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THE ROYAL
NATURAL HISTORY
BEING
A SYSTEMjlTIC ARRANGEMENT OF DESC[[IPTIVE ZOOLOGY,
FROM MAN TO THE LOWEST FORMS.
WITH
AN INTRODUCTION ON THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY,
BY
DR. ANDREW WILSON, F.R.S., Edin. ; F.R.P.S.E.. Etc.,
Lecturer on Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the Edinburgh Medical School, S^c,
EMBELLISHED BY OVER
TWO THOUSAND ENGRAVINGS AND COLOURED PLATES.
EDITED BY JAMES WYLDE,
Editor of the " Circle oj the Sciences,'^ Author of the *' Magic of Science," **Shelis ami their Inhabitants," "Fossils," 4'C.
[m\' ]
THE LONDON PRINTING AND PUBLISHING COMPANY, LIMITED,
26, PATERNOSTER ROW, LO.NDO.V. A. W. GITTENS, 17, PARK I'l.ACK, NEW TORIv.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION ON THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. ^'"^^
CHAP.
I.— THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN ,
IL— THE QUADRUMANA (Four-handed), INCLUDING THE APES, GIBBONS, MONKEYS, &c 22
III.— QUADRUMANA.— THE GIBBONS (Genus Hylobates) 3^
IV.— QUADRUMANA.— THE MONKEYS (Sub-family Cynomorpha, OR Dog-like) 38
v.— QUADRUMANA— THE AMERICAN MONKEYS (Group PLATYRRHiNiE) ^8
VI.— QUADRUMANA.— MADAGASCAR MONKEYS, OR LEMURS (Group or Family, LEMURiDiE and Lemuroida) 57
VII.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CHIROPTERA, OR BATS 67
Vin.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, INSECTIVORA— THE SHREWS, MOLES, &C 74
IX.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CARNIVORA— FLESH EATERS 85
X.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CARNIVORA— THE FELID^; INCLUDING LIONS, CATS, &C 109
XL— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CARNIVORA— THE HYENAS; THE VIVERRID^, OR CIVETS; AND THE
MUSTELID^ OR WEASELS ,27
XII.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CARNIVORA— URSID^, OR BEARS, &C. ; AND THE CERCOLEPTID^, OR
KINKAJOUS 14s
XIIL— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, PINNIPEDIA— SEALS, &c 156
XIV.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, RODENTIA— THE GNAWERS OR RODENTS i56
XV.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, EDENTATA, OR BRUTA— TOOTHLESS ANIMALS 201
XVI.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, RUMINANTIA— OXEN, &C 216
XVII.— MAMMALIA— ORDER, RUMINANTIA— FAMILY, CERVID^ ; INCLUDING STAGS, &C 2J5
XVIII.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, RUMINANTIA— FAMILY, BOVIDiE ; INCLUDING ANTELOPES, CATTLE, AND SHEEP,
ALL HOLLOW-HORNED ANIMALS OR CAVICORNIA 247
XIX.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, SOLIDUNGULA— THE HORSE, &C 290
XX.— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, PACHYDERMAT A— ELEPHANTS, &C 302
XXL— MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CETACEA— WHALES, &c. ; INCLUDING SUB-ORDERS-I., CETE, AND II., SIRENIA 338
XXIL— MAMMALIA.— SUB-CLASS, APLACENTARIA— KANGAROOS, &C 35'
^05)08(i
ii CONTENTi>.
CHAP. PAGE
XXIII.— AVES OR BIRDS 369
XXIV.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, RAPTORES .. 379
XXV.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, PASSERES, OR INSESSORES— PERCHING BIRDS 419
XXVI.— AVES OR BIRDS.— SUB-ORDER, TENUIROSTRES, OR SLENDER-BILL BIRDS 441
XXVII.— AVES OR BIRDS.— SUB-ORDER, DENTIROSTRES, OR TOOTH-BILLED BIRDS 454
XXVIII.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, PASSERES, OR PERCHING BIRDS; SUB-ORDER, DENTIROSTRES ; FAMILY
SYLVIDiE OR SYLVIAD^, OR WARBLERS 472
XXIX.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, PASSERES, OR INSESSORES ; SUB-ORDER, CONIROSTRES 486
XXX.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, SCANSORES, OR CLIMBING BIRDS ; INCLUDING CUCKOOS, PARROTS, &C. 513
XXXI.— AVES OR BIRDS.-ORDER, COLUMB^, OR DOVES 532
XXXIL— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, RASORES, OR GALLINACEOUS BIRDS, OR FOWLS, &c 541
XXXIII.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, CURSORES, OR RUNNERS 559
XXXIV.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, GRALLATO RES, OR WADING BIRDS 564
XXXV.— AVES OR BIRDS.— ORDER, NATATORES, OR SWIMMING BIRDS 588
XXXVI.— REPTILIA, OR REPTILES ; INCLUDING SERPENTS, LIZARDS, CROCODILES, &c 621
XXXVn.—BATRACHIA.— FROGS, &c 666
XXXVIIL— PISCES, OR FISHES 676
XXXIX.— INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.— THE MOLLUSCS ; SOFT-BODIED ANIMALS .. 725
XL.— MOLLUSCA PROPER _ 11^
XLL— THE ARTICULATA 767
XLII.-THE ARTIGULATA.-ARTHROPODA, OR TRUE ARTICULATA; INCLUDING LOBSTERS, CRABS,
SPIDERS, &c 774
XLIII.— ARTICULATA.— THE INSECTS 793
XLIV.—RADIATA, OR RADIATED ANIMALS • 824
XLV.— THE PROTOZOA ^^^
THE
STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY
BY
DR. ANDREW WILSON,
F.R.S., Edin. ; F.R.P.S.E., Etc.,
Lecturer on Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the Edinburgh Medical School, &c.
ROM the earliest years in which our attention is directed to the objects which
surround us in nature, we are in the habit of classifying these objects into three
divisions or series. The child is accustomed to speak of the Animal, Vegetable, and
Mineral Kingdoms as the three great divisions of nature, and for all practical purposes
this division is consistent with the facts of nature themselves. But a further distinction
is capable of being drawn between natural objects when their characteristics are more
carefully noted and observed. To classify them into Animals, Plants, and Minerals
is a procedure which takes no account of the special characters of any one of the
three groups. A little reflection shows us that two of these groups possess life, and
are thus sharply separated from the other and remaining division, in which lifeless objects are alone
contained. The animals and plants thus together form the life-possessing or Organic Series ;
whilst minerals, rocks, stones, and all objects destitute of life, form the Inorganic Series, or non-
ig group.
Proceeding next to inquire into the methods we possess of studying these objects, we enter
upon the consideration of the sciences which deal with the world and its belongings. In the
early days of knowledge, when the sciences were but in their infancy, a perfect classification of the branches
of inquiry pursued by man was an impossibility ; and as the study of nature was of the most general kind,
one common study of "Natural History." may be regarded as having represented the distinct and specialized
branches we pursue to-day. When learning revived in comparatively modern times, knowledge may be said
to have divided itself into two chief branches, one of which concerned itself with human affairs, with the
constitution of man's life, and with his political and social history; whilst the other dealt with the universe
around, and with the objects which meet our gaze in the world at large. Hobbes, of Malmesbury, for
instance, in his " Leviathan," very clearly enunciates the distinction to be drawn between " Natural
History," which he asserts to be " the history of such facts or effects of nature as have no dependence on man's
will; such as are the histories of metals, plants, animals, regions, and the like;" whilst conversely he takes
care to point out that another great branch of inquiry exists, in which is comprised, under the name of
"Civil History," "the history of the voluntary actions of men in commonwealths."
Such was the division of human knowledge in the time of Hobbes. But the growth of knowledge
proceeded apace, after the era of the philosopher of Malmesbury. After Newton's day, and in greater part
as the effect of his influence on science, knowledge came to be divided into " Experimental or Mathematical
THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY.
Sciences," or those which could be pursued by active imitation of the conditions of nature — and " Observational
Sciences," or those in which experiment gave place to simple observation of the facts seen in nature. To
the former category. Chemistry, Astronomy, and Natural Philosophy were assigned ; and in the latter division.
Natural History, comprising the study of animals (Zoology) ; plants (Botany) ; and the earth itself (Geology
or Mineralogy), found a place. Thus the name " Natural History " ultimately came to mean and to indicate
those sciences which dealt with animals, plants, and minerals ; and, as such, the limits of the science were
of the widest possible kind of nature. Buffon and Linnaeus were "naturalists" in this wide sense, and
these writers included a knowledge of every department of nature under that designation.
But science did not cease to grow and expand after this latter classification of its subjects was constructed.
On the contrary, research in the department of " Natural History " began to be prosecuted with increased vigour.
As time passed, it was seen that the limits of human existence were too short to admit of a man's attaining
excellence in the whole range of " Natural History ; " and specialization and limitation of studies became the
order of the day. A division accordingly grew into repute between those branches of Natural History which
dealt with living things, and those which inquired into the history of the tion-livi7tg section of the universe.
The study of animals and plants thus tended to separate itself from the study of rocks and stones, and a new
division of " Natural History " science was again imminent. About 1801, Lamarck, the celebrated French
zoologist, coined a word, Biologic, derived from the Greek, bios, life, and logos, a discourse. Treviranus, another
famous naturalist, likewise employed this name — rendered Biology in English — and under this term both
authorities included the study of animals and plants as the living parts of nature. Hence " Biology " came to
mean, at the beginning of this century, as it means to-day, the " Science of Living Beings." As such it was,
therefore, sharply enough separated from the neighbour-sciences, Geology and Mineralogy, and other branches,
which had been united with the study of living beings under the common name, " Natural History." This
idea grew in favour, and has been handed down to the present era of scientific thought, so that " Biology " is
understood to-day to be the science dealing with the living things which inhabit the earth. What, it may now
be asked, is the present arrangement of the " Natural Sciences," and of those branches of inquiry which deal
with the inorganic or lifeless section of the universe ? The following table will show the modern arrangement
of these sciences : —
NATURAL HISTORY.
INCLUDES : —
(0
Biology
dealing with
Animals (ZOOLOGY) ^ These forming the
and \
Plants (BOTANY) J ORGANIC Series.
(2)
Chemistry
(3)
Geology
These dealing chiefly with
(4)
Mineralogy
the
(5)
Natural Philosophy
Inorganic Series.
(6)
Astronomy
As above defined, we note that the significance of the old term, " Natural History," as used by Hobbes,
remains unchanged. It means with us to-day, the complete and entire history of nature around us. As
such, it includes the consideration, not merely of living, but of non-living objects. The former are dealt
with by Biology, which includes the companion sciences of Botany and Zoology. The inorganic objects
are dealt with by such sciences as Chemistry, Astronomy, Geology, &c. ; but it is also necessary to note
that these sciences are likewise related more or less intimately to living beings and to Biological inquiries.
There is a chemistry of living beings, for instance, as well as an inorganic chemistry; and Geology deals
with the life of the past in the form of fossils, as well as with the rocks and stones, which possess no
connection with life or living objects. The line of separation, albeit that it is distinct enough, is not an
absolute one ; and, indeed, the furthest researches of science tend to show that no one branch of inquiry
remains entirely separate and distinct from its neighbour-branches, but depends, to a greater or less extent,
for its own progress, upon that of other departments of human knowledge.
Having thus defined the special position which " Biolog)'," as the science of living beings, occupies, we
may now proceed to investigate the manner in which animals and plants are to be studied. It is the aim of
science to be exact, and the methods of scientific inquiry — the fashion in which knowledge is acquired — must
THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY.
be themselves essentially of exact and well defined kind. In scientific inquiries, therefore, a certain routine
must be observed. Information acquired now must bear a definite relation to that obtained in the past :
just as the knowledge of the future will unquestionably relate itself to that of the present, to form a
harmonious and connected system of knowledge. Definite method is, therefore, a first condition for success-
ful investigation into the truths of nature.
Animals and plants are studied according to a method or plan in which the details of their form, struc-
ture, mode of life, habitation, and origin, are readily ascertained and appreciated by the biologist. The
history of any animal or plant — low or high in the scale of creation — is practically ascertained by asking-
four questions concerning it — queries, these, of a thoroughly natural kind. Firstly, we ask of every \\\-\n"
being, "What is it? " expecting in the reply to gain a knowledge of its structure and nature. Secondly, we
inquire, " How does it live ? " with the view of discovering its manner of life and the degree of perfection in
which the duties of life are performed. Thirdly, we determine to know, " Where is it found ? " with the view
of ascertaining in what quarters of the world it exists, from what regions it may be absent, and whether or not
it existed in that part of our earth with which Geology makes us acquainted. Fourthly, and lastly, we
inquire, " How has it assumed its present place in nature ? " and if this question be answered, we shall expect
to find, in the reply, information concerning the causes which have made the living being what it is, which
have determined its place in the scale of life, and which have, in fact, wrought out its physical destiny. If
these four questions may be fully answered concerning any living thing, the history of that organism may
be regarded as full and complete in every particular. As science now exists, every fresh addition to our
knowledge of living beings may be regarded as tending to answer one of these queries partly or wholly. The
gaps in our knowledge are many and great concerning even the humblest living being ; but the advances of
inquiry are proceeding with unfaltering step, and day by day the histories of the varied living forms which people
our globe are being added to with a rapidity that gives fair promise of a rich scientific harvest in the near
future of Biology.
The answer to the first question asked concerning any and every living being — from the lowest
animalcule or plant, up to, and including, man himself— is supplied by that branch of Biology we term
Morphology, or the Science of Structure. The following table will show the various branches of inquiry throu"-h
the pursuit of which our knowledge of living beings is gained.
BIOLOGY (OR THE SCIENCE OF LIVING BEINGS)
I. Morphology,
(Science of Structure)
including
INCLUDES : —
1. Anatomy
2. Development
3. Taxonomy
Which answer the
question,
"What is it?"
II. Physiology,
(Science of Functions)
including
1. Nutrition
2. Reproduction
3. Innervation
Which answer the
question,
' How does it live ? "
HI. Distribution,
including
1. In space (Geographical Distribution)
2. In time (Geological Distribution)
Which answer the question
" Where is it found ? "
IV. .(Etiology,
(Science of Causes)
including
Development and Descent :
The study of likenesses :
etc.
Which answer the question,
" How has it assumed its present place
in the organic series ? "
Under the head of Morphology, we expect to gain an accurate idea of the structure of the animal or
plant. Every detail concerning its composition and mechanism is acquired under this head. Suppose a
watchmaker to describe to us the mechanism of a watch — to show us the arrangement of wheels, springs,
pivots, and other gear — the mechanic in such a case would be describing to us the " morphology " of the watch.
