated for such service. When left entirely to itself on the floor, the young Orang, if incited to walk, supports its weight on its arms, applying the bent knuckles to the ground, which, from the length of the arms, is an easy action. The lower limbs are at the same time bowed outward, and the outer side of the foot is placed upon the floor. In this atti- tude it waddles along, the arms being the main support : when indeed it wishes to hasten its progress, it fairly swings the body for- ward between the arms, as if impatient of the hobbling gait to which the structure of the lower limbs restricts it. The lower limbs, how- ever, are not incapable of supporting the body alone, and it can waddle along very fairly, especially if it can lay hold of anything by which to steady itself in its progress. In climbing it is at its ease, and confident, but deliberate. It will suspend itself with its head downwards, sometimes by the hand and foot of the same side, the disengaged hand being stretched to seize objects within its reach ; sometimes by the hook-like hands, or the feet alone, varying its grotesque attitudes in the most singular manner, and in all display- ing the freedom of the hip-joint. Its arboreal progress is not by bounding like a Monkey, but by swinging from branch to branch, grasping them by its hands in succession. Habitually dull and inanimate, it has still its times of sportiveness, and will engage in play with those to whom it has attached itself, following them to court their notice, or pursuing them in mimic combat. It has little curiosity, and is fond of sitting covered up by blankets or other articles of defence against the cold, and will wrap itself up with con- siderable dexterity. To those who attend it it becomes very affection- ate, and readily obeys their voice, recognising its name, and the words and tones of command Confinement is annoying to it in the extreme, and disappointment irritating. From these causes paroxysms of passion are often exhibited, in which it will dash itself about uttering a whining cry, and manifesting ever)' token of anger. We have seen a young Orang make the most strenuous efforts to escape from his inclosure, striving to force the door or the frame- work ; and then, screaming with disappointment, swing from branch to branch, and again repeat its endeavours, excited to the extreme, and all because its keeper had left it for a short time. Nothing but his return and attentions would pacify it. Dr. Abel states that his young Orang displayed great alarm at the sight of some live Turtles, and also of a Tortoise ; looking at them with horror from a distant place, to which he had retreated for security, and projecting his long lips in the form of a Hog's snout, while at the same time he uttered a sound between the croaking of a Frog and the grunting of a Pig. The young Chimpan- zee which lived, in the year 1836, in the menagerie of the Zoologi- cal Society, recoiled with horror from a large Snake introduced into the room by way of experiment, and also regarded Tortoises with aversion ; and a young Orang in the same menagerie, before which a Tortoise was placed, stood aghast, in an attitude of amazement ludicrously theatrical, gazing upon the crawling animal with fixed attention and evident abhorrence. On the other hand, we have seen a young Orang play with a full-grown Cat, drag it about, put the animal on its own head, and carry it from branch to branch, regard- less of its scratches and struggles to get free. Fred. Cuvier notices the same fact, which we have ourselves verified. The young Orang may be taught to use a spoon, a cup, or glass with tolerable pro- priety, and will carefully put them down on the table, or hand them to some person accustomed to receive them. To this point F. Cuvier also alludes, as well as to the care it takes in adjusting its bed, and covering itself warmly with blankets and other materials when retiring to rest. The young Chimpanzee, in comparison with the Orang, is far more lively, animated, and frolicksome ; and displays much more curiosity, being alive to everything which takes place about it, and examining every object within its reach with an air so considerate as to create a smile in the face of the gravest spectator. In alert- ness it exceeds the Orang, and is to the full as gentle and affection- ate, and more intelligent. The expression of intelligence is indeed well denoted by the vivacity of its eyes, which, though small and deeply set, are quick and piercing. The following remarks by Mr. W. S. Dallas, quoted from the " Circle of the Sciences," will form a fitting conclusion to the pre- sent chapter. " The highest order of the i!/(2;«/«ff//« includes only the human species. By Linnxus it was amalgamated with the Monkeys and Bats in his order P/-/>«a^i'j; subsequent writers separated it under the above denomination ; and some even refused to allow the human race to enter the zoological series at all. Some modern zoologists, however, have recurred to the views of Linnasus so far as to have revived the order of Primates for the reception of Man and the Quadriimaiia, holding that the highest of the latter tread so closely upon the heels of humanity, that it is not easy to draw the line between them. This view is also held by the advocates of the theory of the progressive development of animals, whose object, of course, must be to lessen as much as possible the distance between the most anthropomorphous Apes and the human race ; but any one who will compare (a Gorilla) an Orang, or Chimpanzee, with a Man, will at once see that the differences in organisation are so great, that it would require many steps of progressive development to pass from the one to the other. Independently of the great bulk of the brain, and the consequently increased size of the skull in the human species, the bones of the face are much smaller in proportion, and less prominent ; the teeth are more even, and form a continuous row in each jaw. The arms are much shorter than in the highest Apes, and the thumb is much longer in proportion to the fingers, and endowed with a greater degree of opposability and power of motion ; and the hand is consequently adapted for a greater variety of pur- poses. But it is in the adaptation of the hind-limbs solely to the purposes of terrestrial progression that we find the greatest difference between Man and the Apes. In the latter these members are shorter than the arms, and always furnished with an opposable thumb ; the animals never walk upright from choice ; and when they do their gait is awkward and hobbling, from their inability to apply the whole sole of the foot to the ground. In Man, on the contrary, the deve- lopment of the posterior members is carried to a great perfection, the thigh especially being longer and more powerful in proportion than in any other animal ; the flat sole of the foot affords a firm base, and the anterior members are thus left free for ihe perform- ance of those multifarious offices to which Man is undoubtedly in- debted for the whole of his physical superiority over all other created beings." On this interestinir subject the reader will find additional remarks in the following chapters. 34 THE GIBBONS. CHAPTER HI. QUADRUMANA.-TPIE GIBBONS (GENUS HYLOBATES). fe^^'^^^^^te* =.-e?^£5*=-'-'iss^^^'W»«s-' YLOBATES is a term applied ," ' to a genus of Apes, tVie last of the anthropoid kind, and there- fore resembling, in many respects, the Troglodytes and Simia, de- scribed in the previous chapter. The aa.me Hylobafes is derived from the Greek, signifying "walkers in the woods." The Gibbons are also termed"Long-armedApes" from the length of their anterior extremities, by the conformation of which they are enabled to make extraordinary feats of leaping, swinging, itc. They are chiefly confined to the Malay countries of Southern Asia and the ad- jacent islands, Java, Borneo, &c. The Gibbons differ from the thick-set Orang in the slenderness of their form ; the chest IS indeed broad, and the shoulders muscu- lar, but the waist and hips are contracted ; there are small ischiatic tuberosities hidden by the fur, on wliich the animals often iLSt, tlie commencement, so to speak, of a structural peculiarity carried out to its maxi- mum in the lower groups. The hands and feet aie admirably formed for clinging with tenacity to the branches. The arms are of excessive length, reaching, in the erect attitude, to the ankle-joint; the hands are remarkably long and slender, the naked palm is linear, ex- panding at the base of the fingers, which arc covered down the backs with fur ; the thumb of the fore-hands, though very short, resembles and direction, and is scarcely or not at all it seems to rise from the wrist, owing to the almost complete separation of the metacarpal bone from that of the first finger ; and the ball formed by its adductor muscles is trifling. The feet are long and slender, and their thumb is greatly developed, so as to form an antagonist to the other toes conjointly. In some species the first and second finger of the foot are more or less united together: this union in the Siamang is carried to the last joint. The lower limbs are short, and bowed in, and the ankle-joint has that inward tournure so advantageous to an arboreal animal ; but the hip-joint is secured by the l/gamenium teres In one species, the Siamang, there is a large laryngal sacculus. The skull is well formed, though the forehead retreats. The rami of the lower jaw are narrow. The incisor teeth are moderate, the canines slender ; the molars moderate, with the crown broad, and bluntly tuber- the fingers in form opposable to them ; culate. Dental formula (Fig. 77.) Incisors, i ; 4 canines, softer in some species than others : on the fore-arms it is in most species reverted to the elbows ; in one or two it is erect. The prevailing colours of these animals are from black to brown, brown-grey, and straw- yellow. The Gibbons sweep from branch to branch with arrow-like velocity: their mode is to suspend themselves by their long arms, and by an energetic muscular movement to launch themselves onwards, aiming at a distant branch, which they seize with ad- mirable precision. Most live in troops or families ; some species frequenting the mountain-ranges covered by forests of fig- trees, others keeping to the forests of the plains. The head of the Gibbon is small and of an oval figure, and the face is depressed ; the expression of the countenance being grave, gentle, and rather melancholy. All utter loud cries, whence, in imitation of the sound, has arisen the name of Wou- wou, which appears to be common to two or three species. Fred. Cuvier has applied it to the Agile Gibbon ; but Camper had previously appropriated it to the Silvery Gibbon, said by Dr. S. Miillcr to be called Oa-oa by the natives of Java, a word differing little in the sound from wou-wou, or woo-woo. None of the Gibbons attain to the stature of the Orang, about three feet being the height of the largest species standing erect, an attitude which they arc capable of molars, ■-5 = 32. The Gibbons are clothed with deep thick fur, Fig. 77.— Teeth of Gibbon. assuming on the ground or any level surface, along which 'Jicy waddle, at a quick pace, in the manner of the Chimpanzee, using the arms as balancers, or occasionally touching the ground with the fingers. in reference to the locomotion generally of the Qtiadrumana, but especially of the Gibbons, Professor Owen remarks, that the main purport of the modifications of the motory system is to make them climbers. By the development and direction of the hallux (see atite, foot of Gorilla, p. 24, Fig. 61), the hind-foot is converted into a hand, with unusual power of prehension, especially in the Gorilla : the joint of the hand is so modified as to give it a free motion cxcentric to the THE GIBBONS— THE SIAMANG. 3S nxis of the leg, whereby its outer edge is applied to the ground ; the whole limb is shortened, disproportionately so in the best climbers, as the Siaman.cr (to be afterwards described in this chapter), in which also the hind-limb may be unfettered for its acts of manipula- tion by the absence of the ligamciitiini teres of the hip-joint. The length of the iliac bones relates to elongation of the muscles for rotating the hind-limb and hand more quickly and through greater spaces. Corrclatively, the scapular arch approximates to the condition of the pelvic one by the extension of complete clavicles (o the manutrium, and the head of the humerus is received into a deeper and more secure socket than in Bhnana. This is well exemplified in the Long-armed Gibbons, which enjoy that peculiar mode of locomotion termed " brachiation" (arm-motion). The body is set into pendulous vibration by the action and reaction of the muscles of one arm and of the trunk, the force finally attained, and the swing being such as to propel the animal some distance through the air; a bough is seized by the opposite out-stretched arm, and the momentum is supplied in aid of a repetition of the action to gain a longer launch. Professor Owen states that he had seen, in the Zoological Gardens, London, an aSrial leap of upwards of fifteen feet so effected by the long arms of a captive Gibbon. M. Duvaucel, observ- ing them in their native forests, testifies to their passing through a dis- tance of forty feet from bough to bough. Mr. Martin, when curator of the Zoological Society, watching the same female {Hylobates agilis, see -post hac, p. 37) which had been the subject of Professor Owen's study of the brachiating mode of motion, states that a live bird being set at liberty in her presence, she marked its flight, made a long swing to a distant branch, caught the bird with one hand in her passage, and attained the branch with her other hand, her aim at both the bird and the branch being as successful as if one object only had gained her attention. In reference to the Gibbon, generally, Mr. Andrew Murray remarks that they seem to be a transition of form between the Anthropoid and the other Catarrhinse (see a7ite, p. 23). The genus is, of course, peculiar to the East, and Mr. Murray would restrict their species to only four. Thk Siamang {Hylobates syndaciyhts). — The Siamang (Fig. 78) is the largest of the Gibbons, being upwards of three feet in height, Fig. 7S. — Siamang. and at the same time robust and muscular. The fur is woolly and black ; the first and second fingers of the feet are united to each other, and there is a huge laryngal pouch on the throat, covered with black naked skin, which, when the sac is distended with air, is smooth and glossy. The use of this apparatus is not very apparent ; most probably the sac has some influence on the voice ; for Mr. G. Bennett (" Wanderings," &c.) observes, that when the Siamang in his possession was irritated he inflated the pouch, uttering a hollow barking noise, the lips being at the same time pursed out, and the air driven into the sac, while the lower jaw was a little protruded. It is this noise which M. Duvaucel describes, as we suspect, when he states that the Siamang rouses occasionally from its lethargy to utter a disagreeable cry approaching in sound to that of a Turkey- cock, and which he takes upon himself to say expresses no sentiment and declares no wants. Mr. Bennett noticed that the sac was in- flated, not only during anger, but also when the animal was pleased. It is exclusively in Sumatra that the Siamang is found : it is abun- dant in the forests, especially in the neighbourhood of Bencoolen, which resound with the loud and discordant cries of the troops shel- tered among the lofty branches. Duvaucel says that this species is slow, inanimate, and destitute of activity among the trees ; and on the ground it is so overcome by fear as to be incapable of resistance ; that in captivity it exhibits no pleasing traits, being at once stupid, sluggish, and awkward, unsusceptible either of feelings of grateful confidence or of revenge, and regarding nothing with interest. On the contrary. Sir T. S. Raffles, who kept several of these animals, describes the Siamang as bold and powerful, but easily domesticated, gentle, confident, and social, and unhappy if not in company with those to whom it is attached. Nay, M. Duvaucel contradicts him- self: first he says all its senses are dull and imperfect, and then gives an account of its extreme vigilance and acuteness of hearing, and of the affection of the mothers for their young. Jf a young one be wounded, the mother, who carries it or follows it closely, remains with it, utters the most lamentable cries, and rushes upon the enemy witli open mouth ; but being unfitted for combat, knows neither how to deal nor shun .a blow. " It is," he adds, " a curious and interest- ing spectacle, which a little precaution has sometimes enabled me to witness, to see the females carry their young ones to the water, and there v.'ash their faces, in spite of their childish outcries, bestowing a degree of time and care on their cleanliness, which, in many cases, the children of our own species might envy." The Malays informed him that the young are carried respectively by those of tlieir own sex ; and also that the Siamang frequently falls a prey to the Tiger, under the influence of that sort of fascination which intense terror produces, and which the Snake is said to exercise over birds and Squirrels. Mr. G. Bennett's account (" Wanderings," (S:c.) of the Siamang which he kept for some time, gives us a very favourable impression of its disposition and intelligence. The adroitness and rapidity of its inovements, the variety of attitudes into which it threw itself, when climbing about the rigging of the vessel in which it was brought from Singapore, and the vigour and prehensile power of its limbs, indicated its adaptation to the branches of the forest. Its disposi- tion was gentle, but animated and lively, and it delighted in playing frolics. With a little Papuan child on board this Siamang became very intimate ; they might often be seen sitting near the capstan, the animal with his long arm round her neck lovingly eating biscuit together. In his gambols with the child he would roll on deck with her, as if in mock combat, pushing with his feet (in which action he possessed great muscular power), his long arms entwined round her, and pretending to bite. With the Monkeys on board he also seemed desirous of establishing amicable companionship, evidently wishing to join them in their gambols ; but as they avoided his company, probably from fear, he revenged their unsociableness by teasing them, and pulling their tails at every opportunity. He recognised his name, and would come to those he knew when called, and soon became a general favourite, for his liveliness was not accompanied by the love of mischief. Yet his temper was irritable, and on being disappointed or confined, he would throw himself into fits of rage, screaming, rolling about, and dashing everything aside within his reach : he would then rise, walk about in a hurried manner, and repeat the scene as before. W^ith the cessation of his fit of anger he did not abandon his purpose, and often gained his point by stratagem when he found that violence was of no avail. When vessels were passed at sea, it was very amusing to see him take his position on the peak haulyards, and there gaze on the departing ship till she was out of sight. After this he would descend, Fig. 79. — White-handed Gibbon. and resume his sports. One instance of his intelligence is peculiarly interesting. Among various articles in Mr. Bennett's cabin, a piece of soap greatly attracted his attention, and for the removal of this soap he'had been once or twice scolded. One morning Mr. Bennett 36 THE SILVERY AND AGILE GIBBONS. was writing, the Siamans: being present, in the cabin ; when casting his eyes towards the animal, he observed him taking the soap. " I watched him," says the narrator, " without his perceiving that I did so ; he occasionally cast a furtive glance towards the place where I sat. I pretended to write ; he, seeing me busily engaged, took up the soap and moved away with it in his paw. When he had walked half the length of the cabin, I spoke quietly, without frightening Fig. So. — silvery Gibbon. him. The instant he found I saw him, he walked back again, and deposited the soap nearly in the same place whence he had taken it : thus betraying, both by his first and last actions, a consciousness of having done wrong." This animal died when nearing our shores, to the regret of all the crew. #^i:^^.i Fig. 8l. — Agile Gibbon. White-handed Gibbon {Hylobates lar). — To this species we refer both the Grand Gibbon and the Petit Gibbon of Buffon. It is the Simia longimana of Erxlebenj and the Sitnia albimana of Vigors and Horsfield, the Pithecus lar of Geoffrey, and the Pithccns varie- gatiis of Geoffroy, Kuhl, and Desmarest. The fur is soft and woolly ; the colour varies from dirty-brownish, or from yellowish- white, to deep umber brown or blackish-brown, the crupper being paler ; the face is encircled by a band of white ; the hands and feet are white ; the first and second finger arc sometimes united at the base. The White-handed Gibbon (see Fig. 79) is a native of Malacca and Siam ; but of its peculiar habits nothing is ascertained. It is one of those species which has hitherto been in a state of confusion ; but from which opportunities of examining numbers of specimens have enabled us, as we trust, to disentangle it. The collection of the Zoological Society of London usually possesses one or more of this species. Silvery Gibbon, or Wou-wou {Hyloiatcs leiiciscus).—'X\\\?, Gibbon is a native of Java, where it was met with by M. Muller, who states that it is called there Oa-oa, from its cry, whence also the name Wou-wou, which has been given to other species. The fur is fine, long, close, and woolly ; the general colour is ashy-grey, some- times slightly tinged with brown, and paler on the lower part of the back ; the sides of the face are white ; the soles and palms are black. According to Muller, the tint of grey varies in intensity, and some- times has a brownish, sometimes a yellowish tone, the face being encircled with white or light grey. In aged animals the chest becomes of a blackish colour. It is to the celebrated anatomist Camper that we owe the recogni- tion of the Silvery Gibbon, or Wou-wou, as a distinct species. The specimen which he dissected was brought from one of the Moluccas : in these islands it is reported to frequent the dense jungles of tall canes, amongst which it displays astonishing activity. Two or three living individuals appear at different times to have existed in England. Of these one belonged to Lord Clive, and is described by Pennant. It was good-tempered, lively, and frolicsome. Specimens have been kept in the menagerie of the Zoological Society of London. Agile Gibbon, also known under the native titles Ungka-puti and Ungka-etam (Hylobates agilis, F. Cuv. ; Hylobates lar ; H. RafflcsiiJ. This interesting Gibbon, of which a front view is given in Fig. 81, is a native of Sumatra, and owing to certain variations in colour, to which it is subject, has been formed into two distinct species — an error now corrected. M. Muller, in refer- ence to this Gibbon, states that it is curious to observe its numerous variations. "Two individuals are never precisely the same ; and we were therefore disposed to conclude, during the early part of our stay in Sumatra, that there were really different species of what, as it proved, is but one Hylobates : for it was only after the examination of individuals of different colours, and after we had killed many of both sexes and various ages, that we came to the conclusion that the Oengko-itam, or Black Oengko, and the Gengko-poetih, or White Gengko, of the Malayans, were the same species." The general colour of this species varies from black to brownish-yellow and yellowish-white ; a white or pale stripe traverses the brow ; and the sides of the face and throat are often grey or flaxen : in black or dark individuals the lumbar region and crupper are usually of a pale rusty-brown or yellow- ish; the pale individuals have the throat, chest, and abdomen of a darker brown. The pale-coloured females often produce black young, and the black as often young of a pale colour. (See Fig. 82.) We have seen straw-white young. The fur is soft and woolly : the two first fingers of the feet are united together at the base. The Agile Gibbon usually lives in pairs, and is timid and gentle : its activity and velocity of its movements are wonder- ful ; it escapes pursuit almost like a bird on the wing. On the slightest alarm it ascends rapidly to the top of a tree ; it there seizes a flexible branch, swings itself two or three times to gain the requisite impetus, and then launches itself forward, re- peatedly clearing without effort and without fatigue. Some time ago a female of this species was exhibited in London. The activity of this animal in the large compart- ment in which it exercised itself, and the velocity and precision with which it launched itself from branch to branch, excited the admiration of all who beheld it. Distances of twelve and eighteen feet were thus cleared, the Gibbon keeping up a succession of launches, without intermission and for a great length of time, and all the while exhibiting an air of noHclui- lance, as if the feat was of the most easy performance. In her flight (for so indeed it might be termed), the Gibbon seemed but to touch the branches with her hands in her progress, the impetus being acquired during that momentary hold ; and it could not be doubted that if the animal had been in the enjoy- ment of liberty in her own native forest, distances far exceedino- eighteen feet would have formed no interruption to her progress. It was curious to witness how she could stop in her most rapidflio-ht when the momentum was at the highest, and it might naturally have been supposed that a gradual cessation would have been required. THE AGILE GIBBON— THE IIOOLOOK AND YUEN. 37 Suddenly as thougfht, however, she arrested her progress ; the branch aimed at being seized by one hand, a rapid and energetic movement raised the body up ; the branch was then grasped by the hind hands, and there she sat, quietly gazing at the astonished spectators of her extraordinary gymnastics. With the same abruptness did she throw herself into action. Admirable was the — IV-male Agile Gibbon and Young. precision with which she calculated her distances and regulated the impulse necessary to clear intervals varying from four, five, or six, to eighteen feet : such indeed was her quicltness of eye, that when apples or other fruits were thrown at her, or so as to pass near her in her flight, she would catch them without apparent effort, and at the same time without discontinuing her career. While exerting her feats of agility, the Gibbon ever and anon uttered her loud call-notes, consisting of the syllables oo-ah, oo-ah, in a graduated succession of half-tones, ascending in the scale till an exact octave was attained, when a rapid series of descending notes, producing a shake, during the execution of which the lips vibrated and the whole frame quivered, concluded the strain. The quality of these notes was not unmusical, but their loudness was deafening as heard in the apartment, and when uttered by these animals in their native forests, must resound far through their stilly depths. It is principally in the morning that the Gibbon exerts the whooping cry, which is doubtless its call to its mate or companions, and it was at that time that we heard it. It should be observed that at first the syllables were slowly and distinctly repeated, and on the same note, E. As the tones rose in the chromatic scale, the time quickened, till, gaining the octave, the descent by half-tones was inexpressibly rapid : this ended, two barks followed, each composed of the high and low E, sounded nearly together. At the conclusion the animal was always violently agitated, as if wrought up to a high pitch of excitement, and shoolc with all her strength the branch to which she was clinging, or the netting, the cords of which she grasped with her hands. The following notes will give a correct idea of the musical call of this Gibbon : — Altrgrctto. Aixi tUrnndtt. :q=q: — I— T^T- :^- F — '^ — 1 — \ — H — H-»-J— J— ei i-G— B-- U U L- U U U U l> U U I. isdJSS^f^^^ u u u PreHiiStmo. , (c (c (c (( (( a (( (( (( (( E£B=-3E-:z^3:^-ESJFi a a a I This interesting animal was timid and gentle ; she greatly pre- I ferred the presence of females to that of men, and approached them and received their attentions with pleasure : there is reason to believe that ill-treatment had made her suspicious of the sex from which she had experienced injury. She was intelligent and observant, and her quick eyes seemed to be ever on the watch, scrutinising every person and observing all that passed around hcrj The muscular pow-cr of the arms, shoulders, and chest was very great, and the muscles were finely developed ; the chest was broad, and the shoulders high ; the reacli of the extended arms was about six feet, and the animal, when erect, stood about three feet from the heel to the top of the head. The form and proportions of this Gibbon arc adapted for arboreal progression, consisting of flying launches from branch to branch. The following is a profile view of a male Gibbon. Fig. 83. — Profile of Male Agile Gibbon. The remaining species of the Hylobates, or True Gibbons, are the HOOLOOK {Hylobates Hooiook), and the Yuen {Hylobates ptlealiis). There is little known as regards their habits, &c. ; but specimens may be seen in the British Museum. The Hooiook is a native of Hindostan, has a height of about two feet and a-half, is of a black colour, and possesses the usual characteristics of the Gibbons. The Yuen, a native of an island near Camboja, derives its name from its love of climbing. The male is black ; but there seem to be varieties as regards their colour, from the description given of them by Chinese writers. A careful perusal of the foregoing description of the characters of the Anthropoid Apes, will place the reader in a position to judge ot the salient points of the " Evolution or Development" theory, now so strongly advocated by some of our most eminent naturalists. With them, man is either an improved Monkey or Ape, or the Ape is a degenerate man. It is somewhat remarkable, that the uncivilised in- habitants of the Monkey regions, both in Asia and Africa, have an idea that the Ape is a specimen of degenerated humanity ; and some curious reasons have been assigned. In one case the natives say the Apes were formerly men, but having a great aversion to pay taxes, a former race ran off into the woods, and by successive degradations became converted into Apes. Both in Asia and Africa, a general idea is held, on the part of the "savages," that the Apes and Monkeys are the progeny of the ancestors of the living race of men ; and, as such, these animals are held sacred, and on no account are killed. In the following chapter numerous instances of this kind will be related. (See p. 39.) . With us, in Europe, the theorists take the opposite view, and regard man as an elevated Ape. But without entering into the details of the theory, it may be remarked, that the relation of the Apes, Gibbons, Monkeys, and Lemurs to the Bats (as will be seen in the next two chapters), is one of vci'y gradual degradation, flic successive steps are slow ; and, in fact, the likeness between each successive class, where they are connected, is such, that, as in the case of the Flying Lemur, it has actually been classed with the Bats. On the other hand, the transition from the highest form of Ape to the lowest form of man (see pp. 3 -^nd ^- ««^'') '= sudden, viarked, and decisive. There is no gradation ; and the Evolutionists have yet to discover species between Man-dom and Ape-dom as will even give a colour to their theory, whether in regard to the skeleton, organs, functions, &c., of the Bimana and Quadruntana, as contrasted or Cpnnected with each other. 38 THE MONKEYS. CHAPTER IV. QUADRUMANA — THE MONKEYS (SUB-FAMILY, CYNOMORPHA, OR DOG-LIKE). HE two previous cliaptcrs have been de- voted to the description of what are called Anthropoid, Anth)-omorplious, or Man- like Apes, including the genera of Tro- glodytes, Simla, and Hylubatcs. We next turn to the sub-family of Cynomor- pha, or Dog-shaped, or Dog-like animals, which embrace those usually known as MoNKEVS. It hence appears, that so far as the old world is concerned — that is, Europe, Asia, and Africa — the Catarrhi/ia} (see ajite, p. 2;^) may be divided into two sub-families, embracing respectively the Man-like and Dog-like Qiiadrumana. It is to the latter that we have now to draw attention. The Cy7ioinorpha, or Monkeys, are so called, because in many respects they resemble the Dog in appearance, especially when they go on " all- fours." In intelligence, however, and, if we may so say of Monkeys, in their mental character, they in many respects exceed the Anthropoid. While full of fun they have the power of affection, by which they attach themselves to persons or places. Man can easily teach them a variety of tricks or "accomplishments," that make them amusing companions. They are divided into two kinds — viz., those that have, and those that do not have cheek-pouches. In the following description of them, they will be divided into five genera;— viz., i. Semnopltkccl, or Sacred Apes; 2. Colobus, or Thumbless Monkeys ; 3. Cercopltheci,Qi'Y3\\&A. K-^Q.%; ^. Ulacacus, or Macaques ; and lastly, 5. the Cynocephalus, or Baboons. Much difference of opinion has existed as to the classification of the Monkeys in respect to their species and varieties, owing to the circumstance of age, &c., changing them at different periods of life. The species again are very numerous, and spread over a wide area, embracing India and adjacent islands, and most parts of Africa. But one European species exists, and that is the Alagof, or Bar- BARY Ape. Its single station is the Rock of Gibraltar ; there, how- ever, it is not abundant, only a few animals being now there in a wild state. For obvious reasons we shall have to restrict our descrip- tion of the five genera within limits, illustrating the most important species and their varieties. We shall commence with the Seiiiiio- ^itheci, or Sacred Monkeys. THE MONKEYS, OR PRESBYTES— SACRED MONKEYS. (Genus Semnoplthecics.) The genus Semnopithecus was established by Fred. Cuvier, and anatomy has confirmed the propriety of this genus, originally estab- lished upon external characters. The Generic Characters are as follow : — muzzle depressed ; head round ; superciliary ridge prominent, and with a row of long stiff hairs projecting forwards and upwards ; molars crowned with obtuse tubercles, the last molar of the lower jaw with a fifth tubercle seated posteriorly; cheek-pouches wanting; laryngal sac large; ischiatic callosities moderate ; body slender, limbs long and thin ; the thumb of the hand small, short, almost rudimentary ; stomach large and liighly sacculated ; intestines long ; tail long and slender; fur soft, (lowing, and often glossy. The dental formula (Fig. 84) is as follows : — incisors, -^; canines, 4 '-Hi. ; molars, i^. i-i 5-5 The incisors are small ; the canines large. broad, and compressed ; the molars are bluntly tuberculate ; and as they wear down, the surface shows the enamel very distinct and deeply indented. We have already noticed the dentition of the Qiiadrumana at p. 23, ante. The skull (Fig. 85) may be charac- terised as round, the orbits large and squared, with an abruptly prominent superciliary ridge, and with boldly projecting margins ; the inter-orbital space is broad, and the face depressed ; the lower jaw, however, is very deep, and the space for the masseter muscle considerable ; the chin recedes obliquely. The hands of the Semno- pitheci are remarkable for their elongation and narrowness, and for the almost rudimentary condition of the thumb, which cannot be brought into action as an antagonist to the fingers ; the feet also are narrow and elongated, but the thumb is stout and well developed. There are no cheek-pouches, as in the ordinary Monkeys, but a large laryngal sac extends over the whole of the throat, communi- cating with the larynx (windpipe) by means of a large aperture. The stomach is sacculated in an extraordinary manner, the sacculi Fig. 84.— Teeth of Monkey. being in all probability preparatory receptacles for the vegetable aliment, which undergoes digestion in an elongated pyloric portion. Cuvier calls the Setnnoplthecl Slow Monkeys ; but it is only in a certain sense that they merit the title. The length and slendemess of the limbs and body detract, if not from their agility, at least in some degree from the abruptness of their movements, which have a Fig. 85.— Skull and Canine Tooth of Monkey. more sweeping character than those of the Cercoplthect. Nevcrthe. less, they leap and bound among the branches of their native forests with great ease, and to vast distances, their long tail acting as a THE SACRED AND PROBOSCIS MONKEYS. 39 director or balancer in their motions. Less lively, less petulant, and, perhaps, less inquisitive than tlio Ccrcopithcci, they appear at times as if oppressed with melancholy, and in captivity, at least, sit in listless apathy. While young- they arc very gentle ; but when adult they become sullen, morose, and vindictive ; and their long canines render them truly formidable. In their native regions they associate in troops. In some parts of India, certain species, as the Eiitcllus, are regarded as sacred, and tolerated notwithstanding their depre- dations. Many species attain to considerable dimensions. The Senuiopithcc! zxii all natives of India and its islands, and the Malay Peninsula. As already stated, this genus is held sacred in many parts of India. The species that holds the most prominent position in this respect is the Hoonuman. The Entellus, or IIoonujian, or H.VNUsrAN {Sctiniopithecus cntelliis). — This Monkey is found throughout the whole southern part of India, and in some parts in great abundance. It is so called after a certain important personage of the same name in Hindoo Mythology, and is held in reverence accordingly, but not by the people of Mahratta, where it is called Makur. It occurs in large troops in the woods of the Western Ghauts. In Lower Bengal, where it makes its appearance towards the latter end of winter (for it would seem that it migrates from the upper to the lower provinces, and vice versa in this part of India), the pious Brahmins venerate it, supply it with food, and zealously endeavour to prevent its molesta- tion by Europeans. According to Dr. Fryar, and others, these Monkeys, in Malabar, towards Ceylon, and at the straits of Balagat, are deified. At Dhuboy (see Forbes's " Oriental Memoirs "), they are, if not worshipped, protected, from motives of humanity to the brute creation, and a general belief in metempsychosis. According Enltllus, or Hoonuman. to the latter author there are as many Monkeys as human inhabitants in Dhuboy, and the roofs and upper parts of the houses seem entirely appropriated to their accommodation. To strangers they are un- bearably annoying. Fig. 86 represents the Hoonuman. In Dhuboy, if a man wish to revenge himself on his neighbour for any insult or injury, he takes the opportunity, just before the periodical rains (about the middle of June) set in, and when the tiles have been adjusted to meet that season, of repairing to his neigh- bour's roof, and scattering over it a quantity of rice, or other grain. This is soon discovered by the Monkeys, who not only devour it, but pull up all the tiles in search of what has fallen through the crevices. At this critical juncture the rain commences ; no one can be found to reset the tiles ; the house is deluged, the furniture ruined, and the depositaries of grain, generally formed of unbaked earth, soaked through by the falling torrent. The celebrated banian-tree, on the banks of the Nerbuddah, is tenanted by hosts of Monkeys and myriads of Snakes, The antics and gambols of the former are very amusing ; if they ever suffer from the Snakes, they repay the poor reptiles with interest. When they see one asleep, twined round a branch, they seize it by the neck, and, descending, run to the nearest stone, and on it commence to grmd down the reptile's head, frequently looking at it and grmning at their progress. When convinced that its fangs are destroyed, they toss it, writhing with pain, to their young, and seem to rejoice in its destruction. t ^"I'^'^ii? ^"'^"'^ °^ ^^''- f'"'tics, on a shooting excursion, killed a lemale Monkey under tliis tree, and carried it to his tent, which was soon surrounded by forty or fifty of the tribe, who made a great noise, and with .ncnacing gestures advanced towards it. On pre- senting his fowling-piece, they hesitated and appeared irresolute, f ;i,°"u' "^ *'''°"^ '"^ ^^^ ^"'^ station in the van appeared to be at the head of the troop, stood his ground chattering and menacin"- in a furious manner, nor could any cilorts less cruel than fnin"- drive him off. He at length approached the tent door, and by every token of grief and supplication seemed to beg the body of the deceased, which was then given to him ; with every token of sorrow he took it up in his arms, embraced it with conjugal affection, and carried it off to his expecting comrades. The artless behaviour of this poor animal wrought so powerfully on the sportsmen, that they resolved never to level a gun again at one of the Monkey race. The Kahau, or Yv.ov.O'&ci-s'Mo'iiv.YM {Scmnopithccus larvatus, or Scmno. Nasalis).