But morphology is seen to include (as set forth in our table) at least three well marked divisions. Anatomy
teaches us the form and structure of the fully-formed being ; makes us acquainted with the position and
THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY.
relations of its various organs, and shows us, for example, where heart and brain, lungs and liver, digestive
and other organs lie. Then Devclopjiient takes up the story, and initiates us into the processes in virtue of
which the animal or plant grew, and was fashioned from the primitive sybstance of the germ or seed. Just as
the history of a watch might be held to include the details of its manufacture, so the study of an animal or
plant includes a knowledge of its formation, and of the processes whereby it assumed its adult and characteristic
form. In such a study some of the most important knowledge of the naturalist is obtained. Studying the
development of the animal or plant, the observer sees how, from the apparently simple protoplasm of egg or seed,
organ after organ is evolved and formed, until the perfection of adult life is obtained. The last department
of morphology is Taxonomy or Classification. It is easy to perceive that a true knowledge of what things are
includes a knowledge of their relations one with another. When we classify any series of objects — living or
non-living — we place together those that are really like, and separate those that are unlike. It is evident,
therefore, that upon a knowledge of morphology and development (which teach us what animals and plants
are) our ability to arrange together those that are truly alike must depend. A whale and a fish would be —
and very frequently are, in popular Natural History, classified together — because both are alike in form and •
appearance, and because both swim and inhabit the water. But when we understand the structure of the
fish, as revealed by morphology and development, we find that its body is covered with scales, that its blood is
cold, that its heart is two-chambered, that it breathes by gills, and that its young are hatched from eggs, over
which the parent-fish usually exercises no care. When, similarly, we understand the structure of the whale,
we find vast differences between it and the fish. The whale's body-covering consists typically of hairs ; its
blood is warm ; its heart is four-chambered ; it breathes by lungs, like ourselves, and has to ascend periodically
to the surface of the water for the purpose of breathing air directly from the atmosphere ; and its young are
born alive, and nourished by means of the milk of the parent. The fish we find, in short, to be a much lower
animal than the whale ; whilst the latter we discover to be an animal belonging to the same class as
ourselves. The whale is, in truth, a quadruped, or mammal, fitted for an aquatic life ; whilst the fish is the
lowest member of the Vertebrate group (or that of "backboned " animals) to which man himself belongs.
Thus does a true and exact classification of animals or plants depend upon a knowledge of what animals and
plants truly are, as demonstrated by morphology, or the Science of Structure.
The second question — "How does it live?" is answered by Physiology, or the Science of Fjinctions. As
morphology taught us the mechanism of the living body, so physiology teaches us concerning the manner in
which that mechanism works. When we speak of the " physiology of the eye," or of the " heart," we mean
respectively to indicate the knowledge which shows us how eye and heart perform their respective " functions "
or " duties." Every living being may be said to perform three chief functions — each including a large number
of subordinate branches of inquiry. The life-history of any animal or plant may, in other words, be summed
up in three terms — Nutrition, Reproduction, and Relation, or Innervation. The first duty of the living organism
is the " Nutrition " of its frame. Under this head, we consider the questions of food, digestion, assimilation,
the blood or sap (as the case may be), circulation, respiration, excretion, secretion, &c. Nutrition comprehends
every function which contributes to the support and maintenance of the individjial animal or plant.
But whilst the individual is thus being conserved, the interests of the race or species also demand attention.
Death is continually thinning out the ranks of animal and plant species ; hence provision must be made for
filling up the gaps which such loss by death causes. The function of " Reproduction " is therefore that devoted
to this latter work. Through its operation, new animals and plants are produced to take the places of lost
members of the race; and reproduction clearly preserves the "species," just as nutrition conserved the
" individual." The last function included in the list of physiological duties performed by animals and plants
is named Relation, Irritability, or Innervation. By each term is indicated the functions which the 7iervous
system (or its representative in lowest animals and in plants) perform, in bringing the living being into
" relation " with its surroundings, and with the world in which it lives. Every living being possesses and
exhibits some such relations. The animal is visibly related to the world in which it lives and moves, and from
which it draws its sustenance and support. No less clearly related to its surroundings is the fixed plant, which
derives its food from the soil in which it is placed, and which, as a living being, must possess some relations
with its environments. It may be laid down as a stable fact in physiology that no living being is destitute of
means for performing the function of relation. The higher we advance in the animal and plant series, the
more perfect does the performance of this function become. But the differences perceptible between the
nervous relations of one animal and another are differences of degree and not of kind ; and it may be said
THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 5
that there exists an unbroken chain of physiological relations connecting even the lowest form of life with the
highest interests of man.
From the study of morphology and physiology wc thus gain a complete knowledge of the structure and
life of every living thing. A third question is found, however, which covers ground ignored by either
structural or by functional considerations. This question — " Where is it found ? " — is answered by the science
of Distribution. Every living being has a more or less strictly defined place and position on the surface of
the earth. Some forms are well-nigh world-wide in their range; others are restricted (like some species of
humming-birds, for instance) to, it may be, a few square miles of that surface, and are never met with outside
these narrow bounds. The questions, which, therefore, the science of Distribution sets itself to answer arc of
all-important nature. Why, for example, it may be asked, are humming-birds confined to the New World ?
Why are antelopes well-nigh limited to Africa ? Why are deer, which otherwise are world-wide in range,
absent from Africa? Why does one elephant occur in India, and another and different elephant in Africa?
Why are New World monkeys different from those of the Old World ? Why are kangaroos only found in
Australia, and opossums in America alone ? These, and a multitude of like queries, might be asked with
reference to the habitations of animals, and to such questions it is the province of Distribution to afford
a reply. Distribution, has, moreover, two chief aspects of study. Geographical Distribiitio7i, or Distribution
in space, deals with the animal and plant-populations of the world as they exist to-day. Distribution i7i time,
or Geological Distribution, investigates for us, on the other hand, the distribution of life in that past of the
globe to which Geology directs our attention. From a study of the " fossils," or petrified remains of animals
and plants, we are enabled to ascertain, fully or in part, their past history, and to compare that history with
the story which their life on the earth to-day presents. Whilst only through the study of " fossils " can we
gain any idea of the existence of countless animals and plants which lived and died out or became extinct
ages before man appeared.
The last question relating to the history of the living being is that, " How has it assumed its present place
in Nature ? " In this query entire knowledge of its history may be said to be summed up. Every detail furnished
by Morphology, Physiology, and Distribution aids in answering this last question, which only within recent
years has been put forth for reply by the scientific world. To understand how the living worlds came to be what
they now are, is a process of thought which assumes two things. We firstly presume that living beings have had
a progressive history — that they were not created " as they are." And we, secondly, take for granted, that some
hiowledge of tlieir past history is traceable in their present, to which we have access. The science of y^tiology,
or that dealing with the " causes of things," may therefore be applied to Biology, and, it is almost needless to
remark, this latter department of Biological Science is one which has sprung into existence through the
researches and suggestive studies of Darwin and other evolutionists. Finding, for instance, in the " develop-
ment " of animals many facts absolutely inexplicable in the idea that living beings were created as we now
find them, Evolution asserts that there is evidence of ample kind to prove that the existing forms of animals and
plants have been developed by the modification and alteration of pre-existing forms. The causes of such
modification are, it is true, often obscure, and frequently unknown ; but the imperfections of our knowledge do
not affect the probabilities at issue, and do not militate against the great principle of progressive change which
Evolution maintains has been the ordered way of nature at large. For example, what explanation can be given
of the fact that man, birds, and reptiles, which do not breathe by gills at any period of life, possess, in their
embryonic (or early) condition, gill-clefts similar to those which in fishes bear the gills ? The idea of special
creation has no answer to give save that " they were created so." Evolution replies with a rational reason — that
these higher animals were derived from lower and gill-breathing forms, and that they still retain in their
development, as a matter of inheritance, the evidence of their ancestry. Or again, why should the early stages
in the development of such classes of animals resemble those in the development of neighbouring classes, save on
the supposition of a common descent ? Why should whalebone whales, which have no teeth when adult,
possess, before birth, teeth which never cut the gum ? The reply is, not that nature pursues a meaningless course,
but that these teeth are representatives — produced by the operation of laws of heredity and descent — of teeth
once well developed in the race from which these whales have sprung. Why has a horse, which walks on one
finger and toe — the third — rudiments of other two toes, the second and fourth, in the shape of two useless
" splint bones ? " The answer is, because horses are descended from three-toed ancestors ; progressive change
having developed the third toe to the exclusion of the others. In proof of this, we can point to the scries of fossil
horses in Yale College Museum, U.S., these fossil and e.xtinct ancestors of the horse possessing three, four, and
THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY.
even five toes, being there seen in perfect array. Why should animals so different in adult life as a shrimp, a
barnacle, a water flea, a sacculina (existing as a mere bag-like appendage on crabs) be developed from a similar
embryonic form and in like fashion ? Evolution replies, because they have sprung originally from one
root-stock, and still repeat in their history the ancestral features of long ago. Why should " variation " in
living species be such a common feature? The reply of the biologist is, because variation is merely the
beginning of the process of change, which, with increasing tendency to depart further and further from the
specific type, gradually evolves new species.
Such are a few of the contentions of Evolution as representing the newest phase of modern Biology. It
is not too much to say that the idea of Evolution, as the law of life, has thoroughly revolutionized
modern life-science. It has supplied us with explanations of points and features before assumed to be
of inexplicable kind ; and has proved, so far as research has proceeded, to be a thoroughly consistent
view of the living universe and its constitution. The data upon which the science of .Etiology depends
for its knowledge, have been casually mentioned in treating of the examples of evolutionary problems.
Thus " rudimentary organs," like the " splint bones " of the horse, or the undeveloped teeth of whales, are
clues and traces to the nature and true position of these animals. The likeness between the limbs of
quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and fishes, for instance (presenting us with a study of Homology), illustrates
again the sources of information upon which the biologist depends for his knowledge of an animal's
past. And above all, "development," and the story it tells concerning the evolution of a living being, is
regarded as our best guide to the history of an animal or plant ; so that we are not surprised to find
Mr. Darwin maintaining that the development of an animal is a panoramic or moving picture of its
descent — of those stages through which it has passed and come to assume its present place in the created
scale.
By way of applying the foregoing remarks upon the method in which we study living beings, we
may select the kangaroo as an animal which presents a typical example of Biological investigation. In the
endeavour to systematically ascertain the kangaroo's place in nature, the meaning of the preceding remarks
upon the various divisions of Biological science will be readily apparent,.
The kangaroo is an animal familiar enough to ordinary readers, and which has attained a popularity
in Natural History from its somewhat remarkable appearance, as well as from certain peculiarities con-
nected with its habits and distribution. Applying to Biology for a succinct description of the kangaroo,
the naturalist would firstly deal with its Morphology, or " structure ; " investigating under this head— its
anatomy, its development, and its classification or taxonomy. We would learn under these heads, for
instance, the structure of its skeleton and the disposition of its viscera. We should discover the presence
of two peculiar bones, named marsupial bones, rising from the front of the animal's haunch-bones, or pelvis,
and which are used for the support of a " pouch," in which, as is well known, the mother protects her young
for a considerable period after birth. We should discover that the brain of the animal is of lower type
than that of ordinary quadrupeds, such as the dog, cat, horse, &c. We would likewise note, amongst other
details, the elongated foot of the kangaroo, and the curious fact that it possesses but four toes, of which
the fourth and fifth are large and well developed, whilst the second and third toes are small, rudimentary
and enclosed with a single fold of skin ; the first or great toe being absent. The developmetit of the kangaroo
would teach us, in its own way, that the body of the animal was formed on the type of that of all other
quadrupeds, and that its lower place in the quadruped-class was due to the earlier stage at which develop-
ment, so to speak, terminates, as compared with that which is attained by ordinary quadrupeds. The
classification of the kangaroo would present us with few difficulties, if our examination of other animals had
placed us in possession of adequate information respecting their structure in turn. Thus we should find that
the marsupial bones of our kangaroo (and its pouch also, as a rule) were common to a large number of other
animals, such as Wombats, " Tasmanian Devils," Bandicoots, Phalangers, Kangaroo-rats (all inhabiting Australia
and adjacent islands), and Opossums — inhabiting America ; and we should be therefore justified in assuming
from this fact as well as from likeness to the kangaroo in brain-structure, and in other peculiarities of
body, that these varied forms were near kith and kin of that animal. Thus a knowledge of likeness in
structure aids us in forming a group of quadrupeds (including the animals just mentioned, and the
kangaroos as typical members) to which we give the name of Marsupials, or " pouched " mammals.
The Physiology of the kangaroo would teach us its life-history and habits. We should, through the
study of nutrition, discover its food, and those processes in virtue of which that food is applied to the
THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY.
uses of the animal's frame. Its reproduction would disclose to us such curious features as that involved
in the facts that the young are born in a very immature state (those of a kangaroo six feet high when
adult, being about an inch long at birth) ; that the young arc nourished within the " pouch " by the
milk-secretion of the mother ; and that the milk is forced down the throat of the young by the action
of special muscles which compress the milk-glands. Lastly, the innervation of the kangaroo would lead
us to investigate the functions of its brain and nerves, and to compare its nerve-acts and intelligence with
those of other animals; and with the investigation of this latter phase of existence the physiological
examination of the animal would be concluded.
The distribution of the kangaroo, supplying the answer to the question, " Where is it found ? " would
present many points of extreme interest. We should discover that kangaroos were absolutely confined to
Australia and adjacent islands, which are the typical home of the whole " marsupial " or " pouched " race
of quadrupeds. No kangaroo, living or fossil, has been met with out of the Australian region. Hence the
question occurs, "Why are kangaroos, and marsupials at large, only found in that part or region of the world ?"
The ability to answer this query depends upon our recognition of the two great factors which have been
and still are instrumental in bringing about the existing order of the living world — namely, geological
change, and variation in species. Geology informs us that at a far-back period in the history of our
earth, known to geologists as the Trias, marsupials were found in Europe and elsewhere ; this fact being
known from their fossil history. These were the first quadrupeds which appeared on the earth's surface
and that Australia obtained its marsupial population in the Triassic period appears a stable induction,
Australia being then joined to what we now name the Asiatic Continent. In the Triassic rocks of Europe,
and in later rocks as well, we may note that the remains of opossums are also found — the opossums, however,
although " marsupial " quadrupeds, being unknown in Australia, and being at present restricted to the New
World in their range. We know also that in the Oolitic rocks of Europe, or those succeeding the Trias,
marsupial remains are found. This latter fact (together with the knowledge that in Australia there are
living many types of Oolitic animals, extinct elsewhere) leads us to believe that Australia became separated
from the Asiatic mainland at the close of the Oolitic period.
Remembering that no higher quadrupeds were then in existence, and that Australia had acquired its
marsupial population, what was the effect of the separation of Australia from the mainland ? Simply to
prevent any addition of higher quadrupeds to the Australian region — for after the close of the Oolitic and
Chalk periods the higher quadrupeds were evolved — and to consequently restrict the quadruped population
of Australia to its marsupials. These latter, varying in turn amongst themselves, have, in turn, produced the
diverse fauna which meets the eye of the naturalist in Australia to-day — for it need hardly be added that
all quadrupeds above the rank of the marsupials (such as our ordinary cows, horses, sheep, &c.) found in
Australia to-day, are introductions due to the hand of man. Thus in Australia we see a " survival " of an
animal-population once {i.e., in Triassic and Oolitic times) of world-wide extent ; the survival in that island-
continent being due, firstly, to geological change producing isolation of the marsupial type ; and secondly,
to variation in the original marsupials of Australia producing the existing variety of these animals in
that land.
In America we find the opossums, as already noted, these being the only marsupials existing outside the
bounds of Australia. Why is this ? To answer this question fully we have simply to leave Australia
altogether out of sight in the matter, inasmuch as Australia never included opossums in its fauna. These
animals existed in Europe until the Tertiary epoch, and hence we must believe that as opossums are found in
a fossil state in America in much more recent rocks than in Europe, they must have migrated to America
from Europe or Northern Asia by a then continuous land-surface in the Tertiary period. The opossums, like
all other marsupials, have disappeared from the Old World, because the higher quadrupeds have exterminated
them, or because the changing physical conditions were unsuited to their development. In Australia the
marsupials, and in America the opossums, respectively flourish as survivals of the earliest quadrupeds, because
the conditions of life suit them, and because they continue to exist, in America, in face of the " struggle
for existence " there taking place, and in Australia because of the immunity they have enjoyed from the
inroads of higher forms.