—1\\\^ <;n'-ri,-s is the Guciton a loiixuc ficz of Fig. S7. — Adult Kah.au. Buffon, the Nasalis larva fits o{ Gso^iroy, and the Nasa/is rccurvus (young) of Vigors and Horsfield. (See Fig. 87.) This Monkey is remarkable for the uncouth development of the nose, forming a sort of proboscis capable of dilatation, with the nasal apertures under- neath the bent-down apex, and divided from each other by a thin cartilage ; along the upper surface of this singular organ runs a longitudinal depression, indicating the division between the two canals. The cars, which are small, and the face, together with the Fig. 8S. — Face of Adult Kahau. F:g. S9. — Face of young Kr.li.iu. Fig. 90. — Nose of adult Kahau, seen from beneath. Fig. 91. — Skull of Kahau. palms, are of a leaden colour, with a slight tinge of yellow ; the neck is short ; the throat swollen from the enormous lar}-ngal sac. On the sides of the neck and shoulders the hair is long, compared with that of the rest of the body. The top of the head, the occiput, and 40 BLACK-CRESTED MONKEY, BUDENG, AND DOUC. the scapular portion of the back, are of a rich chestnut-brown ; the sides of the face and a stripe over the shoulders are yellow ; the general colour of the body is fine sandy-red. The crupper, the tail, the fore-arms, and legs are cinereous ; the under parts are yellow ; the tail is somewhat tufted at the tip. A full beard in the male advances forward, and curls up under the chin, almost to the long nose. In the young, regarded by some naturalists as a distinct species, the nose is somewhat recurved, and shorter than in the adult. That this distinction is not specific, as we formerly believed, we have fully satisfied ourselves by the examination of specimens in Paris. Figs. 88, 89, and 90, represent the face of the adult Kahau ; that of the young ; and the nose of the adult as seen from beneath. Fig. 91 is the skull of the Kahau ; it has all the characters of a true Scm tiop ithecus. The male Kahau is remarkable for size and strength, and, from the magnitude of the canines, must be a formidable animal. The female, however, is considerably smaller — a circumstance noticed by Wurmb, who says these Monkeys " associate in large troops ; their cry, which is deep-toned, resembles the word kahau. They assemble morning and evening, at the rising and setting of the sun, along the borders of rivers, and are to be seen on the branches of lofty trees, where they offer an agreeable spectacle, darting with great rapidity from one tree to another at the distance of fifteen or twenty feet. 1 have not observed that they hold their nose while leaping, as the natives affirm, but I have seen that they then stretch out their paws in a remarkable manner. They are of different sizes ; some, indeed, are seen which are not above a foot in height, but which yet have young." The Kahau, as far as is known with certainty, is a native only of Borneo : perhaps it is to be found also in Sumatra. M. Geoffroy states it to inhabit the Malay Peninsula, but we are not aware that it has ever been seen there. The adult male measures 2 feet in the length of the head and body, and 2 feet 4 inches in that of the tail. It has never been brought alive to Europe. The Black-crested Monkey {Senuiopithccus ?nelalophos ; Fig. 92. — Black- crested Monkey. Cimcpaye, or Siinpai of F. Cuvier, not Raffles). — This slender and beautiful species is a native of Sumatra (Fig. 92). The head is small ; the fur is long, soft, falling, and glossy ; the top of the head is orna- mented with a long compressed crest. The general tint is a fine bright golden rust colour, pure and rich on the limbs, but slightly washed with a dusky tint on the back ; the abdomen and inside of the limbs are paler than the other parts. The crest is washed with a dusky tinge, passing into black at the tip. A black or blackish line, beginning over the eyes, passes across the temples, and turning up over each ear, merges into the colour of the crest. The skin of the face is dusky-bluish ; the palms, soles, and nails are black. Length of head and body, i foot 8 inches ; of tail, 2 feet 8 inches. It is said to be extremely active, and to tenant the remote parts of the forest ; but of its exclusive habits nothing is known. The Budeng, or Negro Monkey {Semtzopithecus maurus). — The Budeng is a native of Java ; the general colour is black ; the fur is long and silky ; the hairs, diverging from the crown of the head, conceal the ears. The young, after birth, are of a pale reddish- j-ellow ; first a grey discoloration appears on the hands ; then this begins gradually to spread, extending to the shoulders and sides ; as it spreads it becomes darker, and at last passes into black (Fig. 93). The Budeng, according to Dr. Horsfield, is grave, sullen, and morose : it is abundant in the extensive forests of Java, where it associates in large troops, often of more than fifty individuals. On the approach of man they set up loud screams, and so violent and incessant are their motions, that decayed branches are often detached and precipitated on the spectators. The natives chase them for the sake of their fur, which is jet black, silky, and employed in riding equipages and military decorations. They are seldom kept alive, from the sullenness of their temper, which renders them anything but agreeable. While young they feed on the tender leaves of plants and trees ; but w^hen adult, on wild fruits of every description. Fig. 93. — Budeng and Young. The Douc, or Duk {Scm7iopHheais iiemaus, F. Cuv.) Py- gathrix iiemcsits, Geoffr. ; Lasiopyga iiemaiis ; Presbyfes iiemcsus. — The Douc, a genuine example of the genus Sernnopitliecus, is one of the most beautiful, if not the most beautiful, of all the Monkey race. We give the following description from a fine adult male in Fig. 94. — Ccchin-Chjna Monkey. the Paris Museum. The face is naked, and of an orange colour, surrounded by full long whiskers of a glossy whiteness ; the fur of the forehead is blackish, passing into delicate grizzled grc) , which is THE GUEREZA AND WHITE-THIGIIED COLO BUS. 41 the colour of the whole head, the back, the sides, and abdomen, each hair having- annulations of white and dusky black to the number of eleven or twelve. From the eyebrows to the cars extends a pencil of chestnut red ; the throat is white ; a band, or sorget, of chestnut red, extends across the top of the chest from shoulder to shoulder, succeeded by a band of black spreading over the top of each shoulder. The fore-arms, the tail, and a square patch above its root are of a snowy white. The knees, the legs, and the tarsal portion of the feet are of a rich chestnut ; the fingers, the toes, and the tliighs are black ; space round the callosities, white ; callosities and naked skin of the palms, yellow. Fur, full and soft. Length of head and body to root of tail, 2 feet i inch. Native country, Cochin-China. (See Fiff- 94) The Douc has never been brought alive to Europe, and of its habits and manners we have but meagre information. Bezoar-stones are said to be frequently found in its stomach, a proof that it is sac- culated, as in the other Semnopitheci, and also in the Colobi. It has been stated that these animals live in troops, more or less numerous, in the vast woods which cover the country along the shore ; and their manners are certainly far from being wild, as has been supposed. They are, indeed, little troubled by the presence of man, and often come near to the habitations of the Cochin-Chinese, who appear to offer them but little molestation, and do not attempt to draw from the beautiful fur of the Doucs all the advantages which might be obtained from such a source. Though Buffon, on the authority of M. de Poivre, gave the name of Douc to this species, as its native appellation, nevertheless it would seem that such is not the term by which it is known in Cochin- China. M. Rey, the captain of a French merchantman, who visited that country in i8i9-'20, informs us that these Monkeys are there called Venam, which, he says, signifies " men of the woods." M. Rey had no difEculty in killing numbers of them ; but it was not without great trouble that he succeeded in capturing living indi- viduals. So numerous were they, that on one occasion, in the course of a few hours, a hundred were slaughtered. Desirous, however, of taking some alive, for the purpose of transporting them, if possible, to France, he set to work in earnest. In the attempt many were shot dead, and others wounded ; and as they fell, the survivors collected round the dead and dying, endeavouring to carry them off into the deeper parts of the forest. Three young ones were ultimately secured, which held so fast round the bodies of their dams, that it required no small effort to detach them. They did not reach France alive. M. Rey remarks that this species of Monkey greatly resembles the Orang-Outan in stature and inoffensive manners, inhabiting the mountains and tops of the loftiest trees, and living on fruit. Its fur he describes as being exceedingly fine. Some of the males measured, when standing upright, about 4 feet 4 inches in height. There are some other species of the Semnoj>itheci, of which, how- ever, but little is known, and of which the limits of our space forbid description and illustration. The Monkeys.— Genus Colobus, or Colobos. The Monkeys of this genus are restricted exclusively to Africa : in all respects they resemble the Semiiopitheci ; but the thumb, which in the latter is small, is in these wanting or reduced to a mere nail- less tubercle — hence the name Colobus, or stunted, from the Greek. What the Semiiopitheci zxe. in India, the Colobi 3.Te. in Africa. Till lately only two species were known ; but the list now contains F''S' 95- — Guereza. several accredited species, to which others will no doubt be added as we extend our researches in Western Africa, along the borders of the Gambia, and the island of Fernando Po. The Gukreza (Colobus Gucrcza ).—Ocncra.\ colour black ; sides of the body and top of the loins ornamanted with long pendent white hairs, forming a fringe-like mantle ; face encircled by white ; tail ending in a white tuft. Native country, South and West Abyssinia. (See Fig. 95.) The Guereza, which is the Abyssinian name of this species, lives, according to Riippell, in small families, tenanting the lofty trees in the neighbourhood of running waters. It is active and lively, and at the same time gentle and inoffensive. Its food consists of wild fruits, grain, and insects. It is only found in the provinces of Godjam, KuUa, and Damot — more especially in the latter, where it is hunted by the natives, who consider it a mark of distinction to possess a buckler covered with its skin, the part used being that covered with the long flowing white hairs. Ludolph (in the " Hist, .^thiop.," lib. i.) Fig. 96.— White-thighed Colobus. has made express allusion to this animal, but he figures a different species under its name — a circumstance of by no means uncommon occurrence in classifying Monkeys. The White-thighed Colobus fColobus leticoiMrus, Ogilby). — This beautiful Monkey is a native of the banks of the Gambia. The fur is long, fine, silky, and shining ; the general colour is black ; a white frontal band spreads from the forehead over the whiskers on the sides of the face, and passing down occupies the throat, so that the face is surrounded with white, which is narrowest Fij. 97. — FuU-maned ColuLus. on the forehead. The hairs covering the thighs externally are white, more or less mixed with black, and gradually merging into the general hue. The tail is long, and of a snowy white. (Fig. 97.) G 42 THE GUENONS. The White-tliighed Colobus has never been observed by European travellers in its native forest ; the skins, mostly imperfect and wanting the head, are brought down by the negroes from the interior for the purposes of barter. The Full-maned Colobus (Colobus j)olycomos). FuU- bottomed Monkey, Pennant : Giicnon d Caiiiail, Buffon. — The full- maned (Cloaked, or Many-haired) Colobus is a native of the forest of Sierra Leone : it is called by the natives, " the king of the Monkeys," on account of the beauty of its colours, and the caniail, which represents a sort of diadem. (See Fig. 97.) Its fur is in high estimation, and applied to different ornamental purposes. The head and upper part of the body are covered with long hairs falling over the head and shoulders, forming a sort of mane-like hood and pelerine, whence the name given to it by Buffon. Pennant's title is in allusion to the full-bottomed periwig worn in his day. These long hairs are mingled yellow and black ; the face is brown ; the body covered with short jet-black hair ; the tail is snowy white, and tufted. Tejiminck's Colobus {Colobus Temminckii, Kuhl, " Beitr.," 1820).— The top of the head is black, as is also the occiput, which latter is slightly sprinkled with rufous ; the back and the outside of the humerus and of the thighs are of a sooty black, with a tinge of Fig. 9S. — Temrainck's Colobus, slate-blue. The sides of the face, the chest, the sides of the humerus, and the whole of the fore-arms are of a rufous colour, which becomes deeper and brighter on the hands ; the anterior part of the thighs, the knees, and the legs are also rufous, the feet being of a deeper hue ; the throat, together with a line along the chest and abdomen, are of a sandy-yellow ; the middle of the chest and of the abdomen is abruptly of a dirty yellowish-white, varying to white ; the tail at the base is black, with rufous hairs intermixed ; it then assumes a chestnut red or rufous colour, becoming again darker at the extre- mity ; an obscure dusky line runs along the whole of its upper surface. The naked skin of the face is brown, with a tinge of red purple ; the palms and soles are of a purplish black. It was on a very pale-coloured and aged female of this species in the Museum of the Zoological Society, London (26, Cat., " Mamm.," 1838), brought from the river Gambia, that Mr. Ogilby founded his Colobus fuliginosus , afterwards termed by him C. r'ufo-fiilighius. The original of Kuhl's description was formerly in Bullock's museum. With respect to the native country of this species, it is now ascertained to be Gambia. Length of head and body, 2 feet 2 inches ; of tail, 2 feet 6 inches. Nothing relative to the habits and manners of this species, as it exists in its native forests, has been collected. The Monkeys — Genus Cercojiiihecus — or Guenons. In this genus, which is an extensive one, and includes at least twenty species, are comprehended the ordinary long-tailed Monkeys, or Guenons, of Africa. The muzzle is moderately prominent ; the facial angle 45° to 50° (see ante, p. 4) ; the head is round ; the superciliary ridge moderate ; the molar teeth are crowned with acute tubercles ; the last molar of the lower jaw with only four tubercles : there are ample cheek-pouches ; the laryngal sac is variable ; ischiatic callosities moderate ; general contour light, but vigorous ; limbs muscular ; stomach simple ; tail long ; the hairs composing the fur annulated. The Cercopitheci are all restricted to the African continent ; but one species only, the Vervet {C. pygerythrus, or C. lalandii, and one species of Baboon, the Chacma), inhabits Africa south of the Capricorn. These animals are arboreal in their habits ; they tenant the wild forests that skirt the rivers, and associate in troops, beingf gregarious in their habits. Their actions are full of energy ; their disposition is restless, petulant, and inquisitive. During infancy they are gentle, but as age advances they become irascible and malicious. Their displeasure is expressed by grinning and chatter- ing ; and though they seldom venture to make a decided attack, yet, collected in troops in their native woods, they endeavour to harass and annoy intruders within their territorial domains, and are not to be repelled without difficulty. Their diet is almost exclusively frugiverous ; and they often commit great havoc in the fields of grain adjacent to the wooded districts ; and that, not only by what they devour on the spot, but also by what they carry away in their cheek-pouches, which extend below the angle of the lower jaw, and which, when an opportunity occurs, they cram with food to be eaten at leisure. In these Guenons the thumb of the fore-hands 's more Fig. 99. — Teeth of Guenons. developed than in the Semiiopitheci, and the hands themselves are shorter, and have better pretensions to the title than the long slender graspers of their Asiatic relatives. The dental formula is as follows: — Incisors A, canines i-^, molars 5^l5 = 72. Of 4 i-i S-S these the canines (see Fig. 99) are very large, compressed, with a sharp cutting edge posteriorly. The Mona (Cercopithecus Mona). La Mone of Buffon ; the Varied Ape oiVst^xnaxit. (See Fig. 100.) — The hairs annulated with grey, yellow, and black, or with red and black, producing the various tints of the fur. Head of yellowish-olive colour ; a black frontal stripe above the eyebrows is surmounted by another of a whitish tint, more conspicuous in some individuals than in others ; back, chestnut- brown ; haunches and limbs, externally, dusky black ; tail black, with a white spot on each side of its origin on the crupper ; under parts and inside of limbs white ; whiskers very full, of a yellowish tint, slightly washed with black ; skin of orbits and cheeks, bluish-purple ; lips flesh-coloured; ears and head of a livid flesh-colour; length of head and body, i foot 8J inches ; tail, i foot 1 1 inches. The Mona is a native of Western Africa (Guinea), but of its manners in a state of nature little is known. It bears our climate better than most of its congeners : we have observed many adults in captivity, and always found them savage and irritable. The term Mone, or Mona, is of Arabic origin, and is the Moorish THE DIANA AND GREEN MONKEYS. 43 name for all long-tailed Monkeys indiscriminately, From Northern Africa the term passed into Spain, Portugal, and Provence ; nor has it stopped here : it is evidently the root of our word Monkey, which has exactly the same meaning, but wliicli has been supposed to be a corruption of the word monikin, or inauakin. To say no more, it seems going out of the way to seek in our own language for the Fig. loo. — Mona. name of a foreign animal, with which our Saxon forefathers, and indeed ourselves, till at a comparatively late era, were unacquainted, and which, when imported, was so with the name also, by which it was known to the people from whom it was originally obtained. The Diana Monkey {Ccrcopithecus Diana). Le Rohzvay ott Palati)ie of Buffon ; the Palatine and Spotted Monkey of Pennant and Shaw. — The top of the head, the back of the neck, the shoulders, sides, and middle of the body are of a deep grizzled ashy grey ; the hairs being annulated with white and black, and white at the lips. This grey tint darkens into black on the hands ; the tail is grey, be- coming black at the extremity ; a crescent-shaped line of long white hairs (surmounting a band of dusky black), and resembling Dian's silver bow, has suggested the animal's name. The sides of the face are covered with long, bushy, white hairs, which merge on the chin into a long, thin, flat, and pointed beard. The front of the neck and the anterior part of the humerus are white ; the latter with an abrupt line of dcmarkation. (See Fig. loi.) Fig. loi. — Diana Monkeys. On the middle of the back commences a mark of deep chestnut, which gradually widens as it descends to the root of the tail, forming an elongated triangle with the base on the crupper. A line of white, beginning at the root of the tail, runs obliquely along the outer side of each thigh to the knee ; the lower part of the abdomen and the inner side of the thighs are abruptly of an orange-yellow, orange-red, or bright rust colour. The face is long and triangular, and, together with the ears, intensely black. Length of head and body about 2 feet; of tail, about 2 feet 4 inches. This richly-coloured Monkey is a native of Guinea, Congo, and Fernando Po. It is very rarely brought alive to Europe ; nor indeed are its skins common in collec- tions. We have observed only one specimen in the Paris Museum, from the Gold Coast. Three specimens were in the collection of the Zoological Society, London. Of these, one died some years since in the menagerie of the Society : the other two were brought from Fer- nando Po. Of the habits of the Diana in its own forests we know nothing. While young, in captivity it is gentle, active, familiar, and very playful : its frontal crest, and "beard of formal cut," give a singular aspect to its physiognomy. The latter it has been observed to be solicitous in keeping neat and clean, holding it back when about to drink, lest it should dip into the ffdid. Considering the range of country through which this species is spread, the scarcity of this Monkey in the menageries and collections of Europe is rather surprising. The Green Monkey {Cercopithecns sabrntis, or Ccrco. calli- frichtis). The St. Jago Monkey of Edwards; Le Callitriche of Buffon ; Cere, viridis of Hermann. — The general colour of the upper parts is olive-green, the hairs being annulated with black and yellow ; on the outer side of the limbs a greyish tint prevails ; the hands and feet are grey ; the under surface of the body and inside of the limbs are white, with a faint tinge of yellow. The hairs on the side of the face are full and long, and directed up towards the ears, spreading Fig. 102. — Green Monkey. in the manner of a frill; their colour, with that of the hairs of the throat, is bright but delicate yellow. The tail is olive-green above, passing into yellow at the tip ; the face, ears, and palms are black. (See Fig. 102.) The Green Monkey is a native of Senegal and the Cape de Verd Islands. It is most probable that this is the species to which Adan- son refers, under the name of Singe verte, as being abundant in the woods of Podor, along the Niger; and of which he killed twenty- three in less than an hour, and in the space of twenty fathoms, without one of them having uttered a single cry, although they collected several times, knitting their brows, gnashing their teeth, and making demonstrations of an intended attack. (" Voy. au Senegal," by M. Adanson, 1757.) In captivity the Green Monkey is alert, active, and intelligent, but spiteful and malicious. F. Cuvier, however, describes an adult which was good-tempered, gentle, and familiar, and expressed pleasure on being caressed : such exceptions are rare. Fig. 103. — The Lesser \Yliite-nosed Monkey. The Lesser White-nosed Monkey {^Cercopithecus petau- rista). Blanc-ncz of AUamand ; Ascagiie of F. Cuvier and Audebert. 44 THE MANGABEY AND THE MACAQUES. There are two distinct species of White-nosed Monkey, both natives of the forests of Guinea ; of these, one is the Hochcur of Audebert, the Winking Monkey of Pennant, the Cercopithcais nictitans of Geoffrey. "The general colour of the Hocheur is black, freckled with white ; the limbs are black ; the whiskers, of the general colour, are ample ; the chin is beardless ; the nose, which is broad and elevated, is white from between the eyes to the nostrils The Lesser White-nosed Monkey, or ^/a;/c-««(see Fig. 103), has only the lower half of the nose white, but this colour extends to the adjacent part of the upper lip ; the face is covered with short black hairs, those on the cheek-bone having a fulvous tinge ; the whiskers and beard are white, as also the throat, chest, and abdomen. A streak of black hair runs from the face below the ear, and loses itself on the top of the shoulder ; and between this black line and the hairs of the head, a conspicuous streak of white runs below the ears. The general colour of the back and head is reddish olive-brown ; the hairs being ranged with fulvous and black. A band across the forehead above the eyes, and a band traversing the top of the head from ear to ear, are black ; a grey tint prevails on the limbs, deepen- ing to dusky black on the hands and feet. Tail dusky grey above, white beneath. Length of head and body, about i foot 4 or 5 inches ; of the tail, i foot 9 or 10 inches. This species is common in Guinea, and is frequently brought to Europe, but does not well endure our uncongenial climate. It is gentle, graceful, and intelligent, but not without a mi.xture of the caprice and petulance of its race. The lightness and agility of its actions, its playfulness, and beauty, certainly render it very attrac- tive ; but it dislikes to be taken hold of or interfered with : so that though as docile as most Monkeys, it becomes familiar only to a certain extent. A Bla7ic-nez in the possession of AUarnand, though usually good-tempered and sportive, became angry if inter- rupted while feeding, and also when mockery was made of it. We have observed a sensitiveness to ridicule or mockery in other species, and a strong desire to resent the insult, which is evidently felt. The Mangabey, or Collared White -eyelid Monkey [/Sthiops torquatus). Cercoccbiis ^thiops, Geoff. ; Cercopithectis ^thiops, Kuhl. — In Martin's " Natural History of Quadrupeds," a sub-genus termed .iEthiops is there proposed for two, if not three Fig. 104. — The Collared White-eyelid Monkey. closely-allied species (the White-eyelid Monkeys), which differ on tangible grounds from th&Cercopztkeci — namely, in the presence of a fifth tubercle on the lower jaw ; the magnitude of thg upper middle incisors ; and the hairs being destitute of annulations. For these Monkeys, with other Guenons by no means closely allied to them, Geoffrey proposed his genus Cercocebus — a genus, the indeterminate characters of which, from the incongruity of the species thus brought together, was perceived by Desmarest, who, unwilling to sink it, endeavoured to reform it by the removal of some species and the addition of others : so that the genus as instituted by the one natu- ralist, and that remodelled by the other, were two different assem- blages ; and the characters of both equally vague and indefinite. It therefore seems best to sink the genus altogether, and place the White-eyelid Monkeys in a separate sub-genus, to which the title jEthiops has been already applied. (See Fig. 104.) The Collared ^Vhite-eyelid Monkey (the Mangabey a Collier of Buffon and F. Cuvier), like the Sooty White-eyelid Monkey, is a native of Western Africa. The general colour is fuliginous or sooty black, passing into black on the limbs and hands. The top of the head is chestnut-coloured ; the whiskers, throat, and collar round the neck are white. The upper eyelids are conspicuously dead-white. The native habits of this Monkey are not known : in captivity it is gentle, active, and familiar, and testifies, by a sort of jabber and grin, its recognition of those for whom it has a partiality. We have ob- served many individuals, and have found them to be among the most diverting of their race. They would play a number of amusing tricks in order to attract the attention of bystanders, and gain a share of the nuts and biscuits they saw dealt out to their companions ; and they testified their gratitude by a quick vibratory movement of the lips, producing a jabbering noise. When offended, their ill- temper was transient, and they soon became reconciled to the object of their anger. In their gambols with other Monkeys they were invariably good-natured. The Mangabey unites the Ccrcopithcci and the Macaci, next to be described. The Monkeys— Genus Macacus — or Macaques. The distinctions between the genus Macacus and Cercopifhccus, though in some points definite, are in others rather variations in degree than anything positive. In the Macaques, or Macaci, the body is stouter, the head larger in proportion, the limbs more muscular, and the tail shorter than in the Guenons. The muzzle is heavy ; the forehead is flattened behind a bold superciliary ridge ; the callosities are large, and mostly surrounded by a naked space of skin. There are ample cheek-pouches, and Cuvier states that a laryngal sac is always present. The last molar of the lower jaw has a fifth tubercle, and the molars are broad (see Fig. 105). The tail is Fig. 105. — Teeth of Macicus. variable : in some it is of considerable length, and in these the general form approaches to that of the Guenons. In others again it is short and slender ; and in others it is reduced to a mere tubercle. The ears are angular. The Macaques are all natives of Asia. Like the Guenons, which they seem to represent, the long-tailed species tenant the forest in troops, and are remarkable for activity and im- pudence. Emboldened by tolerance, they become in many places very audacious, pillaging the garden and fields of grain, and their rapacity is seconded by address and cunning. The Toque, or Radiated Macaque {Macacus radiatus). — This species is the Bontiei Chinois of Buffon ; the Simia Sinica of Gmelim ; tlie Toque of F. Cuvier. The forehead is abruptly depressed behind the superciliary ridge, which is very bold ; the skin of the forehead is transversely wrinkled, and covered with short hairs, diverging laterally on each side from the middle longitudinal line. These hairs are continued round the temples, following the projection of the superciliary ridge, and occu- pying the space before the ears. A circular cap of rather long hair, THE TOQUE, SHUNDER, WANDEROO, AND MAG02. 45 radiating from the centre, is seated flat on the crown. The muzzle is prominent, and the physiognomy malicious ; the form is robust ; the tail generally long. The general colour is greenish olive-grey, the hairs being annulated (or ring-formed) with dusky-black and pale yellow • the under surface is ashy-white ; the ears are large and flesh- coloured, with straggling long grey hairs. The limbs are of a paler tint than the back. The sides of the face and throat are thinly clad with greyish hairs ; the naked skin of the face is of a tanned flesh- colour. ^ , „ The Toque is one of the commonest of the Macaques in our mena- Fig. io6. — Toque. g'eries, and appears to be widely disrtibuted throughout India. It is found in Malabar. It inhabits the Western Ghauts, where it is called Waanur by the Mahrattas : it is abundant in Madras, and even in the southern regions of Nepal. In the Mahratta country, portions of the mighty forest are, as Mr. Elliot states, left untouched by the axe or knife, forming an impervious shade for the growth of the black pepper, cardamom, and maripalm {Caryota urens). These parts, called kans, are the favourite resort of wild animals : here the Entellus abounds, and its loud and piercing cries may be frequently heard sounding through the dense foliage : the Radiated Macaque, also, which is common over the whole country, may be seen in troops, tenanting the wildest jungles. It is not, however, confined to these woodland recesses : it lives, as if at home, in the most popular towns, where it carries off fruit and grain with the greatest coolness and address, and commits incessant petty depreda- tions. The e.xamplesof this species which we have seen in captivity, have been all remarkable for intelligence and activity, and equally so for petulance when young, and irascibility — even ferocity — when adult. We have seen them display every mark of rage against persons who did not appear to give any definite offence. Numbers of these animals are kept in the Hindoo temples, where they are exceedingly jealous of intruders of any other species, which they drive forth from their asylum with the utmost hostility — a circum- stance witnessed by M. de Maisonpre in the enclosures of the pago- das of Cherinan. The Bhunder, Rhesus, or Patas (Macacus Rhesus). This is Fig. 107. — Bhunder. the Patas a queue courte of Buffon ; the Maiinon, or Rhesus, of F. Cuvier. (See Fig. 107.) The general colour of the fur is olive-green, with a wash of brown on the back ; the crupper and thighs, externally, orange-red ; the face orange-red. The tail short. The skin of the throat and abdomen is loose, and usually hangs in folds. The Bhunder is a native of India, and is very abundant on the banks of the Ganges, being greatly reverenced by the Hindoos. It swarms not only in the woods, but in towns and villages, tenanting the tops of the houses. It would appear, from the account of Mr. Johnson, in his " Indian Field Sports," that in some places ample provision is made for the support of these animals. At Bindrabun, a town near the holy city of Muttra, more than a hundred gardens arc cultivated, and all kinds of fruits grown, at the expense of pious and wcaltliy natives, for their supply. Not content with remaining outside the houses, they boldly invade the rooms, and steal everything that tempts them, such as bread, sugar, fruit, &c., ransacking every place in their search. To injure one is not only to bring down the vengeance of the whole host, but, what is more, of the besotted natives, as was experienced by two young officers who imprudently fired, while on a sporting excursion, at one of these Monkeys. They were mounted on an Elephant, and no sooner was the profane assualt committed, than the inhabitants of Bindrabun rose incensed to the highest degree : they pelted the gentlemen and the Elephant w-ith bricks and stones, and drove them into the river : the two officers and the driver were drowned ; but the Elephant landed about six miles lower down the river, and was saved. In the district of Cooch Bahar, a large tract of country is considered by the natives as in part the property of these Monkeys ; and therefore, when they cut the grain, they leave a tenth part piled in heaps for these creatures, which come down from the hills and carry off their allotted tithes. In captivity, the Rhesus, or Bhunder, displays cunning and sagacity ; but is at the same time obstinate, savage, and irascible. The Wanderoo ('Macacus stlenusj. Ouanderou and Lowando, Buffon ; Lion-tailed Baboon, Pennant and Shaw. (See Fig. 108.) The general colour of this species is black ; the tail is of moderate Fig. loS. — Wanderoo. length, and tufted at the tip ; the face is encircled by a mane of long hairs of a whitish or light ash colour, sometimes pure white ; the face is black ; the callosities flesh-coloured. This large and powerful Macaque is a native of Malabar and Ceylon. Knox, in his historical relation of Ceylon, evidently describes this animal. They are, he says, " as large as our Englisli Spaniel Dogs, of a darkish-grey colour, with black faces, and great white beards from ear to ear, which make them show just like old men. They do but little mischief, keeping in the woods, eating only leaves and buds of trees ; but when they are caught they will eat anything. This sort they call, in their language, Wanderows. In captivity, the Wanderoo is surly and unsocial, and disposed to tyrannise over the other inmates of its compartment. The Magot (Macacus i>iuusj.—T\\\?. Monkey, also called the Barbary Ape, is the only species of Monkey found in Europe, and is confined to the Rock of Gibraltar. It is nearly allied to the 46 THE BABOONS— THE CHACMA AND MANDRILL. Baboons, or Cynocephali, which will be next described. The Magot measures from two to two and a-half feet in length, and has decidedly the appearance of a Dog ; but it has no tail, or rather only one of an entirely rudimentary kind. Naturalists arc sorely puzzled to account for the presence of this Monkey in Gibraltar ; and no satisfactory reason for it has yet been given. The Monkeys— Genus CynoceJ>halus—'Q\'ROOT ^■w it ■■-■ N the last three chapters we have dealt with the Monkeys of the Old World, which are grouped under the title of Catar- rJtiiics, for reasons already explained at p. 23, a7ite. It now remains to consider the Monkeys of the New World (America), which are grouped under the title of f.■^ ^ -■'^■-itAji - ---- .^ Plafyrrhinie, and so called for reasons tt®7r - : ■» >;- p'*--~\;^^ explained at the page above alluded to. - '^ •*-■■ ' ^-"^ They are divided into two great families — namely, the Cebida Monkeys, and HapalidcE, or Marmozets (Cebidaj. The American Monkeys differ from the Monkeys of the Old World in the following particulars. The thumb of the fore-hands is never opposable to the fingers. Callosities are always want- ing. Cheek-pouches always wanting. Nostrils lateral, with elevated margins, and separated from each other by a wide septum. Tail often prehensile, never wanting or rudimentary. Professor Owen remarks, that regarding dentition in the South American Quadrumana, the number of teeth is increased to thirty-six, by an addition of one tooth to the molar series on each side of both jaws. It might be concluded, a priori, that as three is the typical number of true molars in the placental Mammalia with two sets of teeth, the additional tooth in the Cebincs would be a pre- molar, and form one step to the resumption of the normal number (four) of that kind of teeth. The proof of the accuracy of this infer- ence is given by the state of the dentition in any young Spider Monkey P^/t'/fj-^, or Capucin Monkey ^Ct'i^zcj^, which may corres- pond with that of the human child; i.e., where the whole of the deciduous dentition is retained, together with the first true molar on each side of both jaws. If the germs of the other teeth of the permanent series be exposed in the upper jaw, the crown of the premolar will be found above the third molar in place, as well as above the second and first. As regards number, therefore, the molar series, in the South American Monkeys {Mycctes, Aieies, Cebiis), is intermediate between that of the genus Mustela and of Felis ; the little premolar in iliistela shows plainly enough which of the four is wanting to complete the typical number in the South American Monkey, and which is the additional premolar distinguish- ing its dental formula from that of the Old World Monkeys and man. Zoologists have rightly stated, as a matter of fact, that the little Marmozet Monkeys [Hajia/c, Ouistiti), HapalidcB, " have only the same number of teeth as the Monkeys of the Old World — viz., 32, But the difference is much greater than 4 i-i 5-5 this numerical conformity would intimate. In a young JaccJuis ■penicillatus, I find that there are three deciduous molars displaced by three premolars, as in the other South American Quadrumana, and that it is the last true molar, the development of which is suppressed, not the premolar ; and thus these diminutive Squirrel- like Monkeys actually differ from the Old World forms more than the CebidcB do ; i. e., they differ not only in having four teeth (j5 2^77), which the Monkeys of the Old World do not possess, but also by wanting four teeth [m 3 _ ), which those Monkeys, as ^vell as the Cebidce, actually have. It is thus that the investigation of the exact homologies of parts, leads to a recognition of the true characters, indicative of zoological affinity." (Owen.) The Cebidce are exclusively confined to the warmer regions of the New World; so that, although the species are numerous, their extent of territory is far more limited than that occupied by the Old World Monkeys. Their northward range is bounded (in the tenth or eleventh degree of latitude) by the Caribbean Sea ; for they occur neither in the Caribbean group of islands, nor in Hayti, Cuba, or the Bahamas. Though found in the region south of the territory of Panama, they do not advance to Yutacan or Mexico. South of the line their range extends to the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth degree of latitude, including Brazil, Peru (east of the great chain of the Andes), and Paraguay. All are arboreal, frequenting the dense forests, which, as Humboldt observes, are so thick and uninterrupted on the plains of South America between the Orinoko and the Amazon, that, were it not for intervening rivers, the Monkeys, almost the only inhabitants of these regions, might pass along the tops of the trees for several hundred miles together without touching the earth. In South America, Monkeys are ordinarily killed as game by the natives for the sake of their flesh ; but the appearance of these animals is so revolting to Europeans, that it is only from necessity, and after custom has familiarised the sight, that they can force themselves to partake of such fare. The manner in which these animals are roasted also contributes to render their appearance dis- gusting. " A little grating or lattice of very hard wood is formed, and raised a foot from the ground. The Alonkey is skinned and bent into a sitting posture, the head generally resting on the arms, which are meagre and long ; but sometimes these are crossed be- hind the back. When it is tied on the grating, a very clear fire is kindled below ; the Monkey, enveloped in smoke and flame, is broiled and blackened at the same time. Roasted Monkeys, par- ticularly those that have a round head, display a hideous resem- blance to a child ; the Europeans, therefore, who are obliged to feed on them, prefer separating tlie head and hands, and serve only the rest of the animal at their table. The flesh of Monkeys is so dry and lean, that M. Bonpland preserved, in his collection at Paris, an arm and hand which had been broiled over the fire at Esmeralda, and no smell arose from them after a number of years." American Monkeys— Genus AidesSvvD^'B. Monkeys. This gQnus, which includes the Spider Monkeys, is characterised thus : — Head round ; face moderately developed ; limbs long and slen- der. Tail longer than the body, thick at the base, strongly prehensile, and naked for a considerable space beneath at its extremity. Fore- hands either destitute of an externally apparent thumb, or with the thumb a mere tubercle. Nostrils separated by a wide septum, and obliquely oval. Ears moderate, naked, with reflected margins. Dentition as already described. Fur long, crisp, or rather harsh, sometimes silky ; prevailing colour black. In the slenderness of the limbs, and in the staid, quiet, and almost melancholy expression of the face, the Spider Monkeys remind us of the Gibbons ; both are timid and gentle, with an air of listlessness, lost only under excitement. From the length of the limbs, and the remarkable flexibility of the joints, the motions of the Spider Monkeys on all-fours on the ground seem to be crawling and indeterminate. They tread on the inner edge of the fore-paws, and to a great degree on the outer edge of the hind- paws, and endeavour to assist themselves by attaching the tail to every object as they proceed. They often, however, assume the erect atti- tude, and walk thus better than any other of the long-tailed Monkeys. When proceeding in this manner the tail is raised up as high as the shoulders, and then bent downwards at its extremity, evidently acting as a balancer while the animal moves steadily along. The ^l ir Iff/ Sf ,r , Fie. iiO. — Profile and Feet of Douroucouli. vtiriquouina, Geoffr. ; Callitlirix iiifiilatiis, Lichtenst. ; Nyc- tipithccus feliiitis, and voci/creus, Spix.— Head round ; muzzle sliort ; eyes larg-e, with circular pupils. General colour, greyish- brown above, pale rufous below ; a whitish triangalar mark over each eye, .bounded by an inter\-ening mark of black ascending from the root of the nose, and another running from the angle of the mouth, passing the outer angle of the eye. (See Figs. 129 and 130.) Tail black at the apex. General form, slender; palms flesh-coloured ; face dusky ; nails black. Length of head and body, thirteen inches ; of the tail, eighteen inches. Native country, Guiana, Bra- zil. According to Humboldt, the Douroucouli inhabits the dense forests of the Cassi- quiare and Esmeralda, at the foot of Mount Duida, and the environs of the cataracts of Majeures, between the 2nd and 5th degrees of N. lat., 300 leagues from the coast of French Guiana. According to Spix, it is found near Para, and in the forests of Taba- tinga, on the confines of Brazil and Peru. The Douroucouli is noctur- nal in its habits, and sleeps during the day. It is greatly incommoded by light, and seeks the holes of trees, or similar places, for conceal- ment. When roused it is dtiU and oppressed, and can scarcely open its large white eyelids. Its attitude during repose is crouching. On the approach of dusk, all the lethargy of the Douroucouli leaves it, and it becomes restless and impetuous, and roams about in quest of insects and small birds. In addition to these, various fruits, seeds, and vegetables constitute its food ; but the quantity of solid aliment it consumes is comparatively little : it drinks even less, and but seldom. It glides, Cat-like, through apertures so narrow as to appear incapable of admitting it, and its actions resemble those of vivirine animals. Its beautiful glossy fur is in great request ; the natives make tobacco-pouches and other articles of it, which they sell. A male and female are often taken together in the same hole asleep ; for the Douroucouli lives not in troops, but in pairs, and is strictly monogamous. The nocturnal cry of this animal is ex- tremely loud and sonorous, and resembles that of the Jaguar : besides this, it utters a mewing noise like that of a Cat, and also a deep, harsh, guttural note, represented by the syllables qiier, quer. When irritated, its throat becomes distended ; and in the posture then assumed, and in the puffed state of the fur, it resembles a Cat attacked by a Dog. In 1833, a young male lived for a short time in the menagerie of the Zool. Soc, London. Its aspect and movements were very Lemurine ; its large eyes, which it opened when the dusk of evening came on, were brilliant, and gave an animated expression to its countenance not exhibited during the day, when it rested crouching on its perch, lethargic and motionless. It lived chiefly upon bread sopped in milk, refusing meat, either dressed or raw. American Monkeys— .az^^/zif^s—MARMOZETs. This is the second of the great divisions or families into which the American Monkeys are divided, already referred to in our intro- ductory remarks on the Monkeys of the Western Hemisphere. (See aute, p. 48.) They are ranged under the genus Hapale. Specimens of the Marmozets, Tamarin, &c., may be seen in the gardens of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park, London ; and several stuffed specimens are contained in the British Museum. Genus Hapalc, Illiger {Jacchus and Midas, Geoff. ; Saguinus, in part, of Lacepede). — The Marmozets, or Ouistitis, as the Monkeys of this genus are termed, are distinguished from the rest of the American groups by some peculiarities m their dentition. Dental formula : — incisors, 4 ; 4 true molars, ? — ^=32. 