Lastly, the Etiology of the kangaroo deals with the question, " How came it to assume its existing place in
Nature ? " The naturalist would answer this question by saying that the conditions under which marsupial
life has been preserved, and under which it has varied in the past, contains the reply. Of these conditions we
THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY.
yet know but little ; but all the facts of nature point to modification of, and to descent from some primitive
marsupial type, as those processes which have given origin to our kangaroos and their allies. Even the single
fact that the feet of marsupials are constructed on one and the same type (already described in the case of the
kangaroo), and exhibit endless modification for different modes of life, clearly points to the evolution of the
kangaroo from some pre-existent type, from which probably the other marsupial races also sprang. Could
we glance backwards in time to the Triassic and Oolitic periods, trace the progress of events in the world's sur-
face since the first peopling of Australia with its marsupials, we should undoubtedly discover that in the modifi-
cation and progress of these primitive species lies hidden the distinct answer to the question, " How has the
kangaroo assumed its existing features and present place in nature ? "
Of the uses and advantages of Natural History study, very little need be said in the present instance, by
way of conclusion to this brief study of the methods of biological research. But it is permissible to say a
few words concerning the utility of biological study, as a means of culture, and as extending our concepts and
enlarging our ideas of the universe in which we live. If it be admitted that a knowledge of our own place in
nature, and of man's true relations to lower forms of life, be a desirable item in our mental belongings, such
knowledge can only be acquired through biological study. No adequate idea of the general constitution of
nature, or of man's relation to, and place in that constitution, can be acquired save through a patient investi-
gation of the wide range of Biology. The history of the lowest animal or plant may throw a side light on
problems of weighty kind ; and in its lowest as well as higher departments, the science of life teems with truths as
important to the proper study of mankind as are the facts of political history or of human morals. Mr. Spencer,
in his " Study of Sociology," has, for example, well shown how preparation in Biology is the best vantage-
ground for the study of man in his social relationships. The human individual is regulated by broad laws of
life and living common to all other forms. Hence, as society is made up of individuals, the laws of society
and human life are, in reality, the extensions of biological truths. The importance of Biology as fitting us for
the understanding of the world and of ourselves, is, however, only equalled by its interest. No fairer field of
study can appeal to our gaze than the living worlds that surround us. Whether it be an Alpine flora, telling
us its tale of glacier-lands and ice-fields existing when the earth was young, or a tropic vegetation, of surpassing
loveliness in its gorgeous hues — whether a study in higher forms of life absorbs our attention, or our investiga-
tions lead us to examine the animalcule, or to know the pulsating jelly-li'ke bells that, tinted with azure, grace
the summer sea, there is everywhere to be found in living nature, beauty and loveliness, and a fair prospect.
Hence Natural History, whilst it instructs us in the life of the universe, does so through the charm of its varied
interests, which, in their fullness and variety of form, colour, and design, are presented to our notice in
literally unending succession. No higher studies, indeed, can well be conceived than those of the biologist,
who, in his search after the causes of living phenomena, views with wonder the forces which, in one phase
of their action, produce the " figur'd leaf," and, in another, evolve the glory and majesty of a world.
THE
(' 1
NATURAL HISTORY
OF ANIMALS.
^(^
CHAPTER I.
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN: WITH THE COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMALIA.
four, and the Ape tribe none ; but the latter
have four hands. Hence man belongs to an
order called Bhnana (two-handed), while
the Apes form an order called Qtiadru-
viana, or four-handed.
Take again the teeth. Man can eat any
kind of food, for his set of teeth is complete
in every respect — canine, incisors, and
molar; but in the Lion, and other ani-
mals that feed on flesh, the canine teeth
are the most prominent, because they are
required to tear the flesh from the bones
of their prey. On the other hand, in the
animals called gnawers [Rodc7itid), the
canine teeth are wanting in both jaws, and
the incisors (front teeth) are reduced to two ;
and being subject to continued growth, are
occasionally converted into tusks.
It will thus be seen, from the examples of
hand, feet, teeth, skeleton, &c., that the
variety of constitution in animal life is
enormous. But we have entirely left out the consideration of birds,
fishes, and numerous other forms of life. Their multiplicity would
seem to lead to endless confusion. But e.xtcnsive as is the subject,
its details can easily be arranged for study.
It is evident that, to do this properly, we must classify our
materials ; that is, arrange each kind of animals under certain
heads or particulars, in which they may agree among themselves.
The following five Divisions have been adopted for this purpose : —
I. The Protozoa (first-life) includes minute creatures constituted of
single cells, and as much like plants as animals. II. The Radi.^TA
(radiated animals) take the ne.xt upward step in life, and are illustrated
bytheStar-iish, so common on our coasts. III. The ArticuLATA (so
called from the body being divided into separate parts or segments,
as in the case of the Centipede, all insects, &c.) embraces a large
variety of creatures. The next higher creatures are included in, TV.,
the MOLLUSCA (soft-bodied), illustrated by the Oyster, Mussel, &c.
Lastly, in Division V., we arrive at the highest forms of life, embrac-
ing fishes, birds, the lower animals— but crowned by Man ;— all being
called VertebRATA, because they possess a bony, or equivalent
kind of skeleton. Because the animals of the first four divisions
possess no skeleton, they are called Invertebrata. It is evident,
therefore, that we have arrived at classifications, embracing, in one
case, all animal life, but resolvable into five divisions, each present-
ing numerous differences in character.
At present we shall restrict our remarks only to the Vertehratcd
animals, leaving a description of the remaining divisions to their
proper place in the work. For convenience' sake, this division has
been reduced to five classes ; namely— I. The Pisces, or fishes. II.
The Batrachia, or Frogs, &c. III. The Reptilia, or reptiles,
as the Serpents, Lizards, cVc. IV. The AVES, or Birds. V. The
Mammalia, or animals that suckle their young; these extcndmg
from the Whale to the human mother.
The reader will be perplexed yet from noticing the variety of
creatures included in these classes. We are, therefore, compelled to
simplify still further, by dividing these classes into OrdI' R.s ; and for
the chief Mammalia twelve are used. I. embraces the Cetacea, or
Whale tribe. 11. The P.\CHYDERM.\ta, or thick-skinned, as the
'F all the branches of
science, none equals in
interest the study of
Natural History. Its ob-
jects surround us ; in-
deed, we form the most
important part of them. To a
portion of them we are in-
debted for sustenance. Some we em-
ploy to labour for us ; and others minis-
ter to our luxury, comfort, or amusement.
Taking the quadrupeds, we need but
refer to the Horse, and other domestic
animals, to show what interesting
a full knowledge of their natural
presents. But they are types only
of a very large circle, distinguished by some
peculiarity either of form, disposition, use, or
other quality not found in our tamed quad-
rupeds. The forest abounds, in this and in
other countries, with creatures possessing
habits, &c., with which we are unfamiliar.
In fact, air, earth, and sea, teem with objects
that make the study of the science as fascinat-
ing as it is instructive, and thus it affords an un-
limited field for the intelligent observer of nature.
It is not the object of this work to make the
reader a proficient in natural history. Its purpose
is to entice to the study rather by pleasing descrip-
tion than by serious teaching. But, at the same
time, it is proposed to use so much science as to give
the reader the "why and wherefore" of animal life
in all its forms. As in literature, so in science, we
must first learn our alphabet.
For this purpose, the natural history of man will
be first considered ; not only because human nature
stands at the head of all creatures, but because our
organs, &c., present the highest form of develop-
ment, whether in regard to physical structure or organic characters.
But in the inferior animals these differ in many ways, and it is to
these differences we owe the formation of two of the most interesting
branches of natural history — namely. Comparative Anatomy and
Physiology.
For example, wc find that man has a bony skeleton, muscles, fat,
lungs, stomach, teeth, &c. So have all creatures commonly called
animals. But all these differ from man in the shape of the skeleton,
&c. Thus man stands upright on two feet ; while quadrupeds have
Elephant, &c. III. The Solidungula (hoofed), as the Horse. IV.
The Ruminantia, or cud-chewing animals, as the Ox. V. The
Edentata (without teeth),as the Ant-eaters. VI. The Rodentia, or
gnawers, as the Hares. VII. The Pennipedia (fin-feeted), as the
Seals. VIII. ThcCARNIvORA, or flesh-eaters, as the^Lion,<:v:c. lA.
The Insectivora, or insect-eaters, as Moles. X. The Chiro-
PTERA, or hand-winged, as the Bats. XI. Tl-.c QUADRl'MANA (four-
handed), as the Apes ; and, last and highest, of which man is the
only member— XII. The BiMANA, or two-handed. _
The reader should carefully master this classification, because it is
VERTEBRAL COLUMN OF THE MAMMALIA.
really the foundation of natural history ; and, consequently, the
basis of this work. For the present we ^hall take no notice of minor
divisions of families, genus, species, &:c., as these will be more
conveniently treated hereafter, but at once proceed to examine JMAN
as an animal, and a perfect type of the VERTEBRATA.
In the first place, it will be best to take the skeleton of man ; that
portion which extends from the back of the neck to the foot, leavmg
the skull for future remarks. In Fig. i the entire skeleton is repre-
sented ; and in Fig. 2, by way of comparison, that of the Gorilla.
The vertebral column of the Mammalia is distinctly divisible into
five regions, the vertebra: (or joints of the spine) composing which
I. — The Human Skeleton.
a.
Frontal Bone.
i,
Lumbar VertebriE.
s.
Patella.
K
Parietal Bone.
/,
Ilium.
t.
Tibia.
<".
Orbit.
w.
Ulna.
Uj
Fibula.
d.
Temporal Bone.
«,
Radius.
V,
Tarsus.
e.
Lower Jaw.
0,
Carpus.
■w.
Metatarsus.
A
Cei-vical Vertebrae.
A
Metacarpus.
X,
Phalanges
of
K'
Clavicle.
<!'
Phalans^es of
the
the Foot.
h,
Scapula.
Hand.
',
Humerus.
r.
Femur.
many as twenty. The ribs are movably articulated to the vertebrae ;
and, at the opposite extremity, they are usually connected by a car-
tilage with the sternum, or breast; and this rarely becomes ossified,
as in the birds. A greater or less number of the hinder ribs are not
immediately connected with the sternum, but their extremities are
attached to a ligament which runs from the posterior extremity of
the sternum to the last rib. These are ca.\\ed/a/se, ox floating ribs.
This arrangement gives great mobility to the bony case of the
thoracic cavity ; and it is mainly by the action of the costal muscles
in raising and depressing the ribs, that the size of that cavity is
altered so as to produce the alternate inspiration and expiration of
air. The sternum is composed of several bones placed one behind
the other in the centre of the breast ; these are distinct in many of
the Mammalia, but in others they are formed of a single piece.
are distinguished as the cervical, dorsal, hi>?ibar, sacral, and
caudal vertebrae.
Of these five regions, the only one in which the number of vertebra;
is constant, is that forming the neck ; the cervical vertebras are
invariably seven in number — in the long slender neck of the Giraffe,
as in the short thick support of the bulky head of the Elephant.
The dorsal vertebrae are distinguished from the cervical by the
possession of spinous processes for the attachment of ligaments,
which are of very large size in the species with long necks or heavy
heads ; they also exhibit surfaces for the articulation of the ribs.
The number of the dorsal vertebrse and ribs is very variable in
animals, some species having only eleven, whilst others have as
Fig. 2. — Skeleton of the Gorilla.
The lumbar vertebra differ from the dorsal in their much greater
strength, and in the absence of ribs, which are here replaced oy
very long transverse processes. They are also variable in number.
The sacrum is usually formed of three or four vertebrse ; it is want-
ing in the Cetacea. This is followed by the caudal vertebras, which
vary in number according to the length of the tail, and conse-
quently to a greater extent than those of any other region of the
body. The number of vertebra which enter into the composition of
the OS coccygis — the representative of the tail in the human body —
is only four ; whilst some of the long-tailed Mammalia have upwards
of forty. The caudal vertebrse gradually diminish in size and com-
pleteness as they approach the end of the tail, where they usually
consist only of a simple cylindrical body, without any traces of
arches or processes.
The anterior limb is attached to the trunk by a broad shoulder-
blade, or scapula, which is applied to the surface of the ribs, and is
usually kept in its position by a clavicle, that springs from the
anterior extremity of the sternum, and rests with its upper extremity
against a process of the free end of the scapula. The clavicle is want-
ing in many Mammalia. The humerus is articulated to the lower part
of the scapula by a ball and socket joint ; and, at its opposite ex-
tremity, bears a transverse convex articulating surface for the recep-
ARMS, LEGS, AND SKULL OF THE MAMMALIA.
tion of the bones of the fore-arm [radius and ulna), with which it
forms a sort of hinge-joint. The radius and ulna are distinct and
movable in man and some other animals, and separate in the middle,
and anchylosed at the extremities in others ; whilst, in the hoofed
animals generally, they are represented by a single cylindrical bone.
They are followed by a variable number of small bones (the carpal
bones), forming the wrist-joint ; and these, in their turn, give attach-
ment to the jucfacarpa! bones — the five parallel bones which consti-
tute the palm of tlie human hand ; but which, in the other members
of the class, are gradually reduced until, in most of the hoofed quad-
rupeds, they arc represented, like the radius and ulna, by a single
cylindrical bone. These are followed by i\\e phalanges, or bones of
the fingers, each of which is usually composed of three joints ; but
the number of fingers varies from five to one.
The structure of the posterior extremities is perhaps rather more
uniform than that of the anterior pair. Their supporting arch is the
pelvis composed of three bones on each side — the ilium, the ischium,
Fig. 3.— Skeleton of the Cobra [Xj!Jd tripidians).
and the os pubis. The ilia are firmly attached to the sacrum ; and
the space between them, at the lower or anterior part of the pelvis,
IS occupied by the two ossa pubis, which always meet, and frequently
unite by a suture. The ischia form the hinder or lower part of each
side of the pelvis ; they are prominent bones upon which we sit.
IhQ femur, or thigh-bone, the first movable bone of the hind limb
IS attached to the pelvis by a large ball and socket joint ; and the
ball at the head of the femur is always set at a greater or less angle
to the axis of the bone. This is especially observable in the human
skeleton (tig. i) The tibia and fibula, forming the shank, are
articulated to the extremity of the femur by a joint resembling that
at the elbow in the fore limb, but turned in the contrary direction •
and m front of the joint is a small bone called \}a<t patella, or knee-
cap. Below these are the tarsal bones, corresponding with the
carpals m the anterior extremity ; and these are followed in like
manner by the metatarsal hones and phalanges. The tibia and
fibula, and the metatarsal bones, exhibit the same variety, in their
number and arrangement, as the radius and ulna, and tile meta-
carpal bones in the fore limb ; and the phalanges in both pairs of
extremities are liable to the same modifications. The general
structure of the skeleton, and the modifications to which it is subject,
will be readily understood by a comparison of the cut of the human
skeleton with that of the Gorilla. The chief points of comparison
between these skeletons and those of other animals will be sub-
sequently pointed out. But, meanwhile, it may be remarked, that
all the deviations of form or construction from the human type, are
determined by the habits of the animal, and consequently tliere'is a
direct connection between the muscular development with the con-
struction of the skeleton. For example, the human skeleton is so
constructed that man can perform operations that are impossible in
animals of a lower class. He can stand upright as his natural
position, while even in the Apes that is all but impossible as a habit,
and is unnatural. It is a common thing to make Dogs stand up to
beg ; but the position is really painful, and cannot long be maintained.
But descending still lower, say to the Reptilia, we iind the skeleton
eminently adapted to the habits of the animal. Take, for example
the peculiarities of the Serpent. In part it crawls on the ground, but
is capable of climbing, and also of taking a variety of forms. Hence
its skeleton and muscular system entirely varies from all four-footed
animalSj and consists of an immense extension of the vertebral
column. (See Fig. 3.) Between the two skeletons — that of Man
and that of the Serpent — there are constant variations in the skeleton
form. As we proceed, various skeletons will be shown that will still
further illustrate what has been stated.