2 — 2 canines, i; false molars, ^ ■'; (Fig. 131.) Of the incisors of the upper jaw, the two middle are the largest ; those of the lower jaw equal the lower canines in length ; the tubercles of the molars are acute. The muzzle is short ; the nose is salient, with nostrils widely separate ; the limbs are short ; the fingers slender, and all, excepting the hind- thumbs, which are remarkably short, are furnished with sharp, long. compressed, hooked claws, like those of a Squirrel. The fur is full and soft ; the tail longer than the head and body, and generally bushy. General contour, stature, and actions. Squirrel-like. The Marmozets, or Ouistitis (so called from their sharp whistling crj-), are diurnal in their habits ; they arc irritable in tlieir temper, but timid, and by no means remarkable for intelligence. The most prominent feature in their disposition seems to be extreme caution, an instinctive quality necessary to their preservation ; for though nimble and quick, they are subject to the assaults of the smaller beasts of prey, and of Hawks and Snakes. Still they are not cowardly, and will defend themselves with great spirit against the attacks of an enemy far stronger than themselves. Linnffius, in his account of the Common Fig. 131. — Teeth of Marmozet. Marmozet, states that it displays great hatred towards Cats, and attacks them with ferocity — an observation founded most probably on a single example which came under his immediate notice. None of the American Monkeys are more sensitive of cold than the Marmozets, and nature has well provided for their comfort ; not only is the fur deep, soft, and warm, but the long, full tail is twisted, as in the Saimiri, round the body, which, during their noctural repose in some hollow tree, is gathered up into as small a space as possible ; and in this crouching attitude they resemble a ball of fur with a little face projecting from it. These animals are easily rendered tame, and their elegant figure — their soft silky fur coloured with blending tints — their nimbleness and diminutive size, have contributed to render them favourites in their native climate as well as in other parts of the world. From obser- vations made upon the INIarmozets in captivity, it appears that they arc more prolific than other Monkej's, producing two or even three young ones at a birth. In their native regions^viz., the deep forests of Para, Guiana, and Brazil — they associate in small families, and feed upon various fruits and insects, devouring the latter with great eagerness. The Common Wx'va.lozKY: (Hapale Jacchus j. Ouistiti, Buffon ; Sanglin, Edwards ; Jacchus vulgaris, Geoffr. ; Sintia Jacchus, Linn. — Fur long and soft, variegated black, white, and rusty-yellow, the black and white forming alternate undulations. Ears surrounded by a large plume of erect hairs, white, sometimes tipped with dusky black, and sometimes perhaps largely washed with black, if not quite black. Head and throat dusky black : a white frontal mark above the root of the nose. Tail annulated, dusky black and white. Native country, Brazil, Guiana. (See Figs. 132 and 133.) Little has been recorded respecting the natural habits of this beautiful animal, beyond the facts of it congregating in small fami- lies, of being active and shy, and of its subsisting upon insects and eggs, together with fmits, such as bananas and mangoes, of which it is very fond. It is frequently brought to Europe, and has not only lived several years, but produced young in the menageries of France and England. Distrustful, especially towards those whom it is not accustomed to see, it retires from observation, and ou being touched S6 AMERICAN MONKEYS— THE MARMOZETS. utters its peculiar whistling cry, or becomes angiy and resists the unwelcome attempt to court its confidence. When undisturbed it displays much liveliness, and exerts its activity, leaping from perch to perch with Squirrel-like address, and in all its actions justifying the expression of "nimble Marmozct," used by Shakspeare. Extremely sensitive to cold, no little of the Marmozet s time is Fig. 132. — Marmozet. passed in protecting itself against the changes of temperature to which our atmosphere is subject. All the wool, cotton, or other soft materials with which it is furnished, it will carry to some convenient corner of its cage, or to an inner dormitory, and there completely bury itself in the downy mass, from which it will peep out on a person's approach, but from which, unless induced by the offer of tempting food, it can seldom be induced to emerge altogether. When two or three are confined in the same cage, they huddle themselves together, and lie nestled in their bed. The Marmozet eats bread, fruits, and finely-minced meat : it feeds Fig- '33' — Group of Marmozets. in a crouchino- attitude, and usually holds everything between its two fore-paws, the long hooked nails assisting it. Edwards, in his " Gleanings " speaking of one of these animals which came under his own observation, informs us that it fed upon various articles of diet, as biscuits, fruits, pulse, insects, and Snails ; and that, being one day at liberty, it darted upon a small gold-fish which was in a bowl, killed it, and greedily devoured it. After this occurrence, some small Eels were offered to it, which at first frightened it by twisting round its neck ; but it soon overcame and eat tlicm. In the first number of the "Magazine of Natural History," an interesting account is given by Mr. Neill, of the manners of one of these Monkeys, which he purchased at Bahia, the capital of the province of St. Salvador, Brazil. At first, as he states, it displayed great wildness and even fierceness, screeching most vehemently when any one offered to approach it ; and it was a long time before it was so reconciled even to those who fed it, as to allow the slightest liberty in the way of touching or patting its body ; it was impossible to do this by surprise, or by the most stealtliy and cautious approach, as the creature was not still for a moment, but was continually turn- ing its head from side to side, eyeing every person with the most suspicious and angry look ; and its sense of hearing was so exceed- ingly acute, that the slightest noise, or even a whisper, was sure to arouse it. Its diet consisted of fruits, such as bananas, mangoes, and Indian corn ; but when, during the voyage, these failed, it eagerly fell upon the Cockroaches, of which it effectually cleared the vessel. It would frequently eat a score of the larger kind, which are two inches and a-half long, and a great number of the smaller ones, three or four times in the course of the day. It was quite amusing to see the Marmozet at its meal. When it got hold of one of the large Cockroaches, it held the insect in its fore-paws, and then in- variably nipped the head off first ; it then pulled out the viscera and cast them aside, and devoured the rest of the body, rejecting the dry elytra (wing-cases) and wings, and also the legs of the insect, which are covered with short, stiff bristles. The small Cockroaches it ate without such fastidious nicety. In addition to these insects, milk, sugar, raisins, and crumbs of bread were given to it. From London it was conveyed to Edinburgh. There, contrary to the statement of Linnffius, who says that it is an enemy to Cats, it made acquaintance with one, with which it fed and slept, and lived on the best terms imaginable. Though it became gradually tamer, it never lost its original wildness and distrust. The first account of the Marmozet having bred in Europe is given by Edwards (" Gleanings "), who received it from a lady living at Lisbon ; a pair of these animals, during her residence there, having produced young. They were at first ugly, and almost destitute of fur, and clung to the breasts of the mother ; but as they grew larger, they mounted her shoulders and back : when tired with carrying them, she would detach them from her by rubbing them against a wall, or anything in her way : the male would then take charge of them till she was inclined to resume her duties. In the year 1819, three young ones, a male and two females, were produced in the me- nagerie of Paris. Their colour was of a uniform deep grey ; the tail was almost destitute of hair ; and they were born with their eyes open. M. F. Cuvier, in describing their domestic economy, confirms the account given by Edwards ; but con- finement, in this instance, so far destroyed the admirable instinct, common even to the most savage animals, that one of the little ones was killed by its mother before it had an opportunity of asserting the strongest claim to her affec- tion ; and the other two, which she eagerly cherished the mo- ment they commenced deriving theirnutriment from the natural fountain of life, were deserted by both parents when the sup- ply from that source, probably from improper nourishment, ^ prematurely ceased. During the short time they existed, the task of nursing them almost wholly devolved upon the male parent which, at first, most assiduously cherished them, placing them when they claimed his protection, either under him or upon his back, and thus carrying them about. The female avoided, as much as possible, the troublesome charge, receiving them unwil- MADAGASCAR MONKEYS— THE LEMURS. 57 linfjly from her partner; and the moment she had suppUed them with nourishment, again forcing them upon his attention, at the same time uttering a peculiar cry, as if asking him to ease her of a burthen with which she was intolerably fatigued. In 1832, a pair bred in the gardens of the Zoological Society, at the Regent's Park, London, and produced twins, which, however, died; as generally happens to Monkeys bred in England. The Marikina, or Silky Tamarin {Hapale rosalia). Midas rosa/ia, Geoffr.— The Marikina is one of the species of the present group, which M. Geoffrey has separated, upon not very tangible grounds, into a genus termed Midas. Fur long, silky, and of a glossy golden yellow ; hairs of the head long and falling, parted rig. 134. — Marikina. down the middle of the crown by a line of short rust-brown hairs ; ears concealed by the long hair of the head ; tail almost tufted at the ape.x. (See Fig. 134.) This species is subject to considerable varia- tion in the richness of its colouring : we have seen specimens of a straw-yellow, with a silvery lustre. Its native countries arc Guiana and Brazil. Two or three opportunities have been afforded us of observing this beautiful species in captivity. Judging from these individuals, this animal is more confiding and less irritable than the Common Mar- mozet, which, however, it resembles in its actions. When alarmed or angry, it utters a shrill cry, and slightly raises the long hairs around the sides of its face, displaying its teeth, as if threatening to bite. Contrary to Buffon's opinion, who considers it to be more hardy than most of its congeners, it appears to be fully as susceptible of the changes of our climate, and indeed dies immediately if ex- posed to damp or wet. In this opinion Fred. Cuvier fully coincides. These animals, he observes, are natives of Brazil, and from the delicacy of their con- stitution they cannot be kept alive in France without the greatest care to preserve them from the influence of atmospheric changes, and especially from the cold and humidity of the winter season : under the depressing effects of wet and chilly weather, they lose all their sprightliness, droop, and die. Speaking of the individual figured in his splendid work, and which was brought, in 1818, from Brazil to Paris, where it lived for a short time in the menagerie of the Jardin des Plantes, he states that it was very active and lively, and, like a bird, preferred the topmost perches of the cage. On the least alarm it always concealed itself ; and though it appeared gratiiicd with the notice and caresses of those whom it knew, and came to them when called, it never returned any expressions or signs of attachment as other Monkeys do when noticed by persons to whom they are at- tached. It disliked strangers, and retired from them, regarding them with looks of defiance, and menacing with its feeble teeth. Fear or anger it expressed by a short, sharp, whistling cry ; but sometimes, as if from ennui, it raised its voice into a louder or more prolonged note. In these details, the individuals described by Fred. Cuvier re- sembled the specimens which have lived in the vivarium of the Zoo- logical Society, London. The interest which attached to them resulted only from the lustre of their silky fur, and from the elegance of their actions, for it was evident that their intelligence was very circumscribed. That prying curiosity, always amusing, sometimes troublesome, which Monkeys in general exhibit, appeared to form no part of their character ; and the confidence they manifested towards those accustomed to feed them, was unmixed with tokens of attach- ment or gratitude. Still, it is diflficult to form a correct idea of the character of animals from individuals in confinement ; and it cannot be doubted that in its native forests, of which it is one of the orna- ments, the Marikina, like the Squirrel of our woods, displays habits and manners calculated to excite the interest of the observer. Of these, however, nothing is definitely known. According to Prince Maxi- milian, the Marikina is more rarely found in Brazil than in Guiana. CHAPTER VI. QUADRUMANA.— MADAGASCAR MONKEYS, OR LEMURS. (Group or Family, Lemurid.e and Lemuroida.j EMURS, family Lenuiridcs, and genus Lemur, with the Lemuroida, form a third and last group of the Quadrzi>?ta>m. They differ from the Monkeys of both worlds in dental characters, but in quadru- manous structure they approach those of the old, having opposable thumbs on the fore-hands as well as on the hinder pair. - ^s^T^-jt, N, The contour of their body is very |'^~'^^/::^5\^V peculiar : the general form is slender and elongated ; the head is pointed and somewhat Fox-like ; the nostrils have a sinuous open- ing, terminating a sharp, naked, somewhat prominent muzzle ; the eyes are large, and of a nocturnal cha- racter ; the limbs are long, especially the hinder pair, which in some species greatly exceed the anterior ; the fore-hands have a true thumb, but in some species the index-finger is abbreviated ; the thumb of the hinder hands is large and greatly expanded at the tip ; the index-finger of those hinder pair (and in the Tarsier, the next also) is armed with a long, subulate, slightly curved claw ; the other nails are flat ; the fur is full and woolly ; the tail varies, it is never prehen- sile, and is sometimes wanting : habits pre-eminently arboreal. If we compare the skull of the Monkey (Fig. 13 s) with that of the ordinary Lemurs (Fig. 136), we shall observe many distinctions. The volume of the Lemur's skull, taken in relationship to that of the face, is greatly diminished ; no trace of a forehead remains, but the frontal bone falls so com- pletely back behind the de- veloped and projecting facial portion or muzzle, as to pre- sent an almost level surface along the nasal bones to the top of the head. The occi- pital condyles have the same posterior situation as in the Dog, so that the head is suspended from, rather than even partially balanced on, the vertebral column. The orbits are not completely walled within, but open into the temporal foss;c, and have an obliquely lateral aspect ; the nasal bones run the whole length to the tip of the snout, or nearly so ; the lower jaw is long and narrow, and consists of two rami, perfectly separate at the chin. Here, indeed, we first meet with the symphysis of the Fig. 135.— Skull of the Monkey. 58 AfADAGASCAR MONKEYS— THE LEMURS. lower jaw unobliterated, even in the most advanced period of life. In man and the Monkeys this suture is not apparent, even in the youngest subjects ; but in the lower Mammalia, excepting in the Pachydermaia, as a general rule, it is always present. 136. — Skull of Lemur. The teeth are as follows : — Four small incisors above in pairs, with an intermediate space between them for the reception of the points of the lower incisors and lower canine teeth. The lower incisors (in the true Lemurs) are four in number, but they are accom- panied by the lower canines, which, except that they are stronger and larger, resemble the incisors in form and direction. They are long, pointed, compressed, in close contact with each other, and direct obliquely forwards. The canines of the upper jaw are com- pressed, pointed, and sharp on their posterior edge. The molars are crowned with sharp angular tubercles. Dental formula of the genus Zez^z^r (Figs. 136, 137): — Incisors, - ; i-i 6-6 ^ canines, y^ ; molars, g^Tg" The first false molar below is stout, and resembles a canine, whence has arisen the idea that it is so really, and that the lower incisors were 6 instead of 4. rig- 137.— Teeth of the Lemur. Professor Owen remarks, that most of the Lemurina have t fr^' "^^^> together with remarkable modifications of their incisive and canine teeth, of which an extreme example is shown in the pectinated tooth of the Galeo;pithecus. The inferior incisors slope forw^ards in all, and the canines also, which are contiguous to them, and very similar in shape. Genus Zi?«2«;-.— Head long, muzzle pointed, eyes moderate and oblique ; ears short and hairy ; tail long and bushy ; mammffi two, pectoral. Most are natives of Madagascar : arboreal, nocturnal. Their movements are light, sweeping, elegant, and precise. Their usual voice is a low inward grunt, but they often break forth into an abrupt hoarse roar, producing a startling effect. The term Lemur (from the Latin Leinurcs, Ghosts) was first adopted by Linnseus in allusion to the nocturnal habits and stilly sweeping movements of these singular animals. The following remarks, extracted from the " Circle of the Sciences," in the section of Zoology, contributed to that work by Mr. W. S. Dallas, F.L. S., Sic, are of considerable interest and value, as showing the connection of the Lemurs with the Chiro^tera and I?isecirjora, which we shall deal with in the next chapters. Mr. Dallas also gives his own views as to the classification of the Lemurs, which differ somewhat from that we have adopted, but in no material degree. In fact, so many opinions have been held in regard to the classification of each family of the Quadrumana, that the most proficient naturalist has to "feel his way" to the truth. Mr. Dallas remarks, in regard to the GaIeo;pithectd(r, or Flying Lemurs, that they evidently connect the Qicadru}nana with the Chirojitera (Bats, &c., which will become the subject of description in our next chapter), and which have indeed been placed in the latter order by many zoologists. They certainly differ in many im- portant particulars from the Quadnimatia, more especially in the total want of opposable thumbs on all the feet, which are composed of five fingers, arranged in a single line, and united together by a small membrane. These fingers are, however, adapted for climbing, and are not, as in the Bats, prolonged to furnish support to broad membranous wings, although the animals are furnished with a very broad fold of skin, which extends from the sides of the neck to the wrists, from these to the base of the feet, and is even continued between the hind-legs so as to involve the tail, in the same way as in many of the true Chiroptera. It is evident that this membrane, which is entirely clothed with hair, is to be regarded like the similar provision of the Flying Squirrels and Phalangers, merely as a sort of parachute, by means of which its possessor is enabled to perform leaps of amazing extent, although it must be confessed that, in its general arrangement, leaving the structure of the hands out of the question, it presents a wonderful similarity to the wing of a Bat. In other respects, the Galeoj>ithecidcB exhibit, in a remarkable manner, characters intermediate between those of the Lemurs and the true Chiroptera. The form of the head is the same as in the former group ; but the orbits are incomplete, as in the Bats. The dentition resembles that of the Lemurs, but presents some curious characters. The incisors are four in the upper, and six in the lower jaw ; the former are placed quite at the sides of the jaw, so as to leave a wide vacant space in front ; and the second, or hindermost incisor, is inserted by two roots, which give it the appearance of a false molar ; and that is also the case with the following tooth, which may be regarded as the representative of the canine. The lower incisors project in front of the jaw, and the four intermediate exhibit a singular structure, being very broad, flat, and deeply notched or cleft into teeth something like those of a comb. The GaleopitliecidiB differ from the other Qjcadrmnana in the possession of two pairs of pectoral mammae. These singular animals are all inhabit- ants of the Indian islands, where they live in the forests, and pass the days sus- pended by their hind-legs, like the true Bats, from the branches of trees. The night is their period of activity, and they then climb about the trees with great ease, and glide from one to another by the aid of their broad lateral membranes. In this way it is said they will pass over a space of more than a hundred yards. They appear to feed upon almost any- thing, but principally fruits, insects, small birds, and their eggs. The best known species {Galeopithe- cits "joUta7is, Fig. 138) is found in Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. It measures about twenty inches in length. (It will be fur- ther described in this chapter.) Another section of this order also includes one family — that of the Chiromyda — which, as far as we at present know, has only a single representative, the C/iiro/nys Madagascariensis, or Aye- Aye, which presents characters of as problematical a nature as those of the preceding family. The Chiromys, in fact, appears to form the con- necting link between the Quadnanana and the Rodents ; and it has been placed by different zoologists in both these orders. (A full description of this animal will be found at a future page, with an illustration.) In its form, this remarkable animal presents a close resemblance to a Squirrel ; and, when first discovered, it was supposed to be a species of the old genus Sciurus, Its dentition also is almost iden- Fig. 138.— Flying Lemur (Galcopitliecus volitans). MADAGASCAR MONKEYS— THE LEMURS. 59 tical with that of a Rodent animal, consisting of a pair of powerful incisor teeth in each jaw, separated from the molars by a wide empty space ; the canines are entirely deficient. The skull, how- ever, is distinguishable from that of a Rodent from its having the orbits encircled by a complete bony ring. The structure of the feet is also different ; the anterior members have five very long, slender fingers, armed with claws : and the thumb, although not exactly in the same line with the other fingers, is scarcely opposable ; but the posterior members arc furnished with complete hands, of which the thumb has a flat nail, and the first finger a subulate claw, like that of the true Lemurs. The body of this animal is clothed with longish, smooth hairs, with an under-coat of a woolly nature. The tail is long and bushy, and the ears large and naked. The mamma; are situated on the groin. In a third group, which includes two families, and to which the name oi Prosimicc has been given, we find the thumbs of the hind- feet always opposable, and the first finger furnished with a claw, even when the others bear nails. The teeth are of three kinds, and never show any resemblance to those of the Rodenfia ; the nose is usually slender and pointed, and the tail long and bushy. These animals appear to lead from the typical Qiiadrumana to the Insec- tivora. We have selected the following members of the Lcmuridcc, Lemitrince, or Lcmnroida for illustration, commencing with — The Ruffled Lemur {Lonur Macaco). Le Vari, Buffon. — This is one of the largest and most beautiful of the genus, exceeding a Cat in size. Its fur is of admirable texture, being full, fine, and silky; the tail is long and bush}'. The general ground is pure white, on which large black patches are tastefully arranged ; the tail is black ; a full ruff of longer hairs than those of the body surrounds the face — whence its English appellation. (See Fig. 139.) Of the native habits of this and the other Lemurs in the deep forests of Madagascar, little is known : they avoid the presence of man ; and though harmless, will defend themselves with great resolution, inflicting severe wounds with their sharp ca- nines. They associate together in troops, and after sunset their hoarse loud roar may be heard in dissonant chorus, resounding among the recesses of the wood- land wilderness. The roar of the Ruffed Lemur is peculiarly deep and sonorous. During the day the Lemurs sleep in their re- treats. Fruits, insects, reptiles, small birds, and eggs constitute their food. When taken young, these ani- mals soon become familiar, and are fond of being noticed and caressed, exhibiting considerable attachment to those who attend them ; but they will bite severely persons who have irritated them. In captivity, with due care, they bear our climate well, though they are impatient of cold, as might be inferred from their soft thick fur. They are fond of sit- ting perched on the fender before a fire ; and in this situation they will spread their hands, half close their eyes, and testify un- equivocal satisfaction. During the day they sleep in a ball-like figure on their perch ; and if t\j;o be in a cage together, they sit close to one another with their tails wrapped, boa-like, round each other's body, so as to make one round ball, from which, on being disturbed, two heads sud- denly make their appearance. Though less intelligent than Monkeys in general, they are more gentle and confiding: they will put their heads to the bars of" their cage, to have them scratched and rubbed, and by their actions invite notice. They have little of the prying, mischievous, petulant disposition of Monkeys, so that with due precaution they may be trusted in a room at liberty. When presented with food, they usually take it in their hands ; but we have seen them feed upon soft bread without holding it. They lap fluid like a Dog. They bound and leap with the most astonishing agility, gracefulness, and address ; and when in motion the tail is elevated in a sigmoid (like the capital letter S in the Greek language) form, and not trailed after them. Strong light greatly incommodes them ; their ej'cs gleam at night ; and the pupil is transverse, dilating with the advance of evening dimness. The White-fronted Lemur {Lemur, or Prosimia albifrons). —Fur ruddy or bronzed-grey above : male with the forehead and Fig. 140. — White-fronted Lemur. sides of the face white ; female with the same part of a deep grey. The female and the Lemur A!ijua7iensis (Maki d'Angouan) are distinct, contrary to the opinion of Lesson. (See Fig. 140.) The White-fronted Lemur is gentle, affectionate, and lively : it Fig- 139.— Ruffed Lemur. leaps with great agility, and after a spring of many yards, pitches so lightly on fts fingers as hardly to attract the notice of the ear. Its nfanners are the same as those of its race in general. ,, , . The Flocky or Woolly Lemur {Indrts laniger). Maki a Bourre of Sonnerat ; Lemur lanigcr, Lichanotus la>2iger, Indris /a«7>(:;-.— This speices, which was first described and figured by Sonnerat, as the Maki A Bourre, has been, wc know not why regarded as a species of Indris (Z?io^s, Loris, or Nycikchus. This ?enus properly belongs to the Lemuroids. or Lemur-like l\Ionkeys The dentition is the san^e as m the Lemur, but the tubercles on the crowns of the molars are more acute The animals of this 4oup are termed Loris, or Slow Lemurs. They are charac- °er sed by the head beins? round, the muzzle short and acutely pointed; the eyes large, full, bright, and approximating to each o°her; the ears short, round, open, and almost buned m the fur ; the tai completely rudimentary, and the limbs slender. Two species are known, both natives of India and its islands, especially Ceylon, Tava, Sumatra, &c. , ,. , , a ^ These animals have been long celebrated for the slowness and caution of their movements, to which may be added a remarkable tenacity of grasp, in conjunction with the power in the limbs ot exerting a long continuance of muscular contraction. In the arteries both of the anterior and posterior extremities there is a peculiarity first detected by Sir A. Carlisle, and met with in the limbs of the Sloth and a few other instances. No sooner has the mam artery, a single tube reached the commencement of the limbs, but it assumes another character : instead of continuing its course as a simple tube, g'vmg off branches as it proceeds (the usual mode), it becomes suddenly subdivided into a congeries of small tubes intertwined together, and communicating with each other freely, thus forming an elongated plexus, which may act as a sort of reservoir, and carry onwards a large volume of blood. The relation of this plexus to the bulk of the limb it supplies with blood is greater, in point of volume, than that ol the simple artery in ordinary animals. ,, ,. , , ,. , v The Slow-paced Loris [Stenope, or Nycticebus tardigradus). —Fur soft, and full ; colour brownish-grey, a deep chestnut stripe passing down the middle of the back ; this stripe, continued on to Fig. 144. — Slow-paced Loris. the head, gives off a branch which encloses each ear, and another which encircles each eye, and extends to the angles of the mouth ; figure short, hind-limbs longer than the fore-limbs. Eyes, large, nocturnal, with transverse pupils ; muzzle short and pointed. Length, twelve or thirteen inches. (See Fig. 144.) The Slender Loris (Loris, or Stenops gracilis). — IMuzzle pro- duced, slender, acute; figure slight; limbs very long, thin, and meagre. General colour rufous-grey ; the under parts whitish ; space round the eyes dusky ; fur soft ; a whitish or white frontal spot points to the interval between the eyes. Length of head and body, nine inches. These two singular animals are eminently nocturnal and arboreal : they sleep during the day on their perch, in a crouching attitude, ■with the body drawn together, and the head doubled down upon the chest. At night they prowl among the forest boughs in search of food ; their large glaring eyes now glow with peculiar lustre ; not an insect, not a bird escapes their scrutiny : they mark their victim ; stilly, and imperceptibly as the minute-finger traverses the dial-plate, do they advance upon their prey ; and not less surely does the minute-finger attain a given mark than they their prey : when it is once within range of their grasp, they seize it by a rapid instantane- ous action. Besides birds, insects, and eggs, fruits also form part of their diet. Of all the LemuridcB which we have seen alive, none appear to be so susceptible of cold, or so incommoded by daylight, nor are any so apparently dull and inanimate from morning till evening. They appear as if in a state of continual torpor ; yet if exposed to the in- fluence of warmth, they will rouse up, not only on the approach of twilight, but even during the hours of day, if shielded from the glare of the sun. When fairly awake, and comfortably warm, they delight to clean and lick their full soft fur, and will allow themselves to be caressed by those accustomed to feed them. Mr. Baird, in an interesting paper in the " Magazine of Nat. Hist." vol. i., 1829, remarks, that all the known Mammalia close their eyelids in a direction upwards and downwards ; and, in general, the upper eyelid is the one possessing the greatest degree of motion. He found, however, that in his Slow-paced Lemur the eyelids were brought together in a diagonal direction, or outwards and inwards. Fig. 145. — Slender Loris. which gave the animal, at the moment of shutting its eyes, a most peculiar look. It was the under or outer eyelid that had the greatest degree of motion, the upper or inner one being almost fixed ; and he concludes that the orbicularis ociili must be very powerful. After the death of the animal, and when Mr. Baird had left this country on a second voyage to India, the eye was dissected by Dr. Knox, who found that the movement of the eyelids aBove described did not depend on any peculiar structure, but merely on the greater degree of strength of the orbicularis muscle. Mr. Baird also observed another peculiarity in the species. " Be- neath the tongue proper," says he, " if I may so call it, which is somewhat like that of the Cat, though not rough, is another tongue, white-coloured, narrow, and very sharp-pointed, which he projects along with the other one when he eats or drinks, though he has the power of retaining it within his mouth at pleasure." Mr. Baird, however, had not been able to see any particular purpose to which he applied it ; but he saw him use this double tongue when eating flies, of which he was exceedingly fond, snapping them up most eagerly when presented to him, and catching them himself when they were reposing in the evening upon the walls of the room. Pennant, Vosmaer, Sir W. Jones, Mr. Baird, M. d'Obsonville, and others have published detailed observations made upon Loris in captivity, and their accounts coincide with the facts which have come under our own notice. Vosmaiir's specimen (5. tardigradus) ate fruits, such as pears and cherries, with relish ; and also dry bread and biscuit ; but if dipped in water, would touch neither. When offered water, it smelt it, but drank not. Eggs were favourite diet. " II aimait a la fureur les ceufs," are the 'words of Vosmaer, who, concluding from its appetite for eggs that it would eat birds, gave it a live Sparrow, which it instantly killed with a bite, and ate the whole very greedily. He gave it a live Cockchafer, to try whether it would eat insects : it took the offering in its paw, and devoured it completely. VosmaCr afterwards gave it a Chaffinch (pin(;on) which it ate with much relish, and afterwards slept for the remainder of the day. He often saw it still awake at two hours past midnight ; but from half-past six in the morning its sleep was so sound, that its cage might be cleaned without disturbance to its repose. If forcibly awakened during the day in order to teaze it, it was vexed, and bit the stick ; but with a very slow motion, repeating the cry, Ai, ai, ai, drawing out the ai each time in a plaintive, languid, and trembling note, in the same manner as is reported of the American Sloths. When it was thus harassed for a long time, and thoroughly roused, it crawled two or three times round its cage, and then slept again. Mr. Baird imornis us that he obtained his specimen at Pulo-Penang (Prince of Wales Island) ; and at the time he wrote, it had been nearly ten months in his possession. Its food consisted of fruit and small animals, such as birds and mice. The plantain was the fruit of which it was tond, and was the only food Mr. Baird saw it eat when he first got it into his possession. The necks of fresh-killed fowls formed the major part of its sustenance during the voyage. It was particularly fond of small birds : these, when put into the cage, it killed speedily, and 63 ASIATIC AND AFRICAN LEMUROIDS. stripping off the feathers, soon devoured them, eating the bones as well as the flesh. Veal was preferred to all other butcher's meat, and it was fond of eggs : meat boiled, or otherwise cooked, it would not touch. Sugar appeared to be grateful to its palate, and it ate gum-arabic. The juice of oranges was also greatly relished ; and, unlike Vosmaer's specimen, it readily fed upon bread sopped in water and sprinkled with sugar; and lapped water eagerly like a Cat. The Asiatic Lemuroids— Genus TarjzwJ— Taesiers. The Tarsiers, of which few species are known, are distinguished by the rounded figure of the head, and the extreme shortness of the muzzle ; by the enormous size of the eyes ; and the extraordinary length and slenderness of the hinder limbs, of which the tarsus is thrice as long as the metatarsus. The fingers, both of the anterior and posterior limbs, are elongated and slender ; the hind-thumb is well developed, with a small triangular nail, and the first and second fingers are furnished with small, pointed, narrow claws. The ears are large, naked, and capable of being folded. Tail long, covered with short hair. The first description of the Tarsier {T. spectrutn) is due to Daubenton, who gave it this title, in allusion to the length Fig. 146. — Teeth of Tarsiers. of the tarsi. Gmelin, misled by its apparently anomalous structure, placed it in his genus Didelphis (the receptacle alike of Opossums and Kangaroos), under the name of D. macroiarsus. Pennant, misled by the tarsi, termed it the Woolly Gerboa. M. F. Cuvier con- siders its dentition fo approximate to that of some of the Bats. Dental formula (Fig. 146) : — Incisors, 1 ; canines, i^ ; molars, 2 I — I 6-6 ^ i8 6-6 i6' In their habits the Tarsiers are arboreal and decidedly nocturnal, preying on birds, eggs, insects, &c. : one species is a native of the Moluccas, the other of the island of Banca. Mr. Dallas (already quoted at p. 58, ante) makes the following remarks on the comparison that subsists between the Loris and Tarsiers : — The TarsidcB consist of insectivorous animals, charac- terised by the acute tubercles of their molars. The incisors are very variable in number ; the canines are large ; the nose is more or less pointed ; the eyes are usually very large, and directed forwards ; and the ears arc large and membranous. The tail is long, sometimes bushy, and occasionally furnished with a tuft of longer hair towards the tip. The tarsus in these animals is usually of considerable length : this is especially the case in the typical genus Tarshcs, in which the toes of the hind-feet vary most curiously in their development. Both the fore and hind feet are furnished with opposable thumbs. In the genus Otolicnus, the ears are exceedingly large, like those of the Bats, and can be folded down in the same way. These are all nocturnal animals, of small size, natives of the tropical parts of Africa, and soiae of the Indian islands, where they live in the forests, and climb about the trees at night in search of insects. A second family, very closely allied to that of the preceding, is that of the Nycticeoida;, or Loris, which, in fact, differ from the Tarsida: principally in the small size of the ears, and the complete deficiency of the tail. They are also remarkable for the large size of the eyes, which are placed close together on the front of the head. There are only two known species of this family, natives of India and the Indian islands ; they are nocturnal in their habits, and very slow in their movements — whence the name of Slow Lemurs is fre- quently applied to them ; their food is said to consist of small birds and insects, which they are able to capture at night, notwithstand- ing the extreme slowness of their movements. The Banca Tarsier {Tarshis Bancanus, Horsf.). — This species was obtained by Dr. Horsfield in Banca, near Jeboos, one of the mining districts, where it inhabits the extensive forests. The fur is deep, soft, thick, and woolly, enveloping the head, body, limbs, and Fig. 147. — Banca Tarsier. root of tail, where it terminates abruptly. The general colour is brown inclining to grey, especially on the inside of the limbs and the under parts ; a rufous wash appears on the head and outer surface of the limbs. The tail, which equals the head and body in length, is nearly naked, except at its base : towards the extremity it is covered with a soft down, which forms, near the tip, a very obscure tuft. The backs of the hands are covered with a very soft down : the palms are naked, and provided with several prominent cushions, calculated to assist in climbing and perching with safety on the branches. (See Fig. 147.) African Lemuroida— Genus Galago—lnY. Galagos. The Moholi (Galago Moholi). — We select, as an example of the genus Galago {Otolicmis, 111.), the Moholi of Southern Africa. The Galagos, though they approach the Lemurs in the dental characters, differ from those animals in many well-marked and important points. (See Fig. 148.) The ears are large, membranous, naked, and, as in the long-eared Bats, capable of being folded down over the external orifice. The posterior limbs are greatly developed, and especially at the tarsal portion. The eyes are large and full ; the head is round ; the muzzle pointed ; the tail long ; the fingers, both of the fore and hind hands, long and slender, with the usual sharp claw on the first finger of the hinder pair. The fur is full, soft, and woolly. The skull (Figs. 149 and 150) is more globular, and with larger orbits than we find in the Lemurs : it is more elevated above, and broader. The Galagos are nocturnal animals : during the day they sleep on the branches, their ears being folded down ; on the approach of night they are all animation, and, with ears expanded and glistening eyes, they begin their prowl for food. They watch the insects flitting among the leaves : they listen to the buzzing of their wings amidst the foliage, and dart upon the incautious fluttererwith great activity. In addition to insects, they feed on fruits and gum ; and one species is abundant in certain gunitforcsts m the great desert of Sahara. MADAGASCAR LEMURS— THE A YE- A YE. The Moholi was found, by Dr. Smith, close to the Limpopo river, in about 25° S. lat. He observed these animals spring-ing- from branch to branch, and from tree to tree, T\ith extraordinary facility. In their manner they considerably resembled the Monkeys, par- ticularly in grimaces aud gesticulations. According to the natives, the species is entirely nocturnal, and rarely to be seen during the 63 Genus Chiromys, or Cheiromys—TwE. Aye-Aye. The genus Chiromys was established by Cuvier for the reception of that cxtraordmary animal the Aye-Aye, respecting the affinities of which so many conllicting opinions have iDcen advanced. rig. 148. — Moholi. day, which the animal spends in the nest. This it forms in the forks of branches or in cavities of decayed trees ; and in these nests, constructed of soft grass, the females bring forth and rear their young (generally two at a birth). Dr. Smith states that the food of the Moholi consists principally of pulpy fruits, though there is reason to believe it also consumes insects, as remains of the latter were dis- covered in the stomachs of several individuals which he examined. Dr. Smith, for the reasons stated in his work, considers this anima) Fig. 149.