The skull of man, as the exterior case of human intelligence
derived from the brain and nervous system, presents great features
of interest. Without entering into any discussion of the value of
Phrenology as dealing with the development of the skull, it is univer-
sally admitted that the head of man is indicative of his intellectual
character. We know nothing of the inside of that head (the brain)
during life, but admit great force in the external manifestation ; and
hence the term "good" and "bad head." This principle is still
further illustrated when we compare the various kinds of the human
skull with each other, as the European with the savage, and the
human idiot with the lower ani-
" ~" mals. In all cases where a
lower class of intelligence is in-
volved, it will be found that the
skull recedes gradually from an
almost vertical line in front, pro-
gressively to a horizontal one,
and consequently the appear-
ance of the face becomes en-
tirely changed.
Take, for example, a striking
instance of this when com-
parison is made between an
intelligent man and an idiot.
In Fig. 4, there is an illustra-
tion of the skull of a man of the
ordinary type. A line drawn
from the chin-bone to the fore-
head would almost be vertical
in the case of the normal or
healthy skull, as shown in
. ,. ,„ , , . , . ^'ff- 4- But in the next illus-
tration (Fig. 5), which IS that of a human idiot, a very different
result IS obtained. The forehead recedes at a large angle with the
vertical line. The entire conformation of the skull is altered, and
within certain limits the
progress of the idiotcy be-
comes more manifest if
life be prolonged suffici-
ently to allow of observa-
tion. It is well known, in
fact, that a debasement of
the skull follows, in a long
life, the debasement of
the moral and intellectual
qualities by a vicious life.
On the other hand, the
form of the skull, and
particularly W^" expres-
sion of the face, becomes
ameliorated in persons
whose career is of an op-
posite character.
But these differences of
skull formation — that is, of
cranial and facial develop-
ment—become more marked when we extend our comparison between
varieties of man and the lower class of animals. On this subject
Fig. 4. — Human Skull.
Fig. 5.— Skull of Human Idiot.
SKULL AND TEETH OF THE MAMMALIA.
Professor Owen remarks, that in no class of vertebrate animals is
the progressive superiority of the cranium over the face marked by-
such distinct stages as in the Mammalia. Various methods of deter-
mining these proportions have been proposed ; but the only satis-
factoty one is by comparing vertical sections of the skull, as in
the series figured in the cuts 6 — ii.
In the cold-blooded ferocious Crocodile (Fig. 6), the cavity for the
brain, in a skull three feet long, will scarcely contain a man's thumb.
Almost all the skull is made up of the instruments for gratifying an
insatiable propensity to slay and devour ; it is the material symbol
of the lowest animal passion.
In the bird (Fig. 7), the brain-case has expanded vertically and
laterally, but is confined to the back part of the skull. In the small
singing-birds, with shorter beaks, the proportion of the cranial cavity
ters, is enhanced by the facility with which, from their position, they
can be examined in living or recent animals ; whilst the durability
of their tissues renders them not less available to the palaeontologist
in the determination of the nature and affinities of extinct species,
of whose organisation they are often the sole remains discoverable
in the deposits of former periods of the earth's history.
The teeth are of three kinds: incisors, or cuiimg teeth, as the
fore-teeth of the human being; canine, as our "dog" teeth, used
for tearing flesh ; and the molars, or double teeth, employed for
chewing or grinding purposes. All these are present in man ; in
the lower animals, however, some are absent, increased, or modified,
according to the habits peculiar to the order. Teeth are either per-
manent or deciduous, the latter being such as are shed in early life,
as in the human being about the sixth and seventh year. The fol-
Fig. 7. — Albatross.
Fig. 8.— Dog.
Fig. 9. — Chimpanzee.
Fig. 10. — Australian.
Fig. II. — European.
becomes much greater. In the Dog (Fig. 8), the brain-case, with
more capacity, begins to advance further forward. In the Chim-
panzee (Fig. 9), the capacities or area of the cranium and face are
about equal. In man the cranial area vastly surpasses that of the
face.
A difference in this respect is noticeable between the savage (Fig.
10) and civilised (Fig. 11) races of mankind ; but it is immaterial as
compared with the contrast in this respect presented by the lowest
form of the human head (Fig. 10), and the highest of the brute
species (Fig. 9). Such as it is, however, the more contracted cranium
is commonly accompanied by more produced premaxillaries and
thicker walls of the cranial cavity, as is exemplified in the Negro or
Papuan skull.
If a line be drawn from the occipital condyle along the floor of the
nostrils, and be intersected by a second touching the most prominent
parts of the forehead and upper jaw, the intercepted angle gives, in
a general way, the proportions of the cranial cavity and the grade of
intelligence : it is called the facial angle. In the Dog this angle is
20° ; in the great Chimpanzee, or Gorilla, it is 40°, but the prominent
super-orbital ridge occasions some exaggeration ; in the Australian
it is 85°; in the European it is 95°. The ancient Greek artists
adopted, in their beau ideal of the beautiful and intellectual, an
angle of 100°. 1 r • 1
As the work proceeds, the comparison of the skull of animals,
infer se, will be constantly discussed in a general manner. But for
our purpose it is not necessary to enter into minute details of the
various skull-bones, but simply to note such portions of the skeleton
as are eminently characteristic ; and the next step, therefore, is to
deal with the question of the teeth, for reasons already given at
page I, ajite.
in reference to the teeth, Professor Owen remarks that they pre-
sent many varieties as to number, size, form, structure, position,
and mode of attachment, but are principally adapted for seizing,
tearing, dividing, pounding, or grinding the food. In some species
they are modified to serve as "formidable weapons of offence and
defence ; in others, as aids in locomotion, means of anchorage,
instruments for uprooting or cutting down trees, or for transport and
•working of building materials. They are characteristic of age and
sex ; and in man they have secondary relations subservient to beauty
and to speech. 1 , , ■
Teeth are always intimately related to the food and habits of the
animal, and are therefore highly interesting to the physiologist :
they form, for the same reason, important guides to the naturalist in
the classification of animals ; and their value, as zoological charac-
lowing cut. Fig. 12, gives an illustration of the human teeth and jaw
at the period of shedding the deciduous teeth. In this, the letter t
indicates the incisors; p, the premolars, or those molar teeth placed
in the front of the jaw ; ?n, the true molar or grinding teeth ; and the
numbers attached indicate the relative position of each kind of teeth.
The letter d indicates the deciduous teeth, or those in course of
Fig. 12. — Deciduous and Permanent Teeth, Human, ^t. 6.
being shed, and the gradual growth of the permanent is shown as
pushing out the deciduous beneath them ; c indicates the growth of
the canine teeth in the upper and lower jaw. The two incisors on
each side {di) are followed by a canine, c, and this by three molar
teeth like those of a grown-up person. The last of the three, m, is
the first of the permanent molars.
A careful study of Fig. 12 will show how dentition progresses in
the human being. But the position, number, &c., of the teeth vary
in every order of animals, and even in their families, species,
&c. It is, therefore, desirable that some means should be adopted
THE LIMBS OF MAN AND THE CAMEL COMPARED.
by which this variation can be quickly stated and noticed. For this
purpose a formula has been invented, by which the number, nature,
and position of the teeth in all animals can be readily shown. Thus
the number, &c., of teeth, as in the case of man, for example, and
their position, are indicated as follows : —
Upper jaw ...2—2 i — i 2 — 2 3-3
incisors , canine , premolars , molars ,
Lower jaw ...2-2 i — 1 2-2 2,-1
makinjr, in all, thirty-two teeth,
each name is used ; thus : —
But, more briefly, the italic of
i-i
1-2,
To save space in the description of the tcetli of various animals,
this formula will be adopted in the work. Its convenience will be
evident by the following- cut. Fig. 13, which is introduced for another
purpose, namely, that of showing, by way of comparison, the teeth
of one of the lower animals, during their shedding, with those of the
child, illustrated in Fig. 12.
Fig. 13, part of the lower jaw of a young hog, illustrates the
phenomena of development which distinguishes the premolars from
the molars. The first premolar, _^ i, and the first molar, m 1, are in
Fig. 13. — Deciduous and Permanent Teeth of the Hog.
place and use, together with the three deciduous molars, d2, dj„
and di,\ the second molar, 7n 2, has just begun to cut the gum; j> 2,
/3, and ^4, together with ^23, are more or less incomplete, and
concealed in their closed alveoli.
The premolars must displace deciduous molars in order to rise
into place ; the molars have no such relations. It will be observed
that the last deciduous molar, d i\, has the same relative superiority
of size to c?3 and dz, which m t, bears to ;«2 and m i ; and the
crowns of ^3 and ^4 are of a more simple form than those of the
milk-teeth, which they are destined to succeed.
The germ of the permanent canine has not yet appeared below
the deciduous one, c; those of the permanent incisors, z'l, z2, zj,
are seen ready to push out the deciduous incisors, di, d2, d t,.
When the whole of the second set of teeth is in place, its nature is
indicated by the formula : —
i-l
I T ---J m 3 3
= 44:
3-3' i-i " 4-4 i-i
which signifies that there are, on each side of both upper and lower
jaws, three incisors, one canine, four premolars, and three molars ;
making, in all, forty-four teeth ; each distinguished by the symbol
marked in the cut.
So far as the skeleton is concerned of man, as typical of other ani-
mals, it only remains to notice the limbs — i.e., the arms, legs, and
their appendages, compared with those of the Camel, for example, as
shown in Fig. 14.
The great distinction which subsists between the Bimana, man,
and the Qiiadruinana, or man-like Ape (also called Anthropoids),
has already been pointed out. It need scarcely be stated, that all
the operations of locomotion, holding, seizing, &c., &c., depend on
the conformation of the limbs ; hence the variations of form, &c.,
become characteristic in the animal. The prehensile powers of
man lay in the hand ; those of the Ape tribe are similarly placed.
But in the majority of quadrupeds, the fore-feet, if furnished with
paws, answer this purpose. To this, however, there is an exception,
as in the Elephant, whose trunk answers for prehensile purposes.
In man (see Fig. i, p. 2, aiite), the anterior limb (the arm) is
attached to the trunk by a broad shoulder-blade or scapula {o. Fig.
14), which is applied to the surface of the ribs, and is usually kept in
its position by a clavicle, which springs from the anterior extremity of
the sternum, and rests with its upper extremity against a process of
the free end of the scapula. The clavicle is wanting in many Mam-
malia. In the Ornithorhyiichus, the two clavicles are united to a
central piece, forming a single T-shaped bone, which reminds one
of the furcula of a bird, and in this animal also the coracoid bone is
fully developed, and assists in the formation of the scapular arch,
whilst in the rest of the class it is reduced to a very small size, and
amalgamated with the scapula. The humerus [h, Fig. 14) is articu-
lated to the lower part of the scapula by a ball-and-socket joint, and
at its opposite extremity bears a transverse convex articulating sur-
face for the reception of the bones of the fore-arm {radius and ulna,
cu. Fig. 14), with which it forms a sort of hingc-joint. The radius
and ulna are distinct and movable in man and some other animals,
and separate in the middle and anchylosed (made solid) at the ex-
tremities in others; whilst, in the hoofed animals generally, they arc
represented by a single cylindrical bone. T'hey are followed by a
variable number of small bones (the carpal bones, ca, Fig. 14), form-
ing the wrist joint, and these in their turn give attachment to the
metacarpal bones, [inc, Fig. 14), the five par.allel bones which con-
stitute the palm of the human hand, but which in the other members
of the class are gradually reduced until, in most of the hoofed quad-
rupeds, they are represented like the radius and ulna, by a single
cylindrical bone. These are followed by the phalanges {ph. Fig.
14), or bones of the fingers, each of which is usually composed of
three joints, but the number of fingers varies from five to one.
The structure of the posterior extremities (the legs) is perhaps
rather more uniform than that of the anterior pair. Their supporting
arch is 1\\& pelvis, composed of three bones on each side — the ilium,
ischium, and the as pubis. The ilia are firmly attached to the
sacrum ; and the space between them, at the lower or anterior part
of the pelvis, is occupied by the two ossa pubis, which always meet
and frequently unite by a suture. The ischia form the hinder or
lower part of each side of the pelvis ; they are the prominent bones
upon which we sit. The /e?nur (/e. Fig. 14), or thigh-bone, the
first movable bone of the hind limb, is attached to the pelvis by a
large ball-and-socket joint, and the ball at the head of the femur is
always set at a greater or less angle to the axis of the bone. This
is especially observable in the human skeleton. The tibia {ti. Fig.
14) a.nAfibula, forming the shank, are articulated to the extremity of
the femur by a joint resembling that at the elbow in the fore limb,
but turned in the contrary direction ; and in front of the joint is a
small bone called the patella {ro. Fig. 14), or knee-cap. Below
these are the tarsal boties {ta, Fig. 14), corresponding with the car-
pals in the anterior extremity, and these are followed in like manner
by the metatarsal bones imt. Fig. 14) a.T\(X phalanges. The tibia and
fibula, and the metatarsal Dones, exhibit the same variety in their
number and arrangement as the radius and ulna, and the metacarpal
bones in the fore limb ; and the phalanges in both pairs of extremi-
ties are liable to the same modifications. The general structure of
the skeleton, and the modifications to which it is subject, will thus
be readily understood by a comparison of the cut of the human skele-
ton at page 2, ante, where the whole of the above parts of the limbs
are illustrated, with that of the camel, given below.
Fig. 14— Skeleton and Form of the Camel.
vc, cervical vertebrae ; vd, dorsal vertebra: ; vl, lumbar vertebras ; vs, sacral
vertebra ; vq, caudal vertebrie ; c, ribs ; 0, scapula ; h, humerus ; cu, arm-
bone ; ca, carpus ; mc, metacarpus ; //;, phalanges ; /c, femur ; ro, patella ;
/(', tibia ; ta, tarsus ; tnl, metatarsus.
THE MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS.
The bony structure of man and the inferior animals having been
described, it remains to inquire by what means motion is given to
the bones in the operations of life. Motion in the animal is due to
its volition or power of will, acting on the nervous and muscular
textures, animation being conveyed from the living principle by
means of the nerves to the muscle or fleshy portion of the animal,—
as, for example, the muscles of the arms and legs.
First, the Muscular Texture may be considered. Two kinds of
muscular fibre arc known in the animal kingdom ; and these, in the
MUSCLES, NERVES, SKIN, AND HAIR OF ANIMALS.
higher animals, are well distinguished from each other. One of
these occurs in the voluntary muscles, and is named, from con-
spicuous cross markings, the striped muscular fibre ; the other,
lound in the alimcntar>- canal, the womb, and the bladder, being
destitute of such cross markings, is termed the unstriped. In the
heart and the gullet both kinds are met with. The elementary
striped muscular fibres are
arranged in sets parallel to
each other (see Fig. 15); the
unstriped muscular fibres, on
the contrary, cross each other
at various angles, and inter-
lace, being arranged like mem-
branous organs enclosing a
cavity, which, by their con-
striction, is contracted.
The striped fibres are usually ^'S- 'S
as long, or nearly as long, as
the muscle in which they exist.
They vary in diameter from
one-sixtieth to one-fifteen-hun-
dredth of an inch ; they are of
the greatest breadth in crus-
taceous animals, fishes, and reptiles, and of least breadth in birds.
Their average width in the human body is one-fourteen-hundredth
of an inch. They are not cylindrical, but more or less flattened.