— Skull of Moholi. different from Galago Senegalensis. He gives an elaborate anato- mical description, and good figures, of the more important and interesting parts of this animal. The general colour is grey, with wavy or bnndled markings of a darker tint, and the limbs are washed with yellow; unde"r-parts white; tail red-brown; ears flesh-coloured. Length from nose to tip of tail, si.xteen inches. The preceding are some of the most important of the Lerauroids of Asia and Africa, resembling the Madagascar Lemurs. Fig. 150. — B.ise of Skull of Moholi and Lower Jaw, natural size. The Aye-Aye {Chironzys Madagascarintsis) is a native of Madagascar, where it appears to be extremely rare, and chiefly, if not exclusively, restricted to the western part : most probably it tenants remote solitudes seldom visited by the natives, and never by Europeans. It was discovered by Sonncrat, and described by him in his " Voyage aux Indes " (Paris 1781). Sonnerat regarded the Aye-Aye (so called, like one of the Sloths from its cry) as allied to the Lemurs, the Monkeys, and the Squirrels ; and subsequent writers have taken opposite views, ac- cording as they have been biassed by one part of its organisation or another, or according to their ideas of the respective value of characters, deduced from one set of organs or another. Pennant Gmelin, Cuvier, Fleming, and Swainson, place it among the Rodents; Linnaeus and Schreber regard it as a Lemur. (See Fig- 152-) M_. de Blainville, in his pamphlet " Sur quelques Anomalies de systeme Dentair," &c , observes, that notwithstanding the Rodent- like character of its organisation, its manners and habits prove it to be a true Lemur, having absolutely no relationship with the Rodents, no aflSnity to them, in spite of all that many naturalists have*" imagined ; and, after a careful examination of the specimen and skull, we coincide in this opinion. The teeth consist only of incisors and molars (see skull. Fig. i";i): the incisors are two in each jaw, strong and powerful : those' below are compressed laterally, but are deep from back to front ; their roots are carried backwards each in an alveolus, or socket, e'xtend- ing almost the whole length of the ramus of the jaw ; they are acutely pointed, their apex resembling a ploughshare. These teeth strongly remind one of the huge curved canines in the lower jaw of the Hippopotamus. The upper incisors are not so obliquely pointed, and are also smaller than the lower. Between the incisors and the molars an unoccupied space intervenes. The molars are four on each side above, three below, small, and of simple structure. The head is moderate and rounded, and the muzzle is rather short and pointed. The eyes are very large and nocturnal. The osseous ring of the orbits is complete (Fig. 151). The ears are large ; andobscure furrows on their internal aspect, seem to denote that, as in many Bats, they are capable of being folded down : they are, in fact, Bat- like, black, naked, and smooth. The fore-paws have each five fingers ; that whicTi represents the thumb is short, and arises beyond the base of the rest ; these are long and slender: the middle finger is very thin, but it is exceeded in length by the third or ring finger ; the thumb is not opposable, and, like the other fingers, is furnished with a strong, sharp, hooked 64 THE AYE-AYE— THE FLYING LEMURS. claw. The arms are short in proportion to the posterior limbs ; the latter being long, and terminating in prehensile feet. The thumb is well developed and protected by a flat nail : the toes are of mode- rate length and shortness ; but the first is the shortest, and, as in the Fig. 151.— Skull of Aye- Aye. Lemurs, is armed with a straight pointed claw; the rest have large hooked claws. The tail is long and bushy, with coarse black or brownish-black hairs : the general colour is ferruginous-brown, passing into grey on the sides of the head, the throat, and belly ; Fig. 152. — Aye-Aye. the feet are nearly black. Beneath the brown outer-coat there is, on the back and limbs, a fine thick under-coat of soft yellow wool, which appears more or less through the outer. In the female the teats are two, and ventral. Length of head and body, i foot 6 inches ; the tail being nearly the same. According to Sonnerat, who kept two of these animals, a male and female, in captivity, it would appear that the habits of the Aye- Aye are nocturnal. By day they see with difiicultv, and the eyes, which are of an ochre colour, resemble those of an Owl. Timid and inoffensive, they pass the day in sleep, and when roused up their motions are slow, like those of the Loris : they have also the same fondness for warmth ; their thick fur, indeed, sufliciently proves their impatience of cold. During the day the Aye-Aye conceals itself in its secluded retreat — some hole or excavation — whence it issues forth on the approach of darkness in quest of food ; its diet consists of buds and fruits, together with insects and their larva; ; for the latter it searches the crevices and bark of trees, drawing them forth by means of its long finger, and so conveying them to its mouth. Son- nerat kept his specimens alive for two months, feeding them upon boiled rice, in taking up which they used their long slender fingers, much in the same manner as the Chinese do their chop-sticks. Son- nerat remarks that, during the whole of the time these animals lived, he never observed them set up their long bushy tail, like a Squirrel, but that, on the contrary, it was always kept trailing at length. Considering the length of time that has intervened since the dis- covery of the Aye-Aye by Sonnerat, and visited as the island of Ma- dagascar has been by Europeans, it is somewhat strange that no additional specimens, beyond the one that Sonnerat deposited in the museum at Paris, have been obtained, until about twelve years ago, when Mr. Mellish, while visiting Madagascar, procured a living specimen, which he presented to the Zoological Society of London. But it only survived its arrival in England for a few months. The animal is now among the stuffed specimens in the Society's museum. Genus Ga!eoJ>iihecus—Tn^ COLUGOS, OR Flying Lemurs. This genus contains those strange animals the Colugos, called Flying Lemurs, Flying Cats, Flying Foxes, &c., by voyagers. The first notice of the Colugo is by Bontius, who terms it " Vespertilio admirabilis." It was afterwards figured by Seba, under the name of Felt's volatis Ternaiatius : Linnaeus subse- quently placed it among the Lemurs, under the title of Lemur volans. Cuvier places it at the end of the Bats. The query then at once arises — to what group is the Colugo to be re- ferred ? M. Geoffroy, who denies its relation- ship to the Bats, observes that it is still less a Lemur, and that its head is altogether that of a true " Carnassier." Notwithstanding this authority, in our views its afiinities, inter- mediate as they may be between the Lemurs and other groups, place it within the pale of the Lemurine family. The Colugo is an animal of the size of a Cat, furnished with an extensive parachute consisting of a lateral membrane, not only between the anterior and posterior limbs, but also between the posterior limbs, so as to in- clude the tail, which is of considerable length : the fingers of the fore-paws are also included in this extensive membranous expansion. The whole of the upper surface of the body and lateral membranes is covered with woolly fur, but the under surface is nearly naked. The parachute is capable of being folded up ; but when on the stretch for action it forms a wide expanse, not, indeed, endowing its pos- sessor with true powers of flight, but en- abling it to take long sweeping leaps from tree to tree with the utmost facility, in a manner similar to other Monkeys, as the Gibbons, &c. (See Fig. 153; and Fig. 138, at page 58, ante.') The general aspect of the head is Lemu- rine : the muzzle is produced ; the nostrils are lateral, naked, and sinuous ; the eyes mode- rate ; the ears short and pointed. The anterior limbs are long : the hands are divided into five fingers ; the first, or thumb, separated from the rest, though not antagonising with them, is short ; the remaining four are nearly equal ; all are armed, not with flat nails, but with large, deep, hooked, sharp-edged, and retractile claws. The hinder limbs slightly exceed the fore-limbs in length, and the feet are similar in character to the fore-hands. THE FLYING LEMURS. 6S Cuvier gives the dental formula as follows : — Incisors, o— o 6—6 canines, „ ; molars, Fred 4 _ _ _ - ^; canines, ^3^ ; molars, ^^—^ = 34. (See Fig. 154.) Mr. Water- house, whose excellent paper on the skull of the Colugo is in the "Zoological Transactions," vol. ii., gives the dentition thus : — Incisors, 5JIr ; canines, ^^— ; false molars, ?^^ ; true molars, 4 I- I 2-2 1-A = 4-4 The upper incisors are placed laterally in pairs, with a wide inter- val between each pair, occupying the anterior part of the jaw : the 34- length, and its skull was 2 inches iij linos in length. The anterior mcisor of the upper jaw is broad, and divided by two notches into three distinct lobes ; the ne.\t incisor on each side has its anterior and posterior margins notched ; and the first molar (or the tooth which occupies the situation of the canine) has its posterior edge F'g- IS3-— Colugo. first IS small, compressed and jagged, or pectinated ; the second is similar, but somewhat larger. The two false molars above rise up with sharp points ; the molars are crowned with acute insectivorous tubercles. The lower incisors are deeply and finely pectinate. (Figs. 156, 158, Nos. 4 and 5.) The canines are serrated. Fig. 154.— Teeth of Colugo. Some naturalists have considered the species of Colugo to be three ; while Fischer and others recognise only one, varying in colour according to age or sex. It has, however, been demonstrated by Mr. Waterhouse, from a rigorous investigation of a series of skulls, that there are tw'o distinct species ; and at one of the scien- tific tpeetings of the Zoological Society of London, he pointed out the distinguishing characteristics with illustrations. The first and larger species measured about two feet m total Fig. 155. — Skull of Galcopithecus Tcmmincldi. distinctly notched. This tooth is separated by a narrow space, anteriorly and posteriorly, from the second incisor in front and the second molar behind ; the temporal ridges converge towards the occiput, near which, however, he observed, they are separated usually by a space of about four lines. This is probably the Galco- Fig. 156.— Lower Jaw and Teeth of GaUopitlucus Tmmiiukii, ^ithecus volans of authors ; but the identity cannot be said to be The second species, G. Philippinensis, was described by Mr. Waterhouse as being usually about twenty inches m length, and it3 66 THE FLYING LEMURS— QUADRUMANOUS FOSSILS. skull as measuring two inches seven lines in length. He observed, that this species may be distinguished from G. Temminckiihy the proportionately larger ears, and the greater length of the hands. The skull, too, he described as narrower in proportion to its length, the muzzle as broader and more obtuse, and the orbit as smaller. The temporal ridges, he remarked, generally meet near the occiput, or are separated by a very narrow space. The anterior incisor of the upper jaw is narrow, and has but one notch ; the next incisor on each side is considerably larger, longer, and stronger than in G. Tcnuninc!;!!, and differs, moreover, in having its edges even : the same remark applies to the first false molar. In this species the incisors and molars form a continuous series, each tooth being in contact with that which precedes and that which is behind it. But Mr. Waterhouse concluded by observing, that the most important difference, perhaps, which exists between the two species in question, Fig. 157. — Skull of Cahopithccus Philippinensh. consists in the much larger size of the molar teeth in the smaller skull, the five posterior molars occupying a space of ten lines in length, whereas in G. Tennniiickii, a much larger animal, the same teeth only occupy nine lines. Several minor points of distinction existed besides tliose here mentioned. Fig. 15S. — Lower Jaw and Teeth of Galcopithcctis Philippinmsis. If the reader will examine Figs. 155, 156, 157, 15?, he will be enabled to compare the form of the skull, and the variations in the characters of the teeth presented by these two species respectively. Fig. 155 represents the skull of the Galeopithecus Tcmminckii ; a, as seen from above ; b, as seen from below. Fig. 156 represents the lower jaw and teeth of the same species {G. Tcmminckii) : i, the under side of the lower jaw ; 2, side view of the same ; 3, the three foremost teeth on cither side of the upper jaw; 4, 5, outer and inner incisors of the lower jaw. Fig. 157 rapresents the skull of G. Pliilip- ^ii!e7isis : a, the upper side ; h, the under side. Fig. 158 represents the lower jaw and teeth of the same species ((?. Philippinensis): I, under side of the lower jaw; 2, side view of the same; 3, the three foremost teeth of the upper jaw ; 4, 5, outer and inner incisors of the lower jaw. If these skulls and teeth be compared, so many and important distinctions will be perceived, that all doubt as to the correctness of the views entertained by Mr. Waterhouse will be dissipated. These strange and perplexing animals are natives of the Moluccas, Philippines, and various islands of the Indian Archipelago. In their habits they are arboreal and nocturnal, and feed, as it is supposed, upon fruits, insects, eggs, and birds. During the day they remain in the depths of the forests, suspended like a Bat from the branches, with the head downwards, and clinging by the hinder claws, im- mersed in tranquil sleep. At night they rouse up, are active in tra- versing the trees in every direction, and sweeping from one to another with great address, in search of food. Though of a disagreeable odour, their flesh is eaten by the natives. The females are said to produce two young at birth, which adhere to the teats of their parent. Camelli, in a MS. on the subject in the British Museum, asserts the female to have a double abdominal pouch, in which the young are carried ; but in this statement he is certainly erroneous. Fossils of the Quadrumana. It is only very recently that the fossil relics of quadrumanous animals have been discovered ; previously to this discovery, the Qiiadriiinana were regarded as having no fossil prototypes. In 1836, M. Lartet announced his discovery of the fossil bones of a large Monkey, consisting of a lower jaw with its dentition complete, a molar tooth with four tubercles, a bone of one of the fingers, a portion of the thigh bone, together with the bones of the instep, &c. They were found at Sanson, two leagues south of Auch (in the department of Gers), in a tertiary formation extending from the south of Auch to the foot of the Pyrenees, and apparently the result of a long succession of water alluvia. From the characters of the denti- tion, there can be no doubt that the animal belonged to one of the Old World sections of the SimicB — namely, the Gibbons {Hylobaies) ; if indeed it be not the representative of a genus no longer extant. M. Lartet has named this iossW species Piihecus a?2iiquits. With these relics occurred those also of the Mastodon, Rhinoceros, Dino- therium, Pateotherium, &c. Within the last few years, the fossil relics of three species of Ape or Monkey have been discovered in the Sewalik hills, a portion of sub-Himalayan range, imbedded in a tertiary stratum. Two of these species are due to the researches of Captains Falconer and Cautley, and one to the labours of Lieu- tenants Baker and Duvaud. Of these fossil Simiada, one, as the fragments indicate, exceeded in size any living species of the present day : the second was also a large animal, superior to the Entellus Monkey in size ; the third appears to have been about equal to the Entellus, and was probably an Orang. In the basin of the Rio des Velhas, in South America, Dr. Lund, a Swedish naturalist, has discovered the fossil remains of extinct Qiiadruma7ia ; and it is interesting to know that they belong to a form closely related to that of the existing American Monkeys, termed Sapajous (see a?ite, p. 51) : but the animals must have far exceeded any living species. The larger, indeed, must have been upwards of four feet in height. Dr. Lund terms it ProfopitJieais Brasilieiisis : the other, and smaller, he terms Callithrix ^primaviis. We have, then, evidences of the existence of Quadrumana at a remote epoch, in continental Europe, Asia, and America ; but what is more un- expected, we have proof that, at some era, ihe^ existed in our island (if then an island), when, as we may imagine, its surface was very different from what it now appears. The first example, a portion of the lower jaw, containing the last molar teeth, was found, with the teeth of Sharks (in 1837), '" ^ deep layer of whitish sand, beneath a stratum of blue clay on the banks of the river Deben, at Kingston, near Woodbridge, in Suffolk. This bed of clay is in many places overlaid by crag, and may probably be assigned to the age of the London clay. In the stratum of sand, the fossil teeth and portions of the lower jaw of an Opossum were also discovered. (See "Mag. Nat. Hist.," 1839, pp. 448, 450.) The extinct Monkey, as proved by the characters of the molar tooth, be- longed to the genus Macacns {see ante, ^. 44), or at least to a genus very closely related to it. The tooth, it may be observed, is some- what narrower than in any recent species of Ilacacus ; but the pos- terior fifth tubercle presents, as in most of that group, two cusps, instead of being simple, as in the genus Semno^ithecus. (See ante, p. 38.) In the " Annals of Natural History," Nov., 1839, Professor Owen describes a second tooth found in the same locality, which he identi- THE CHIROPTERA, OR BATS. 67 fies as the second molar of a Macaque ; and from being well worn, it is evident that the individual to which it belonged was aged at the time of its death. It differs from the corresponding tooth of a recent Macaque, in having a slight ridge along the base of the anterior part of the crown ; and the same character occurs also in the molar previously alluded to, and which was rigorously examined by the same philosophic anatomist. M. d'Orbigny's remark respecting the beds above the chalk in the neighbourhood of Meudon, seems appli- cable in the present case, viz.— "That in the lower part of the plastic clay, new features are discovered to obtain, demonstrating, in an especial manner, that various genera of mammals were living at the epoch when that layer was formed." That the Siinioi should have existed in our latitudes at the time of the deposition of the London clay is not surprising, when wc con- sider the tropical character of the fossil fruits so abundant in that deposit : we say London clay (as the geologists designate it), because the blue stratum, beneath which the fossil teeth were found, belongs undoubtedly to that formation. Mr. Wood, in reference to one of these relics, obsen^es, "As this fossil certainly belongs to some quadrumanous animal, there is no formation to which it could be so appropriately assigned as that of the London clay ; the tropical character of the Fauna as well as the Flora of that period being such as to justify an assumption of a warmer climate quite suitable to the existence of our Macacus." Besides the teeth of animals of the Monkey tribe, a fragment of the jaw of an Opossum, in which one of the false molars is retained, has been discovered in the same deposit. CHAPTEK VII. MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CHIROPTERA, OR CHEIROPTERA— BATS. A>;*s ^. IV/ jS3 , ' Ji ^!/^ '^^ ENOTED by one peculiarity, the Bats form a distinct order of the Mammalia ; that is, from their power of flying in the air. In the last chap- ter we have drawn attention to the Flying Lemur, and have pointed out its relation to the Chiro;ptera, or hand-viinged animals. \Ve thus notice a gradual transition from the Quadrmiiajia — which are entirely, as a habit, terrestrial animals — to the Bats, which are chiefly aerial in their habits, the Lemurs forming a con- necting link. In dealing with this order we shall first quote the remarks of Mr. W. S. Dallas, as given in the " Circle of the Sciences." The order in- cludes those species of the Mammalia in which the general characters of the groups are most singularly modified, so as to adapt them for the exercise of the power of flight, of which they alone, of all the Mammalia, are possessed. In three other groups of this class, we meet with animals to which the appellation of flying has been given ; but these only possess the power of gliding through the air by the agency of an ex- panded skin which serves to buoy them ; their aerial motion, consequently, differs only in ex- tent from the spring of an ordinary mammal. In the Chiroptera, on the contrary, the anterior members are as completely organised for true flight as are those of a bird. This will be evident from an examination of the following cut, in which the special organisa- tion of the Bat, in regard to flying, is illustrated. It will be instructive to the student of Natural History, to compare the different portions of this skeleton with that of the human species, given at page 2, Fig. i ; that of the Camel, at page 5, Fig. 14 ; and that of a species of Bat, described and illustrated by Fig. 50, at page 15, ante, where the various powers of locomotion of Mammalia are entered into generally. The Bats are really flying Insectivora : in the air they pass the active portion of their exist- ence, and revel in the exercise of their faculties. Their organs of flight, however, consist not, as in the bird, of stiff feathers disposed in order and based upon the bones of the fore-arm, but of a large thin membrane stretched over and between the limbs, to which the bones act as stretchers, like the strips of whalebone in an umbrella, the tail in many species assisting also, as illustrated by Fig. 159, below. Of this mem- brane the bones of the arms and hands are the principal supporters and levers of motion — we say hands, because, though not graspers, such must the anatomist consider them. All these bones, those of the carpus excepted, are slender and remarkably elongated ; and here we refer to the skeleton of the Bat (Fig. 160). The hume- rus, f, is long and slender, but much more so is the radius, g, the only complete bone of the fore-arm, the ulna, h, being reduced to a mere rudiment. The carpus, i, con- sists of six bones in two rows, the first row having two, the second row four bones, on which are based the metacarpal bones of the thumb, /', and of the fingers, /. These bones of the fingers are very slender and of extraordinary length, diverging from each Fig. 159. — Skeleton of a Bat, cl, ckivicle ; 7i, humenis ; en, ulna ; r, radius ; ca, carpus ; /;', thumb ; mc, metacarpus ; ///, phalanges ; 0, scapula ; /, femur ; //, tibi.i. other as they proceed. They are, however, movable upon the meta- carpus, and are not only capable of closing together, but of bcmg folded down in contact with the fore-arm. The phalanges, or true finger-bones, m, carry on the elongation of th.s framework and taper to a point, like the extremity of an anghng-rod unfurnished with nails or claws. These fingers are essential, not 0"'y ^°r JfJ^H out the wing to a due distance, but for keeping its margins stretched out, and fo? folding it down when requisite. In some genera the first finger consists but of one very fine bone ;_ the second hnger con- sists of three : occasionally the first finger is tipped with a very 68 THE SKELETON OF THE BATS. small hook-like nail. The thumb, /•, is free, and usually short, con- sisting of a metacarpal and two digital bones, the last of which is armed with a strong hooked claw. Such then is the hand of the Bat, essentially an apparatus for flight. Thus designed and con- structed, rotation of the fore-arm would not only be an unnecessary, but indeed an inconsistent endowment ; its motion, therefore, is Fig. l6o. — Skeleton of Bat, simply hinge-like, while that of the shoulder is, to a great extent, rotatory. , , • ^.i. It will easily be conceived that a membrane so extensive as the wing of the Bat, will require, for its effective movements, an extraor- dinary development of the muscles which govern it. That part of the skeleton, therefore, on which these muscles are fixed is accord- ingly modified (see Fig. i6o) ; the clavicles, d, and scapula;, e, are of great magnitude and strength ; the sternum, or breast-bone, though narrow, has a keel-like elevation along its anterior surface, analo- gous to what is seen in birds, while its upper end is developed into a manubrium, a, for the support of the large clavicles, which are thus thrown far laterally, the pectoral muscles being at the same time exceedingly voluminous ; indeed the whole of the osseous and mus- cular structure of the Bat is concentrated upon its organs of flight. The hinder limbs can scarcely be regarded as organs of locomotion ; they principally serve, in conjunction with the tail where present, to keep the membrane duly expanded— they are therefore comparatively feeble : the toes are five in number, and armed with sharp hooked claws, by which the animal suspends itself while at rest in its re- treat. When with folded wings the Bat attempts to proceed along a level surface, its move- ments, though tolerably quick, are awkward and shuffling ; and it uses the claw of its thumb as a hook for catching hold of any irregularities in order to drag itself along : hence, on a smooth polished surface it is greatly embarrassed ; but in the hollows of trees, in the crevices of ma- sonry, and in rough chinks or fissures, it can climb and crawl about with considerable facility, as also about the wire-work of a cage, as we have often wit- nessed. The ground, however, is not the destined province of the Bat— the air is its home ; it is here that these singular crea- tures are all alertness, pursuing their insect prey, and uttering their short sharp cry as they wheel in circling flights, or per- form their abrupt and zigzag evolutions. r . t) Professor Owen, in remarking on the skeleton of the Bats, con- siders that the form of limb presented by the arm and hand, offers the most striking contrast to the burrowing trowel of the Fig. 1 6 1.— Skeleton of the Bat— ( Vespertilio miirinus). Mole. Viewed in the living animal, it is a thin, widely-expanded sheet of membrane, sustained like an umbrella by slender rays, and flapped by means of these up and down in the air, and with such force and rapidity, as, combined with its extensive surface, to react upon the rare element more powerfully than gravitation can attract the weight to which the fore-limbs are attached ; consequently the body is raised aloft, and borne swiftly through the air. The mammal now rivals the bird in its faculty of pro- gressive motion ; it flies, and the instruments of its atrial course are called "wings." The whole frame of the Bat is in harmony with this faculty, but the Mammalian type of skeleton is in nowise departed from. The vertebral formula of the common Bat ( Vesper- tilio imirimis. Fig. i6i), is — 7 cer\'ical, 12 dorsal, 7 lumbar, 3 sacral, and 8 caudal vertebrje. The chief characteristics of the skeleton are — the gradual dimi- nution of size of the spinal column from the cervical to the sacral regions ; the absence of neural spines in the vertebra; beyond the dentata ; a keeled sternum ; long and strong, bent clavicles, 58; broad scapula;, 51; elongated humeri, 53; more elongated and slender radius, 55 ; and still longer and more slender meta- carpals and phalanges of the four fing-ers, ii. Hi, iv, v, W'hich are without claws, the thumb, i, being short, and provided with a claw : the pelvis, 62, is small, slender, and open at the pubis, 63 ; the fibula, 67, is rudimental, like the ulna, 54, in the fore-arm. The common Bat has a long and slender stiliform append- age to the heel, 68, which helps to sustain the caudo- femoral membrane. The hind digits are five in number, short, subequal, each provided with a claw; they are the instruments by which the Bat suspends itself, head downwards, during its daily summer sleep, and con- tinued winter torpor. The skull in these animals is usually short, the jaws being but moderately produced ; the dentition varies in the different families, according to the food on which the creatures subsist. (See Fig. 162.) The sternum is furnished with a more or less distinct crest, serving, like the same part in birds, for the attachment of the powerful muscles of the wings. The tail is very variable in its development, and is frequently in- cluded in a portion of the membrane (called the iiiterfemoral membrane), which extends from one hind-leg to the other, and Fig. 162. — Head and Skull of Common Bat. that evidently performs an important part in steering the animals in their at^rial course. The body is covered with a soft down, but the membrane of the wings only exhibits a few scattered hairs. The mammae are placed on the breast ; and the young, when suck- ing, are carried about by the mother, clinging to that part of her body : from the position of the teats, the Bats were included by Linnffius with the Monkeys, and the human species in his first order, the Primates. In the Bat, the senses of smell and hearing, as might be con- cluded from the development and complication of their respective organs, are wonderfully acute. In several extensive genera, with a view to the refinement of these senses, w'e see the nose furnished Fig. 163. — Trifoliatecl Megaderma. with a membranous foliation or leaf of most delicate structure, and often complex in its arrangement ; while the external membranous ears are large, expanded, and often united together, having folds or THE CHIROPTERA, OR BATS. 69 an inner reduplication, and capable of being folded down. (See Fig. i-jo, \.\\e head, oi Ifcgcidcrma fft/oiiiim.) In short, both the osteological characters of the skull, and the development of the ex- ternal appendages, traversed by multitudes of nerves, announce the acuteness both of smell and hearing. But these creatures have another sense, that of feeling, so exquisitely refined as to require especial notice'. The wings of these creatures consist, as we have stated, of a delicate and nearly naked membrane of great ampli- tude ; and these, as well as the membranous tissues of the ears and nose, are abundantly supplied with nerves, and have their sensibility so high, as to afford something like a new sense which stands in the stead of sight. The modified impressions which the air in quiescence or in motion, however slight, communicates — the tremu- lous jar of the faintest current — its temperature ; the indescribable condition of such strata as are in contact with different bodies, are all apparently appreciated by the Bat. If its eyes bo covered up — nay, if it be even cruelly deprived of sight — it will pursue its course about a room with a thousand obstacles in its way, avoiding them all ; neither dashing against the walls nor flying foul of the smallest thing, but threading its course with the utmost precision and quick- ness, and passing adroitly through apertures, or the interspaces of threads placed purposely across the apartment. This endowment, which almost exceeds belief, has been abundantly demonstrated by the experiments of Spallanzani and others ; it is the sense of touch refined to an inconceivable degree of perfection, rendering the Bat aerial in feeling as in habits. Bats are all crepuscular or nocturnal ; during the day they sleep in their recesses, hanging head downwards, suspended by the hind- feet. Numbers often congregate together on one common dormi- tory ; and in Java and other adjacent islands, one of the most extra- ordinary sights is that of a tree literally loaded with a crowd of huge Roussettes, or Flying Foxes {Pteropus), all clustered together in pendant rows along the branches. In our latitudes the Bats all hibernate, hanging in the same manner as during their ordinary sleep ; but whether this law of hibernation prevails among those species which are natives of the hotter regions does not appear to be satisfactorily determined ; probably it does, for the Tenrec (an animal allied to our Hedgehog) hibernates in Madagascar, its native country. The Bats are extremely numerous, and are distributed over every portion of the globe, excepting in the coldest latitudes ; it is, how- ever, in the warmer regions that they are the most abundant, and attain to the largest dimensions. We have said that the Bats are insectivorous ; some, however, are bloodsuckers ; and some, as the Roussettes (Pteropus), eat fruit, plundering the gardens of their choicest productions. It would seem that some of the Brazilian Bats also are frugivorous, devour- ing the fruit of the fig-tree, and that it is almost impossible to pre- vent the mischief, as they will creep, like Mice, under the netting spread to protect the trees. In regard to classification, the Bats are divided by Mr. Gray into five great sections or tribes, as follows, under two primary heads : — I. Istiophori, or Leaf-nosed Bats. — Nostrils placed in a bald space, often elevated behind into a leaf; teeth acutely tubercular ; index-finger not clawed. Tribe I. Phyllostomina. — Nose-disc expanded into a leaf behind, simple, and pierced with the nostrils in front. Tribe 2. Rhinolophina. — Nose-disc expanded into a leaf behind, and with a pit or process between the nostrils in front. II. Anistiophori. — Simple-nosed Bats. Nostrils without a nasal leaf. Tribe 3. Vespertilionina. — Grinders acutely tubercular ; wings broad and large ; tail elongated and inclosed in the large conical interfemoral membrane ; upper incisor teeth near the canines, with a central space. Each nostril placed m front of a groove, with a spiral, convolute, outer margin lobed anteriorly. Tribe 4. Noctilionina. — Grinders acutely tubercular ; wings long and narrow ; body thin ; tail thick, short, the tip appearing on the upper surface of the large interfemoral membrane. Tribe 5. Pteropina. — Grinders bluntly tubercular; nose simple; nostrils slightly produced ; end of index-finger clawed ; head conical ; ears simple ; wings long ; lower joint of thumb long, united to the wing by a membrane ; interfemoral membrane short ; tail none, or short. Fruit-eating Bats of Indian Islands and Poly- nesia. Mr. W. S. Dallas remarks, that the Chiroptera may be divided into four families, of which the first two include the pre-eminently insectivorous species. The first of these is that of the Vespertilio- nidce, or true Bats, in which the teeth resemble those of the true Insectivorous Mammalia, but vary greatly in number. The incisors are two or four in the upper, and two, four, or six in the lower jaw ; and the molars either four or five in the upper, and five or six in the lower jaw. The canines are rarely of large size; the anterior or false molars are compressed and cutting, and the true molars are furnished with sharp tubercular crowns, adapted, like those of the Insectivora, for crushing the hard skins of Beetles and other insects. All the fingers are quite destitute of nails or claws, and the middle finger has only three joints; the tail is usually well developed, and fixed in the interfemoral membrane, but is sometimes free {Tapho- zoi/s) ; it is also occasionally longer or shorter than the membrane, but generally reaches its posterior margin. The ears vary greatly in size, being sometimes shorter than the head, .and sometimes very long, and furnished with an inner fold : but the nose is always desti- tute of leaf-like appendages. The second family is that of the Rhi/idophidcs, or Horse-shoe Bats, which resemble the true Bats in their general structure and habits, but differ from them remarkably in the possession of compli- cated, leaf-like, membranous appendages on the nose, which give them a very singular and often forbidding appearance. They re- semble the common Bats in their general habits, but appear to be even more nocturnal ; and their places of sojourn during the day are usually the darkest caverns that they can find. In the third family, that of the Phyllostomtda:, or Vampyres (described below), the canines are long and sharp ; and in the genus Desinodits, which possesses only two incisor teeth in the upper jaw, these are also of great size and very acute, forming a pair of formid- able lancets. Nothing is known of the habits of the species of this genus ; but from the structure of their teeth they would seem to be well adapted for the same diet as the true Vampyres. The fourth family of the order, and the one which evidently ap- proaches most closely to the Quadnimaita, is that of the Pteropida;, or Roussettes — sometimes called Fox Bats, in allusion to the Dog- like form of the head, of which the jaws are more prolonged than in the other Bats. In these Bats the incisors are of small size, and four in each jaw ; but they sometimes fall out as the animals increase in age ; the canines are also small, and the molars have blunt tubercular crowns, indicating a fruit diet ; but the tubercles are often worn away, and the teeth then exhibit a flat surface. The ears are always of moderate size ; the eyes are larger than in the other Bats ; and the nose is always destitute of membranous appendages. The tail is short, and the interfemo- ral membrane very small, or entirely deficient. The first finger is short, and furnished with a distinct nail or claw. The limited space at our dis- posal will not allow us to enter into the discussion of the opinions expressed in regard to the classification of Bats ; still less can we describe arid illustrate the numerous species and their varieties. The follow- ing have been selected as a general illustration of the most important features of the Chir- optera of this and other coun- tries. Fig. 164. — Head of the Vampyre Bat (Phyllostoma spectrum). Vampyre Bats— Genus P?iyl- lostoma. In the P/tyilosiomidts, or Vampyres, the canine teeth are of large size, and the middle finger consists of four joints, includ- ing the metacarpus. Like the Rhinolophidcc, which they replace in America, they are furnished with a membranous nasal appendage, Fig. 165. — Crenulated Javelin Bat. and the ears are usually ample, and furnished with a distinct mem- branous auricle. In almost all the species of this family there are four incisor teeth in both jaws. (See the above remarks.) 70 THE VAMPYRE BATS. The Phyllostoinidce are peculiar to the tropical portions of America, where they are met with very abundantly. 1 hey are crenerally of a larger size tlian the animals of the other families, the Vampyre (Phyllostoma spectrum. Fig. 167) being sometimes nearly two feet and a-half in extent of wing, and their propensities exhibit a corresponding degree of ferocity. ,, v The Crenulated Javelin Bat (^Phyllostoma crentilatum), Fig. 166. — Greater Javelin Bat. and the Greater Javelin Bat {PhyUosfoma ^erspia'llaficm).— These two, illustrated by Figs. 165 and 166, are found in South America. They are, however, little known. The Vampyre Bat {Phyllostoma spectrum), whose head has been illustrated in Fig. 164, is a native of South America. Piso thus describes its habits :— These Bats " seek out every kind of animal and suck their blood ; but in Maranham there is a certain kind which approaches by night the naked feet of men, and wounds them for the sake of sucking human blood. The bite is so slight and subtle, that the wounded do not feel it before the bed, covered with blood,' gives token of the wound. So great a quantity of blood flows from the envenomed bite, that it can only be stopped with difliculty, and the peril is imminent unless a cure by the prescribed remedies be effected. The inhabitants first wash these wounds with sea-water, and afterwards apply hot ashes, or even cautery, if the blood be not stopped." Captain Stedman, who states that he was bitten, thus describes the operation :— " Knowing, by instinct, that the person they intend to attack is in a sound slumber, they generally alight Fig. 167. — Vampyre Bat. near the feet, where, while the creature continues fanning with its enormous wings, which keeps one cool, he bites a bit out of the tip of the great toe, so very small, indeed, that the head of a pin could scarcely be received into the wound, which is consequently not painful ; yet through this orifiee he continues to suck the blood until he is obliged to disgorge. He then begins again, and thus continues sucking and disgorging till he is scarce able to fly ; and the sufferer has often been known to sleep from time into eternity. Cattle they Fig. 1 68. — Skeleton of Vampyre, generally bite in the ear, but always in places where the blood flows spontaneously. Having applied tobacco-ashes as the best remedy, and washed the gore from myself and my hammock, I observed several small heaps of congealed blood round the place where I had Fig. 169. lain upon the ground ; on examining which, the surgeon judged I had lost at least twelve or fourteen ounces during the night." Fig. 167 represents the general appearance of the Bat. Its skeleton is shown in Fig. 168, and its canine and incisor teeth in Fig. 169. From various accounts, themselves a little over-coloured, have arisen extravagant representations and false statements, to which too much credit has been given : blood-sucking pro- pensities, moreover, have been attributed to the Bats of Java and other countries, without any authority ; and the tongue, instead of the sharp lancet-like teeth, has been regarded as the instrument by which the puncture is made. D'Azara, speaking of the blood-sucking Bats of South America {and he is a faithful describer);' observes that " the species w-ith a leaf upon the nose differ from the other Bats (of Paraguay) in being able to run, when on the ground, nearly as fast as a Rat, and in their fondness for sucking the blood of animals. Sometimes they will bite the wattles and crests of fowls while asleep, and suck their blood. The fowls generally die of this, as gangrene is engendered in the wounds. They bite also Horses, Mules, Asses, and homed cattle ; usually on the shoulders, buttocks, or neck, as they are better enabled to arrive at those parts, from the facilities afforded them by the mane and tail. Nor is man himself secure from their attacks : on this point I am able to give a very faithful testimony, since I have had the ends of my toes bitten by them, four times, while I was sleeping in the cottages in the open country. The wounds which they inflicted, without my feeling them at the time, were circular, or rather elliptical ; their diameter was trifling, and their depth so superficial as scarcely to penetrate the cutis." The blood drawn " is merely from the capillary vessels of the skin, and is ex- tracted thence, beyond doubt, by the action of sucking or licking." Nobody " fears these animals or gives himself any trouble about them." To the same effect is Mr. Swain's testimony. " They are con- stantly in the habit of attacking animals during the night, and sucking their blood. Our own Horses and Mules, on many occasions, after having arrived at the end of the day's journey, and being turned out to graze, would be brought in by the guides in the morning with their shoulders and haunches covered with blood ; neither is it an uncommon thing for these real Vampyres to enter the habitations of the natives, and fasten on the legs of some incautious sleeper who has not snugly secured his feet beneath the coverlid. Stories, in- deed, are told of these incautious sufferers having bled so profusely as to have died ; but we never could ascertain the fact, nor did we ever suffer from the visits of these midnight phlebotomists." Mr. Darwin was fortunate enough to capture a blood-sucking Bat {Des?nodus D' Orbigiiyi, Waterhouse) in the act. " The Vampyre Bat," says Mr. Darwin, in that part of his highly interesting book which relates his adventures when travelling on horseback in the neighbourhood of Rio Janeiro, " is often the cause of much trouble by biting the Horses on their withers. The injury is generally not so much owing to the loss of blood as to the inflammation which the pressure of the saddle afterwards produces. The whole circum- stance has lately been doubted in England : I was, therefore, fortu- nate in being present when one was actually caught on a Horse's back. We were bivouacking late one evening near Coquimbo, in Chile, when my servant, noticing that one of the Horses was very restive, went to see what was the matter, and fancying he could dis- tinguish something, suddenly put his hand on the beast's withers, and secured the Vampyre. In the morning the spot where the bite had been inflicted was easily distinguished, from being slightly swollen and bloody. The third day afterwards we rode the Horse without any ill effects." " It is interesting," says Mr. Waterhouse, "to find that the structure of the animal is in perfect accordance with the habits above detailed by Mr. Darwin. Among other points, the total absence of true molars, and the consequent want of the power of masticating food, is the most remarkable : on the other hand, we find the canines and incisors perfectly fitted for inflicting a wound such as de- scribed, while the small size of the interfemoral membrane (giving freedom to the motioni of the legs), together with the unusually large size of the thumb and claw, would enable the Bat, as I should imagine, to fix itself with great security on the body of the Horse." Fig. 170. — Head oX Megadcrma from. THE HORSE-SHOE AND TRUE BATS. 7« In the Megaderms (genus Mcgadcrma) the ears are very large ; the nose-leaf is simple and erect ; "there is no tail ; and the incisor teeth are wanting. The Trifoliated Megaderma (Mcgadcrma trifoliumj has already been illustrated at page 68, ante, Fig. 163. In that cut, b represents the skull of the ilega- dcr/na/rons, a native of \\'estern Africa : also represented in the preceding cut. Horse-shoe Bats— Genus Rhinolophus. The genus Rliiiwlophus in- cludes the Horse-shoe Bats. The lesser Horse-shoe Bat is one of the smallest British species of the order. In our British species the ears are of moderate size ; but in many of the exotic Horse-shoe Bats, these organs are developed to an extraordinary extent, and furnished, as in the common Long- eared Bat (see Fig. 171), with very large membranous auricles. The Splendid B.ov.S'E-sb.O'e.Bkt {RhmoloJ>/ius 7iobilis,oi Hi^' Fig. 171. — The Long-enreil D.\t (Phcolus aiiyitiis). Fig. 172. — Splendid Horse-shoe Bat. Three-toothed Horse-shoe Bat. fosidcros vobilis, &c.) is a native of Java, called Kebblek by the Javanese. (See Fig. 172.) The nasal apparatus consists of a broad membrane stretching transversely across the nose in form of a shelf; the sides are bounded by several parallel folds, and inferiorly it con- stitutes a semicircular envelope, which has a short, obtusely rounded point in the middle. Colour above, pure brown ; beneath, bro\sTi, variegated with grey. Fur remarkably long and silky, and supplied with a most delicate down at the base, so as to be throughout very soft to the touch. Body four inches in length. Expansion nineteen inches and a-half. The Three-toothed Horse-shoe B.\t fRhinolophus tridem, Geoff.); Hipposidcros tnderis, Gray.— This is a small species (illustrated in Fig. 173), found in great numbers in the tombs of E.£:>'pt. where the objects of ancient idolatry are, indeed, given "to the Bats," which find, in the recesses and chambers of temples and pyramids, a congenial retreat. True Bats— Genus Vesperiilio. We next turn to the VespertilioJiida, or True Bats, already noticed in our introductory remarks. The animals of this family feed entirely on insects, which they capture on the wing ; and during the dusk of the evening in summer, they may be constantly seen flying about in pursuit of their prey. Although of small size, they are exceedingly voracious, and must destroy immense numbers of insects. They are found abundantly in all parts of the world ; and no fewer than fifteen species are described as natives of Britain ; but, of these, the great majority are very rare or local. The two commonest species are the V\^\i\.reA(t{Vcspertiliopip!strenus):i.'aiL the Long-eared Bat {Pie- cotus auritus : see Fig. 171, ante; also subjoined cut). The former is our common Bat, which is known in some parts of the country as the Flittermouse, in allusion to its Mouse-like body, and its power of flight. It is commonly found about houses, and usually reposes in the crevices of old walls, and similar situations. It is a small species, and its food consists principally of Gnats and other little insects of the same description, in pursuit of which it flies pretty rapidly. The Pipistrelle is also partial to meat, and is known frequently to make its way into pantries, where it has been surprised clinging to a joint of meat, in the act of making a hearty meal. Its period of torpidity appears to be shorter than that of any of our other species of this family : and even during the winter it may occasionally be seen, on fine days, in pursuit of its favourite prey. In the following cut three British Bats are represented : a is the common Bat f Vesper tilio pipistrellus) ; b the Great Bat {Vesper- tilio nocfu/a) ; and c the Long-eared Bat [Plecoius auritus). The largest of the British species, the Noctula, b, measures nearly three inches in length, exclusive of the tail, and as much as fifteen inches in expanse of wing. In their habits the e.xotic species closely resemble those of Britain, and few greatly exceed our species in size. Geoffroy's Nycteris (Nycferis GeofroyiJ.—We have already alluded, in our introductory remarks, to the sensibility with which the integuments of the Bats are endowed ; this, however, is not the only peculiarity to be noticed, for in the genus Nycteris there exists a power of inflation to such a degree, that when the faculty is exerted, the animal looks, according to GeoftVoy, like a little balloon fitted with wmgs, a head, and feet. The subcutaneous tissue is the part inflated ; and as the skin adheres to the body at particular points only, the connection being by means of loose cellular membrane, spaces are left which can be filled with air at the will of the - . Nycteris, through the cheek-pouches, which are perforated at the bottom so as to communicate with those spaces. When the Nycteris wishes to inflate its skin, it draws in its breath, closes its nostrils, and transmits the air through the perforations of the check-pouches, to the subcutaneous spaces, and the air is prevented from returning by tlie action of a sphincter, which closes those open- ings, and by valves of considerable size on the neck and back. The characters of this genus may le thus summed up: — a deep furrow lown the forehead; nostrils covered by a cartilaginous movable lid ; inter- femoral membrane very large, compre- hending the tail, which terminates in a little bifid cartilage : incisors, ^ ; mo- 6 lars, ears large, united at their Fig. 174.— British Bats. 4—4 . 5—5" base. Geoffroy's Nycteris is a native of the Thebaid and Senegal. (See Fig. I75-) The RlAfRiTius Taphozous {Ta- ^/lOMus Ji/auritianus). — In the genus Taphozous there are no incisor teeth on the upper jaw. Several species are THE FRUIT-EATING BATS. known ; the one of which we represent the head is a native of the Mauritius. (Fig-. i;6.) The Leporine Noctilio {Nodilio k^on'iius). — Ccinmea very strong; muzzle short and swollen, and divided and studded with Skull and Teeth. Fig. I7i.— Geoiiioy's Nycteris. Fig. 176. — Mauritius Taphozous. fleshy tubercles or warts ; nose simple, and losing «tself in the lips ; ears small and lateral ; interfemoral membrane very much developed , tail enveloped at its base. Dental formula :-Incisors, ^ ; ca- nines, i^ ; molars, ^-^ = 28. Fig. 177'gives: fl,profileofhead; 5, profile of skull ; c, front view of muzzle ; d, front view of teeth. Fig. 177. — Leporine Noctilio. The NodiHo le^orinus is of the size of a Rat. Fur of a uniform reddish-vellow. This is the Vespertilio leporhuis of Gmelm ; J\oc- tilio unicolor of Geoffroy. Localities-Brazil, Peru, and Paraguay. The Dusky Molossus {Molossiis obsczertis). — a.sa.a short, muzzle swollen ; ears large; earlet external ; interfemoral membrane strai^'ht, with a square termination ; tail long, enveloped at its baser and most frequently free at its extremity. Dental formula :— Incisors, i- ; canines, izJ. ; molars, |^5 = 28. The geographi- cal distribution of this form is wide : Africa Asia, and South America ^ Pig. 178.— Head, Skull, and Front Teeth of Dusky Molossus. possess it ; but the species, which are numerous, occur principally in the two last-mentioned localities. Fig. 178 represents the head, skull, and front teeth of this animal. The Molossus ohscurus {Molossus fuman'us of Spix ; Dysopes obscurus of Temminck) is of the size of the Barbastelle of Europe. Fur composed of hair of two colours, blackish-brown above, and ash- brown below. Whiskers at the border of the lips. Length about three inches three lines. Expansion nine inches. Localities, Brazil and Guiana. The Fruit-eating Bats— Genus Pkropus. The Pteropida;, which have already been in part described at p. 69, aute, are entirely confined to the warmer par's of the Eastern Hemisphere. They are most abundant in the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, whence the greater part of the species are derived ; but they occur also on the main- land of Asia, in the tropi- cal islands of the Pacific, in Africa, and even in Aus- tralia. They are the largest of the Bats ; the Kalong of Java {Pteropiis edulis. Fig. 181) measuring no less than five feet in extent of wing, and nearly two in length. They are frugivor- ous in their habits, and thus do great damage in gardens and plantations ; but in con- finement they have been known to eat the flesh of birds, so that it is possible they may vary their diet in a similar manner in a state of nature. They have a disagreeable odour, described by some obser\-ers as musky ; by others as " mildewy." Their flesh is, however, eaten by the in- habitants of the places where they occur ; and it is probable that the Bat which figures amongst the articles of food forbidden to the Jews, may have belonged to this group, as at least one species [Eleuthe- 7-ura Egyptiacd) is found abundantly in Egypt and the neighbouring countries, and is even represented with some considerable exactitude upon some of the Egyptian monuments. Like the other Bats, they are nocturnal animals, and pass the day suspended by the hind-feet from the branches of trees ; but some species are known also to fly at noonday. The Amboyna Pteropus {Pteropus Dussumieri.) — The Rous- Fig. 179. — Head of the Kalong Bat (Pleropis edulis). Fig. 180. — Amboyna Pteropus. settes, Temate Bats or Flying Foxes, as the Pteropi are termed, are, most of them, of large size, with Fox-like heads and a vast spread of 5—5 4—4 wing; the molars are f^ZJ. °^ 6^' ^""^ bluntly tubercular; the tongue is short ; interfemoral membrane very little developed. _ Fig. 180 represents the Amboyna Pteropus. The present species is a native of India and Amboyna. Its habits closely resemble that of the Kalong, next described. The Kalong {Pteropus Java7iicus, or Edtdis : see Figs. 181 and 182.) — This species, which measures five feet in the spread of the wings, is a native of Java. Upper part of the neck smoky-red ; rest of the fur dull black. In the lower parts of Java it is very common, and lives in troops, which do not appear to visit the more elevated districts. Numerous individuals, says Dr. Horsfield, select a large tree for their resort, and, suspending themselves by the claws of their hind- limbs to the naked branches, often in companies of several hun- dreds, afford to a stranger a very singular spectacle. A species of THE FRUIT-EATING BATS. n Ficus, resembling- the Ficus religiosa of India, which is often found near the villaafes of the natives, aflfords them a very favourite retreat, and the extended branches of one of these are sometimes covered with them. They pass the greater portion of the day in sleep, hanging motionless : ranged in succession with the head down- wards, the membrane contracted about the body and often in close Kalong. contact, they have little resemblance to living beings ; and by a person not accustomed to their economy, are readily mistaken for a part of the tree, or for a fruit of uncommon size suspended from its branches. In general these societies preserve a perfect silence during the day ; but if they are disturbed, or if a contention arises among them, they emit sharp piercing shrieks, and their awkward attempts to extricate themselves when oppressed by the light of the sun exhibit a ludicrous spectacle. In consequence of the sharpness of their claws, their attachment is so strong that they cannot readily structed of split bamboo. Without this precaution, little valuable fruit would escape the ravages of the Kalong. There arc few situations in the lower parts of Java in which this night-wanderer is not constantly observed : as soon as the light of the sun has retired, one animal is seen to follow the other at a small but irregular distance, and this succession continues uninterrupted till darkness obstructs the view. The flight of the Kalong is slow and steady, pursued in a straight line, and capable of long continuance. The chase of the Kalong forms occasionally an amusement of the colonists and inhabitants during the moonlight nights, which in the latitude of Java are uncommonly serene. He is watched in his descent to the fruit-trees, and a dis- charge of small shot readily brings him to the ground. By this means are frequently obtained four or five individuals in an hour. Pallas's Morx-ccA Bat {Har- ^yia Pallasii). — The genus Har- pyia of Illiger (not of Cuvier) differs in having the wings arising from the centre of the back ; the lips thick, and the head broad and short ; index-finger clawed. (See Fig. 183.) '£\\e Ilar^yia Paliasii {Cephaloies Pallasii, Geoffroy) is a native of the Moluccas. It measures two feet in the expansion of the wings. The dental for- 4-4 Fiq;. iS^.— Pallas's Molucca Bat. mula is thus : -Incisors, — ; canines, 182. — Kalong in Flight. leave their hold without the assistance of the expanded membrane : and if suddenly killed in the natural attitude during the day, they continue suspended after death. It is necessary, therefore, to oblige them to take wing by alarming them, if it be desired to obtam them during the day. Soon after sunset they gradually quit their hold, and pursue their nocturnal flight in quest of food. They direct their course, by an unerring instinct, to the forests, villages, and plantations, occasioning incalculable mischief, attacking and devouring indiscriminately every kind of fruit, from the abundant and useful cocoa-nut which surrounds the dwelling of the meanest peasantry, to the rare and most delicate productions which are cul- tivated with care by princes and chiefs of distinction. By the latter, as well as by the European colonists, various methods are employed to protect the orchards and gardens. Delicate fruits, such as mangoes, jambus, lansas, &c. , as they approach to maturity, are ingeniously secured by means of a loose net or basket, skilfully con- molars, I- I 5-5 Another illustration of this Bat will be found at p. 15, a?ite. Fig. 50. In the collection of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park, London, is a specimen of the Indian Fruit Bat [Ptc- ropus medius), and one of the Collared Fruit Bat (Cyiw)iyc- ieris collaris.) The Fruit Bats, or " Flying Foxes " as they are often called, constitute a well- marked section of the Bats be- longing to the warmer parts of theOldWorid. They are frugiv- orous, and are accused of doing great damage in gardens and plantations, which they visit at night in immense flocks, in order to regale themselves on the ripe fruits. The pair of the Collared Fruit-Bats have bred more than once in the Gardens. The young Bat is carried suspended head downwards, in a curious way on its mother's breast. This is the first instance of an animal of this group having produced young in captivity. In regard to the fossil re- mains of Bats, Mr. Morris in his " Catalogue of British Fos- sils " names two species, viz., the Vespertilio noctula which was found in a cave of the Men- dip Hills, and another species found in the Lower ^ocene, at Kyson, SutTolk. Another is the Vespertilio parisiensis of the Tertiary (Eocene) period. In the British Museum there are numerous specimens of the Bat- Tribe among which the following may be named :^Lyre-nosed Broad winged Bat {Mcgadernia lyra), Java ; Cordate Bat {Megadcrrna sj>asma), Singapore ; African Leaf 'BdX {Laz'iado frotis), W. Africa; the Scotophilus ■murimiis, Europe ; Captain Grey's Bat {Scoto- fhilus grcifn). Port Essington ; Large Eared Bat {Myniis muri- miis), St. Gothard ; Vespertilio cliinensis, China ; Vespertilio siibulatiis , Canada ; Large-Eared Thick-lipped Bat [Molossus pero- tis), Brazils and Bolivia ; Egyptian Rhinopome {P/ii/iopoma micro- ■phylla), Egj'pt ; Javelin Phyllostome {Phyllostoma hastatuni). Brazils ; Daubenton's Bat ( Vespertilio duiibentoiiii), Sweden ; Hairy-armed Bat (Scotophilus leisleri), England ; Masked Horse- shoe Bat {Hipposidcros larvatus), Java, &c., Szc. 74 INSECTIVORA, OR MOLES, SHREWS, AND HEDGEHOGS. CHAPTER Viri. MAMMALIA.— ORDER, INSECTIVORA— THE SHREWS, MOLES, Etc. S a connecting link between the preceding and foUowing'orders, the INSECTIVORA, or Insect-eating Mammalia, may next be conveniently described. In regard to their general character, Mr. Dallas remarks, that while they are nearly allied with the Cartiivora, or flesh- eating animals, they arc readily distin- , guished from them by the structure of the ii>fr teeth. These rarely exhibit that distinct division into three sets which prevails in the Carnivora ; and it is sometimes difficult to deter- mine exactly what name should be given to the par- ticular teeth. There are usually eight single-rooted teeth in the front of each jaw, of which the hindmost on each side must be regarded as the canine, although it is often smaller than the others, especially the two middle ones. Behind this comes a tooth with two roots, which is frequently more or less compressed, and presents a certain amount of resemblance to the larger pre-molars of the Carm'vora ; and this is followed, on each side, by two large broad molars, the crown of each of which usually forms four sharp points, with deep hollows between them, so that the points of the teeth in one jaw inter- lock with those of the other. These large molars are often succeeded, quite at the back of the mouth, by a smaller tooth of the same kind, which, however, only presents two points. By this structure of the molars, these animals are enabled readily to crush the hard skins of the insects that constitute their principal food. The following cut represents the dentition of a species of Shrew taken in the Mauritius, and magnified six times. 'k? Fig. 184.— Teeth of Shrew. The skull in the Insech'vora is slighter and more elongated than in the Carnivora ; the bones of the face and jaws being usually pro- duced so as to form a muzzle of greater or less length ; the jaws are generally inferior in strength to those of the Carnivorous Mammals. The form of the body, its clothing, and the development of the tail, vary as much as in the preceding order ; but the legs are always short, so that the belly of the animal is but little raised above the gt-ound ; the feet are plantigrade, and usually furnished with five toes, of which the innermost is never opposable. (See Fig. 185 ) The animals usually run upon the ground, sometimes dig beneath Fig. 185.— Feet of Shrews. its surface, and also ascend trees. An important distinction between them and the Carnivora, is furnished by their possession of complete clavicles, which are always wanting or rudimentary in the latter. The mamma; are generally numerous, and always situated on the belly. (See further remarks on these peculiarities, by Prof. Owen, at a sub- sequent page, under the head of Car?iivora.) iThe following cut represents the under surface of the hinder feet of — a, the Common Shrew; i,theWater Shrew ; and c, the Oared Shrew. In the development of the brain and the organs of the senses, Mr. Dallas remarks, that they closely resemble the Rode?itia, or gnawing animals ; and this similarity is also frequently re- cognisable in their external form ; so close is it, in fact, that many members of the present order . are popularly confounded with the Rodeniia ; and the same mistake has often been made by the older naturalists. In the same way the Iiisectivora exhibit a close re- semblance to many of the Marsupials (Kangaroos, &c.) ; whilst, on the other hand, their relationship to the Cliiroptera and Carnivora cannot be doubted. Their food consists, not only of insects and their larvae, as might be supposed from the name given to the order, but also of worms and mollusca ; and some of the larger species even devour the smaller vertebrate animals. They are generally slow in their movements, and nocturnal in their habits, and many of them pass the winter in a state of torpidity. The animals composing this order may be divided into two families. The first of these is that of the Talpidcs, or Moles, in which the whole structure evidently points to the strictly subterranean habits of the animals. The body in the Moles is short and thick, and sup- ported upon short and strong legs ; the head is produced into a long muzzle ; the eyes are either so small as to be detected with difficulty, or completely concealed beneath the skin ; and the external ears are entirely deficient. The internal ear is very perfect, and the olfactory organs are highly developed ; so that those senses which must be most valuable to animals confined to a subterranean existence, are possessed by the Moles in the greatest perfection ; whilst the sense of sight, which is comparatively useless to a creature that passes the greater part of its time in utter darkness, is almost entirely sup- pressed. The tail is usually short, or quite rudimentary. For the excavation of the galleries which these animals make in pursuit of insects and wurms, and in which they almost constantly reside, their anterior limbs, although short, are exceedingly powerful, and so arranged as to form most efficient in- struments for digging. Thus, in the common Mole {Ta!j>a Eiiropaa, Fig. 186), the only Bri- tish species of the family, the bones of the arm arc very short and strong, and the limb is termi- nated by a broad, flat, shovel-like hand, armed with long and strong claws, furnished with a curved prolongation of one of the carpal bones (called \\\^ falciform bone), which gives additional strength to the hand, and is so placed that its palm is naturally turned directly backwards. By the agency of these digging hands, the Mole burrows with great rapidity ; and the galleries which it forms are of a very complicated nature. In the genus Chrysocldoris, of which several species inhabit South Africa, the anterior feet have only three toes, and so differs from the type ; but, in the majority, the structure is much the same as^ in our common Mole. This will be fully described at a following page, as it may serve as a general illustration of the family, found in most parts of Europe, and is well known for its curious cylindrical form, and the blacknc'ss of Its velvet-like coat. Its eyelids are open, and it has been proved by experiment to have the power of sight, although it is a popular belief that the Mole is quite blind ; this, indeed, is the case with another species, inhabiting the south of Europe {T. c<^ca), which is supposed to be the Mole referred to by those ancient naturalists from Fig. 186.— The Mole {Taipa Enropxa). THE COMMON SHREW. 75 whose statements the charge of bHndness has been apphed to our species. Of the exotic species, those of the genus Chrysochloris, already referred to on account of the structure of their anterior limbs, are further distinguished by the peculiar metallic lustre of their coats, whii h has given rise to the name of Golden Mole (C ai/rca), applied to the best known species. Tlie Sca/oJ>s aquatiais, a native of Canada and the United States, is commonly known as the Shrew- Mole, from the resemblance of its dentition to that of the Shrews, which form the types of the following family. In the genus Coiidy- lura, the species of which are also inhabitants of North America, the nose is surrounded by a number of small movable cartilaginous filaments, which radiate somewhat in the form of a star, and are doubtless employed as organs of touch. In their general habits, all these animals resemble our common Mole. In the family of the Sorkida;, or Shrews, which includes the greater part of the order, the feet are all formed for progression ; that is to say, the anterior members are never converted into organs appropriated for digging. The eyes are always perfect, and readily distinguishable ; and the external ears, though small, are always present. In other respects, the different animals composing this group exhibit a remarkable variety of character ; the dentition pre- sents considerable differences even in so closely allied species ; the length of the legs and tail, and the clothing of the body, are also very variable. They all, however, agree in living either on the sur- face of the ground, or upon trees, and never in a complicated system of burrows, such as that of the Moles ; their jaws are always more or less elongated, and the nose is usually prolonged into a movable snout. The Soricidcc are found in all parts of the world ; they are of small size, and their nourishment consists principally of insects, although some species also feed on vegetable matters. In the typical Shrews, forming the genus Sorcx and its allies, the form of the body presents a close resemblance to that of the Mice or Rats, whence the name of Shrew-Mice is frequently applied to our English species. Their legs are nearly of equal length, and termi- nate in five toes, which are armed with small claws, and usually free, though not unfrequently united by a swimming membrane. The nose is more or less produced, and the tail is elongated, usually tapering, covered with scales, like that of the Mice, and with a greater or less number of bristles. The skin is clothed with a short fur. Some of these are amongst the most diminutive of the Alam- malia, and the largest of them are about the size of a Rat. They are generally furnished with peculiar glands, secreting a fluid of a disagreeable odour, which prevents Cats and Dogs from eating them ; although they will not unfrequently kill them — probably mis- taking them for Mice. They live for the most part upon insects, worms, and small Mollusca ; but the larger species also prey upon the smaller Vericbrafa. > Our British species all belong to the typical genus Sorex. This genus may be regarded as the type of a sub-family to which the name of Soricincs may be given. Species of this group are found in various parts of both hemispheres, but principally in Europe and Africa. Amongst these we shall only notice the Desmans {My gale), sometimes called Musk Rats, of which two species are found in Europe — one in the Pyrenees (J/. Pyreiiaicd), and the other in Russia (J/, moscliafa). These animals are the largest in the group ; they are remarkable for having the nose produced into a short pro- boscis, and their feet palmated and naked, or scaly. They always inhabit the neighbourhood of water, in which they swim with great facility, and feed not only on insects and Mollusca, but also on small iish and Frogs. They are also remarkable for the strong odour of musk which they exhale. The MacroscclidincB are small animals, nearly allied to the true Shrews, but differing from them by having the hind-legs much elon- gated, so that they are enabled to spring in the same way as the Jerboas amongst the Rodcntia. Their noses are long, and often produced into a trunk ; their eyes and ears are larger than in the true Shrews ; and their tails are long, and usually covered with hair. These small animals are peculiar to Africa, and are most numerous in its southern parts. One species, however, is found in Algeria, where it is known to the French colonists as the Rat a trumpe {Macroscelidcs Rozcti). They live principally in dry rocky places, and feed on insects and other small animals ; although it appears that some of them also eat vegetable substances. In the Eriiiaceiiia;, or Fledgehogs, which are the largest members of the family, the body is short, thick, and stout ; the nose is less pointed than in the other groups ; the tail is short or entirely want- ing, and the upper surface is more or less covered with short spines, which, when the animals roll themselves up into a ball, as they always do when alarmed, present an almost insuperable obstacle to any predaceous animal that may wish to make a meal of the Hedge- hog's body. They are exclusively confined to the Eastern Hemi- sphere, where they are principally found in the warmer regions ; and are omnivorous and nocturnal animals. They sleep during the day in holes under the roots of trees or stones, and in similar situations, coming forth at night in search of insects, fruits, and roots. Those which inhabit cold climates pass the winter in a state of torpidity. Our only British species is the common Hedgehog {Erinacetts Europaus), an animal which will be fully described hereafter. Several other species inhabiting Asia and Africa belong to tliis group, which also includes the Tanrecs {Ce?i/ctcs) of the island of Madagascar, in which the tail is entirely wanting, and the spines, which are far weaker than in our common Hedgehog, are mixed with silky hairs. The Tiipaincc, or Banxrings, are organised for an arboreal exist- ence ; they resemble tlie Squirrels in their movements, and also present a certain similarity to the Lemurs. Their legs are of nearly equal length, but longer than in the majority of the other Soricidre, so that the body is always raised from the surface of the ground ; their skulls present a striking peculiarity, their orbits being com- pletely encircled by a bony ring ; whilst in the other members of the order, these cavities open into the temporal fossffi ; even the zygo- matic arch is incomplete in many cases. The Banxrings are rather elegant little animals, furnished with long tails, which are generally well covered with hair ; but in the Ptiloccrciis Lowii, a native of Sumatra, the tail is naked and scaly, except towards the extremity, where it bears two series of longish hairs, arranged something like the barbs of a feather. Most of the species of this group are found in the larger islands of the Eastern Archipelago (Java, Sumatra, and Borneo) ; but one or two species have been brought from Pegu and India. They live in the woods, where they climb the trees with great agility, and feed upon insects and fruits. In eating they hold the food between their fore-paws, in the manner of a Squirrel ; and, unlike the majority of the animals of this order, their period of activity is the day. Having thus drawn attention to the most important families and genus of the Insectivora, the following have been selected as cha- racteristic illustrations of the order, specimens of all of which may be seen in the British Museum. The Common Shrew (Sorex aranetis.) — This animal is of a reddish Mouse-colour, paler beneath ; the tail is quadrangular in adults, rather shorter than the body, and not ciliated beneath. Fig. 1S7. — Common Shrew. Length of head and body, two inches seven lines; of the tail, one inch ten lines. It is common in our island, frequenting tufted banks, hedge-rows, thickets, gardens, farm-yards, &c., and feeding on worms and insects. Caterpillars, &c., after which it grubs with its long pointed snout among the close herbage, or under the soft loose soil. It is very impatient of hunger, and extremely pugnacious, two seldom meeting without engaging in combat ; and if two be confined together in a box, the weaker falls a prey to the stronger, and is soon partially devoured. Many are killed and eaten by the Mole, and in August numbers are often found dead in the lanes and pathways across the fields ; but to what cause their destruction is owing, at the season in question, is not very apparent. As was the case with the Hedgehog and some other animals, superstition and ignorance have attributed the most baneful properties to the Shrew ; it was supposed by our ancestors to paralyse the limbs of cattle by merely creeping over them, afflicting them vi'ith excruciating torments, and to poison them by its bite. Aristotle, Pliny, and Agricola also attribute poi- sonous effects to the bite of the Shrew, which, as they assert, pro- duces tumours and ulcerations. Agricola states that the Latins called the animal AIiis ara7ictis, from its injecting venom into the wound it makes, as does the Spider (yl/'fZ.'/ra) ; and he notices the characters of the teeth, and quadrifid figure of the wound they inflict ; adding that in warm regions the wound is generally pestiferous, but not in cold climates : his remedial prescription is to place the body of the Shrew cut asunder on the injured part. Among our ancestors the remedies were to make the person or animal pass through the arch of a bramble rooted at both ends, or to apply to the limbs of suffering cattle the twigs or leaves of a Shrew-ash ; that is, an ash into the trunk of which a deep hole had been bored, and a poor de- voted Shrew plugged in alive. The voice of the Shrew is a shrill, feeble, chirring cry, which may be often heard when the animal is unseen : we have known persons 76 THE SHREWS AND THE DESMAN. whose ears were unable to catch it, however attentively they have listened, though of other tones they were perfectly susceptible. The Shrew makes long- superficial burrows in banks and among the roots of trees and brushwood ; the female makes a nest in her retreat of soft herbage, with an aperture at the sides ; she breeds in the spring, producing from five to seven young. In the following cut are represented three British Shrews : a, the Oared Shrew {Sorex remifer, Geoff. ; Sorex aliatiis, Sowerby) ; b, the Water-Shrew {Sorex fodiens, Gmelin, not of Duvernoynor The Desman {Mygale moschata). Biesamratze of the Germans; Wychozol of the Russians. (See Fig. 189.) — The genus Mygalc, Guv. {Myogalla, Fischer; Castor vioschatus, Linn.), presents us with the following dental characters : — Incisors, ^ . canines, o — ^\aV.4^\ ^_^ Fig. 188.— British Shrews. of modern continental authors ; Sorex bicolor, Shaw) ; and c, the Common Shrew, which we have already illustrated by Fig. 187. The Water-Shrew is nearly black above, white beneath, the colours being abruptly separated ; the sides of the feet and the under sur- face of the tail are ciliated or fringed with long, stiff, white hairs. Length of head and body, three inches and three lines ; of the tail, two inches one line. This elegant little animal is aquatic in its habits, frequenting clear fresh-water ditches and brooks, in the banks of which it makes extensive burrows ; it swims and dives with great address, the sides being spread out, the belly flattened, and the tail extended as a rudder. When diving, the black velvety coat of the animal appears as if beautifully silvered, from the innumerable bubbles of air that cover it. These are pressed out of the fur, which repels the water, the animal being quite dry when it emerges. It has the power of completely closing the orifices of the ears, so as to exclude the water while beneath the surface. The food of the Water-Shrew consists of insects, the larv£e of E^phemera, and perhaps the ova of fishes ; in quest of these it swims and dives or grubs in the mud with its snout. These little Water-Shrews form colonies in certain spots, making runs or tracks along the banks leading from their subterranean dwellings to the water ; when two meet in these, or while swimming about, they utter their shrill, feeble, querulous cry, perhaps a token of recognition. The Water-Shrew, though only recognised as a native of our island within the last few years, is not uncommon in most of our counties, and has been captured in Scotland and Devonshire. The Oared Shrew is closely allied to the Water-Shrew, and ap- pears to have the same aquatic habits. The tail is quadrangular, and compressed towards the apex, and is ciliated on the under sur- face ; the feet are strongly ciliated ; the body is black above, greyish- black below ; the throat is of a yellowish colour. It is of about the size of the former. Fig. 185, a7ite, in our introductory remarks at p. 74, ante, represents the under surface of the hinder feet of — a, the Common Shrew ; b, the Water-Shrew ; c, the Oared Shrew. molars, ^^ — !^ ; of the molars, the first seven on each side above, 1-1 and the first four below, are false ; between the two large incisors below, are two minute teeth, and the two upper incisors are flattened and triangular. (See Fig. 190 for the teeth of the upper jaw.) In these animals the snout is elongated into a flexible proboscis furrowed down the middle, which they are incessantly turning about ; the tail is long, thick, scaly, and compressed at the sides ; the eyes are very small ; external ears wanting : the fur is full, deep, soft, and glossy, like that of the beaver; the feet are broad and completely webbed ; toes five in number. Two species are known, both aquatic in their habits : the one is the Desman or Musk-Rat of Russia ; the other, a smaller species, is found in the Pyrenees. The Desman measures upwards of ten inches in the length of the head and body, that of the tail being seven (from specimen in Paris Museum). This beaver-like aquatic Shrew is abundant in the lakes and rivers of Southern Russia, feeding on worms, aquatic insects, fish, and especially Leeches, which it searches for in the mud at the bottom of the water with its long flexible snout. Its burrow is deeply hollowed out in steep over- hanging banks, the entrance being below the level of the water, whence it rises gradually, so as never to be filled during the highest floods. The Desman seldom comes on shore voluntarily, but is often captured in the nets of the fishermen ; and it is frequently seen swimming about or diving in pursuit of prey. It exhales a strong musky odour, the secretion of small glandular follicles at the root of the tail ; and this flavour of musk it communicates to Pikes and other fishes which prey upon it, rendering their flesh disgusting. Fig. 189. — Desman. Fig. igo. — Teeth of Desman. THE CAPE ELEPHANT-SHREIV AND THE SOLENODON. 11 The Cape Elephant-Shrew {Macroscelides typicus). — Allied to the Shrews are some little animals peculiar to Africa, constituting- the g-enus ilacroscelidcs of Dr. A. Smith. They are called Ele- phant-Mice or Elephant-Shrews, from the proboscis-like form of the Fig. 191. — Cape Elephant- Shrew. snout ; but the scientific name bears reference to the Jerboa-like elongation of the hinder limbs. (See Fig. 191.) The dentition is as follows : — Incisors, ~~ ; false molars (called canines by Dr. Smith), 2-3 ~ — - ; molars, P~^ 4-4 5-5 croscelides : a, upper surface of the skull, natural size ; d, profile ; c, lower jaw; d, under surface of the skull, twice the natural size ; c, the lower jaw, twice the natural size. The nostrils are at the ape.x of the proboscis ; the eyes are moderate ; the ears large and rounded ; the tail rather long, and like that of a Mouse. Feet five-toed. The Fig. 192 shows the skull and teeth of A/a- Fig. 192.— Skull and Teeth of Cape Elephant-Shrew. Cape Elephant-Shrew {Macroscelides typicus) is the Sorex aranciis maxinuis of Petever. The fur is soft and long ; the general colour is reddish-brown, clouded on the back with a darker tint, and under surface white : the ears nearly naked ; whiskers long : length of head and body, three inches and three-quarters ; of tail, three inches and a quarter. This curious animal inhabits open plains, and lives in burrows under ground, the passage to which runs for some distance almost perpendicularly downwards. During the day it seeks its food, and may be seen basking in the heat of the sun, sitting erect on its hinder legs in the full glare of the rays. When disturbed, it flies immediately to its subterranean retreat, and with such velocity, that it is impossible to make out its form or general appearance as it skims along. It feeds upon insects. Several ijpccies are known, peculiar to South Africa ; and one is a native of Algiers. The Solenodon (.SV«wa'o«/ara^c?.^•«.f).— The genus Solenodon Fig. 193. — Solenodon. of Brandt ("M6m. de I'Acad. Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petcrs- bourg," tome ii., livr. 3eme, 1833) contains, as far as yet known, only one species, an animal peculiar to Hayti, where it is known under the name of Agouta. (See Fig. 193.) Allied in many respects ^^^f^ Fig. 194. — Skull and Teeth of Solenodon. 78 THE SHREW-MOLE AND THE COMMON MOLE. to the genera Sorex and JMygale : in the character of the ears, the fur, and the tail, it resembles the Opossums {Didclpliis). Its denti- tion approximates the most nearly to that of Mygale. In size the Solenodon exceeds a Rat; its snout is lengthened into a slender naked proboscis, at the tip of which are the nostrils with a furrow between them ; the ears are moderate and rounded ; the fur is coarse and long, and of a yellowish-red ; from the lips and checks proceed slender whiskers of great length ; the limbs are stout ; the toes, five on each foot, armed with large hooked claws ; the tail is long. Rat- like, and scaly, being destitute of hairs. Dentition as follows : — Incisors, - ; false molars, ; true molars, ? — : 6 o '6-6 '8-! The two middle incisors of the upper jaw are remarkable for their size and the distance between them and the succeeding incisors ; they are com- pressed, pointed, and perpendicular. The zygomatic arch is incom- plete, as in the Shrews {Sorex), the Tanrecs {Ceiitc/cs), the Echi)iops, &c. Fig. 194 represents the skull and dentition of the Solenodon : a, skull of Solenodon (profile) ; b, seen from above ; c, seen from below ; d, mandible or lower jaw ; e, anterior part of the inter- maxillary bone, with the two anterior incisor teeth ; f, anterior surface of an an- terior upper incisor tooth ; g, anterior parts of the man- dible, with the four anterior incisor teeth ; h, the crown of a second or middle in- cisor tooth of the mandible, seen on its internal surface, and exhibiting its triangu- lar canal. The foregoing figures are nearly of the natural size, z', teeth of the upper jaw seen laterally; i, i, nat. size; 2, 2, magnified. (Brandt.) Fig. 195, a, the fore-foot of Solenodon, upper surface; b, hind-foot, upper surface. Of the habits of the Solenodon little is known : its strong claws and pointed snout, the base of which is supported by a stylet of bone, denote it to be a burrowing animal. An imperfect skin, in the museum of the Zoological Society, was sent by Mr. Hearne from Hayti, who thus writes respecting it : — " The only quadruped, I believe, found on the island on the landing of Columbus was the Agouta, a little larger than, and somewhat resembling a Rat, with an equally long tail and a longer snout, whose food is chiefly grain, although the animal is carnivorous also : its hair is red. I had one alive, intended for the Society, but it received a wound from a Cat, of which it died." The Shrew-Mole {Scalops canadensis); Sorex aquaticus, Linn. ; Scalops aquaticus,Y\i,Q\iex. (See Fig. 196.) The animals of this genus Fig. 195. — Feet of Solenodon. Fig. 196. — Shrew-Mole. are peculiar to North America. • Their form is Mole-like ; the eyes are minute in the extreme, and scarcely to be discovered ; there are no ex- ternal ears : the fur is velvety ; the fore-paws, like those of the Mole, are adapted for burrowing ; the tail is short : the teeth are — incisors, - > molars. -, or, according to F. Cuvier, z^ (See Fig. 197.) 10-10 " 9 The snout is long, tapering, flexible, and with a terminal disc. The Canada Shrew-Mole measures about seven inches and a-half long, exclusive of a tail, which is one inch and a-half. The general colour is brownish-black. It inhabits the banks of the Columbia and the adjoining coasts of the Pacific. According to Dr. Richardson, the Shrew-Mole resembles the com- mon European Mole as much in habit as in form, forming galleries, throwing up mounds, and feeding on worms and grubs. Dr. Godman states that these animals are most active in the morning, at mid-day, and in the evening, coming daily to the surface, when in their natural state, at noon, at which time they may be taken by driving a spade beneath them and throwing them on the ground ; but they are not easily taken at any other part of the day. They burrow in a variety of soils, but in wet seasons retire to the high grounds. An individual kept in confinement by Mr. T. Peale, fed largely on fresh meat, cooked or raw ; drank freely, Was lively and playful, and would follow the hand of its feeder by scent ; it would then burrow for a Fig. 197.