This primitive fibre consists of a great number of primitive particles,
or sarcous elements, enclosed in a tubular organ, termed sarco-
lemma. The ordinary diameter of the unstriped fibre is from the one-
two-thousandth to one-three-thousandth part of an inch. Now
motion is produced by the power of contractility of the muscular fibre,
or its being capable of being shortened, and being equally capable
of resuming its former state suddenly. The stimulants which call
the contractility of the fibre into action may be mechanical, as by a
blow, the prick of a pin, &c. ; chemical, as by an acid, say on the
tongue; electrical, as by a shock from a voltaic battery, &c. ; and
last, physical, by the will of the animal.
An example of this may be illustrated as follows : — AVhen a mus-
cular fibre, the opposite extremities of which are attached to adja-
cent points of two bgnes (see Fig. 16), is made to shorten itself
-Conlr.iction of Striped Muscle.
-Philos. Trans., 1840.
Fragment of elementary fibre of an Eel
partially contracted in water — magni-
. fied 300 diameters, a, uncontracted
part ; b, the contracted part.
Fig. 16. — Bones of Arm, holding weight.
forcibly by the application of a stimulus, the more movable point is
drawn nearer to the more fixed point ; and this is the great law on
which locomotion by muscular fibres depends. Thus the fore-arm is
bent upon the arm by a muscle, b, which arises from the top of the
latter, and which is inserted at e, at a short distance from the elbow-
joint. A very slight contraction will raise the hand, but a consider-
able increase of power is required to overcome a resisting force.
From the head to the foot, animals are furnished with numerous
muscles, each performing their separate functions. For example,
the muscles of the eye move the eye, the eyelids, <S:c. ; by means of
the muscles the different expressions of the human face are pro-
duced in all their variety, from pleasure to pain, kindness to hatred.
The motion of the neck, body, arms, legs, fingers, and toes, all
depend on the muscles adapted for that purpose, and attached for
support to the skeleton. Similarly, the heart, stomach, &c., depend
on their muscles for the exercise of their individual functions. So
long as any of these muscles remains in its normal or healthy con-
dition, the function of that portion of the body progresses in healthy
action. But if the muscle be affected, so as to lose its power, then
the animal immediately suffers ; hence the cause of paralysis, St.
Vitus's dance, spasms, and other diseases.
The muscular flesh constitutes the chief portion of the animal
frame. In the higher animals, nearly the whole of the muscles are
attached to the skeleton, or are what are called skeleton-muscles. As
already stated, the muscles form the flesh of the animal, and
according to its development, some portions of the animal greatly
enlarge. Instances of this are seen in the arm of the blacksmith,
and in the legs of the lower animals noted for their great strength.
It is to the Nervous Texture the muscles owe bemg set into
motion. The nerves act like the conducting wires of a voUaic battery,
transmitting from the brain the power that sets the muscles in
action, and again conveying to the brain the intelligence that some
portion of the body has been affected externally, as in tlie case of
injury to a limb. By the nerves, therefore, a constant system of con-
nection is kept up between mind and matter — the intelligence of the
brain being converted into motion, or, vice vcrsd, motion acting by
the nerves on the intelligence or consciousness of the animal. To
simplify this, we may compare the brain to a central telegraph station,
whence wires (nerves) extend in every direction, conveying to or
receiving messages from it. But this will be more fully entered into
when the brain is described.
The Nervous Texture exhibits two forms, the vesicular and the
fibrous. The vesicular nervous matter is gray or cinder-like in
colour, and granular in texture ; it contains nucleated nerve-vesicles
or cells. The fibrous nervous matter is white and tubular ; in some
parts, however, it is gray, and its fibres are solid. When both these
kinds of nervous matter are united into a variable-shaped body, that
body is termed a nervous centre ; and the threads of fibrous matter
which pass to and from it, are termed nerves. The office of the
latter is called " internuncial ;" that is, they establish a communica-
tion between the several parts of the body and the nervous centre,
and between the nervous centre and the several parts of the body, as
already e.xplained.
INTEGUMENTS OF THE BODY.
We have hitherto considered the body as a mere combination of
mechanical forms, destitute of vitality, motion, &c. Before proceed-
ing to describe the various internal organs and their functions, as
respiration, digestion, &c., a few words must be said in reference to
the skin, hair, blood, &c. , of the Mammalia.
The skin in the Mammalia, as in the other vertebrate animals,
consists of a cutis, or true skin, and of a horny cuticte, or epidermis.
\ The former is often of great thickness, but the cuticle is a thin
layer composed of horny cells, which are continually renewed from
the materials forming the subjacent layer, commonly known as the
7-cte ?nucosum, in which are deposited the proper colouring matters
of the skin, as in the case of negroes especially. In some parts of
the body, however, especially where delicate organs are to be pro-
tected from pressure, the cuticle becomes greatly thickened ;
instances of this may be seen in the callosities which make such a
disagreeable figure on the buttocks of many Monke3's, and the balls
of the feet of many quadrupeds. In many cases, also, the cuticle
becomes converted into distinct scales, as, for example, on the tails
of Rats and Mice.
The ordinary clothing of the skin consists of hairs, which are
small horny cylinders, produced from pulps placed at the bottom of
small capsules in the skin. These capsules consist of small indenta-
tions of the cutis, which are lined with cuticle, and the pulps are
abundantly supplied with vessels which bring the nourishment
required for the growth of the hair. The interior of the cylinder is
usually occupied by a coloured oily matter, and its external surface,
although frequently smooth, is often formed apparently of distinct
scales. The differences of thickness and texture in these organs is
very great, so much so that different names are given to the leading
varieties, even in common language — such as iL'Ool, true hairs, and
bristles. What is called fur, consists of the two former kinds of
hair — wool and true hair — the soft woolly hair forming a warm inner
coat, whilst the longer true hairs, upon which the beauty of the fur
depends, serve to protect the inner layer from the weather. The
hair in some animals continues constantly growing, but in others it
is shed from time to time, and replaced by a fresh coat.
Besides the ordinary forms of hairs, we meet with many dermal
(skin) appendages in the Mammalia, which, although apparently very
different, are really of the same nature. Amongst these are the
quills of the Porcupine, and the prickles of the Hedgehog, which,
notwithstanding their much greater thickness, are produced in the
same way as ordinary hairs, of which, in fact, they appear to be an
agglomeration. A still more remarkable form is seen in the scales
of the Manis, which are found to be composed of parallel horny
tubes exactly analogous to hairs. Besides these, the claws, nails,
and hoofs of the Mammalia, the horn on the nose of the Rhinoceros
and the horns of the hollow-horned Ruminants (such as the Ox and
Sheep) are all composed of a substance, the structure of which shows
its origin to be analogous to that of hair.
Besides the capsules of the hairs, the skin in the Mammalia con-
tains an immense number of minute glandular organs, some ot
which are instrumental in producing the constant evaporation of
moisture from the skin, which we call j)erspiratio)i ; whilst others,
known as sebaceous follicles, secrete a fatty matter, which lubricates
the skin, and keeps it soft and flexible. Of the latter, many dis-
charge themselves by ducts into the capsules at the base of the
hairs, the surface of which is thus slightly greased. Glands of a
similar nature, but larger size, inserted in the skin of particular parts
of many animals, produce peculiar secretions of an odoriferous
nature, and it is to this that some species are indebted ior the dis-
agreeable smell which they emit when alarmed.
THE BL O OD—BL O OD- CORP USCLES—FA T.
Having- thus disposed of the most important objects relating to
the meclianism of the Mammalia, the vital orj^^ans, &c., require con-
sideration.
BLOOD AND FAT.
But it will be first necessary to consider the Blood, which has
justly been termed the " life " of man, for it is only so long that the
blood circulates in the body that its vitality continues.
The microscope has aided us greatly in understanding the nature
of the blood, by enabling us to study what are called the blood-
globules. The blood is really water containing a portion of solid
organic matter : in human blood this amounts to about 5 per
cent. The heaviest part of the solid matter of the blood consists of
what are called " red corpuscles." In every 1,000 parts of blood in
the human body, there are —
Female.
791
127
70-5
2-2
7-4
I'62
The red corpuscles (little bodies or globules) constitute about 14
per cent, of the whole mass of the human blood. When a drop of
this is placed under the microscope, nothing but an opaque, dark-red
Male.
Water
••• 779
Red particles
... 141
Albumen
... 69-4
Fibrine
2-2
Various matters and free salts
68
Fatty matters
1-6
db
•h
Fig. 17. — Red Corpuscles
from human blood, mag-
nified 400 diameters.
a, viewed on the surface ; e,
in profile ; d, aggregation
of corpuscles in a roll.
Fig. 18. — Red Corpuscles of
tlie Ox, magnified 400
diameters.
a, in their natural state ; l>,
altered by a menstruum of
higher density.
(2)
(D
Fig. ig. — Red Corpuscles
of the Pigeon, magnified
400 diameters.
n, unaltered, with two or
three colourless parti-
cles ; /', treated witli ace-
tic acid, which more
clearly develops the cell-
wall and nucleus.
mass is seen. But when it is diluted with a weak solution of salt or
of sugar, each corpuscle is seen detached from the rest. The fluid
used to dilute the drop of blood must be, as nearly as possible, of
the same specific gravity as the serum of
the blood ; if plain water be employed, the
red corpuscles swell and burst. Each cor-
puscle is round and flat, like a piece of
money ; or, to speak more correctly, each
corpuscle has the form of a double concave
lens, the margin being thick and rounded,
and the centre considerably thinner : their
size in the human body varies from the
three-thousandth to the four-thousandth
part of an inch in diameter. In mammals
generally, the blood-corpuscles are similar
in figure to those in man ; but there is a
considerable variety of size in different
tribes of these animals. They are small
in ruminants ; in the Napu Musk-deer,
being no more than the twelve-thousandth
part of an inch in diameter. In the Camel
tribe, instead of being round, they are oval, as they are in birds,
reptiles, and fishes. In reptiles the blood-corpuscles attain a
large size.
In the Frog (see Fig. 22), the red corpuscles consist of a delicate
membrane forming a cell, within which is a
granular nucleus. The nucleus (central point)
is globular, and much smaller than the cell ;
and the space between the inner surface of
the cell and the outer surface of the nucleus
is filled by fluid, holding the colouring matter
in solution. The nucleus cannot be detected
in the red corpuscles of the human body, but
analogy suggests that its structure must be of
the same general character as in the animals,
in which these corpuscles are of larger size.
A question has arisen, whether what have been termed the colour-
less corpuscles of the blood be a distinct set of bodies, or merely the
red corpuscles in a less developed state. The colourless corpuscles
are spherical bodies, destitute of colour; they are cells composed of
a very delicate membrane, and the cells are nucleated. The
addition of weak acetic acid renders the cell-membrane, the nucleus,
and the nucleolus more distinct, by dissolving some granules (little
grains) contained within the cells. The colourless corpuscles slightly
Fig. so. — Red Cor-
puscle in Fishes.
(7, lamprey ; /', skate.
exceed the size of the red corpuscles in mammals, but not in the
other vcrtcbrata. They are thought to be essentially the same as
the nucleated particles found in lymph, and in the chyle. They are
fewer in number than the coloured corpuscles, being, it is said, in
the proportion of one to fifty. In inflammatory states of the blood
Fig. 21. — Red Corpuscles
of the Crab.
a, three granule cells ; ^,
three nucleated cells.
Fig. 22. — Blood-Corpuscles of the
Frog, magnified 400 diameters.
a, in serum fully developed ; i,
treated with acetic acid ; c, colour-
less corpuscle.
Fig.
(O)
23. — Phases of the Human
Blood-Corpuscles.
a and i, granule cells in the coarsely
and finely granulated slate ; c and
tf, nucleated cells ; c, without colour,
and t/, with colour ; e, free cellse-
form nucleus, a perfect red cor-
puscle.
they become more abundant ; and after g^reat loss of blood, the pro-
portion of these colourless corpuscles is greatly increased. Without
entering upon the difiicult question — what is the relation between
these colourless corpuscles and
the red corpuscles ? — it will be
sufficient to say, in the meantime,
that the weight of authority is in
favour of these two kinds of cor-
puscles being identical in species ;
that is, merely different stages of
one organism.
It is unnecessary for our purpose
to enter into the chemical cha-
racter of the blood beyond the
analysis that has been just given,
except by stating that the a/iu-
7)1671 there mentioned is precisely
similar to that of an unboiled
fowl's t%^. The/ibrinc, or fibre, is
that part of the blood which gets solid or coagulates after the liquid
has been drawn from an animal. It forms the clot. The scrum of
the blood, which is the albumen, will, if it be heated to 160° Fah.,
coagulate like the white of an egg. Hence the difference in appear-
ance between the raw and cooked flesh of an animal.
The Fat is a substance pervading most of the body. It serves the
purpose of rounding the prominent portions of the body, improving
their appearance, or producing plumpness ; it protects, like a buffer,
many parts of the muscular surface ; and has other objects and uses
afterwards to be alluded to. Fat is not to be confounded with
adipose tissue. The tissue is the thin
membrane, thrown into closed vesicles, or
cells ; the fat is what these vesicles, or
cells, contain. The tissue, or membrane,
is about the one-twentieth-thousandth
part of an inch in thickness, and is quite
transparent ; it is of the simplest struc-
ture, and incapable of further mechanical
analysis. Each vesicle is a distinct organ
in itself, varying from one-three-hundredth
to one-eight-hundredth part of an inch in
diameter. (See Fig. 24.) The fat itself is
a form of oil, resolvable into stearine,
oleine, and margarine. Fat is extensively
diffused throughout the animal kingdom.
It exists not only in perfect insects, but
also in the lar\'a;. It is found in molluscs.
In all the tribes of vertebrated animals it is met with. In many
fishes it is found only in the liver — as the Cod, the Whiting, the
Haddock, and the Rays. In reptiles it exists chiefly in the abdo-
men. In the Frog, Toad, &c., it is found in long bands on each
side of the spine. In birds it exists chiefly between the peritoneum
and the abdominal muscles : also, however, in the bones of the ex-
tremities, particularly of the swimming tribes. In mammals gene-
rally it abounds, yet with some exceptions ; for example, the Hare,
in which sometimes hardly a particle of fat is discoverable.
THE VITAL ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS.
The description of man, and of him as a type of the Mammalia,
we have hitherto restricted to the mere mechanical arrangements of
the body. It will now be necessary to show how these act in pro-
ducing and maintaining the life of an animal ; or, in other words, to
Fig. 24. — Fat Vesicles.
8
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD-THE HEART AND LUNGS.
inquire into tlie nature and action of the various internal organs and
their functions.
Generally, the functions common to all animals maybe stated as —
Tst. The circulation of the blood; 2nd. Respiration; 3rd. Diges-
tion and Absorption ; 4th. Secretion and Excretion ; 5th. Repro-
duction. But beyond these are other functions of relation — namely,
Locomotion, Sensation, Thought, and Voice.
We shall consider first 'C!\& circulation of the blood, a.s it takes
place in the human body, because its principles are typical of the
circulation in all warm-blooded animals. The anne-\ed diagrams of
the circulatory apparatus of man, after Carpenter, will enable us
better to understand subseauent details.
Fig. 25. — Lungs, Heart, ar.J principal
Vessels in Man.
Fig. 26. — Idcnl Section of the
Heart.
The letters in this cut agree with those «. >'ght auricle ; b, right ventricle ;
used for description in. the annexed f, left ventricle ; </, aorta; <■, vena
one. cava ; /, carotid arteries ; ^, jugu-
lar veins ; h, subclavian artery ;
i, subclavian veins ; I; trachea ;
/, lungs ; m, left auricle ; «, pul-
monary veins ; 0, pulmonary arte-
ries ; p, superior and inferior venjE
cavK ; q, tricuspid valve ; r, mi-
tral valve ; s, partition.