— Teeth of Shrew-Mole. short distance in loose earth, and after driving a circle, return for more food. It employed its flexible snout in a singular manner whilst it was eating, doubling it down, like a proboscis, upon its food, so as to direct and force it into the mouth. An allied species [Scalops Tovmsendii) is a native of California, and another {Scalops Pentisylvaiiiciis, Harlan) is found in Pennsylvania. In our introductory remarks at p. 74, ante, we have given a general description of the Talpidce, or Mole family. The common Mole, and others of the species, Talpa, &c., we shall now more fully remark on and illustrate. The Common Mole {Talpa ^//ro/iz?;?).— Mouldwarp and Mouldiwarp ; Want in Dorsetshire and Devonshire; Wand, Old Danish ; Vond, Norwegian ; Maulwerf, German ; Mol, Dutch ; Fig. 19S.— Mole. Muldvarp, modern Danish ; Mulvard and Surk, Swedish ; La Taupe, French; Talpa, Latin and modern Italian; Topo, Spanish; Tou- peiro, Portuguese ; Gwadd and Twrch daear, ancient British. (See Fig. 198, and Fig. 186, p. 74, ante.) We need not say that the Mole is a miner, living an almost exclusively subterranean life, ever pursuing ita picy through the soil. THE COMMON MOLE 79 and working out long galleries in tlie chase. In accordance with its destined habits is the whole of its structural development. The body is cylindrical and compact ; the snout prolonsjcd and pointed ; the limbs very short ; the anterior pair present a thick, contracted arm, terminating in broad solid paws, with five fingers scarcely divided, and armed with strong flat nails. The tournure of thesp scrapers (for such they are) gives them an obliquely outward position, and facilitates their use as scooping instruments, by which the soil is not only dug up, but thrown backwards at each stroke, and that with great energy. The hinder limbs are small, and the feet feeble in comparison with the anterior scrapers ; while the body tapers to them from the chest and shoulders, so the hinder quarters offer no impedi- ment to the animal's progress through its narrow galleries. The fur, moreover, is such as best befits a subterranean dweller — it is extremely close, fine, short, and smooth, and resembles the nap of black velvet. There is no external conch to the organs of hearing, the sense of which is acute in the extreme ; a simple auditory opening, capable of being closed or dilated at pleasure, leads to the internal apparatus, which is effectually defended from the intrusion of particles of earth or sand. At a cursory glance the Mole appears to be destitute of eyes ; they are, however, not wanting, though very small, and buried in the fur. (See introductory remarks at p. 74, anteS A limited power of vision is sufficient for this dweller in the dark ; the Mole, however, can see better than might be imagined. By a peculiar muscular contrivance it is capable of bringing forward, or of drawing in, the eye; and this, when withdrawn, is enveloped in and defended by the close fur ; so that, as is the case with the ear, no particles of earth can injure it. We have said that the sense of hearing is exquisite ; and to it the Mole trusts for warning on the approach of danger ; but the sense of smell is equally delicate ; and by this it is guided in its search for food. It bores its long sharp nose in the earth as it traverses its galleries, and immediately detects worms and the larva; of insects, which constitute its chief food. Nor is the feeling of this part at a low ratio ; it is, on the contrary, very tapers to the hind-quarters, which are supported by limbs as slender as they are short. The neck-bones, nevertheless, are not wanting ; they even exist in the same. number as in the Giraffe; the vertebral formula of the Fig. 199. — Slveleton of Mole. acute and susceptible, and aids the sense of smell in the procuring of food. The pointed snout is, indeed, a finger-like organ of prehen- sion, as well as a boring instrument. The general skin of the body is strong and tough, and not easily torn or lacerated. The osseous and muscular development of the Mole exhibits a perfect correspondence with its external characters and the perfec- tion of its senses. The great develop- ment of the skeleton (Fig. igg) is anteriorly — namely, in the bones of the shoulders, arms, and chest. The skull (Fig. 200) is depressed above, elon- gated, and pointed ; and the snout, continued beyond the maxillary and nasal bones, is supported by a little additional bone, produced by the ossifi- cation of the cartilage. Its boring faculties are rendered still more effec- tive by the ossified condition of the ligament of the neck, which passes from the back of the skull, down the cervical vertebra;, and which in other animals is elastic. The teeth are small, exhibiting a decidedly insectivorous character, the molars being crowned with sharp-pointed tubercles or eminences. (See Fig. 201.) Professor Owen remarks that the Mole is hardly less fitted for the actions of an ordinary land-quadruped than the Sloth ; but the one is as admirably constructed for subterraneous as the other for arboreal life. The fore-limbs are as remarkably short, broad, and massive in the Mole, as they are long and slender in the Sloth ; yet the same osseous elements, similarly disposed, occur in the skeleton of each. The head of the Mole is long and cone-shaped ; its broad base joins on the trunk without any outward appearance of a neck. The fore- part of the trunk, to which the principal muscular masses working the fore-hmbs are attached, is the thickest, and thence the body Fig. 200.— Skull of Mole. Fig. 201. — Teeth of Mole. Mole being — 7 cervical, 13 dorsal, 6 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 10 caudal. The spine of the second vertebra or dentata is large, and extended back over the third vertebra : the neural arches of this and the succeeding neck-vertebrffi form thin simple arches without spines : the entire vertebra have been de- scribed as mere rings of bone ; but the transverse processes of the fourth, fifth, and sixth cervicals are produced forwards and back- wards, and overlap each other : in the seventh vertebra those pro- cesses are reduced to tubercular diapophyses which are not perfo- rated : the bodies of the vertebrae are depressed and quadrate. The part answering to the nuchal liga- ment in the Giraffe, is bony in the Mole. The first sternal bono, or manu- brium, is of unusual length, being much produced forwards, and its under surface downwards in the shape of a deep keel for extending the origin of the pectoral muscles. Seven pairs of ribs directly join the sternum, which consists of four bones, in addition to the manubrium and an ossified ensiform ap- pendage. The neural spines, which are almost obsolete in the first eight dorsals, rapidly gain length in the rest, and are antroverted in the last two dorsal vertebra;. The diapophyses, being developed in the posterior dorsals, determine the nature of the longer homologous processes in the lumbar vertebrae. The lumbar spines are low, but of considerable antero-posterior extent : the diapophyses are bent forward in the last four vertebra ; a small, detached, wedge-shaped hypapoph3J6is is fixed into the lower interspace of the bodies of the lumbar vertebra. The scapula is very long and narrow, but thick, and almost three- sided : the common rib-shaped is resumed in this cranial pleura- pophysis, as may be seen in the Bird and Tortoise. The clavicle, on the other hand, instead of the usual long and slender figure, pre- sents the form of a cube, being very short and broad, articulated firmly to the anterioriy projecting breast-bone, and more loosely with the acromion and head of the humerus. This bone would be classified amongst the "flat" bones. It_ is almost as broad as it is long, especially at its proximal end, which presents two articular surfaces — one for the scapula, the other for the clavicle : the expanse of the bone beyond these surfaces relates to the formation of an adequate extent of attachment for the deltoid, pectoral, and other great burrowing mnscles. All the other bones of the fore-limb are as extremely modified for fossorial actions. The olecranon expands transversely at its extremity, and the back part of the ulna is produced into a strong ridge of bone. The shaft of the radius is divided by a wide interosseous space from the ulna, and the head of the radius is produced into a hook- shaped process like a second " olecranon." The carpal scries con- sists of five bones in each row— the scaphoid bcmg divided in the first, and a sesamoid being added to the second row ; moreover, there is a large supplementary sickle-shaped bone, extending from the radius to the metacarpal of the pollex, giving increased breadth 8o THE COMMON MOLE. and a convex margin to the radial side of the very powerful hand, and chiefly completing its adaptation to the act of rapidly displacing the soil. The phalanges of the fingers are short and very strong : the last are bifid at their ends, for a firm attachment of the strong claws. Little more of the hand than these claws, and the digging or scraping edge, projects beyond the sheath of skin enveloping the other joints, and connecting the hand with the trunk. The common position of the arm-bone is, with its distal end, most raised. The fore-arm, with the elbow raised, is in the state between pronation and supination, the radial side of the hand being down- wards, and the palm directed outwards. The whole limb, in its position and structure, is unequalled in the vertebrate series as a fossorial instrument, and only paralleled by the corresponding limb in the Mole-Cricket {Gryllofalj)d) amongst the insect tribes. No impediment is offered by the hinder parts of the body or limbs when the thickest part of the animated wedge has worked its way through the soil. The pelvis is remarkably narrow. The ossa in- nominatahave coalesced with the sacrum, but not with each other, the pubic arch remaining open. The bodies of the sacral vertebrae are blended together, and are carinate below ; their neural spines have coalesced to form a high ridge. The acetabula point almost directly outwards. The head of the femur has no pit for a round ligament. A fabella is preser\'ed behind the outer condyle. A hamular process is sent off from the head of the tibia and fibula ; the lower moieties of the shafts of these bones are blended together. The toes are five in number on the hind-feet as in the fore, but are much more feebly developed. They serve to throw back the loose earth detached by the spade-shaped hands. The reader should compare this description of the skeleton of the Mole with those of Man, Fig. i, p. 2, and of the Camel, Fig. 14, p. 5, a7ite, where the names of each corresponding bone are given, so as to become acquainted with some of the peculiar features of the comparative anatomy of the Matiunaiia. It would appear that the subterranean labours of the Mole are e.xerted in the accomplishment of very different objects. Each Mole may be said to have its own district or manor, its hunting-ground, and its lodges ; and this ground is traversed by high-road tunnels, through which it travels from one part to another, all branching off from a central fortress — its ordinary residence, which is, however, not only distinct, but often remote from the chamber in which the nest is made and the young reared. We will begin by describing the fortress or ordinary domicile (Fig. 202). — This fortress is con- Fig. 202. — Habitation and Hunting-ground of the Mole. structed under a hillock of considerable size (not one of those ordi- narily thrown up every night, indicating its hunting excursions), and raised in some secure place, where a high bank, the roots of a tree, or the base of a wall, afford protection. The earth forming this mound is well compacted together, and made solid by the labours of the architect ; and within this firm-set mound is a complex arrange- ment of galleries and passages ot communication. First, a circular gallery occupies the upper portion of the mound, and this communi- cates by means of five descending passages with another gallery at the base of the mound, enclosing a larger area. These passages are nearly at equal distances. Within the area of this lower gallery is a chamber, not immediately communicating with it, but with the upper gallery, by three abruptly descending tunnels. This chamber is the dormitory of the Mole. From the basal gallery opens a high- road tunnel, which is carried out in a direct line to the extent of the manor over which the individual presides, and from the bottom of the central chamber a passage descends, and then sweeping upwards joins this main road at a little distance from the hillock ; so that the Mole can enter the high-road either from its dormitory or from the basal gallery. Besides the high-road, eight or nine other tunnels are carried out from the basal gallery ; they are of greater or less extent, and wind round more or less irregularly, opening into the high-road at various distances from the hillock : these irregular tunnels the Mole is continually extending in quest of prey ; throwing up the soil above the turf, through holes which it makes for the pur- pose, and which form the ordinary Mole-hills which we often see crowded thickly together. The high or main road exceeds in diameter the body of the Mole, and is solid and well-trodden, with smooth sides ; its depth varies according to the quality of the soil, instinct directing the little excavator in his work. Ordinarily it is five or six inches below the surface, but when carried under a stream- let or pathway it is often a foot and a-half beneath. It sometimes happens that the Mole will drive two or more additional high-roads in order to the extension of its operations ; and one high-road occa- sionally serves several Moles, which, however, never trespass on each other's preserves. They often meet in these roads, which will not admit of two passing at the same time ; one therefore must retreat ; but when two males thus come into collision they frequently attack each other, the weaker falling a victim in the combat. The alleys opening from the sides of the high-road are generally inclined downwards with a gradual slope, and then at the termination of these the Mole excavates branch alleys, upheaving Mole-hills as it works onwards in pursuit of prey. This, however, is not invariably the case, but rather where prey is abundant in rich soils : where the soil is barren, the Mole is constantly driving fresh alleys ; these in winter are carried deep down to where the worms have pierced their way, beyond the line to which the frost penetrates ; for, be it ob- served, the Mole does not hibernate, but is as active during winter as in spring or summer, though the results of his operations are less manifest. In soft rich soils, where the worms are among the roots of the turf, the Mole, as may be often noticed, drives very superficial runs in pursuit of them ; these runs are to be seen where a thin layer of richly manured soil overlays a stratum of gravel : in fact, the depth of these alleys is always determined by the quality of the soil and the consequent situation of the worms. With respect to the nest of the female, it is generally constructed at a distance from the fortress, where, at some convenient part, three or four passages intersect each other : the point of convergence is enlarged and rendered commodious, and fitted to receive a bed made of dry herbage, fibrous roots, &c. The chamber is generally beneath a large hillock, but not always ; and the surrounding soil is usually such as to afford abundant food to the female with little trouble on her part. The Mole breeds in the spring, mostly in April, and brings forth four or five young at a birth. These are supposed to remain under the mother's care till about half-grown, when they commence an independent existence. Such is the constitution of the Mole that a short fast proves fatal. It would appear that all its animal appetites are in excess ; its hunger is voracity amounting to rage, under the influence of which it fastens on its prey with intense eagerness. Earthworms are its favourite food, and these it skins Vi'ith great address, squeezing out the earthy contents of the body before swallowing it. It is not, however, exclusively upon earthworms and the larv£e of insects that the Mole feeds ; during the months of June and July it is in the habit of leaving its runs under the turf, and of wandering during the night (and occasionally even during the day) on the surface in quest of prey, such as Birds, Mice, Frogs, Lizards, Snails, &c. ; but it refuses to touch the Toad, in consequence no doubt of the acrid exudation from that reptile's skin. During these nocturnal excur- sions it often falls a prey to the Owl ; and we have seen it in the day- time caught and killed by Dogs. The voracity of the Mole, and its perpetually recurring repasts upon animal food, render water not only a welcome refreshment, but necessary to its existence. A run, sometimes used by many indi- viduals, always leads to a ditch, stream, or pond, if such be within a moderate distance. If these natural supplies be not at hand, the Mole sinks little wells, in the shape of perpendicular shafts, which become filled with the rain, and retain the water ; and they have sometimes been found brimful. Scarcity of water, or a drought, as well as a scarcity of worms, often obliges the Mole to shift its quarters, and locate upon other grounds. In its migration it will cross brooks or rivers, swimming admirably ; and when spring or autumn floods inundate the fields, it easily saves itself by these means. It is, moreover, affirmed that in this peril the male and female brave the waters together, and expose themselves to the utmost danger in order to save their young, in which office of parental devotion they mutually assist and protect each other. The disposition of this animal is fierce and combative. If several Moles be kept in a box of earth, and not supplied with an abundance of food, they attack each other, and the w'eaker falls a prey to the stronger ; when the Mole seizes, it holds like a Bull-dog, with a tenacious gripe, and is not easily disengaged. , M. Geoffrey St. Hilaire describes the manner in which the Mole approaches and seizes a bird : it exerts several stratagems to get within reach of its victim, employing the utmost address and caution ; but when this is accomplished, it suddenly changes its plan, and makes an instan- taneous and impetuous attack ; fastens on the hapless bird, tears open the abdomen, thrusts its snout among the viscera, and revels in THE CHRYSOCHLORE AND THE STAR-NOSED MOLE. 8i its sanguinary repast. After satiating its ravenous appetite, it sinks into a profound repose : in the winter it slumbers in its fortress ; but in the summer, beneath some ordinary Mole-hill in one of its alleys. This sleep endures for about four hours, or perhaps longer, in the middle of the day, when it awakes with a renovated appetite. Its busiest time is in the evening, during the night, and early in the The following cut represents Moles in their native haunts, and on a burrow, with hillock. (See Fig. 203.) The Cape Chrysochlore {Chrysochloris G7/c;mj).— The Mole IS represented m Africa by the Chrysochlore, but the fore-paws are only armed with three nails, of which the outermost is long, thick arched, and pointed ; there is no tail. This singular animal is loss than a Mole, and appears to be entirely destitute of eyes. Its velvclty fur has a metallic lustre, changing from dark-green to bronze or copper in different lights. This species is a native of Southern Africa, where it lives like the Mole in burrows, and feeds on worms and insects. It is the Taupe doree of the French. The subjoined cuts represent the back and belly of the Chrysochlore. (See Figs. 204 and 205.) There arc several other varieties. The Thick-tailed Condylure, OR Star-nosed Mole {Condylar a 7nacroura). — The Condylures, or Star-nosed Moles, are confined to North America ; they closely resem- ble the common Mole in their feet, general aspect, and habits, but the tail is longer, and the disc at the end of the snout is encircled by little movable cartilaginous processes like the rays of a star. The eyes are extremely minute ; external ears are wanting ; fur deep, thick, and fine. The teeth consist of — incisors, i ; canines, - (See 203. -British Moles in their native haunts. morning. It might be supposed, from the figure of the Mole, that its motions were very slow and deliberate ; it trips along, however, at a fair pace, and traverses its underground runs and galleries with great rapidity. The Mole does not exist in the extreme north of Scotland, in Zetland, or the Orkney Islands, nor has it been seen in any part of Ireland. Varieties of this animal often occur: we have examined specimens of a Mouse-colour, of a white, cream-white, and pale yellowish orange. J.^. Fig. 204. — Cape Chrysochlore. Fig. 205. — Cipe Chrysochlore, ; molars, . i-i 7-7 Fig. 206, teeth of C. cristata.') We have no minute details respect- ing the manners and instincts of the Chrysochlores, of which three species are distinguished : they are burrowing animals, feeding upon worms and the larvje of insects, &c. The thick-tailed Condylure was dis- covered by Mr. David Douglas on the banks of the Columbia river. The colour of the fur above is deep lustrous brown, paler on the Fig. 206. — Teeth of Star-nosed Mole. Fig. 207. — Star-noseJ Mole. under parts. The tail is contracted at its root, whence it gradually enlarges, and then tapers to a fine point. Length of head and body, four inches and a-half ; of the tail, two inches and a-half. (See Fig. 207.) Insectivora— Genus Erinaceus — Hedgehogs. The only British species of this genus is the COMMON HEDGEHOG (Erittaccus Euro/xvus). Riccio of the Italians ; Erizo of the M 82 THE HEDGEHOG. Spanish; Ourizo of the Portuguese; Herisson of the French ; Igel of the Germans ; Eegelvarken of the Dutch ; Pin-suin of theDanes ; Draenog and Dracn y coed of the ancient British ; Urchin, Pro- vincial English ; 'Ex'i'oe (spiny animal) of the Greeks. — A group of these animals is represented in Fig. 208 It is superfluous to enter into an elaborate description of this spine-covered animal ; all are well acquainted with its external characters, and all know that it has the power of rolling itself up into a ball, presenting an array of Fig. 20S. — Hedgehogs. serried spines formidable to its antagonist. A peculiar muscular expansion beneath the skin enables the Hedgehog thus completely to enshroud itself in its panoply, as in a hood, the margin of which is closed by means of a circular muscle, the head and limbs being retracted within. While the animal is thus enveloped in its armed skin, the spines are stiffly set by the action of the muscular ex- pansion, and radiate from the ball ; and such is the strength and elasticity of this covering, that a Hedgehog may roll down a steep place or precipitous bank without the slightest injury. Mr. Bell assures us that he has repeatedly seen a domesticated Hedgehog in his possession run towards the precipitous wall of an area, and, with- out hesitation or a moment's pause for preparation, throw itself off, contracting, at the same instant, into a ball, in which condition it reached the ground from a height of twelve or fourteen feet ; when, after a few moments, it would unfold itself and run off unhurt. The Hedgehog is nocturnal in its habits : it frequents woods, copses, old gardens, orchards, and thick hedgerows, where it remains rolled up in its retreat during the day, coming forth on the approach of twilight, and continuing on the alert till morning. Its motions are quick and irregular, and its pace a sort of heavy paddling, the body being close to the ground, and the feet plantigrade. Its food con- sists of insects, Slugs, Frogs, Toads, Mice, and even Snakes ; to which it adds eggs, young nestlings, and various kinds of vegetables, as the roots of grass and plantain, and ripe orchard-fruits which fall from the trees. White notices the manner in which it bores with its snout, to get at the root of the plantain, which it eats, leaving the tuft of leaves untouched. In the first volume of the "Zoological Journal" is the narrative, from the pen of Mr. Broderip, of an ex- periment made by Professor Buckland, relative to the destruction of Snakes by the Hedgehog, from which it would appear that the cunning quadruped makes a sudden attack on the reptile, and giving it a hard bite, instantly rolls itself up for safety, then cautiously un- folds, and inflicts another wound, repeating its attacks till the Snake is " scotched," its back-bone being broken in several places ; it next passes the body of the Snake gradually through its jaws, cracking the bones at short intervals ; which done, it proceeds to eat its victim as one would eat a radish, beginning with the tip of the tail, and slowly proceeding upwards. We have frequently seen Hedgehogs eat Frogs, rapidly crunching their bones with an audible noise. The Hedgehog may be easily domesticated, and becomes familiar, feed- ing on soaked bread, vegetables, and meat ; it is useful in kitchens. which it effectually clears of Crickets, Cockroaches, Beetles, &c. ; and as it keeps quiet in its nest or retreat all day, produces itself no incon- venience. Superstitious ignorance, as in the case of the poor little Shrew, has led to the cruel persecution of the Hedgehog, because, forsooth, it was (and in some places still is) believed to drain dry the udders of the Cows during the night, to the surprise of the milkmaid and the indignation of the farmer. To the Slow-worm and the Fem- Owl {Ca^ritnulgits) the same mischievous habits have been at- tributed, the physical impossibility of their committmg such a theft being overlooked or not appreciated. With respect to the Hedgehog, this accusa- tion, as Mr. Bell observes, is about as well founded as that by Pliny, and ex- aggerated by Sperling, who asserts that it ascends trees, knocks off the apples and pears (.ffilian says figs), and throw- ing itself down upon them so that they may stick to its spines, trots oS with the prize. The Hedgehog hibernates, passing the winter in a state of complete tor- pidity. It makes its retreat in banks under the hollow roots of trees, in holes or other sheltered and convenient places, constructing a sort of nest or bed of grasses, dried leaves, and moss ; with these it covers itself deeply and closely, and when discovered hibernating, re- sembles a ball or roundish mass of herb- age, which it seems to have attached to its spines by repeatedly rolling itself round amidst the heap it had stored up. The female breeds early in the sum- mer, forming an artful nest, roofed so as to throw oft" the rain ; within, it is well lined with leaves and moss. The young, from two to four in number, are blind at their birth, about two inches long, perfectly white, and naked, though the rudiments of the prickles are per- ceptible. These soon develop them- selves, and harden even before the eyes are opened ; but it is not till a later period that the young are able to draw down the skin over the muzzle, and fold them- selves Into a complete ball. The mother is devoted to her offspring, and unremitting in her duties. Formerly the flesh of the Hedgehog was eaten in our island, and is so still on some parts of the continent. An intimate friend of the writer had one dressed and served up for dinner, and assured us that it was excellent ; we must, however, remember the old adage, " De gustibus," &c. : few, we think, would willingly partake of such "small deer." The Romans made use of the spiny skin of the Hedgehog in hackling hemp for the weaving of cloth. The Hedgehog is found in most parts of Europe ; its length, when full grown, is about g-J- inches. Fig. 209 represents the skull. The dentition is as follows : — Incisors, - the two middle the longest ; 6 false molars, ^^ ; molars with acute tubercles, 3^3 . small tuber- i-i 3-3 culous molars, — ~— INSECTIVORA— Genus Cenieies—Tn^ Tenrecs. Closely allied to the genus Erinacetis is the genus Cenfefes, 111. [Centenes, Desm. ; Setiger, Geoff.), which comprehends certain Hedgehog-like animals, confined, as far as we know, to the Mauri- tius and Madagascar. They are covered with spines, but these spines are feebler than those of the Hedgehog ; nor do the animals enjoy so completely the power of rolling themselves up into a ball. 6 4 6 4 molars, "d^l^. (See Fig. 210). The muzzle is long I— I 6-6 and pointed ; the tail wanting. These animals hibernate during the dry season, when their natural food, insects and worms, fail, and revive on the return of the rainy season. In their habits they are nocturnal. The Tenrec, or Tanrec {Ccntetcs ecaudafiis, Cuv. ; Erina- ceus ecaudatus, Linn.: see Fig. 211). This species exceeds our Fig. 209.— Skull of Hedgehog. They differ, moreover, in their dentition, the incisors being . canines, -'" ^ ■ — '--" ~ THE TENRECS—THE BULAU, OR TIKUS. 83 Hed"-eho<' in size, and is covered above with long flexible spines, except on°the top of the head ; the under parts are clad with yellowish bristly hairs, a few black being- intermixed. The Tenrec is a native of Madagascar, but has been naturalised in the Mauritius. Of its habits we have but imperfect details. On June 14th, 1831, a letter respecting these animals, addressed to the Fig. 210. — Teeth of Tenrec. Zoological Society, and dated Port Louis, December 15th, 1830, was read at the scientific meeting. It referred to previous unsuc- cessful attempts on the part of the Society's valuable correspondent to transport from the Mauritius to England living Gouramies and Tenrecs, and promised a repetition of the experiment. Mr. Telfair states that they live on boiled rice, but will probably not exist long upon that alone, as their natural food is chiefly composed of worms, insects. Lizards, and the eggs of Snails. In the Mauritius they sleep through the greater part of the winter, from April to November, and are only to be found when summer heat is felt, which being generally ushered in by an electric state of the atmosphere, the negroes {with Fig. 211. — Tenrec. whom they are a favourite food) say they are awakened by the peals of thunder which precede the summer storms or " pluies d'orage." Even in summer they are not often seen beyond the holes in which they burrow, except at night. Their favourite haunts are among the old roots of clumps of bamboos. They have a very overpowering smell of musk at all times, which is increased to an extraordinary degree when they are disturbed or frightened ; yet their flesh is considered so savoury by the negroes, that they are unwilling to sell those which they catch, and would not exchange it for any other food, except perhaps for the " Outrite," which is the Catfish hung up in the sun until it acquires a most fetid smell, tainting the atmo- sphere to a great distance ; in this state it is a chief ingredient in their favourite ragout. The Striped Tenrec {Centctes scinispinosus). — This species is of small size : the head is very conical ; the muzzle elongated and Fig. 212. — Striped Tenrec. pointed ; the body is clothed with a mixture of spines and bristles, and is banded longitudinally yellow and black. Native country, Madagascar. (See Fig. 212.) The Spiny Tenrec, or Tendrac {Centetes s^inosus); Ericulus 7iigrescens ? of Isidore Geoffroy. — Incisors, ^ : molars, '-^-. 4 . 1-1 The Tendrac of Buffoon is more like a Hedgehog in appearance than are the two previous species. It is covered above with close, short, stiff spines, and with bristle-like hairs on the under parts. The spines are of a deep mahogany colour, whitish at the root and point. Under parts yellowish-white. Native country, Madagascar, where it is said to make a burrow in the neighbourhood of fresh or Fig. 213. — Spiny Tenrec. salt water ; its habits resemble those of the rest of its race, and it is acceptable to the negroes as food. (See Fig. 213.) An animal allied to the Tendrac, and called Sokinar by the natives, is found in Madagascar. The Gymnure {Gymm/ra Rafflesii). The Bulau or Tikus. Of the genus Gynmura (Horsfield and Vigors.) — It is a native of Sumatra, and its introduction to science is due to the late Sir T. Stamford Raffles, who first described it under the title of Viverra Gymnura. Cuvier observes that it appears t5 approach Cladobates Fig. 214. — Gymnure. {Tupaia) in its teeth, and the Shrews in its muzzle and scaly tail. The toes are five in number on each foot ; the eyes are small ; the whiskers long ; the fur consists of a short, dense, woolly under-coat, and long, coarse, thinly-set hairs. The body, legs, first half of the 84 THE BANXRING. tail, and a stripe above the eyes are black ; the head, neck, and end of the tail are white ; the muzzle is elonjrated. The dentition as follows : — Incisors, - ; canines, ; molars, 6-6 It exhales a I — I 6 i-i ' ' 6-6 strong musky smell. Specimens are preserved in the Museum of the Zoological Society and the British Museum. (See Fig. 214.) insectivora- The Banxring, -Genus Tuj>aia — The Banxring. OR Bangsring {Tiipaia yavajiica). — The genus Tupaia, RafHes {Cladobafes, F. Cuvier ; Sorexglis, Diard ; Glisjiorex, Desmarest ; Hyogale, Temminck), contains several Fig. 215. — Banxring. species, mostly natives of Sumatra and Java, where they inhabit the forests. (See Fig. 215.) In their dentition there is some resem- blance to that of the Hedgehog. The formula stands as follows : — Incisors, - ; canines, 6 Fig. 216 represents the molars, 3 — ~. i-i 6-6 teeth : a, those of the upper jaw ; b, those of the lower. The head is oblong and depressed ; the snout long and attenuated ; the nostrils lateral ; the eyes very large Fig. 216. — Teeth of Banxring. and rather prominent ; the body long, slender, and covered with close fur and soft hairs ; the tail is longer than the body, and com- pressed ; the feet planti- grade and pentadactyle ; the toes compressed and furnished with hooked claws ; the thumb is dis- tinct, and movable in a direction opposite to the others. Fig. 217 repre- sents the head of the Tupaia Tana of Sumatra : a, in profile ; and b, as seen from above. Fig. 218 represents the head of the Banxring (Tupaia Javanica) : and Fig 219; a, the fore-foot; b, the hind- foot ; in both the thumb is seen distinct, especially in the hind-foot. The Tupaias, instead of being strictly terrestrial, lead, to a certain extent, the life of Squirrels, having all their sprightliness and activity, and much ot the general appearance of those animals. They are, in fact, semi-arboreal Insectivora ; and were it not for their long head and pointed snout, could scarcely be distinguished, at a distance, from some of the Sciuri, or Squirrels. Their fine soft fur is of a dark red ; and on the tail, the hair, which is long and bushy, is distichous, or arranged laterally, especially if viewed on the under surface. Sir T. Stamford RafHes states that they are decidedly diurnal, their large bright eyes being suited to daylight, and that they live principally on fruits, and especially that of the Kayogadis. The Banxring or Bangsring of Java is lively and active. Dr. Hors- field, who met with it during his researches in Java, states that in traversing the province of Blambangan, in 1806, he discovered it in the extensive forests which almost entirely cover the eastern extremity of the island ; and he thinks that its range, though it may not be confined exclusively to that province, is extremely limited. From the scanty information afforded by the natives, it would seem that the Banxring lives on trees, and "feeds on fruits and nuts ; " but Dr. Horsfield obsen'ed that this account must be received with due limitation, and he refers to the system of dentition as indicating that the Banxring is more adapted to animal than vegetable food. Length, from extremity of nose to the root of the tail, six inches five lines ; of tail, six inches five lines. The fur of the Banxring is close, silky, and delicate, witli a few longer, more rigid, and darker-coloured hairs dispersed throughout Fig. 217. — Head of Tupaia Tana. it. The upper parts are brown, slightly diversified with grey of different shades ; the lower parts dirty white, with a slight tint of greyish : the tail agrees with the upper parts ; and the scapular line, which is nearly an inch long, agrees with the neck. The Ferruginous Tupaia is a a native of Sumatra, and does not Fig. 218. — Head of Banxring. appear to differ essentially in its habits from the Java species. Sir Stamford RafBes states that a tame Tupaia ferriiginea was suffered to go about at perfect liberty, ranged in freedom over the whole house, and never failed to present himself on the breakfast and dinner table, where he partook of fruit and milk. Dr. Horsfield also quotes an extract from the " Proceedings of the Asiatic Society," where it is stated that a living Tupaia fcrruginea was brought to Bengal by a medical gentleman ; it ran about the house tame, but would not allow itself to be caught for close inspection. Though at liberty to run out of doors whenever it liked, it showed no disposition to leave its quarters, and evinced some attachment to the family ; for whenever strangers entered the house it showed disquietude and made a chattering noise. It gave no trouble in feeding, for it was always on the search after insects, and its favourite food Grasshoppers, and Cockroaches. Specimens of the Tupaias, of various species, are preserved in the Museum of the Zoological Society, and in the British Museum. Fig. 219. — Feet of Banxring. seemed to be Flies, Crickets, THE CARNIVORA, OR FLESH-EATING MAMMALIA. 85 CHAPTER IX. MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CARNIVORA— FLESH-EATERS. Dogs, Lions, Tigers, Hv^nas, Etc. J^X\ m ^t !r>Cv jV V fe^:^ ERIOUS difBculty frequently arises in the attempt to exactly classify animals, and place them in their relative posi- tion. In perusing the previous chapters, the reader must have noticed that each order almost insensibly becomes connected with another, either of superior or inferior character. In the Qitadriimatia, for example, we have a gradual progression downwards, from the Man- like to the Dog-like and Bird-like, extending from the Gorilla down to the Flying Lemur. This again resembles the Bats : and thus, throughout the science of Natural History, the utmost care has to be taken to define the characters of an animal so that it may be properly associated with its fellows. The order Carnivora, which is the subject of this ' and following chapters, amply illustrates the difficulty above referred to. Strictly, the term means Flesh- eating animals ; but under this designation we might include nearly all the Qitadruniaiia and other animals described in the preceding chapters. The young Gorilla, for example, described at p. 26, ante, enjoyed a steak and potatoes on his arrival at the Aquarium in West- minster, in 1877. Yet the other and more leading cha- racteristics of that animal remove him to a much higher class. He belongs to the Fuur-hatidcd animals ; while the Carnivora proper are Four-footed, or Quadrupeds. To avoid, as far as possible, the difficulties here alluded to, we shall throw the responsibility of defining the Carnivora on two of our most eminent modern British naturalists — Professor Owen and Mr. W. S. Dallas. In reference to the skeleton of the Carnivora, Professor Owen remarks, that the Lion may be regarded as the type of a quadruped. The well-adjusted proportions of the head, the trunk, the fore-limbs, and tail, concur with their structure to form an animal swift in course, agile in leaps and bounds, terrible iri the overpowering force of the blows infiicted by the fore-limbs. The strong, sharp, much curved, retractile talons terminating the broad powerful feet, enable the Carnivore to seize the prey it has overtaken, and to rend the body it has struck down. The jaws have a pro- portional strength, and are armed with fangs fitted to pierce, lace- rate, and kill. The carnivorous character of the skull, as exemplified by the sagittal and occipital crests, by the strength and expanse of the zygomatic arches, by the breadth, depth, and shortness of the jaws, by the height of the coronoid processes, and by the depth and extent of the fossa; of the lower jaw for the attachment of the biting muscles, reaches its maximum in the Lion. The triangular occipital region is remarkable for the depth and boldness of the sculpturing' of its outer surface, indicative of the powerful muscles working the whole skull upon the neck and trunk. The conjoined paroccipitals and mastoids form a broad and thick capsular support for the back part of the acoustic bulla. The pterj'goid processes are imper- forate. A well-marked groove extends on each side of the bony palate from the pos- terior to the anterior palatine foramma. The premaxillaries are comparatively short, and one-half of the lateral border of the nasals directly articulates with the max- illaries. The antorbital foramina are largely indicative of the size of the sensitive nerve supplying the well-developed whiskers. Within the cranium we find that ossification has extended into the membrane dividing the cerebrum from the cerebellum. This bony tentorium extends above the petrosal to the ridge overhanging the Gasserian fossa ; the petrosal is short, its apex is neither notched nor perforated ; the cere- bellar pit is very shallow. The sella turcica is deep, and well defined by both the an- terior and posterior clinoids. The rhinence- phalic fossa is relatively larger in the Lion than in most Carnivora, and is defined by a well-marked angle of the inner table of the skull from the pros- encephalic compartment. The olfactory chamber extends back- wards both above and below the rhinencephalic fossa ; the upper part of the chamber is divided into two sinuses on each side. The superior turbinals extend into the anterior sinus, and below into the presphenoidal sinus. All the bones of the skeleton are remark- able for their whiteness and compact structure. The vertebral formula of the Lion (Fig. 220) is— 7 cervical, 13 dorsal, 7 lumbar, 3 sacral, and 23 caudal. The last cervical vertebra Fig. 220.— Skeleton of the Lion {Fclis !eo). has the transverse processes imperforate, being formed only by diapophyses. The eleventh dorsal is that toward which the spines of the other trunk-vertebra; converge, and indicates the centre of motion of the trunk in this bounding quadruped. Eight pairs ot ribs directly join the sternum, which consists of eight bones. the clavicles are reduced to clavicular bones, 58, suspended in the flesh The supraspinal fossa of the scapula is less deep than the infraspinal one, and its border is almost uniformly convex ; the acromion is bifid, the recurved point being little larger than the extremity or anterior point. The humerus, 53- is perforated above the inner con- dyle, but not between the condyles. The radius, 55, and "'na, 54, are so articulated as to permit a free rotation of the fore-paw 1 lie scaphoid and lunar bones are connate. Besides these, the bones of the carpus are the cuneiforme ; the pisiforme ; the trapezium, wh.ch gives an articulation to the ulna side of the base of the short meta- carpus of the pollex ; the trapezoides ; the magnum, which s he least of the carpal bones; the unciforme, which supports, as usual, he metacarpaU of the fourth and tifth digits; and the pistforme. 