The heart, situated between the lungs, in the cavity of the chest, is
somewhat conical. (See Fig. 25.) The lower end is quite unattached,
and points towards the left ; during contraction it is tilted forwards,
striking the chest between the fifth and sixth ribs, and causing the
" beat of the heart ;" while the great vessels, rising from the upper
and large extremity, being attached to neighbouring parts, seem to
suspend the organ, and to allow its movements freely to take place.
The heart in man is a hollow muscle (see Fig. 26), divided into four
cavities, two on either side — the upper of which is termed the auricle,
the lower the ventricle — the walls of the latter having, by their con-
traction, to propel the blood through a system of vessels, being
thicker than those of the auricles, which have only to receive the
blood from the veins, and transmit it to the ventricles. The circula-
tion of the blood, then, is that process by which the fluid, setting out
from the left ventricle of the heart, is distributed by the arteries to
every part of the body, from whence it passes into the veins, is
received from them into the vena cava, whence it returns to the
heart, enterirjg the right auricle, and passing into the ventricle on
the same side, which propels it into the pulmonary artery, to be dis-
tributed through the lungs for purification. Thence it passes, by the
pulmonary veins, into the left auricle, which transmits it again to
the left ventricle, to repeat the course we have described.
For the present the circulation of blood in fishes, the reptiles,
insects, &c., must be deferred until those animals be described. In
the first two great divisions of vertebrate animals, mammals and
birds, the circulation of the blood, with a few unimportant peculi-
arities, is performed on one plan. Of this plan, the most character-
istic feature is, that the particular circulation through the lungs
stands on the same footing as the general circulation over the rest
of the body. It follows, from this condition, that no blood-corpuscle
can circulate over the body more than once without having previously
circulated through the lungs. The circulation, as it takes place in
mammals and birds, is conveniently methodised under the two
heads of the circulation of the dark-coloured blood, and the circula-
tion of the red-coloured blood. The dark-coloured blood is properly
described as appearing first in the venous capillaries, at every
vascular point throughout the body. The organs, then, or cavities
in which the dark blood is contained and moves., stated in their
proper order of succession, are the venous capillaries over the body,
ramifications of the veins, the venous trunks, the right cavities of
the heart — namely, the right auricle and the right ventricle, the
pulmonary artery — the branches of that vessel, and the correspond-
ing capillaries. (See Fig. 27.) In like manner, the red-coloured
Fig. 27. — Plan of Double or Warm-
blooded Circulation — afler Roget.
A, aorta ; B, system of arteries ; C,
vena cava ; D, right auricle ; E,
right ventricle ; F, pulmonary
artery ; H, lungs ; I, pulmonary
veins ; K, left auricle ; L, left
ventricle.
blood is properly described as appearing first in the capillaries of the
pulmonary veins ; and the organs or cavities in which the red-coloured
blood is contained and moves, stated in their proper order, are the
capillaries of the pulmonary veins, the ramifications of the pulmonary
veins, the trunks of the pulmo-
nary veins, the left cavities of the
heart— namely, the left auricle
and the left ventricle — the aorta,
or great trunk of the arterial sys-
tem, the branches of the aorta,
and the arterial capillaries. These
two separate systems communi-
cate, on the one hand, where the
capillaries of the veins of the body
join with the capillaries of the
aortic system ; and, on the other
hand, where the capillaries of the
pulmonary veins join with the ca-
pillaries of the pulmonary artery.
The right and left sides of the
heart, though in juxta-position,
are wholly distinct organs, and
each heart is placed in the middle
of its own system ; the right being
situated in the middle, between
the veins of the body and the pul-
monary artery, and the left heart
between the system of the pulmo-
nary veins and the system of the
aorta.
The forces by which the blood
is moved in the circulation are
chiefly, if not exclusively, mechani-
cal — the only force of much efficiency being the contraction of the
cavities of the heart by a muscular effort, as the blood successively
enters each ; while valves are so placed as to permit its movement
onwards, except in the proper direction only.
RespiratioJt. — The act of breathing in animals is the chief external
appearance of life, simply because respiration is absolutely essential
to vitality. Stop the process, and the whole system becomes
paralysed : as in cases of drowning, but a few minutes elapse between
this stoppage and death, as regards the Mammalia. But in the case
of fishes, a residence in water is essential to life, they drawing the
air from the liquid by means of gills, while we draw it from the
atmosphere that surrounds us by means of lungs.
The great office of the lungs is to purify the blood by a slow burn-
ing of the carbon obtained from the food. In fact, the lungs of the
Mammalia are a furnace, in which combustion goes on in precisely
the same manner as in an ordinary fire-place, the carbon, in the latter
case, being got from the coals. And, for precisely the same reason,
the lungs afford heat to the body when they burn the carbon of the
food. When we treat on Digestion this will be more fully explained.
But, for the present, it may be stated, that all our solid food, such
as bread, meat, &c., contains carbon,
with which we are familiar in the form
of charcoal, coke, &c. The carbon in
the food, after being changed in form,
is conveyed by vessels to the lungs, and
then coming into contact with the oxygen
of the atmosphere, becomes converted
into carbonic acid gas — a gas seen when
a bottle of soda water is opened as rush-
ing forth in bubbles. This gas passes
off through the mouth into the air, just
as the smoke of a furnace passes away
by the chimney. There exists a beauti-
ful provision in nature ; for while this gas
is a deadly poison to animals, it is the
food of plants, which, decomposing it,
absorb the carbon and set free the
oxygen. Thus, what the animal poisons,
the plant purifies ; and. in a certain mea-
sure, the balance of the healthy con-
dition of the atmosphere is maintained
by tlie vitality of the vegetable king-
dom. Nearly three-fourths of a tree, in
weight, are gathered from the carbonic
acid in the atmosphere.
The mechanism of respiration m
mammals is not difficult to understand.
(See Fig. 28.) The lung is an extensible
elastic air-bag, enclosed in the cavity of
the chest. In that cavity the lung hangs
nearly free — that is, the surface of the
lung is, with slight exception, simply in contact with the inner
wall of the chest, without adhering to that wall The lung alone
communicates with the external atmosphere, there being no pas-
Fig. 28. — Air-tubes and Lung
of a Man.
b, trachea or windpipe, open-
ing at the back of the mouth
by the larynx, a; c, dis-
sected air-passages or bron-
chial tubes ; d, lung in its
natural state.
THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS OF ANIMALS.
sage by which air can penetrate into the cavity of the chest —
that is to say, by which it can insinuate itself between the outer
surface of the luns^ or air-bag, and the inner surface of the
wall of the chest. The walls of the chest close in above around the
windpipe {b, Fig. 28), which is of narrow diameter, ascending from
the lung to reach the mouth. By the windpipe the air freely
enters every part of the healthy lung. The lung (d), or bag of
air, of necessity fills the actual cavity of the chest, and applies its
outer surface close to the lining membrane of the cavity ; because,
were any part of the lung to collapse, or withdraw itself from the
wall, a vacuum would be produced ; but such a vacuum is impossible
so long as the lung is everywhere freely extensible, and the air has
free access, through the air-tubes (c) connected with the windpipe,
to every part of the lung. The lung itself is passive, or nearly
passive, in respiration. The chest is capable of alternate expansion
and contraction. This alternation of change on the capacity of the
chest is produced by muscular contraction, assisted in expiration by
the elasticity of certain parts. The expansion of the chest is wholly
a muscular act, and its contraction, when moderate, is altogether
dependent on the physical properties of its walls. When the chest
expands, the lung or air-bag closely follows, being dilated in exact
proportion as the chest expands. When the chest contracts its
cavity, the lung or air-bag being compressed, still exactly fills the
chest, while the superfluous air is thrown out. When the chest
expands very slowly, the air may enter as fast as the lung dilates,
and then no appreciable rarefaction can take place on the air
throughout the air-cells. When the chest expands rapidly, the air
cannot enter by the windpipe fast enough to keep pace with the
dilatation of the lung. But this difficulty is overcome by the universal
tendency of air to dilate when previous pressure is diminished.
The respiration of birds is more rapid than that of mammals,
and, consequently, for the chemical reasons assigned, in respect to
the combustion of food, the temperature of their bodies is higher,
being over 100° Fah., while that of the human body is about 90°. A
peculiarity in the respiration of birds is, that the inspired air pene-
trates to almost every region of the body, and particularly into the
abdominal (belly) cells, which freely communicate with the wind-
pipe. The whole trunk, in fact, is one great respiring cavity. In
reptiles respiration is much less active ; consequently, they are what
is termed "cold-blooded." As already stated, fishes breathe by
gills, as also do a few reptiles, and the larger portion of the lower
forms of animals, such as the Molluscs, Lobsters, and other Crus-
tacea, &c.
Digestion. — The bodies of all animals require a constant repair
of their parts by taking sustenance, in some form or another, ob-
tained from the animal or vegetable kingdoms, or from both. As
already stated (see page i.
ante), the dentition of man is
such that he can use any kind of
food. On the other hand, some
animals, as the Carnivora, live
solely on flesh ; while the Rumi-
nants and many others are ex-
clusively vegetarians. Each has
a stomach more or less modified
from the type presented by man,
in whom, of course, this organ
is most highly elaborated.
It is evident that the process of
digestion is intimately connected
with respiration and circulation ;
and the following remarks must
be read in connection with what
has already been stated in refer-
ence to those functions. The
stomach, in fact, is the blood-
producer ; the lungs are the
blood-purifiers : and the heart,
veins, and arteries are the blood-
distributors throughout the
body.
The stomach in man, and all
the Mammalia, is placed beneath
the heart and lungs, and occupies
a prominent position in front of
the lower part of the skeleton
(forming the belly), being sup-
ported at the back by the lower
spine, and occupying most of the
space between the false ribs and
the pelvis. Freedom of action
is essential to it, both on account
of its distension and contraction
through food or hunger, and also
on account of its peculiar constitution and muscular
ment.
Fig. 29 affords an illustration of the digestive
Fig. 29.-
Digestive Apparatus of Man.
a, oesophagus ; b, pancreas ; c, sto-
mach ; d, spleen ; e, colon ; f, small
intestines ; g, rectum ; h, anus ; :,
appendix of ccecum ; k, c?ccum ; /,
large intestines ; m, gall-bladder and
ducts ; K, liver ; 0, pylorus and
stomach.
Fig. 30. — Cliyle Vessels.
arrange-
organs of man.
each part being denoted by the description given beneath the
cut.
If we follow the food, in one of the higher animals, from the
mouth to its incorporation with the previously existing tissues of the
body, the waste of which it is its
oflBce to supply, we shall discover
what arc the functions of mainte-
nance, of nutrition, of assimilation,
and the functions of organic life.
The food — let it be a piece of
meat or bread— is reduced to a
pulp by the movements of the
teeth, and the admixture of the
saliva, secreted by the salivary
glands ; it is then swallowed by
a somewhat complex muscular
action. It is moved about in the
stomach, c, by the contraction of
its muscular fibres; and, being
mixed with the gastric juice, a
peculiar fluid secreted by the lin-
ing membrane of the stomach, it
passes into chyme : this chyme is
then, in successive portions, trans-
mitted, by muscular contmction,
into the highest part of the intesti-
nal tube, termed the duodenum,
a, thoracic duct receiving lacteal which is a kind of second stomach,
tubes from ^, the intestine ; r, aorta, where the partially assimilated
food is first mixed with the bile
(produced from the liver, 71), and then with the secretion derived
from the sweetbread, or pancreas, b. The mass is now ready
to afford chyle, the immediate nourishment of the blood, to the
absorbent vessels, termed lacteals, the extremities (the lower end of
a) of which abut on the lining membrane of the higher parts of the
intestinal tube, while the residue is sent downwards by what is
termed the peristaltic action of the tube,
for evacuation. The chyle, taken up on a
very wonderful plan by the lacteal tubes
(see Figs. 30 and 31), is transmitted
through the singular small organs termed
the mesenteric glands, whence, after im-
portant changes, it is again collected by
what are named the efferent lacteal tubes ;
these by degrees unite together into a trunk,
which joins the lymphatic vessels coming
from the pelvis and the lower parts of the
body, to form the thoracic duct, a, commencing
in the abdomen, dividing opposite the middle
of the dorsal vertebrae into two branches,
which soon reunite, passing behind the arch
of the aorta, c, and subclavian artery, and
making its turn at b, where it receives several
lymphatic trunks, terminates at the point of
junction of the internal jugular and subclavian
veins on the left side of the neck, and into
which it pours its contents. The chyle, being
thus mixed with the venous blood, is carried
with it to the right side of the heart; and, by
the motion of the heart, is thoroughly mingled
with that blood ; from the right side of the
heart, the blood, reinforced by the ch\'le, is
transmitted to the lungs, where, by exposure
to the air, the venous blood is converted into
arterial ; the arterial blood, so rendered fit for
the nutrition of the body, being sent forth from
tlie left side of the heart, is conve)'ed by the
aorta, c, the great arterial trunk, and its
branches, to the capillary blood-vessels, which
pervade all the sensible parts of the body.
From these capillary blood-vessels, the several
component textures of the living frame attract
the new matter, of which they stand in need ;
while that which is already reduced to the
state of debris, re-enters the blood of the ca-
pillary system, and returns with the blood, now
become venous, to the right side of the heart.
The blood, having become impure by the ad-
mixture of the debris of the tissues, and from
other causes, is purified partly by the lungs,
by which a superfluity of carbon is thrown off,
while, by the slow combustion which it sustains, animal heat is
developed ; and partly by the kidney, of which last organ the par-
ticular office plainly is to keep the blood free from the various
chemical products, generated during the successive decompositions,
which the texture and their first debris undergo.
It will be evident, from the foregoing description, that the ofQce of
Fig. 31. — The Course
and Termination of
the Thoracic Duct.
c, the aorta ; d, the
superior cava ; c, the
greater vena azygos,
in which, in some
mammals, the duct
terminates.
10
THE SENSES OF ANIMALS— SIGHT.
the stomach is that of assimilating or convcrtinsr the food, so that
from the crude form in which it is received by the mouth, it may, by
a series of successive stages, be changed into chyle, its state exist-
ing previously to its conversion into blood. (See anfc, page g.) The
time occupied in the digestion of food varies according to its quan-
tity, quality, &c:' As regards man, from three to four hours are
required to effect full digestion of a good meal, including flesh,
vegetables, &c._ Among the Carnivora, who partake of an enormous
meal "at one sitting," a period of several hours elapses before the
sense of hunger returns, the interval being spent in sleep. In some
animals, the inter\'al between feeding and successive hunger is one of
days, accompanied usually by a state of torpidity in the animals, as
with serpents.
It has already been noticed that great differences exist in regard
to the digestive organs in animals as compared with man, owing to
various causes, but especially for adapting them to the digestion of
the food most preferred by the animal. The variety is too great to
be here even epitomised ; but in the course of this work many of these
peculiarities will.be pointed out.
The Secretions and Excretions, while subjects of interest to the
man of science, the anatomist, and physiologist, need only be treated
here to elucidate many important differences ; and the same remarks
apply to the Repi-oductivc organs. Thus the whole of the Mammalia
are divided into two sub-classes. Sub-class I. embraces those
animals which never form an internal connection with the mother
before birth, she not having a j>lacenta. Hence these are called
Aplacentaria. This sub-class contains two orders (see page i),
viz. — ist. The Monofrcmafa, in which the intestinal canal, the
generative and urinary organs all open into a common channel or
cloaca. 2nd. The Marsiipialia, or pouched animals, as the Kan-
garoos, whose general structure resembles the quadruped. In them
the urinary and generative organs have a common orifice, quite dis-
tinct from the anal opening, and the females have a pouch external
to the belly, in which they carry their young. The whole of the re-
maining orders of the Mammalia, as mentioned at page i, belong to
the Placenfaria, the mother having the young attached to the
uterus by 3. placenta during gestation, and that from a period of a
few weeks to many months, as in the case of the human female. All
unnecessary reference to the various liquids, &c., of the body, their
chemical constitution, and a variety of other matters, which, although
important in themselves, could not be of « 6
value to the reader of this work, have been,
for simplicity's sake, omitted. .^iLm^/
THE ORGANS OF INTELLIGENCE.
In the preceding sections, the purely ani'ma/,
or, as they are sometimes termed, the vegetable
organs and functions have been treated. ' It
remains to consider what are called the " func-
tions of relation ; " that is, such as enable us
to form part of the family of man and animals :
our remarks hitherto having been solely in re-
gard to the individual. Under the present
head, the brain, the organs of the senses,
voice, &c., have to be considered.
The Brain first requires notice. It is uni-
versally admitted that it is the seat of life and
intelligence in all animals ; and this idea is at
once justified by the fact, that if the brain be
injured, the entire character of the animal is
changed, so far as its external relations are
concerned ; the spine and the whole nervous
systems are affected, and consequently the
muscular and bony parts show an abnormal
state. The effects of apople.xy, paralysis, &c.,
are illustrations of this fact.
The size, weight, and conformation of the
brain, in relation to the skull, are again cha-
racteristics of the intellectual condition of the
animal. In man, all these conditions attain
to the highest scale ; and the brain has a
great preponderance over the remainder of
the nervous system. By referring to page 4,
ante [V'lgs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11), some idea
may be formed of the great variation which
occurs in the size of the cavity of the skull,
from man downward, especially in the cere-
brum or true brain, which is universally re-
garded as the organ of the mind. In man this
obtains a high development, as is ordinarily
noticed in the forehead of eminently intellectual
persons. In the lower forms of animal life the
brain is small, as in the fishes. In many cases
its bulk is made up principally of parts, solely used for exciting
special organs of sense, as the eye in fishes, and the car in many
-animals.
Fig. 32. — Ccrebro-spi-
nal Axis of Man.
a, cerebnim ; b, an-
terior lobe ! c, mid-
dle lobe ; d, posterior
lobe; c, cerebellum ;
/', medulla oblon-
gata ;ff, spinal cord.
In Fig. 32 is a representation of the brain and spinal axis of man,
showing the connection of the brain and nervous system with the
skeleton. At a is the cerebrum, which is situated behind the fore-
head, and constitutes the true brain. It v,ill be noticed that the
brain is divided into two equal parts by an imaginary line drawn
from a to e, the cerehellum, or back portion of the head ; b, c, and d
are lobes or masses, which exist on either side of the brain, being re-
peated or duplicate ; from e by/', the medulla oblongata, a nervous
branch extends to the extremity of the spine, forming the spinal
cord, which is the organ of numerous other nervous branches di-
verging right and left, as shown in the engraving.
The convolutions of the brain are illustrated in the following cut.
F'g- 33-— The Brain of Man.
As in all other organs, those of Sight are in the greatest perfection
in man. In the lower animals the form of the eye is modified ac-
cording to their circumstances, as in the case of nocturnal animals,
insects, &c. In Fig. 34, a representation of the exterior, and in
Fig. 35, a section of the interior, of the human eye are given.
_ We commence with that part which forms the external visual por-
tion of the eye, termed the cornea. This is a transparent horny sub-
Fig- 35-
The Eye and its Stiiicture.
a, the comea, containing the aqueous humour ; 1^, the pupil ; c, the ciystalline
lens ; e f, the iris ; g, chamber of the vitreous humour ; //, the optic nerve ;
i i, the sclerotica ; k k, the choroides ; / /, the retina.
stance, and encloses what is called the aqueous or watery humour.
It forms the first lens in the eye, and refracts rays of light incident
on its surface. Referring to Fig. 34, it will be found as marked a
therein. On the other side of the cornea, the pupil b is next observed,
which is an aperture through which light passes into the eye from
the cornea. A most admirable contrivance exists in front of the
pupil — called the iris, e/. This is a movable diaphragm, which lets
in or closes out light from the eye ; and which, by its contraction or
expansion, regulates the amount of incident rays in their passage to
the retina. The student may easily satisfy himself as to the object
of the iris, by observing the eye of the domestic cat during dusk and
in full sunshine. When but a dim light exists, the iris will be ex-
panded, and the pupil will appear large. In full daylight, however,
the iris is contracted, and the pupil of the eye presents only the ap-
pearance of a narrow slit — almost, in fact, shutting out light from the
inner portion of the eye.
Beyond the pupil, b, is the crystalline lens, c, which lias a double
convex form. This lens is filled with a fluid of mixed chemical cha-
racter, and of higher refractive power than that found in the cornea.
The centre, g, of the eye forms a cell of a nearly circular form, filled
with what has been termed the vitreous humour.
At the back of the eye, facing the crystalline lens, is the retina, so
called from its net-like construction, This is at // in Fig. 35. It is
on this membrane that the images of objects, whose rays pass
through a, b, c, are depicted. It, in fact, forms a kind of screen, very
similar in its use to the ordinary screen employed in the exhibition ot"
dissolving views, (S:c.
THE SENSES OF ANIMALS— SIGHT AND HEARING.
Surrounding, and next to the retina, is the choroid membrane, k k,
which has a blaclc colour, whose office is to absorb the rays of h.^-ht
after they have passed on to the retina. An external coat, the
sclerotica, encloses this, and will be observed at i i. This extends
to the cornea, and forms what is called the " white of the eye."
At the back of the ball of the eye, is a projection extending from
it. This is called the optic nerve, h, and, by its action, the image
painted on the retina becomes perceived by the mind. In fact, it
forms the connecting link between mind and matter, and is the
channel of nervous sensation between the eye and the brain.
The reader will thus perceive that there are three different cells,
each filled with fluids. 'These differ in their refractive power ; the
index of that of the cornea, a, being 1.337; that of the crystalline
lens, c, 1.384 ; and of the vitreous or centre of the ball, g, 1.339-
Fig. 36.
In Fig. 36, retaining the same letters as those we employed in
describing the eye in Fig. 35, we observe the rays of an object, o, pro-
ceeding to the cornea, a, and passing to the crystalline lens, c. Hero
they undergo refraction, just as they would if passing througli a
double convex lens made of glass ; and eventually we find that an
image is painted on the retina, as seen at / /.
It will loe noticed that the image painted on the retina is inverted,
and we naturally inquire how it is that we see all objects in an
apparently vertical position ? The answer hitherto given to this
question is at least unsatisfactory. It is generally stated, that the
distinctions between top and bottom, and such expressions, are
merely the results of habitual experience ; or, in other terms, we
express ourselves in such a manner as accords with the impression
of our minds. " Seeing properly," therefore, becomes a mere
question of education, just as the sense of touch, &c., may be
similarly explained. This, however, is a subject on which it is use-
less to spend space and time in discussing, and any attempt at ana-
logical illustration would by no means clear away the difficulty of the
question.
One of the most astonishing capabilities of the eye, is its power of
adapting itself to view objects at different distances. It is evident
that some change must take place in the shape of the lens of the eye,
when rays of greatly different positions as to distance pass through
it. The mode of action may be twofold. The crystalline lens may
be enabled to alter its shape, and therefore its convexity, of its own
accord, or the entire ball of the eye may perform the same operation
by the contraction of the muscles surrounding it. Each view has
had its advocates and its opponents. It has been properly remarked,
that the crystalline lens has no muscular structure sufficient for the
purpose ; and, on the other hand, that the contraction of the muscles
surrounding the eyeball would, if exerted sufficiently, tend to dis-
organise the whole structure of the organ. This subject is one of
great difficulty, and not to be easily decided.
The eyes of insects present some curious characteristics, as illus-
trated in the annexed cut, Fig. 37, They are for the most part
Fig. 37. — Plead and Eyes of the Eee.
aa, antenna; ; A, facets enlarged ; B, the same, with hairs growing
between them.
extremely large ; varying, however, between one-sixth and one-fourth
part of the weight of the whole body. Their structure is eminently
beautiful ; consisting, as they do, not of coats and humours, but
principally of a series of pyramids of nervous substance connected
together, the apices being on the bulbous extremity of the optic nerve,
and the bases, invested each by a thick transparent membrane of an
hexagonal shape, at the circumference of the eye. This membrane,
presenting thus numerous facets, which look in every direction, is
called the cornea, and seems to be in insects the only instrument of
Fig. 3S. — Lateral and Full
View of F.yeball of Owl.
a, ver}' convex cornea ; b,
sclerotic coat, surrounded,
at c, by bony plates.
refraction, the images of objects being most probably impressed, by
this means, directly on the base of each pyramid, which is thus a
kind of distinct eye. They have no lens and no pupil, or rather the
whole surface of the cornea is one large pupil, there being no opaque
coats to render a proper pupil necessary ; and they are destitute both
of eyelids and of muscles to move the eye, the numerous directions
of the facets of the cornea rendering the latter superfluous. How
strikingly different is this description of eye which characterises
insects which fly, and require therefore an ample field of vision, from
the simple eye found in tlie grovelling kinds, which either do not see,
strictly speaking, at all, or certainly only quite contiguous objects !
Further, in insects which fly by night, like the Moth, there is, in
place of the black pigment similar to that which is found in the Cuttle,
a substance of a resplendent green or silvery colour, serving not to
absorb, but to reflect the rays of light ; and thus enabling them to
see by much more obscure light than would otherwise have been
necessary.
The eyes of birds are remarkable principally, like the compound
eyes of insects, for their great size, the use of this being in both the
same — that of enabling them, when on the wing, to see objects at a
great distance. With respect to the cornea and lens, they are
directly opposed to those of fishes ; since,
while the cornea is comparatively flat, and
the lens almost globular in fishes — in birds
the cornea is remarkably prominent, and
the lens has very little convexity. The
motions of the iris in most birds are ex-
tremely rapid, and in some apparently
voluntary. The pupil is in some, as in the
Dove and the Goose, transversely oval ;
while it is vertically oval in others : gene-
rally speaking, indeed, it has the former
shape in herbivorous animals, whether
birds or quadrupeds, and the latter in
carnivorous. All birds have proper eyelids, the lower of which alone
is movable ; and they have, in addition, another membrane called
memb?-a}ui nictitans, which is merely a movable fold of the external
membrane of the eyeball : it is not quite proper to birds — being found
also in some fishes and reptiles — but it is most remarkable in them.
With very few exceptions — the Owl among others — the direction of
the eyeballs is, in birds, outwards. (See Fig. 38.) Such birds also,
as well as insects and fishes, as go in search of their prey by night,
like the Owl, have a shining substance at the bottom of the eyeball,
for the purpose already alluded to. In some birds with piercing
sight, as the Falcon and Crane, the flattened optic nerve has one of
its surfaces folded into numerous plaits, bearing the same relation to
the other as the leaves bear to the back of a book ; and the extent of
surface thus gained may be easily imagined.
The sense of Heari7ig is an eminent characteristic of the Mammalia.
In man, the external part of the ear is of such a form as to receive
the vibrations of the air as they proceed from any sounding body.
From the outer part there is a tortuous passage, by which the sounds
arrive at the tympanum or drum. This is a thin membrane ; and
it is stretched over bones in a similar manner to that of the parch-
ment covering of the musical instrument of the same name. The
vibrations which have arrived thus far, set the drum in motion : and
here we may mention a peculiar provision that is made, by which the
intensity of sound is modified. When describing the eye,* we men-
tioned that the iris could be either opened or closed, so as to admit
or restrain the rays of light, and prevent injury to the organ of sight.
Now, similarly, the drum of the ear may either be tightened or
extended, so as to increase or diminish the force of communicated
vibrations ; and by this beautiful arrangement, the ear itself is
preserved from the injurious effect of too powerful a sound, or is
enabled to catch the slightest whisper. From the drum of the ear, a
channel, called the Eustachian tube, passes towards the mouth.
This tube serves as an exit, by means of the air it contains, for the
vibrations which have been communicated by the drum. It is, in
fact, analogous in its office to the holes in the sounding-board of the
piano, the harp, violin, &c. ; and deafness always ensues when, by
any means, this tube is closed, which occurs from cold, the deposi-
tion of wax, &c.
A cavity, called the vestibule of the ear, also covered with a mem-
brane, is provided with nerves ; and these, like the optic nerve,t
connect the external vibrations of matter with the sensorium of the
brain ; and thus the sense of hearing is produced. The entrance of
the car is protected from the intrusion of insects and foreign matter
by means of hairs, and a peculiar wax-like secretion. This, in excess,
often becomes hardened, and is thus the cause of difficulty of hear-
ing, which some persons suffer from. It is, however, readily removed
by syringing the ear with warm water. The following cut will give
an idea of the different parts of the human ear.
Amongst the Mammalia, we find the ear, generally speaking, de-
fended externally by a large flap, which ser\-es to protect it from
being injured by insects or the twigs of trees, as the animal passes
* See ante, p. 10.
t See anlc, p. 10,
THE SENSES OF ANIMALS— HEARING— VOICE.
through a thicket : this may be best noticed in the Elephant and the
Dog. All animals of prey are possessed of great powers of hearing,
on which they partly depend for success in the search for food. Am-
phibious animals can readily adapt their organs of hearing to the
Fig. 3g. — The Human Ear.
a, is the canal by which sounds reach the drum, b ; c is the Eustachian tube ;
d and e represent the connections of the auditory nerves with the brain ;
f and g are the upper and lower portions of the external fleshy part of
the ear.
medium in which they may for the moment dwell. Without such a
provision, these animals would sustain much inconvenience, and
suffer extreme pain, when beneath the surface of water. This is
chiefly owing to the great conducting power of that liquid, by which
sounds act more strongly on the tympanum than when conveyed by
air; and if the organ were not protected under such circumstances,
its sensitiveness would speedily be destroyed.
_ In birds we meet with constantly a short canal, leading from the
side of the head, and meeting that coming from the pharynx, in the
tympanum. They have but one bone in this cavity ; and the general
structure of the parts of their labyrinth is very similar to that of the
higher orders of reptiles. Birds in generalVant a proper pinna, or
ear-flap, its place being commonly supplied by a small tuft of
feathers : the Owl, however, has something very similar to this part
as found in mammiferous animals. The following figure illustrates
the ears of some birds. As we descend in the scale of nature, we
Fig. 40. — Ears of Birds.
a. Peregrine Falcon ; h. Day Owl ; r, Tawny Owl ; d. Long-eared Owl ;
e. Earn Owl.
find that these organs become of simpler construction ; and, passing
by fishes, we at last find their development to be but rudimentary in
the tribe of insects.
Voice is a characteristic of a large proportion of the Vertebrata,
including the Mammalia, birds, &c. ; but the power of speech is
solely possessed by man. The organs concerned in voice and speech
may be described as the chest and lungs, the windpipe, the larynx,
the posterior cavity of the mouth, the nostrils, which communicate
w-ith that posterior cavity, the palate, the tongue, the teeth, and the
lips. The sounds which constitute voice, belong to the order of
musical sounds, independently altogether of the singing voice. All
that is rightly termed voice, takes place in the larynx, which is pro-
perly the instrument of voice. But even independently of the modifi-
cations by which voice is changed into articulate speech, the voice is
variously affected by the other parts which have been enumerated :
by the chest, as regulating the force of the air ; by the windpipe, as
susceptible of several degrees of length and tension; by the posterior
cavity of the mouth, as offering an expanded vault ; by the nostril, as
affording a double passage of exit for the breath ; and by the various
conditions of the tongue, the palate, the teeth, the lips, according to
the position in which they happen to be at the moment.