86 THE CHARACTERS OF THE CARNIVORA. which projects far backwards, like a small calcaneum : there is also a supplementary ossicle wedged in the interspace between the pro- minent end of the carpal of the pollex. The pollex is retained on the fore-foot, and, like the other toes, is terminated by a large, compressed, retractile, ungual phalanx, forming a deep sheath, for the firm attachment of the large curved and sharp-pointed claws. The pelvis, 62, 63, 64, the femur, 65, the tibia, 66, and fibula,^67, offer no remarkable modifications of structure ; the patella, 66', is well ossified, and there is a fabella, 67', behind each condyle of the femur. The tarsal bones are the astragalus ; the scaphoides ; the calcaneum ; the cuboides, which, like the unciforme in the carpus, supports the two outer digits ; the cuneiforme externum, which, like the magnum, supports the middle digit ; the cuneiforme medium, which like the trapezoides, supports the second digit; and the cuneiforme internum, which supports the rudiment of the metatarsal of the first or innermost digit. The last or ungual phalanx, in both fore and hind feet, has a bony sheath at its base for the firmer implantation of the claw ; and its joint is at the back part of the proximal end of the phalanx, whereby it can be drawn upwards upon the second phalanx, when the claw becomes concealed in the fold of integument forming the interspace of the digits. This state of retraction is constantly maintained, except when overcome by an extending force, by means of elastic ligaments. The principal one arises from the outer side and distal e.xtremity of the second phalanx, and is inserted into the superior angle of the last phalanx ; a second arises from the outer side and proximal end of the second phalanx, and passes obliquely to be inserted at the inner side of the base of the last phalanx. A third, which arises from the inner side and proximal e.xtremity of the second phalanx, is inserted at the same point as the preceding. The tendon of the flexor pro- fundus perforans is the antagonist of the elastic ligaments. By the action of that muscle, the last phalanx is drawn forwards and down- wards, and the claw exposed. In order to produce the full effect of drawing out the claw, a corresponding action of the extensor rnuscle is necessary, to support and fix the second phalanx ; by its ultimate insertion in the terminal phalanx, it serves also to restrain and regulate the actions of the flexor muscle. As the phalanges of the hind-foot are retracted in a different direction to those of the fore- foot, i. e., directly upon, and not by the side of the second phalanx, the elastic ligaments are differently disposed, but perform the same main office. It seems scarcely necessary to allude to the final intention of these beautiful structures, which are, with some slight modifications, com- mon to the genus Felis. The claws being thus retracted within folds of the integument, are preserved constantly sharp, and ready for their destined functions, not being blunted and worn away in the ordinary progressive motions of the animal ; while at the same time, the sole of the foot, being padded, such soft parts only are brought in contact with the ground as conduce to the noiseless tread of the stealthy feline tribe. This highly-developed unguiculate structure with the dental system and concomitant modifications of the skull, completes the predatory character of the typical Carnivora. It will be seen, by the preceding remarks of Prof. Owen, that a great distinction subsists between the Carnivora and other animals, especially as shown in the last paragraph. It will be instructive for the student to compare the form of skeleton of the Lion, given on the previous page, with those of Man and the Gorilla, given at p. 2, and of the Camel at p. 5, each of these illustrations being typical of the families or orders of these animals. It will be noticed that special adaptation to the circumstances of their existence is evidenced ; and that on this fact their exact classification in the scale of existence depends. Mr. W. S. Dallas makes the following remarks on the Car?iivora. In the Pi?!?!?'J)cdia (Seals, &c.) we have examples of animals adapted for a predaceous existence exclusively to the water. Those constituting the Carnivora are almost exclusively terrestrial or arboreal in their habits ; and although some, such as the Otters, prey upon fishes, their feet are still adapted for walking, and they are not reduced to the same ungainly mode of progression as the Seals. The Carnivora, therefore, are true Quadrupeds. The teeth of the Carnivora are somewhat^ariable in form ; but generally, as in the Pitinipedia, the molars show, by their com- pressed form, and sharp cutting edges, that they are intended for the division of flesh. All three kinds of teeth are always present. The incisors are small, six in number, and placed in a transverse row across the front of the mouth ; the canines are always of a large size, conical, curved, and acute, especially in the most decidedly carni- vorous species, where they are so long that there is usually a gap between the incisors and canines in the upper jaw, for the reception of the lower canine. Behind the canines each jaw bears several false molars, the foremost of which are usually conical, and inserted by a simple root. The hinder ones gradually approach the form of the true molar, which is more or less compressed, sharp, and notched at the edge ; this is commonly known as the flesh-tooth. Behind it there are often one or two small tubercular molars. In the Cats and the most bloodthirsty species in general, the false molars are com- pressed and sharp, and the total number of molars is often reduced to three, which are all inserted by two or more roots, much com- pressed, and furnished with very sharp jagged edges, fitting against one another like the blades of a pair of scissors, an arrangement admirably adapted for cutting through the juicy fibres of the flesh of their victims. In proportion as the animals are intended for a mixed diet, the molar teeth become broader, and more tuber- culate in their appearance ; this may be seen even in the common Dog. To give effect to these sharp cutting-teeth, the lower jaw in the typical Carnivora is articulated to the skull by a regular hinge- joint, and the transverse position of the condyle is distinctly percep- tible even in the less rapacious species, although, to a certain extent, modified. The ascending ramus of the lower jaw, which gives attachment to the muscles by which the jaws are closed, is always very large, especially in the typical species. The skull and face are short and compact ; the former is usually marked with very strong ridges, for the attachment of the muscles of the lower jaw, and the zygomatic arches are very wide, to allow of their passage. The orbits are incomplete. The brain and organs of sense are always well developed : the nose especially, in many species, exhibits a greater degree of perfection than in any other animal. The eyes are usually large and full, and the pupils possess a great power of contraction and dilatation to adapt the creatures for their general nocturnal mode of existence. Nearly all the species possess a distinct external ear. The mouth is surrounded with soft lips, from which long whiskers project on each side : these are supplied with nerves, and evidently constitute delicate tactile organs. The tongue is always long, thin, and free, and the animals drink by the well-known process of lapping. The mammas, which are always placed on the belly, are usually numerous, and many of the animals are very prolific. The young are always born blind. The form of the body, the development of the tail, the length of the legs, and the structure of the feet, vary greatly in the different families of this order. The toes are distinctly divided, and armed with claws ; they are usually five in number on the anterior, and four on the posterior feet, and none of them are ever opposable. The principal peculiarities in the construction of the feet have reference to the mode in which they are applied to the ground ; and as this is in direct connection with the habits of the animals, and always corresponds with other important characters, the differences observed in the structure of the extremities are of great value in the discrimination of the families, and have even been employed in the primary division of the order into groups. The most predaceous species are possessed of extraordinary activity ; their bodies are light and muscular; their legs are long, and their short toes alone are applied to the ground ; they walk, as we should say, on tip-toe, and they are accordingly called Digitigrada. Those species which are intended for a more or less vegetable diet, are heavier, and endowed with inferior agility ; their toes are longer, and they apply the whole foot, including the metatarsus and tarsus, to the ground in walking ; such are denominated Platitigrada. These two groups, however, shade off almost insensibly into one another ; and some naturalists have proposed the formation of an intermediate group, containing those Cartiivora in which a portion of the sole is applied to the ground, under the name of Semi-planti- grada. The distribution of the Carnivora throughout the world has been already dealt with at page 15, et seq. So far as we at present know, Asia has 60 genera of the order, out of 288 Mammalia. In Africa, out of 300 known Mainmalia, there are 66 genera of Carnivora, of which 52 are peculiar to that country. In Australia there are but 10 or 12 genera, consisting of the Wild Dog, &c. In North America, the Bears, Wolves, Dogs, Foxes, (Src, are characteristic ; and in Central America the Jaguar and Puma are met with. The Carnivora consist of several families. The first of the above- named groups, the Digitigrada, includes the most typical members of the order. The first family is that of the Canida, or Dogs, in which the head is more or less conical, and pointed in front, from the jaws being somewhat produced ; and the legs are of equal length — the anterior furnished with five, and the posterior with four toes, all armed with non-retractile claws. The dentition is compli- cated. There are three false molars on each side in the upper, and four in the lower jaw ; these gradually increase in size posteriorly, and approach the true molar in form. The latter is very large, com- pressed, and cutting, and is followed, in both jaws, by two small 6-6 tubercular teeth ; the total number of molars is thus, 7-7 The tongue is soft, and destitute of horny spines. Of this family, our domestic Dog {Canis familiaris) is an excellent example. The second family is that of the Fclidcs, or Cats, the most typical forms of the order, in which the predaceous disposition, and the means of gratifying it, are developed in the highest degree. In these animals the head is short, and almost rounded in its form ; for although the zygomatic arches and ridges are greatly developed, CHARACTERS OF THE CARNIVORA. 87 the muscles for moving- the jaws are so exceedingly large, as to fill up all the cavities, and produce a smooth, plump surface. The I- I I- iaws are short, and the dentition is — Incisors, - . canines, J ; g 1 pre-molars, i^. molars, ^~^. The canines are long, sharp, 2— 2 ' I— I compressed, and cutting ; the prc-molars are furnished with two roots, compressed, pointed, and serrated ; the flesh-teeth, or true molars, are very large, sharp-edged, and terminated by two or three points ; and behind the flesh-tooth, in the upper jaw, there is a small tubercular tooth, which is wanting in the lower jaw. In addition to this formidable apparatus of cutting-teeth, the tongue in these animals is covered with small recurved prickles, wilh which the Cats are enabled to lick the last particles of flesh from the bones of their prey. In the form of their bodies, the Cats are all light, and excessively muscular, so that their activity is most astonishing. Their legs are usually of moderate length, but exceedingly powerful ; and the toes are armed with long, curved, and acute claws, which are preserved from being blunted by a peculiar arrangement of the phalanges. For this purpose, the last or claw-joint of each toe is drawn back, by ligaments attached to the penultimate joint, until it assumes a per- pendicular position, when the claw which it supports is complelely retracted within a sort of sheath, and is entirely concealed by the fur. This is effected by the elasticity of the ligaments, and without any exertion on the part of the animal. But when a Cat is about to strike its prey, the claw-joint is pulled down by the flexor muscles, and the formidable talons are then protruded, ready to be buried in the flesh of the victim. The lower surface of the foot is furnished with thick ball-like pads of the epidermis, upon which the animal walks, and these are the cause of the peculiarly noiseless tread which is characteristic of all the members of this family. They always take their prey by springing suddenly upon it from some concealed station ; and if they miss their aim in the first attack, rarely follow it up. They are all, accordingly, cowardly, sneaking animals, and never willingly face their enemy unless brought to bay or wounded, trusting always to their power of surprising their victims by the aid of their stealthy and noiseless movements. They are nocturnal and solitary in their habits, or, at most, live in families ; and are dis- tributed in all parts of the world, with the exception of Australia, but principally in the warmer regions, where alone the larger species are met with. Unquestionably the most celebrated species of this family is the Lion, which has, in all ages, been regarded as the personification of courage and magnanimity. For his reputation he has, however, been mainly indebted, like many other impostors, to his noble appearance, which is greatly owing to his possession of a large mane of long hairs. In his habits he is as genuine a Cat as the Tiger, with whose bloodthirsty and cruel disposition the supposed good qualities of the Lion have been so frequently contrasted. Zoologists have described several species of Lions, forming the genus Leo : they are distinguished from the other Cats by their tufted tails, and by the uniform colour of their skin. The best known species is the African Lion {Leo Africatius), which enjoys a wide distribution, extending all over the continent of Africa, and into the southern parts of Asia. It is a magnificent species, generally furnished with a long flowing mane in the male ; the other supposed species differ principally in the development of this appendage ; and in one, the Maneless Indian Lion (Z. Goojraffefisis), the mane is quite absent. It must be confessed, that the specific distinctness of these different forms of Lions is very doubtful. The Lion lives principally in dry desert tracts of country covered with brushwood, amongst which he lies during the day, and prowls about at night in pursuit of the large herbivorous animals, generally watching for them at the places where they come to drink. In stormy nights, the South African Lion is said to be particularly active, as the panic produced amongst his victims by the strife of the elements, renders less caution necessary in approaching them. In the typical genus Felts, the tail is elongated, but destitute of a tuft, and the skin is almost always marked with stripes or spots. These animals are mostly inhabitants of the forests, where many of them climb trees, not only in pursuit of birds and other arboreal creatures, but also for the purpose of springing down from the branches upon animals that may pass beneath them. The finest species of this group is the Tiger {Feh's ti'gris), which equals the Lion in size, but exceeds him in activity. His appearance, from the absence of the mane, is not so noble as that of the Lion ; but the bright tawny colour of his skin, with its clear stripes of black, render him one of the most beautiful of quadrupeds. The skins are highly prized for making rugs, &c. Next in order are the HycBnida, or Hyaenas, which form a remark- able group, peculiar to the warmer regions of the Old World, and evidently unite the two preceding families with the following one. In the general form of the body they are somewhat like the Dogs ; whilst, in their dentition, they rather approach the Cats ; and they resemble the Vivern'dce in the possession of a pouch under the anus. The teeth are : — Incisors, canmes, i — i ; pre-molars, -3—2 i-i 3-3 molars, ; the hindermost molar in the upper jaw being tuber- cular, like that of the Cats. The hind-legs are much bent, so that the hind-quarters of the Hyaenas are always lower than the shoulders ; the feet are all furnished with four toes, armed with strong claws, w^hich, like those of the Dogs, are not retractile. The tongue, as in the Cats, is roughened with prickles. With the Hyaenas we quit the series of true Di'gitigrade Car- 7i!Vora. In the two next families the animals apply a portion of the sole to the ground, but the heel is always raised ; these form the sec- tion of the Semi-;plantigrada. The first family of this group is that of the Viverrida;, or Civets, which are evidently very nearly allied to the Hyaenas. The teeth in this family are : — Incisors, -r ; canines, 5 ^~' . pre-molars, 2ll3 ; molars, ^— •'. The canines are large and I-I' ^ 4-4 2-2 sharp ; the false molars conical and pointed ; the flesh-tooth is large and sharp, and furnished with an inner process ; and behind it are two tubercular molars in the upper, and one in the lower jaw. The tongue, as in the two preceding families, is prickly. The body is elongated, and supported upon short legs, which have either four or five toes on all the feet, furnished with semi-retractile claws ; the muzzle is produced and sharp ; the tail very long and tapering ; the hair coarse ; and in the neighbourhood of the anus there is a glandular pouch, which secretes a strongly odorous matter. This substance, well known as civet, was formerly in great repute both as a medicine and as a perfume, as indeed it still is in many of the countries inhabited by these animals ; and even here we find the Civet Cat, as it is called, still holding its traditional post as the sign of perfumers' shops. With the exception of one species, the Bassaris astiifa, a native of Mexico, the Civets are all inhabitants of the warmer parts of the Eastern Hemisphere. They are nocturnal in their habits, and the pupil contracts into a linear form when exposed to the light. In their disposition they are generally savage and bloodthirsty, and they make great havoc amongst the smaller animals, particularly birds, of which, and of their eggs, they are remarkably fond. The Mustelida, or Weasels, forming the next family, approach the Cats in the bloodthirstiness of their dispositions, although their size confines their devastations to the smaller animals. Their bodies are of a more elongated form, and supported upon shorter legs than those of the Viverrida; and from these circumstances their movements have usually a peculiar gliding character, which renders the appellation of Fer/«//or;«w— sometimes applied to them —peculiarly appropriate. In the short, somewhat rounded head, and in the form of the molar teeth, they resemble the Cats ; but in the number and arrangement of the teeth they do not coincide with the Felidce. The teeth are —incisors, - ; canines, ^—-^, slender and cur\'ed ; pre-molars, - — - '6 i-i i~i or ^~^ • molars, i^, of which the flesh-tooth is broad and sharp, 3-3 2-2 and the hinder one tubercular. The feet are all furnished with five toes, armed with sharp claws. Their hair is exceedingly soft and beautiful ; and the skins of several species are amongst the most highly-prized furs. They are endowed with great agility, and readily capture small quadrupeds and birds : in pursuit of the latter many of the species climb trees, creeping about upon the branches with the greatest ease. They are celebrated for their love of blood, and are generally charged with destroying great numbers of animals for the sake of drinking this fluid : it is certain that they often kill, indiscriminately, all the animals they come near; but it appears that the brain is the part to which they first direct their attention. They usually seize their victims by the back of the head, and the canine teeth not unfrequently penetrate directly into the brain. They often commit sad ravages in poultrj'-yards and hen-roosts, to which they readily obtain access, as the slender form of their bodies enables them to push through almost any crevice. The Plantigrade section of the Car/iivora, in which the whole sole of the foot is applied to the ground in walking, contains three families— the Badgers {Melida), which, although plantigrade, are evidently nearly allied to the Weasels ; the Bears {Ursidcz) : and the Kinkajous [Cercoleptidcs). The animals forming the family of the Melidcp, or Badgers, have been placed by some zoologists amongst the Weasels ; by others with the Bears, and also partly in each family ; so that their inter- mediate position is tolerably evident. In their dentition they closely resemble the animals of the preceding family, the pre-molars being compressed and cutting ; but the true molar, or flesh-tooth, is usually furnished with a large blunt tubercle on the inside. Behma this there is a tubercular molar in each jaw. The pre-molars vary in number as follows : — - or 3-3 3-3 3-3 3_r_3 4-4 The body is more or 88 THE CANIDuS, OR DOG FAMILY. less elongated, and supported upon short legs : the toes are five on each foot. The family of the UrsidcB, or Bears, differs from all the preceding famiHes in the nature of the molar teeth, which, although com- pressed in form, are furnished with tubercular crowns, indicating that the animals are adapted, at all events, for a partially vegetable diet. The number of teeth of this description is usually two or three on each side in each jaw ; the total number of molars and pre- molars is either five or si.x ; but some of the latter frequently fall out with age. The Bears are generally large, heavy animals, and strictly plantigrade in their walk, which is awkward and shuffling in its nature ; the anterior limbs are, however, possessed of great mobility, and even the most bulky of these animals manifest great dexterity in climbing. Their feet are armed with long curved claws, with which they dig in search of roots and other articles of food. Their bodies are usually covered with long shaggy hair, and the tail in the typical Bears is remarkably short ; whilst in some of the other anirrials referred to in this family it is of considerable length. The ears are small, and the nose is more or less produced and movable — in some species forming a sort of proboscis. The last family of the Carnivorous Mammalia is that of the Cerco- leptida, or Kinkajous, a group of small animals inhabiting the tropical parts of America, which exhibit some resemblance to the Bears in their dentition, but differ from them in their general characters. Their canine teeth are short and blunt ; behind these are two small pointed pre-molars, which are followed by three tuberculated molars. The feet are as truly plantigrade as in the preceding family ; but the toes, which are always five in number, are more distinctly separated, and capable of a greater amount of independent motion. They are small, short-legged animals, covered with a woolly fur, and furnished with a very long prehensile tail. In their form and general habits, the Kinkajous present no small resemblance to the Lemurs ; and, like them, they are of a gentle and playful disposition in captivity. They are nocturnal in their habits, and appear to be almost omnivorous, feeding indifferently upon small birds and Mammalia, bird's eggs, insects, and fruits, in pursuit of which they climb trees with great activity. Like the Squirrels they use the fore-paw in place of hands, to convey their nourishment to their mouths. They are said to be exceedingly fond of honey, and to plunder the nests of the wild Bees with great boldness. The Ceixoleptes caudivolvuliis is the best known species ; it is often tamed as a pet, and is commonly seen in our menageries. Having thus given a general glance of the order Carntvora, and its principal families, we shall describe each of the latter in detail, as regards genus, species, &c., in the order adopted in the fore- going introductory remarks. Carnivora— Family Cantdcs—'DoGs. Sec. Of all the lower animals the Dog has been the greatest favourite of mankind ; in fact, he may be called the quadruped friend of the human race. In the extreme north he is a necessity for the Esqui- maux. In our own and European countries generally, he is equally a necessity, but to a much more varied extent. In intelligence, obedience, and, if we may so say, moral qualities, he exceeds all other animals. It has been remarked that the domestication of the Dog is undoubtedly the greatest triumph of which man can boast over the brute creation : in all his faculties, both of body and mind, he has become more completely subservient to his master than any other animal ; and without his assistance, it seems pretty certain that the dominion of man over many of the common domestic animals would never have been so complete as it now is. All the strength, courage, and intelligence which the Dog possesses are willingly put forth in the service of his master. To use the words of Professor Bell — " It is in the Dog alone that we find those qualities which fit him for that more intimate association with his conqueror, by which he becomes his friend and companion, whilst still his faithful, and humble, and laborious servant. It is impossible to reflect, without the most kind and grateful emotions, on the un- wearied perseverance, the unflinching courage, the unchanging faithfulness, the affectionate and discriminating attachment which characterises his relation to mankind." The Can/diz, or Dog family, includes the Dog, the Wolf, the Jackal, the Fox, and the Lycaon ; in other words, all those animals which Linna:us assigns to his genus Cam's, and which, though agreeing in dentition, and in the digitigrade structure of the feet, may nevertheless with propriety be divided into subgeneric groups. In all, the muzzle is elongated ; the bony palate terminates in a line with the hinder margin of the posterior molars, in this respect differing from that of other Car/u'vora ; and there are two true molars on each side both of the upper and lower jaw. The genus Megalotis, in the form of the lower jaw, in the dentition, and in the prolongation of _the bony palate, offers an exception to the general rule. Dental formula : — Incisors, - : ' 6' canmcs. I — I , I I —1 molars — false, ^— ^, camassieres, ^^ — ', true, ? — ? = 42. The true molars below 4—4 1—1 2—2 are small, the last being even minute, as is the first false molar, and often dropping out early. Fig. 221 illustrates the dentition of the Dog. Fig, 221. — Teeth of Dog, Fore-feet with five toes ; hind-feet with four toes, and sometimes a fifth on the tarsus ; claws not retractile. In regard to the skeleton, dentition, &c., of the Carnivora, remarks have been made at page 85, ante. In regard to the Dog specially, we shall here draw attention more minutely to those matters, so as to present most varieties of size, form, and disposi- Fig. 223. — Mastiff. THE CANID^, OR DOG FAMILY. 89 tion, from the high-bred Greyhound or gigantic Mastiff, to the puny cur or ill-formed mongrel. Turning first to the skulls, we may observe that Figs. 222 and 223 represent the skull of the Mastiff (Doguc de forte race) in two views ; and, it may be added, that though the head is larger, by a third or more, than those of the Shepherd's Dog and Spaniel, the cranial Fig. 224. Fig. 225. — Spaniel. capacity is by no means so great. Figs. 224 and 225 show the skull of the Spaniel (Barbet) in two views ; Figs. 226 and 227, the skull of the Danish Dog (Matin) in two views ; Fig. 228, the skull of the half wild Australian Dingo, may be contrasted with Fig. 229, the skull of the intelligent Shepherd's Dog. It is with a feeling of something like hesitation that we enter upon the history of the Dog, respecting whose origin few naturalists have an opinion in common, and which has given rise to many con- jectures. It was the opinion of Pallas that the Dog is a factitious animal ; F,-. 226. Fig. 227.— Matin, a Danish Dog. that is, not descended from any single original wild stock, but from a mixture of nearly allied primitive species, whose hybrid offsprings have possessed prolific powers ; and he observes that those domes- ticated animals which either do not intermix with other species, or which produce with others an unprolific progeny, are very' little changed, however completely and anciently they have been under the dominion of man. When, indeed, we look at the great differ- ences in instincts, form, and size which the domestic Dog exhibits, we find it difficult to believe, interbreed as they may together, that all are the lineal descendants of one common origin. Yet is this opinion the most generally entertained. Mr. Boll even goes a step farther, and refers the domestic Dog to the Wolf as its prima;val parent ; some, indeed, have referred it to the Jackal. " In order," says Mr. Bell, " to come to any rational conclusion on this head, it will be necessary to ascertain to what tj'pe the animal approaches most nearly, after having for many successive genera- tions existed in a wild state, removed from the influence of domes- tication and of association with mankind. Now we find that there Fig. 228. — Dingo, or Australian Dog. are several different instances of Dogs in such a state of wildness as to have lost that common character of domestication, variety of colour and marking. Of these, two very remarkable ones are the Dhale of India and the Dingo of Australia. There is, besides, a half-reclaimed race amongst the Indians of North America, and another also partially tamed in South America, which deserve attention ; and it is found that these races in different degrees, and in a greater degree as they are more wild, exhibit the lank and gaunt form, the lengthened limbs, the long and slender muzzle, and the great comparative strength which characterise the Wolf ; and that the tail of the Australian Dog, which may be considered as the most remote from a state of domestication, assumes the slightly Fig. 229. — Shepherd's Dog. bushy form of that animal. We have here, then, a considerable approximation to a well-known animal of the same genus, which, though doubtless descended from domesticated ancestors, have gradually assumed the wild condition ; and it is worthy of special remark, that the anatomy of the Wolf, and its osteology in particular, does not differ from that of the Dogs m general, more than the different kinds of Dogs do from each othei;. The cranium is abso- lutely similar, and so are all, or nearly all, the other essential parts ; and to strengthen still further the probability of their identity, the Dog and Wolf will readily breed together, and their progeny is fertile. The obliquity of the position of the eyes of the Wolf is one of the characters in which it differs from the Dogs ; and although it is very desirable not to rest too much upon the effects of habit on structure, it is not perhaps straining the point to attribute the for- ward direction of the eyes in the Dogs to the constant habit, for many successive generations, of looking towards their master and obeying his voice." Mr. Bell adds, as another corroborative cir- cumstance, the fact that the period of gestation in the Dog and the Wolf is the same — sixty-three days ; while in the Jackal it is fifty-nine days. To illustrate the view thus expressed by Mr. Bell, the following cut is introduced, showing the head of a hybrid between the Dog and the Wolf. (See next page.) The opinion of so eminent and judicious a naturalist is certainly entitled to great weight ; but while we admit that Mr. Bell has made a strong case, we cannot but observe that several points are defective. In the first place, it is assumed that all wild Dogs are the descend- ants of a domestic race ; but though respecting some few this may be true, yet it by no means follows that the assertion applies to all ; we may instance the Biiansu, or wild Dog of Nepal, described by Mr. 90 WILD DOGS. Hodgson under the title of Cam's ^riinccvus. This animal, which he believes to be the origin of the domestic Dog, and not its descend- ant, ranges from the Sutlege to the Burhampootra, and seems to extend, with some immaterial differences, into the Vindyia, the Ghauts, the Nilgiris, the Casiah Hills, and the chain passing brokenly from Mirzapore through South Bahar and Orissa to the Coromandel Coast. " Of this race, although so wild as rarely to be seen, Mr. Hodgson has succeeded in obtaining many individuals. He is consequently enabled to describe not only the form and colours, but the manners also, which he does in great detail. Some of those he obtained produced young in captivity, having been preg- nant when taken. The Biiansii, he observes, preys by night as well as by day, and hunts in packs of from six to ten individuals, main- Fig. 230.— Hybrid, between Dog and Wolf. taining the chase rather by its powers of smell than by the eye, and generally overcoming its quarry by force and perseverance. In hunting it barks like a Hound, but its bark is peculiar, and equally unlike that of the cultivated breeds of Dogs and the strains of the Jackal and the Fox. Adults in captivity made no approach towards domestication ; but a young one which Mr. Hodgson obtained when it was not more than a month old, became sensible to caresses, dis- tinguished the Dogs of its own kennel from others, as well as its keepers from strangers ; and, on the whole, its conduct manifested to the full as much intelligence as any of his sporting Dogs of the same age." ("Zool. Proceeds.," 1833, p. in.) _ In the same number of the "Proceeds." is the notice of a commu- nication from W. A. Wooler, Esq., giving an account of a Wild Dog from the Mahablishwar Hills, in the Presidency of Bombay, and called there Dhale. The habits of this Dog in a state of nature accord with those of the Buansu of Nepal, and with which animal it is most probably identical. Colonel Sykes proves, we think, that the Wild Dog of the Dukhun, called by the Mahrattas Kolsun, is the same as the Buansu of Nepal, the skulls and external characters precisely. agreeing. (" Zool. Pro- ceeds.," 1833, p. I33-) Colonel Sykes observes, that this Dog differs from any wild species hitherto described. Its head is compressed and elongated ; its nose not very sharp ; the eyes are oblique, the pupils round, the irides light brown. The expression of the countenance is that of a coarse, ill-natured Persian Greyhound, without any resemblance to the Jackal, the Fox, or the Wolf; and in consequence, essentially distinct from the Cants Quao, or Sumafrensis, of General Hardwicke. The ears are long, erect, and somewhat rounded at the top ; the limbs are remark- ably large and strong in relation to the bulk of the animal, which is intermedi- ate in size between the Wolf and Jackal ; it hunts in packs ; and in the stomach of one killed was found a portion of the Nylghau Antelope. ("Zool. Pro- ceeds.," 1831, p. 100.) Here then we have a genuine Wild Dog, called, in the different mountain districts it inhabits, Buansu, Dhale, and Kolsun, of a sandy-red or rufous colour, and destitute of the last small molar of the lower jaw. Colonel Baber, in a note subjoined to Colonel Sykes's description in the " Trans. Asiat. Soc," states that it was often seen by him on the western coast, and in the Balaghat district, where it is numerous. "As often," he adds, "as I have met with them, they have invariably been in packs of from thirty to perhaps sixty. They must be very formid- able, as all animals are very much afraid of them. Fre- quently remains of Hogs and Deer have been brought to me, which had been taken overnight by these Wild Dogs. The natives assert that they kill Tigers and Chetahs ; and there is no doubt of the fact. It is quite correct that they are found in the Nilgiris, though only in the western parts. I myself was fol- lowed, while travelling between the Paitera river and Naddibatt, a distance of eight or nine miles, by a pack of them ; and had I not repeatedly fired off my pistols, they would certainly have carried away three or four Terriers and Spanish Dogs that were following me at the time. Two or three times I succeeded in getting young ones, but I did not keep them longer than three or four weeks, they were so very wild as well as shy. It was only at night that they would eat, and then most voraciously." With respect to the Catiis Quao of General Hardwicke, it is a red Wolfish-looking Dog in the Ramghur Hills ; the Ca?iis Sumatrensis is a Wild Dog of the same general characters found in Sumatra, but with ears less acutely pointed. From every account of Wild Dogs, it would appear that their colour is always sandy-yellow or red, a colour occasionally seen in animals of the domestic breeds. We do not, however, while we contend that these Wild Dogs are genuine, pretend to assert that any of them are the originals of any one of our domestic breeds ; all we wish is to prove that there are genuine Wild Dogs, which fact ■-» tf*. ■ ' 49.— The Bull-dog, a; the Mastiff, b; and Ban-dog, engagement ; but, taking a sudden leap over the Dogs, fled into the interior part of his den. Two of the Dogs soon died of their wounds ; the last survived." The Mastiff is by far the most sagaci- ous of the present section, and, of all other Dogs, makes the best guardian of property. It is attached to its master, but towards strangers is fierce and suspicious. Its bark is deep and sonorous. Though the Mastiff has by no means the keen sense of smell which the Hound possesses, it seems to be (at least such is our opinion, and that not hastily formed) either an offset from that branch, or a cognate branch from the same root. The Mastiff, however, has a finer scent than persons are generally aware of, and its hearing is very acute. A Dog of this breed, chained to his kennel. origin. It must be remembered that particular instincts and quali- ties are acquired, and that the excellences of the Hound are the result of long-continued and judicious culture. We do not say that the Mastiff can be converted inlo the Hound, but merely that two branches from the same root may be so cultured as to assume, to a given point, diverse characteristics. ° ^ ' The huge Thibet Watch- Dog (Fig. 251) belongs to the present section. This Xio%{Canis familiariSy^ax. Mo- lossus tliibctaiius) is kept by the na- tives of the Thibet range of hills as a guardian of their flocks and their villages: It is very fierce, and its bark is loud and terrific. The colour is gene- rally black. The Ban-dog (Fig. 249, c, ante) is a term given to any of the fierce animals of the present section, which are, in ordinary cases, kept chained or secured in kennels. Bewick, however, applies it to a Dog, of which he gives an excellent figure, and which he states to differ from the Mastiff in being lighter, more active and vigilant, but not so powerful or so large ;"its muzzle, besides, is not so heavy, and it possesses in some degree the scent of the Hound. Its hair is described as being rather rough, and generally of a yellowish-grey streaked with shades of black or brown. It is ferocious and full of energy. Bewick says that this Dog is seldom to be seen at the present day ; we have, however, had occasion to notice varieties of the Mastiff so closely agreeing with Be- wick's figure and description, as to con- vince us that he took both of them from nature. Of all the Dogs of this section, none surpass, in obstinacy or ferocity, the Bull- dog. (See Fig. 249,0, (7«A'.) This animal is smaller than the Mastiff, but more compactly formed ; the chest is broad and deep ; the loins narrow ; the tail slender and arched up ; the limbs short and robust ; the head is broad and thick ; the muzzle short and deep ; the jaws strong, the lower jaw often ad- vancing, so that the inferior incisor teeth overshoot the upper ; the ears are short and semi-erect, the nostrils distended, the eyes scowling, and the whole expression calculated to inspire terror. This Dog is distinguished by tenacity of tooth and indomitable reso- lution, in all its habits and propensities it is essentially gladiatorial : Fig. 250.— Mastiff. and never suffered to wander about the premises, nor treated as a friend and companion, affords but a poor example of what the animal really is. Confinement spoils its temper, and cramps the develop- ment of its noble qualities. (See Fig. 249, b, and 250.) We have said that the Mastiff is allied to the Hound: the Cuban Mastiff, to which we have already alluded, is, indeed, often termed a Blood-hound. The pendulous ear, not so large in the Mastiff as in the Hound, the thick hanging lips, the broad moist nose, the brindled markings, and the general figure, attest the affinity. The Mastiff is larger and stronger than the Hound, and useless for the chase ; this latter circumstance, however, is no proof of diversity of ^.^ ,■ .'\^.^ Fig. 251.— Thibet Watch-Dog. it is a fighting Dog, and nothing else ; its intelligence is very limited ; and though Dogs of this breed are attached to their masters, they exhibit, in the demonstration of their feelings, unless when incited to combat, a perfect contrast to the Newfoundland Dog or Spaniel. These latter delight to accompany their master in his walks, and scour the fields and lanes in the exuberance of delight: the Bull-dog skulks at its master's heels, and regards with a suspicious glance everything and everybody t^"^' P^^^" Jtyj "°^' indeed, is it safe to approach the animal, for it often attacks with- out the slightest provocation. A cross between the Bull-dog and the Terrier is celebrated for spirit and determination. REMARKS ON THE VARIOUS BREEDS OF DOGS. It has been usual to consider the Pug-dog as a degenerate variety of the Bull-dog, but we doubt the correctness of this theory. It has indeed somewhat the aspect of the Bull-dog, on a miniature scale ; but the similarity is more in superficial appearance than reality. The Pug is a little, round-headed, short-nosed Dog, with a preter- natural abbreviation of the muzzle, and with a tightly twisted tad. Like the Giilaroo Trout, it is a specimen of hereditary malformation. Not so the Bull-dog, in which the bones of the skull and the temporal muscles are finely developed, and in which the muzzle and head are in perfect harmony. The Pug-dog is snarling and ill-tempered, but cowardly, and by no means remarkable for intelligence. Formerly it was in great esteem as a pet, but is now little valued, and not often kept. In taking a review of the various breeds of the domestic Dog, we cannot fail to observe that they are endowed respectively with quali- fications or habits certainly not innate, but the result of education, at least originally; which education, continued through a series of generations, has produced permanent effects. For example, no Dog in a state of nature would point with his nose at a Partridge, and then stand like a statue, motionless, for the Dog would gam nothing by such a proceeding. Man, however, has availed himself of the docility and delicacy of scent peculiar to a certain breed, and has taught the Dog his lesson, and the lesson thus learned has become second nature. A young Pointer takes to its work as if by intuition, and scarcely requires discipline. Hence, therefore, must we conclude that education not only effects impressions on the sensorium, but transmissible impressions, whence arise the predispositions of certain races. Education, in fact, modifies organisation : not that it makes a Dog otherwise than a Dog, but it supersedes, to a certain point, instin^ct, or makes acquired propensities instinctive, hereditary, and therefore characteristics of the race. The effect of this change of nature is not to render the Dog more independent, nor to give it any advantage over its fellows, but to rivet more firmly the links of sub- jection to man. It is not to the Pointer alone that these observations apply ; all our domestic Dogs have their own acquired propensities, which, be- coming second nature, make them, in one way or another, valuable servants. No one, we presume, will suppose that the instinctive pro- pensities implanted by nature in the Shepherd's Dog, make it, not a destroyer, but a preserver of Sheep. On the contrary, this Dog, like every other, is carnivorous, and nature intends it to destroy and devour. But education has supplanted instinct to a certain point, and implanted a disposition which has become an hereditary characteristic, and hence a Shepherd's Dog of the true breed takes to its duties naturally. But a Shepherd's Dog could not, delicate as its sense of smell is, be brought to take the place of the Pointer in the field, even though it were subjected to training frorn the earliest age ; nor, on the other hand, could a Pointer be substituted with equal adv'anta'^e in the place of a Shepherd's Dog as the assistant of the drover. ^Each is civilised, but in a different style, and education has impressed upon each a different bent of mind, a different class of propensities. Every attempt to arrange the various breeds of Dogs under differ- o o ^ C"^'S^ A 'h i o pig. 252. — Roman House-Dog. O O little beyond. They had Watch-Dogs, Hounds, a Greyhound breed, and probably a breed of Spaniels, the Cam's Tuscits, also described as Proles de sanguine Ibcro. "Fig. 252 is a copy of a Dog repre- sented on a mosaic pavement at Pompeii, fastened by a chain, with the caution "Cave canem " ("Beware the Dog") written at its feet : the small sharp ears and elongated muzzle give it a wild aspect : it appears to be a strongly-made, vigorous animal ; but if it represent the Dogue de forte race of the Romans, we cannot wonder at their sending to Britain for our old indigenous Mastiff. In Egypt the Dog was a favourite, and carefully bred ; and, as the paintings of that people prove, there were several breeds. It would appear, indeed, that some kinds were regarded with religious vene- ent heads will necessarily be defective, from our want of information respecting the races of antiquity ; an accurate knowledge of which would throw considerable light on our modem varieties. We know indeed that the Greeks and Romans had valuable Dogs for hunting various wild animals, and paid great attention to them, but we know Fig. 253. — Dogs, from Egyptian Paintings. ration, and embalmed after death. Mummies of them are slill found. We have seen the remains of a red short-haired Dog thus preserved. Figs. 253 and 254 are outlines of Dogs from Egyptian paintings. Fig. 253, a, two Hounds, or a Hound and Greyhound in couples. The style of colouring on the foremost Dog, regarded as a Hound, reminds us of the Hounds of modern days ; b is evidently a pet domestic Dog, with sharp ears and a curled tail ; c, a Hound ; d, a short-legged Dog, not unlike our Turnspit, with sharp ears, and which ap- pears to have been a favour- ite. They had also a Watch- Dog, of the "forte race," excepting that its tail is more curled ; it has a strik- ing resemblance to the Ro- man House-Dog (Fig. 252) : also a Hunting Dog, as it would seem, being found fre- quently in attendance on chasseurs. Fig. 254 is a huntsman with an Antelope and a brace of coupled Hounds. The modern Grey- hound of Arabia (illustrated at p. 96, Fig. 242) so closely resembles the delineations of the ancient Greyhound, that we cannot doubt their affinity. The Egyptians m the chase used the bow and spear, and intercepted the game as it fled before the Hounds, discharging their arrows whenever it came within range. When a fierce Antelope, as the Lcucoryx, was brought to bay, the hunter gallantly used his spear, as the Boar-hunter of the middle ages in Europe. On the level plains of Egypt the chasseur often followed in his chariot, urging his Horses to the full speed, and endeavouring to meet the game, or place himself in the direction the Dogs were forcing it to take, with his bow and arrows ready. It was, perhaps, the partiality evinced by the Egyptians to the Dog, that led the Israelites to regard it with abhorrence, as an unclean animal ; in which feeling they have been followed by the Mohammedans. Be Fig. 254. — From an Egyptian Painting. PARIAH DOGS— THE WOLF. this as it may, Palestine " is the country in which this animal has the longest been refused that entire domestication with man which he has enjoyed in most other lands ; in other words, the treatment of the Dog has almost always, in Palestine, been such as it has only in other countries been subject to since the propagation of the Moslem faith. And since the ideas concerning Dogs have been much the same with the ancient Jews and modern Moslems, there is no doubt that the existing practices of the latter illustrate the ancient practices of the former. Among both we trace the despised, but not maltreated Dog of the streets, and among both we dis- cover that, with every predisposition to do without them, certain breeds of Dogs have forced their services upon man, from the indis- pensable nature of their help in hunting and in guarding the flocks." The Street Dogs, called Pariah Dogs in India, have excited the attention of all travellers in India, Turkey, and the whole of the Levant. They roam the streets of towns, cities, and villages, owned by no one, but, for their services in clearing away carrion and offal, universally tolerated. We find allusions to them in the earliest records of antiquity. Homer pictures them in conjunction with Vultures, as feeding upon the slain : — " Whose limbs unburied on the naked shore, Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore." Pope's Traiisl. In the Scriptures there are abundant allusions, as for example, Exodus .xxii. 31 ; i Kings xxi. 19 and 23 ; 2 Kings ix. 35, and else- where. The passages of most force, " In the place where the dogs licked the blood of Naboth, shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine;" and, "The dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel," bring to mind the picture of a scene painted in modern days by a poet, who had travelled in Greece and Turkey, and well knew the habits of the masterless Dogs that "wander up and down for meat, and grudge if they be not satisfied." Pariah Dogs herd together in troops, and keep to their respective districts ; they display all the qualities and propensities of their race, and if they are fierce aud ravenous, it is because they are left to their own resources, since to become at once domestic they require only to be owned and noticed. Colonel Sykes, speaking of the Pariah Dog of Dukhun, observes that it is there very numerous, and not in- dividual property, but breeds in the towns and villages unmolested. He remarks that the Turnspit Dog-, long- backed, with short crooked legs, is frequently found among the Pariahs. There is also a petted minute variety of the Pariah Dog, usually of a white colour, with long silky hair, corresponding to a common Lap- Dog of Europe ; this is taught to carry flambeaux and lanterns. The last variety noticed is the Dog with hair so short as to appear naked, like the Barbary or Egyptian Dog. It is known to Europeans by the name of the Polygar Dog. Of the Domesticated Dogs, Colonel Sykes states, that the first in size and strength is the Brinjaree Dog, which somewhat resembles the Persian Greyhound, but is much more powerful. It may here be expected that we should enter into some details illustratmg the intelligence and fidelity of this animal, which seems expressly made for man, which instinctively clings to him, and which watches his every look and gesture. But who from his own experience cannot bear testimony to the good qualities of the Dog ! It has been somewhere said, and with truth, that man is the god of the Dog, for to man he looks up with reverence and affection, and the praise of his master is his richest rew-ard. Is this instinctive attachment of the Dog to man an acquired feeling, or is it an original impulse implanted in its nature, by the All-wise Creator, for man's benefit, so that in the primitive condition of society he might have a friend and assistant, all-important in the chase, and in the extirpation of wild beasts, which ere he can settle in the land and found a colony, he must drive to a distance or destroy ? Numerous works have been published in which the peculiar characteristics of the Dog in relation to man have been illustrated. Perhaps one of the most interesting of these is Jesse's " Anecdotes of Dogs," the perusal of which we strongly recommend to our readers. Craven's "Young Sportsman" also supplies many in- teresting facts. AVe have alluded to the great similarity, notwithstanding their mutual hostility, which exists between the Esquimaux Dog and the Wolf, and we have introduced a representation (see ante, p. 92, Fig 235) of the former animal, in order the better to compare it with the Wolf, and to show how closely it resembles a mixed breed between the Dog and the AVolf, of which we have given a large-size illustra- tion, showing the head of a hybrid breed, at p. 90, ante. Fig. 255 represents the two specimens of the mixed breed ; Figs. 256, 2S7, the Wolf. We have already denied the correctness of the inference, that because the Wolf and the Jackal respectively breed with the 101 Dog, they are therefore, as Hunter affirmed, all of one species : no one, we thmk, will now regard the Wolf and the Tackal as identical • nor is there any more ground for believing that the Dog is either the one or the other, than for assuming that the Wolf and the Jackal are one. •' Figs. 258 and 259 show the skull of the European Wolf, in two Fig. 255.— Mixed Breed of Dog and Wolf. views : it differs in various minor details from the skull of the Canada Wolf, of which Figs. 260 and 261 are two similar views. Figs. 262 and 263 represent the skull of the Jackal, in two views ; it differs from those both of the European and American Wolf. These skulls may be compared with those of the various breeds of Dogs, already given in this chapter. In Fig. 264 is an illustration of Fig. 256.— Syrian Wolf. the head of a Wolf, for the purpose of affording a comparison between it and that of the nearest of the Dogs. The Wol'E— Cam's Ln^us. As the natural ally of the Dog, and for reasons already assigned at p. 89, ante, we next describe the WOLF. A robust but gaunt frame, a skulking or irresolute gait, ferocity mingled with cunning and cowardice, and a wild yet sinister expression of the physiognomy, characterise this beast of prey. Spread throughout Europe and various parts of Asia, it is more particularly in mountain and forest districts that the Wolf prevails, where the population is scanty, and collected into small towns or villages, with a wide country around, destitute of human dwellings. In the Pyrenees, the Carpathian Mountains, in Poland, Hungary, some parts of Austria, France, Italy, and Spain ; in Norway, Sweden, and Russia, the Wolf is yet com- mon ; as well as in western Asia, and the border territories included in Europe. Formerly this animal was abundant in the British Islands, and the plague and terror of the country. Verstcgan, in his " Resti • 103 THE WOLF. tution of Decayed Intellig'ence in Antiquities, concerning- the most Noble and Renowned English Nation," 1605, obsen-es that January was called Wolf-monat by the Anglo-Saxons, " because people were wont in that moneth to be more in danger to be devoured of Wolves than in any season els of the yeare, for that through tlie extremity of cold and snow those ravenous creatures could not find other beasts sufficient to feed upon." The universal fear which the Wolf, where numerous, would naturally inspire, was formerly heightened by superstition, and fiends or malignant beings were imagined as having power to assume the form and power of this dreaded animal. Lycanthropos of the Greeks, the Were-Wolf of the Anglo-Saxons, and the Loup-garou of the French, had reference to some such pre- ternatural monster, whose name was associated with all that is horrible and mysterious. Conspicuous then, and dreaded for its power and ferocity, we can scarcely wonder that the Wolf should have had its name assumed, or given to men of distinction, by our barbarous but warlike forefathers, among whom such appellations as Ethehvolf, Eadwolf, Berthwolf, and many more, were common. Fig. 25S. Skull of European Wolf. It must not be supposed, however, that our Saxon ancestors tamely suffered the Wolf to ravage the country. The attempt at extirpatmg this animal commenced in the loth century, under the reign of Edgar, and appears to have succeeded in the inh century during the reign of Edward I., as no historical mention is made of any royal edict, subsequently to that period, to promote their destruction. The last record of their existence in any formidable numbers was in 1281. It is said by Mr. Topham, in his notes to Somerville's " Chace," that it was in the wolds of Yorkshire where a price was last set upon a Wolf's head. In Scotland and Ireland the Wolf remained for a considerable period longer. In i??? according to Hollinshed, these animals were destructfve to the flocks in Scotland, and in Ireland they were exterminated only at the beginning of the last century. In almost every department of France infested by the Wolf there is a society called Society de Louveterie, the object of which is to keep that animal down ; and premiums, varying in the amount accordinc^ to the sex and age of the animals killed, are likewise paid. The means hitherto employed, however, have been inadequate to effect the purpose. Desmarest says that the Wolf is solitary and nocturnal, but that in winter it unites in troops, which attack Horses and men. The sense of smell is very aucte, but its speed is not very great, and it wearies out its victim by dint of untiring perseverance. When in full chase Fig. 260. Fig. 261. — Skull of Canadian Wolf. of its prey, it gallops along, pertinaciously following the track of the fugitive. The description of a troop of Wolves in pursuit is admir- ably described by Lord Byron in his poem of Mazeppa. From the numerous allusions to the Wolf in the Scriptures, it is evident that it must have been well known formerly in Syria — and indeed also in Egypt, for we find it figured on ancient sculptures, together with the Hyaena and Greyhound. At present, however, this animal is seldom met with in Syria, although it still exists in that region, but keeps itself concealed. So habitually cautious and suspicious is the Wolf, that it is difficult to take it in traps ; and for the same reason, an3'thing like the appear- ance of artifice deters it from an attack. It has been supposed the Fis:. 262. Fig. 263.— Skull of Jackal. Wolf never carries his tail elevated ; but this is not altogether correct ; we have often watched the Wolves in the Zoological Gardens gallop round the enclosure with the tail raised up as it is when the animals are in chase of prey; and also, as Dr. Richardson states from ob- servation, when they gambol with each other. When pursued the Wolf rushes along:, with his muzzle almost to the ground, his eyes like glowing fire, the hair of his neck and shoulders erect, and his tail lowered and drawn close ; when out of danger, he slackens his pace, raises his head, sniffs about, and VARIETIES OF WOLVES. 103 whisks liis tail around, as if exulting in his escape ; but if brought to bay by Hounds, he defends himself to the last, and often kills and maims some of his antagonists before he falls overpowered by numbers. (Fig. 265.) The Kirghese Tartars employ a large Hawk in the chase, which fastens upon the animal's head, and tears its eyes. Fierce as the Wolf is, like the Hyaena it can be tamed and even domesticated, but they require to be taken very young. M. F. Cuvier gives a very interesting account of a tame Wolf, which showed all the affection that the most gentle Dog could evince towards its master. When full- grown, he was presented by his owner to the menagerie at Paris. For many weeks he was quite disconsolate at the separation from his master, who had been obliged to travel ; he would scarcely take any food, and was indifferent to his keepers. At length he became attached to those about him, and he seemed to have forgotten his old affec- tions.. His master returned after an absence of eighteen months; the Wolf heard his voice amidst the crowd in the gardens of the menagerie, and, being set at liberty, displayed the most violent joy. Again was he separated from his friend ; and again was his grief as extreme as on the first occasion. After three years' absence, his master once more returned. It was evening, and the Wolf's den was shut up from any e.\ternal observations ; yet the instant the man's voice was heard, the faithful animal set up the most anxious fight often with great desperation, the combat ending with the death of the weaker. It is said that Wolves wounded by the gun-shot of hunters or travellers are torn in pieces and devoured by their fellows. The average height of the Wolf at the shoulders is about 2 feet Fig. 264. — Head of Wolf, ^i^ Fig. 265. — Wolf-hunt, after Snyders. cries; and the door of his cage being open, he rushed towards his friend, leaped upon his shoulders, licked his face, and threatened to bite his keepers when they attempted to separate them. When the man left him, he fell sick, and refused all food; and from the time of his recovery, which was long very doubtful, it was always dangerous for a stranger to approach him. He appeared as if he scorned any new friendships. Other instances of domestication are on record ; and, indeed, from our own personal experience, we hesitate not to state that the Wolf may be completely reclaimed— more so than the Australian Dingo. The power of the Wolf, especially in the muscles of the head, neck, and shoulders, is immense; and his bite is terribly severe, generally cutting out the flesh with a snap. Among themselves they Fig. 266.— Dusky or Clouaed Wolf. inches ; the female rears her young in some cave or gloomy recess, and produces from five to nine young at a birth. These are born with the eyes closed, as in the Dog. In the defence of her offspring the female is furious, and greatly to be dreaded. The voice of the W^olf is a prolonged howl, re- sounding dismally through the stilly darkness of the night. On the southern side of the Pyrenees there exists a variety perhaps of the Wolf, termed, from its colour, the Black Wolf {Cam's Lycaon, Linn.), the Loup noir of Buffon. These animals are asserted to be more ferocious than the ordi- nary grey Wolf, but perhaps without any foundation. The common Wolf of North America differs in some re- spects from its European rela- tive, and is, perhaps, a distinct species. It wants the gaunt appearance, the comparatively long jaw and tapering nose, the high ears, long legs, slen- der loins, and narrow feet of the European Wolf. Its frame also is more compact, the fur finer and thicker, the muzzle more obtuse, the head larger and rounder, and the forehead broader and more arched : the limbs are shorter, and the tail more Fox-like and bushy. Dr. Richardson, in his " Fa^na Boreali-Americana," enumerates several varieties of this North American Wolf, depending on colour — viz., the grey, the white, the pied, the dusky or clouded, and the black. Black Wolves abound on the Missouri ; and, accord- ing to the Indians, black and grey Wolves occur in the same litter. The dusky or cloivded Wolf was regarded by Say as a distinct species, and named by him Cants niibiliis. (Fig. 266.) The American Wolf agrees in its general habits with the Wolf of our continent, though it appears to be less formidable as far as man is concerned. Indeed, Captain Lyons, in his obser^'ations on the Wolves of Melville Peninsula, states that both English and Esqui- maux were accustomed to pass them without any weapon, or even a stick ; " the animals, however, exhibited no symptoms of fear, but rather a kind of tacit agreement not to be the beginners of a quarrel, even though they might have been certain of proving victorious." These Wolves hunt in packs, and when pressed for food their audacity is astonishing. 'J'luy will seize the Esquimaux Dogs before their masters' faces, and carry them oft"; for, though bold in 104 THE JACKAL— THE FOX. attacking- the Bear, this breed of Dogs, as previously noticed, fears the Wolf, and makes but a slight resistance. They have been known not only to steal provisions from under a man's head in the night, but even to come into a traveller's bivouac and carry off some of his Dogs. The American Wolf is extremely cunning, and in attacking Moose or Wapiti Deer, animals which exceed it in speed, it has recourse to a singular stratagem. Several combine, and arrange themselves in the form of a semicircle, and thus advance upon their prey, so as cither to hem it in, or drive it over a precipice. Captain Franklin often found the remains of Deer which had been thus dashed down steep cliffs and devoured ; and he states that this is a frequent expedient when the plains are bounded by precipitous cliffs. " \Vhilst the Deer are quietly grazing, the Wolves assem- ble in great numbers, and, forming a crescent, creep slowly towards the herd, so as not to alarm them much at first ; but when they perceive that they have fairly hemmed in the unsuspecting creatures, and cut off their retreat across the plain, they move more quickly, and with hideous yells terrify their prey, and urge them to flight by the only open way, which is towards the precipice, appearing to know that when the herd is once at full speed, it is easily driven over the cliff, the rearmost urging on those that are before. The Wolves then descend at leisure, and feed on the mangled carcasses." Of the American Wolves we may notice the Prairie Wolf [Cant's latrans. Say), which inhabits the plains of the Missouri and Saskatchewan, as well as those of the Co- lumbia. It is smaller and fleeter than the common Wolf, associates in large troops, and dwells in burrows on the plains remote from the forests. In Mexico is found a distinct species of Wolf [Cam's Mc.n'canus, Desm.) ; and a species termed the Red Wolf [Canis jubatus, Desm.) inhabits the Pampas of La Plata. The Antarctic Wolf [Cam's A7itarcticus, Desm.) is a native of the Falkland Isles, and seems to be an intermediate link between the Wolves and Foxes. It feeds principally upon a species of Goose [Auser !c!icoJ>fcrits), goes in packs, which wander about by day, but more commonly in the evening, and dwell in holes which they burrow. This species is about fifteen inches in height at the shoulder; the tail is short, and white at the tip ; the limbs are short, but the contour of the head is Wolf-like. It is termed by Pennant the Antarctic Fox. Colonel Sykes has described a Wolf from Dukhun, under the title of Canis pallipes, which he states to be numerous in the open stony plains of that region, but not to be met with in the woods of the Ghauts. Mr. Hodgson notices the common European Wolf as occurring in the lower region of the Nepal Mountains. The Jaciovl — Canis aureus: Of the animals known by the name of Jackals, one species [Canis anf/ius) is a native of Senegal; another, the Cape Jackal, the black-backed [Canis 7nesomclas) is a native of the Cape of Good Hope ; and a third, the Common Jackal [Canis aureus), is spread under surface ; the tail is slightly tipped with black. (See Fig. 267.)_ I his animal is most probably the Shual of the Scriptures. It is the Chical of the Turks ; Sciagal, Sciuagal, Sciachal, or Shacal of the Persians. The Jackal dwells in troops, which lie concealed in holes and burrows during the day, but conic forth at night to hunt for food, giving chase to Sheep or Antelopes and other animals, like the «=?r;!STr~--'^ Fig. 267. — ^Jackal. from the north of Africa, through Syria, Persia, and the greater part of India. Colonel Sykes states it to be numerous in Dukhun, where it is called Kholah by the Mahrattas. It is somewhat larger than a Fox, but its tail is shorter in proportion, reaching only to the hock ; its head is short, with a pointed muzzle : the general colour above is grey, abruptly divided from a paler tint spread over the Fig. 268. — ^Jackals in troops. Wolf, stealing Fox-like into Fowl-roosts, and attacking any animal they are capable of overcoming. They do not, however, confine themselves to living prey, carrion and offal of every description being greedily devoured. Nor are roots and fruits less acceptable ; in the vineyard, indeed, they make great havoc, and their fondness for grapes is notorious. The "shriek" of the Jackal is terrific. Those travellers who have heard them, describe the nocturnal yells of these animals as extremely piercing and dissonant ; now close, now at a distance, troop answering troop from different points, themselves unseen, while their fearful chorus breaks the stillness of the hours of darkness. Their cries thus heard amidst the ruins of cities of ancient date, might seem " to listening Fancy's ear " like the wail of legions of spirits over the departed glories of other days. Mouldering ruins, fallen temples, crumbling tombs, and craggy rocks are the abodes of the Jackal. Sly and suspicious in its disposition, this animal, when taken young, is nevertheless easily tamed, and loses that unpleasant odour which renders the wild animal almost unbearable. We have seen in the Zoological Gardens a hybrid between the Jackal and Dog. The preceding cut is an illustration of a troop of Jackals in flight. (Fig. 268.) Foxes.— The Common 'Pos.— Canis vu!J)es, &c. The Common Fox [Canis vul_pes, Linn. ; Vuljies vulgaris, Brisson. Volpe, of the Italians ; Rapasa, Spanish ; Rapoza, Portuguese ; Fuchs, German ; Vos, Dutch ; Raff, Swedish ; Rev, Danish ; Tod, Scottish provincialism ; Llwynog, and female Lhvynoges, of the Welsh), the representative of the sub-genus Vulpcs, characterised by a linear pupil and a long bushy tail, is too well known to need a minute description. This wily animal is common in our island, andin most parts of Europe, extending into Northern Asia, and is everywhere celebrated for its cunning and rapacity. As its linear pupil intimates, the Fox is crepuscular or nocturnal in its habits, but is occasionally seen abroad during the day. In general, however, it is as the dusk of the evening advances that the Fox steals from its burrow, with noiseless steps, to prowl about for prey. His senses of smell and hearing are extremely keen, and he listens, and snuffs the breeze, attentive to every sound, appreciating every odour. His eyes gleam, as he creeps along in a crouching attitude, intent upon his prey. His movements are all stealthy : he surprises the Rabbit gambolling near its burrow ; the Hare in her form ; the poultry on the perch. He slaughters all he can, reser\'ing the overplus for a future exigency, and for that purpose buries it in the earth. In times of scarcity Field-Mice, Frogs, Weasels, and even insects are devoured. On the continent the Fox visits the vineyards, being as partial to the ripe grapes as is he Jackal. (See Fig. 269.) The Fox is solitary m its habits, and dwells alone in a burrow, VARIETIES OF THE FOX. »0S which he has either made or usurped, and which is generally in some secluded situation, not readily to be discovered, and in the nciijh- tjourhood of a Rabbit-warren, preserves of game, or farms Xho female breeds in April, and on her alone devolves the entire care of the cubs. She produces three or four at a birth, in -_ _, _ -geiitatus'). Dr. Richardson states that seldom more than four or five of this variety are taken in a season at one post, though the hunters no sooner find out the haunts of one than they use every art to catch it, because its fur fetches six times the price of any other fur produced in North America. This Fox is sometimes found of a rich deep glossy black, the tip of the tail alone being white: in general, however, it is silvered over (" sable silvered "), the end of each of the long hairs of the fur being white, producing a beautiful appearance. Specimens of this animal may be seen at the British Museum. The Virginian Fox ( ViiIJ>es 'Virginiamis) appears to be a distinct species, and so most certainly is the Kit, or Tricoloured Fox ( F". cinereo-argentatus), of which the skins are common in the shops of furriers. This animal is of small size, and is numerous on the plains extending from the Saskatchewan to the Missouri, and on those of Columbia. It prefers the open country, at a distance from wooded districts, where it dwells in deep burrows of its own excavation, and is e.xtremely vigilant and fleet. Dr. Richardson suggests that it may be regarded as the American representative of the Corsac Fox of the deserts of Tartary, being similar to that species in habits and manners, and frequenting localities of the like character. The Arctic Fox {Canis [znclpes] Z^^b/zcj-).— Terreanee-arioo of the Esquimaux of Melville Peninsula ; Terieniak of the Greenlanders ; Wappeeskeeshew-makkeeshew of the Cree Indians ; Peszi of tlie Russians. In the high northern latitudes of the globe, the Arctic Fox is the sole representative of its race. Its range extends through Siberia, along the borders of the Arctic Ocean, through the bleak regions of the Esquimaux, and the dreary realms of Greenland. " These Foxes," says Dr. Richardson, " inhabit the most northern lands hitherto discovered." In North America their southern limit appears to be about latitude 50°. They are numerous on the shores of Hudson's Bay, north of Churchill, and exist also in Behring's Straits. They breed on the sea-coast, and chiefly within the Arctic circle, forming burrows in sandy spots, not solitary, like the Red Fox, but in little villages, twenty or thirty burrows being constructed adjoining to each other. We saw one of these villages at Point Tumagain, in lat. 68J degrees. Towards the middle of winter they retire southwards, evidently in search of food ; keeping as much as possible on the coast, and going much farther to the south in the districts where the coast-line is in the direction of their march. Captain Parry relates, that the Arctic Foxes, which were previously numerous, began to retire from Melville Peninsula in November, and that by January few remained. Towards the centre of the continent, THE ARCTIC FOX— THE FENNEC. 107 65°, they were seen only in the winter, and then not in numbers, are very scarce in lat. 61°, and in lat. 53° two only were seen in inlat. They are. _-j , ._ ■, . ■ t- forty years! " Hcarne says that when taken young the Arctic i-ox may be domesticated in some degree, but he never saw one that was fond of being caressed." Though not destitute of intelligence, the Arctic Fox, unlike the Common Fox, is unsuspicious and destitute of Fig. 274. — The Arctic Fox abroad. caution : it has been known to stand by while the hunter was pre- paring a trap, and on his retiring to run headlong into it. Captain Lyon received fifteen from a single trap in four hours. The voice of this species is a kind of yelp, and when a man approaches their breeding-places, they put their heads out of their burrows and bark at him, allowing him to come within range of shot. They appear to have the power of decoying other animals within their reach by imitating their voices. " While tenting," says Captain Lyon, "we observed a Fox prowl- ing on a hill-side, and heard him for several hours afterwards in different places imitating the voice of a brent-goose." Eggs, young birds, blubber, and carrion of any kind constitute the food of this Fox — especially different species of Lemmings, which are greedily devoured. In general form the Arctic Fox resembles the European Fig. 275. — Arctic Fox at home. Species, but is considerably smaller ; and owing to the great quantity of white woolly fur with which it is covered, is somewhat like a little Shock-dog. The brush is large and full, affording an admirable covering for the nose and feet, to which it acts as a muff when the animal sleeps. Although the head is not so pointed as in our English species, yet it has that air of slyness which is so character- istic of all Foxes. The eyes are clear and bright, and of a hazel colour. (See Figs. 274 and 275.) Captain Lyon remarks that tlie muzzle of the female is shorter than that of the male, and has less of cunning and more of mildness in its expression. The ears are short, and thickly covered with hair, and their edges appear as if they had been cropped. The cheeks are ornamented by a projecting ruff, which extends from behind the ears quite round the lower part of the face, to which it gives an agreeable appearance. The legs are rather long than otherwise, and show great strength of muscle. The feet, which are large, are armed with strong claws. " When the animal is standing still, the hind-legs are so placed as to give the idea of weakness in the loins, which is certainly not the case, as few animals can make more powerful leaps. The general weight is about eight pounds, although some were found to be as low as seven, and a few as high as nine pounds and a-half when in good case." The Arctic Fox is cleanly, and free from any unpleasant smell : it is habitually watchful, and when asleep, opens its eyes at the slightest noise near it. Day is its season of rest : during the night its activity is extreme, and it gambols or hunts for food till daybreak. While in pursuit of its prey it is mute, but in captivity, or when irri- tated, it utters a short sharp bark. When first taken its rage is ungovernable, nor is it ever thoroughly reconciled to confinement. Those which Captain Lyon had were observed to hide their food, like the Dog, under lumps of snow ; snow also was their substitute for water, and they would roll in it with evident satisfaction. " When the snow was slightly scattered on the decks, they did not lick it up, as Dogs are accustomed to do, but by repeatedly pressing with their nose, collected small lumps at its extremity, and then drew it up into the mouth with the assistance of the tongue." Though a few Arctic Foxes remain white during the summer, it is only in the winter that the majority assume this pure snowy livery, accompanied by an in- crease in the fulness and thickness of the fur, which deeply covers even the soles of the feet. In summer the fur is thinner, and of a dusky brownish ash or leaden tint ; and the callous pads of the toes become partially visible. Some very interesting particulars of these Foxes, and also of the Esquimaux Dogs, described in p. 93, ante, may be found in the works of Ross, Parry, and other Arctic naviga- tors, as also in the reports of the Arctic Expedition under Captain Nares, in i875-'76. The Fennec {Megalotis Feiinccus). — CatiisZerda, Zimmermann ; Megalotis Ccrdo, llliger ; Fennicus Ccrdo, Lacepede ; Viverra aurifa, Blumenbach ; Fennec of the Arabs^ Bruce. (Sec Fig. 276.) Fig. 276. — Fennec. For our first knowledge of this elegant little animal we are in- debted to the celebrated Abyssinian traveller Bruce, who discovered it in Nubia. So little, however, was its true character understood, that in the third volume of the Supplement to Buffon's work it is termed "animal anonyme," and even M. Geoffrey for some time re- garded it as identical with the Senegal Galago ; in fact, the French naturalists were disposed to sink the Fennec as a new species of Ca«/j altogether. Colonel Denham, however, recognised the animal in the interior of North Africa, and accurately figured it in the Zoo- logical Appendix to his Travels : he also brought a specimen to this country, and thus established the truth ^of Bruce's description. Riippell re-discovered it in Nubia, where Bruce had first seen it. Whoever examines the skeleton of the Fennec will not hesitate for a moment as to the place in nature which the animal occupies. The skull, the teeth, the feet, declare it at once to belong to the Canine group. The Fennec frequents tlie sandy desert tracts of Nubia, and other districts of Northern Africa, dwelling in burrows of its own excavation. It is said to live much on the fruit of the date, and to climb trees in order to obtain its food : this fact, if true, is very re- markable, being a marked departure from the habits and manners of the rest of the present family. Bruce, indeed, says. that it builds its nest in trees, and docs not burrow in the earth; but this state- ment is contradicted by M. Riippell. The individual which Bruce had in his possession while at Algiers, was fond of dates or any sweet fruit, and was also partial to eggs. He would eat bread when hungry, especially if sweetened with honey or sugar. The sight of a bird aroused him to eager watchfulness as long as it was present, and a Cat was his aversion. He would endeavour to hide from the latter, and never showed a disposition to resist or defend himself. The animal was disposed to sleep by day, but as night came on became restless to excess. It was never heard to utter any sound. The Fennec is small and slightly made, with slender limbs. The length of the head and body is about thirteen inches ; that of the tail. io8 THE CAPE HUNTING-DOG. eight ; the head is narrow, the muzzle pointed ; the pupil of the eye large and black, the iris deep blue ; whiskers long and thick. The ears are extremely large, as long as the head, broad at the base, erect and pointed. The fur of the body is rather short, but full and silky. The colour is uniform pale fawn or cream colour, passing into white beneath ; the inside of the ear is fringed with long white hairs ; the whiskers are white. In the districts of Benni Rlezzab and Werglah, where the date grows, the Fennecs are hunted for their skins, for which, according to Bruce, there is a market at Mecca, whence they are exported to India. In the sub-genus Megalotis, Cuvicr associates with the Fennec a species from South Africa, the Canis Megalotis of De Lalande {Megalotis Laiaadii, H. Smith). This animal is somewhat less than the common Fox, but comparatively higher on the limbs ; its general colour is yellowish-grey, but the feet and tail, together with a stripe down the spine, are black : the ears are large and spreading. The Cape Hunting-Dog {Lycaon tricolor, Brookes). Lycaoii fictus ; Canis ;pictiis, Desmarest ; Hyeena I'enatica, Burchell. — This daring and ferocious animal, one of the pests of Southern Africa, is a complete Dog in the form of the skull and the charac- ters of the teeth ; it has, however, as in the Hyaenas, only four toes on the anterior feet, and the same on the feet behind. In iigure it is tall, lightly built, but muscular and well proportioned ; the limbs are long, the cars large and erect, the jaws powerful, and the teeth strong. Its aspect is wild and fierce, and its disposition treacher- ous. The fur is close and of a sandy yellow, irregularly clouded and Fig. 277. — Cape Hunting-Dog. blotched with black and a little white. The tail is somewhat bushy and of moderate length. The colour is subject to variation. (Sec Fig. 277.) Wild, fleet, and savage, this species hunts in packs mostly during the night, but frequently in the day ; and so fleet is it that few animals can escape. It often commits extensive ravages on the flocks and herds of the farmer, though it seldom attacks horned cattle openly, but steals on them while asleep, and bites off their tails, even at the root, with one snap — a feat which the wide gape and vast power of its jaws enable it to do with ease. Mr. Burchell, on his return from Africa, brought a living individual to England, which retained during life all its native ferocity. A specimen in the Tower, many years ago, arrived in company with a young Cape Lion, both occupying the same den, till the Lion became too strong and rough in his play, when the Hunting-Dog was associated with a Striped Hyana, and two of the spotted species, with which it agreed tolerably well. It is generally the opinion of naturalists, that this species, for which the celebrated anatomist, the late Joshua Brookes, Esq., founded the genus Lycaon, is an intermediate link in the chain of the Carnivora, uniting the canine group to the Hyxnas ; indeed, in some points of general aspect, and in the number of the toes, the approximation of this Dog to the latter animals is so marked, that Mr. Burchell regarded it as a Hya;na, and as such Temminck de- scribed it under the title of Hytsna J>icta, though he afterwards assigned it to the genus Canis. The name of Hyaena-Dog has also been conferred upon it ; but as Mr. Swainson gives this title to the Aard-Wolf {Protcles), we drop it altogether for the sake of avoiding confusion or misapprehension. In size, the Cape Hunting-Dog (Wilde Honden of the Dutch colonists) is as large as a Pointer or Hound, but higher on the limbs in proportion to the bulk of the body. We are not aware that any serious attempts have been made to domesticate it. In concluding our remarks on the Dog family, we venture to quote a beautiful poem by Wordsworth, on the fidelity of the Dog to man. "A barking sound the shepherd hears, A cry as of a dog or fox ; lie halts, and searches with his eyes Among the scattered rocks : And now at distance can discern A stirring in a brake of fern ; From which immediately leaps out A dog, and yelping runs about. The dog is not of mountain breed ; Its motions, too, are wild and shy ; With something, as the shepherd thinks, Unusual in its cry : Nor is there any one in sight All round, in hollow or in height ; Nor shout nor whistle strikes his ear : What is the creature doing here ? It was a cove, a huge recess, That keeps till June December's snow; A lofty precipice in front, A silent tarn below. Far in the bosom of Ilelvellyn, Remote from public road or dwelling, Pathway, or cultivated land. From trace of human foot or hand. There sometimes does a leaping fish .Send through the tarn a lonely cheer ; The crags repeat the raven's croak In symphony austere. Thither the rainbow comes, the cloud ; And mists that spread the flying shroud, And sunbeams ; and the sounding blast That, if it could, would hurry past. But that enormous barrier binds it fast. Not knowing what to think, awhile The shepherd stood ; then makes his way Towards the dog, o'er rocks and stones. As quickly as he may ; Nor far had gone before he found A human skeleton on the ground. Sad sight ! the shepherd with a sigh Looks round to learn the history. From those abrupt and perilous rocks The man had fallen, that place of fear ! At length upon the shepherd's mind It breaks, and all his clear: He instantly recall'd the name, And who he was and whence he came ; Remember'd, too, the very day On which the traveller pass'd this way. Eut hear a wonder now, for sake Of which this mournful tale I tell ! A lasting monument of words This wonder merits well. The dog, which still was hovering nigh, Repeating the same timid cry. This dog had been through three months' space A dweller in that savage place. Yes, proof was plain that since the day On which the traveller thus had died The dog had w'atched about the spot. Or by his master's side. How nourished here through such long time He knows, who gave that love sublime. And gave that strength of feeling, great Above all human estimate." Having described the chief members of the Dog family, or CanidcB, we pass on to consider the second family of the Carnivora — viz., the Felidcs, embracing Lions, Tigers, Cats, Hyaenas, &c. 1 THE FELID^, INCLUDING LIONS, CATS, ETC. T09 CHAPTER X. MAMMALIA.-ORDF.R. CARNIVORA— THE FELIDiE, INCLUDING LIONS, CATS, Etc. i^ X ,-; ■:, " m ffS* HATEVER object may have been intended in the creation of the Fclidcv, it must be ad- mitted that their organisation among the Mammalia is of the highest type. In this family are included the Lions, the Tiger, the Leopard, the Lynx, the Cat, and many others. It scarcely admits of any subdi- vision, and in it are comprehended the most sanguinary, the most formidable, and the most typical of the order Ca?-mz