The chest and lungs together constitute, in reference to the voice,
a musical bellows, capable of supplying air with more or less force
to the organs of voice. The peculiarity of these bellows is, that by
them the air must be renewed at short intervals, entering from with-
out by the same passage by which it is expelled when the voice is
exercised. It can, however, supply air without interruption, in a
continued stream, for about fifteen seconds. The lung (sec Fig. 28,
ante) consists of two laige bags of air, and does not materially differ
from the wind-box of an organ, or rather from the bag of a bagpipe.
No air can enter the lung, or escape from it, except through the
windpipe. The chest is capable of expansion in every direction.
Whenever an enlargement commences, the air begins to enter from
without. By this process, in two or three seconds, many cubic inches
of air can be drawn into the lungs. It is by the contrast which the
muscles of the lar}'nx have on the vibration of the air, thus intro-
duced, that articulate sounds are produced. If the human larynx be
dissected out, and the vocal cords be stretched, they will vibrate like
a piece of artificial tissue, such as india-rubber or leather, in a cur-
rent of air. The .(Eolian harp is an instance in which musical sounds
are produced by similar vibrations, due to a current of air passing
over the strings of the instrument. The production of the most
simple tones of the voice requires the associated action of a most
extensive range of organs ; for it is calculated that, in its ordinary
modulation, more than one hundred muscles are brought into action
at the same time.
To those who are not familiar with the laws of acoustics, and the
production of sound by means of the vibrations of the air, as in wind
instruments (the flute, cornet, &c.), in stringed instruments (such as
the piano, harp, &c.), or tongued instruments (as the harmonium,
concertina, Ike), the following illustration may be useful and inter-
esting, as showing whence the power of singing is derived in man
and birds.
We shall confine our illustration of these principles to the eight
notes in the treble clef forming an octave — from C below the lines, to
C on the third space, as represented below. To each of the notes we
have appended their names, for the assistance of those of our readers
who do not understand music. When, however, an instrument,
especially a pianoforte or harp, can be had access to, such will ma-
terially aid in making our remarks understood.
^^
Fig. 41.
English names ... C D
Italian do ... do re
F G A B C
fa sol la si do
Now, the sounds of each of these letters, in Fig. 41, are produced
by a definite number of vibrations, and the length of each string.
Thus, that affording C vibrates 240 times per second ; whilst the
upper, or octave C, will vibrate 480 times per second. The length of
the string producing the low C, may be 45 inches ; whilst that pro-
ducing the upper C, will be but 22^ inches. Each of the other notes
will proceed from an intermediate length of string and number of
vibrations. The following table gives the value of each of these —
commencing with the lower C. Some consider that 256 vibrations
equal C. We have chosen the lower number, for the purpose of
avoiding fractions ; but the reader can easily calculate a table on
that standard, by using the table, or ratio, which follows this.
Name of
note.
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
The law of the relation existing between the number of vibrations,
the length of the cord, and the nature of the sounds produced, is thus
at once made evident. The ratio existing between each of these is
shown in the following table — commencing with low C, as before, it
being the standard.
Name of note
Ratio of the length of the cord
Ratio of vibrations
From which we perceive, as before stated, that the length of the
cord is inversely as the number of vibrations, and vice veisa. We
Length of cord
Number of vibra
in inches.
tious per second
- 45
240
••• 40
270
- 36
300
- 33f
320
- 30
360
- 27
400
•• 24,
450
... 22,V
4S0
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
I
9"
f
4
f
f
-S.
1 .1
i
I
8
i
J
i
%
\^
2
VOICE OF ANIMALS— THEIR LOCOMOTION.
'3
have already obsen'ed that harmonies are afforded when certain
sounds are produced together. This occurs when C, and G (below),
which are five notes apart, C, and E (above), which are three notes
apart, and C, E, and G, are struck together — forming, as they do, a
chord in which thirds and fifths are combined. The effects of such
combinations are naturally pleasing to the ear : but this is not a pure
matter of taste only ; for if some pieces of paper are allowed to fall
on strings thus vibrating, they will arrange themselves in such posi-
tions as will accord with those of the length of the octave, the third,
and fifth, pointed out in our last table.
We have confined these remaks to stringed instruments only ; but,
as already stated, they are equally applicable to those in which wind
is alone employed. Thus, in the organ, the length of the pipes cor-
responds to the length of the string in the pianoforte, because they
enclose a similar length of air ; and it is the vibration of this which
causes the sound of different notes. In the flute, cornopean, (tc,
the length of the column of air is regulated by the skill of the per-
former ; hence the difiiculty experienced in acquiring the art of blow-
ing those instruments properly. Many instruments, of entirely differ-
ent kind of construction, such as the harmonium, concertina, the
pan-pipes, bells, &c., all owe the production of their various notes to
the laws we have here explained. Equally so do the powers of voice,
whether of speech or singing in the animal.
The notes of the human voice are capable of being produced in
three separate kinds of sequences. In ordinary speaking, the
successive notes have nearly all the same pitch. This kind of suc-
cession, then, is properly termed the monotonous. Some deviation
from this monotony occasionally arises, as when certain syllables
receive a higher intonation for the sake of accent, and when, in read-
ing or reciting poetry, rhythm is added to the accent. In these
cases, however, the deviation from monotony of pitch is too slight to
require a separate head. In the expression of passion, accompanied
by vehement exercise of the voice, there is heard a sudden transition
from high to low notes, or the reverse. This, then, constitutes the
second kind of sequence in the notes of the human voice. Musical
notes constitute the third mode of sequence. In music, the sound
has the requisite number of vibrations ; and as the sounds succeed
each other, they exhibit that relative proportion in the number of
vibrations which jointly characterise the notes of the musical scale.
Of the adaptation of one sound to succeed another, so as to preserve
the musical character of the succession, the human ear is the only
original standard.
The voice of mammals, inferior to man, is equally subject to the
laws already explained ; but some are mute. The Cetacecs, or Whale
tribe, have been thus described ; but they possess a single " lowing"
note, and have the power of bellowing ; but, with certain exceptions,
the larynx is well developed. The Giraffe is described as mute, the
vocal ligaments being absent. The Armadillo is another of the
mute Mammalia ; as is also the common Porcupine of Europe.
In the Ru))ih2aiitia we find a sonorous voice, exemplified in the
Ox. Its larynx is well developed : there are no superior vocal liga-
ments, but the inferior vocal ligaments are strong. These, in the
Sheep, differ from those in the Ox only in size. In the Camel the
larynx is well developed, and the superior vocal ligaments are
present, and the inferior are strong. In the Horse and the Ass the
larynx is well developed ; that of the Mule resembles the same organ
in the Ass ; and the same may be said of the Elephant, Rhinoceros,
&c. In the order of the Carnivora, or flesh-eating animals, are
examples of a very powerful voice. The Lion and Tiger have a highly-
developed lar)'nx, and the superior vocal ligaments prominent ; hence
the terrific roar of the Lion ; while the Tiger, like the common Cat,
has the power of purring and mewing. Among the Apes and
Monkeys, the essential form of the organs of voice do not vary much.
In the Mycetes, or Howling Apes of America, the voice-producing
apparatus is the greatest. In the Chimpanzee the true vocal liga-
ments are prominent. The windpipe has sixteen rings, and the
voice is more acute than that of women. In some of the Ape tribe,
the voice, in quality, is like that of the flute : hence such are called
Whistling Apes ; and from the peculiar expression of this whistle,
which is a plaintive melody, they are termed " Weeping Apes."
In birds, the great peculiarity of the organs of voice is the inferior
larynx, which is of a most complex structure, not only in such sing-
ing-birds as the Nightingale, Blackbird, &c., but also in some that
possess a disagreeable cry, such as members of the Crow family.
Thus, not only is a complex organ necessary for the musical voice of
birds, but also a fine general organisation and a singing instinct.
That the inferior larynx of birds is the true organ of voioe, has been
proved by many experiments. For example, anatomists have divided
the windpipe in singing-birds, as the Blackbird, about the middle
of its length, so that the air could no longer pass through the
superior larynx, and yet the bird would continue to sing, but with
feeble notes. Similar experiments have been made on ]\Iagpies and
Ducks. After such an experiment, the Magpie is found to cry with
as great an intensity of tone, and with the same acuteness as before
the operation.
There is, unquestionably, a great difference in the mode in which
voice is produced in different birds. It seems certain that the simple
organ of voice in the Duck, the Gooso, and the like, is a reed instru-
ment. In these, the vocal cords or bands, which form the exterior
margin of the openmg of the larynx, can be seen to vibrate strongly;
whde the sound produced closely resembles that arising from the
vibration of membranes. But it is by no means clear that the piping
and whistling sounds of birds are produced in the same manner- and
It IS not impossible that these may be effected in the same mode as
whistling by the mouth in man.
The voice of birds, as of other animals, is in a minor key. The
range of notes is commonly within an octave, though some birds can
greatly exceed it. In the Parrot, which has a voice of great power
the inferior larynx is single. The two membranes of the lar\'n.x leave
a narrow chink between them, through which the air is forced from
the lungs. These membranes, vibrating in all their dimensions
produce that harsh, disagreeable quality of sound, peculiar to them'
They can also whistle, during which the glottis is probably silent'
and the column of air vibrates as in a flute, when a vibratory move-
ment is communicated by the air traversing the clastic walls of the
tube. Besides the power of speech possessed by some birds, many
can imitate almost every sound they hear; the Blackbird has been
known to imitate the sound of the Nightingale, the crowin"- of the
common Cock, and the cackle of the Hen. "The Jay is said to mock
the notes of the Greenfinch and the neighing of a Horse so closely
that it was scarcely believed to be a bird by those who heard it. It
can also imitate the calling of fowls to their food, and the barking of
the house Dog.
As regards the voice of reptiles and amphibious animals generallv
these sounds have their source in the larynx. In the truiTserpents
there are no vocal cords. In the Frogs, the vocal sound is produced
by the vibrations of reed-shaped tongues, which act like a tunin.'^--
fork. Only a very few fishes are known to utter sounds, such as the
trigia, cot t us, a.ni pogonms.
Most insects are mute ; some produce sounds by friction ; others by
Fig. 42. — Thoracic Spiracle of Blue-bottle Fly {Musca voinitona).
the passage of air through their spiracles. It is a common belief
that the buzzing of insects is produced by the oscillations of tlieir
wings during flight. This idea has been often called in question.
John Hunter found that insects emitted sounds after their wings
were cut off. More recently, it has been stated that the sounds pro-
duced by many insects are the effect of a rapid transmission of air
through the thoracic air-holes as they dash through space. Mr.
Bishop has observed a peculiar mechanism for this purpose in the
Fig. 43. — Thoracic Spiracle of Humble Dee {'Dombiis terrestiii).
Blue-bottle Fly and the Humble Bee. Figures 42 and 43, show one
of the large thoracic spiracles in each of these insects — the Musca
vomitoria and the Bombus terrestris.
Locomotion. — The power of moving from place to place was long
considered as strictly a point of division between the animal and
vegetable kingdom. But by careful observation it was found that
this really was not an exact boundary. Among the lowest orders of
animal existences, as in some zoophiles and mollusca, we find those
which are permanently stationary, and, like plants, unable to leave
the substance to which they are attached. And even some of these
that do move about, as the Sea-blubber, the Sea-pen, and many
others, do so passively ; and, like the Duckweed and Star-grass
among plants, are moved in water chiefly by the currents, and tides
and winds ; but the number of those in whom locomotion is other-
14
LOCOMOTION OF ANIMALS.
wise than active, is certainly very small. Again, during one period
of their existence, the fixed zoophiles do possess a power of locomo-
tion. Thus the young Sponge, after its separation from the parent
stem, for several days swims about as if to find the appropriate spot
to which it may attach itself; while the cilia, or arm-like append-
ages, to the action of which its locomotive powers are due, fade and
disappear, as if no longer required, after the animal has attached
itself to the rock. Similar properties are found among the polypes
lodged in the madrepores and corals, with which all are familiar. In
the hydra, a species of polype inhabiting our fresh waters (see Fig.
44), we find an early example of locomotive powers curious in the
extreme. If the animal be introduced into a glass, it may be seen,
Fig. 44. — Locomotion of Hydra viridis,
as in the figure, when standing erect, slowly to bend its body, until
its mouth touches the surface of the vessel ; its foot is then detached,
and brought towards the head, which is then projected forwards, and
the process repeated, until a desirable position is obtained.
Among the MeduscB, some are remarkable for their organs of
locomotion, being furnished with an apparatus not unlike the fins of
a fish, with which they strike the water vertically, and give an
ascending impulse to their bodies. Among the molluscs, the motions
of the Snail are familiar to every one. They are effected by what is
called its foot, or a mass of muscular fibre, situated on the strong
membrane which contains the entrails, and also attached to the
shell. It glides along the surface, partly by forming a vacuum by
means of this organ, and partly by a viscid mucilage secreted by the
part. It is thus, also, that some bivalve molluscs, as the common
Cockle, Mussels, Razor Shell-fish, and others, progress — the animal
protruding its foot beyond the shell, and crawling along upon it ;
and it is furnished also with the same kind of adhesive mucilage, for
the purpose not only of steadying its steps during motion, but also,
as drawn out into threads under the name of bysstis, of preventing
it, when at rest, from being washed away, by tides and currents,
from the rocks to which it attaches itself.
Advancing in this great class, we find some animals, as the
Cuttle, moving by a kind of arms or tentacula attached to their head,
and employed as oars, or as feet, when moving along the bottom of
the sea. On account of the singular place of attachment of the feet,
the animals of this, the highest order of molluscs, are called Cepha-
lopods (Gr. kej)/ia/e, head, and poi/s, foot). With the exception of
the Pearly Nautilus [Nautilus pontpilius), which has many tentacu-
lar organs attached to the head, all other cephalopods have eight
arms; to which, in some kinds, as, f.^., the calamary and sepia,
two long and slender tentacula are added, which can be letracted
into sheaths. Both the eight ordinary arms, and the two tentacles,
are provided with suckers, by which the animal can attach itself at
pleasure. The Paper Nautilus {Argo7iaufa) has but eight feet, and
one pair of these expand at their extremities into broad and thin
membranes; the fabled use of which has afforded a beautiful subject
for poetic imagery in all ages ; but
similar appendages occur in Octopus ^^^s^vX:
violaceus, and in Octopus velifer, in
which both the first and second pairs
of feet support broad and thin mem-
branes at their extremities. Now,
neither of these species inhabits a shell
in which the expanded membranes
could be used to waft the animal along
the surface of the ocean, as has been
said or sung of the Argonaut. The
Glaucus (Fig. 45) swims rapidly by
means of its oar-like appendages.
Passing now to the Annelida, we find
the Earthworm progressing by means of sets, or bristles, attached
to the skin, w-hich the animal fixes on the ground; while, by the
elongation of the rings which encircle the body, it moves onwards.
Fig. 45. — Glaucus Fosteri.
Fig. 46. — The Leech {Hiriido officinalis).
FiS- 47-
Suckers of Blue-bottle Fly.
,, Great Water lleetle.
,, Yellow Saw-Fly.
Then the head is applied and fixed to the ground, and the body,
by the contraction of its rings, drawn towards it. In the Nereis
we find numerous tentacula as organs of locomotion, by which, and
by undulating inflections of the body, the animal swims with great
rapidity : while the Leech, independently of its power of swimming
by ordinary vermiform motion, is furnished with an apparatus for
suction at either extremity of its body. By fixing, alternately, one
or the other, and drawing its body towards it, the animal advances
at pleasure. (See Fig. 46.)
The motion of insects is generally extremely rapid. An ordinary
Gnat, for example, will not only keep
pace with a man walking fast, but
even fly much quicker. The reason
of this is, that the muscular force is
in enormous excess when compared
with the weight of the insect. Spi-
ders, for example, dart on their prey
with great rapidity. All winged in-
sects have six legs ; and many, more-
over, have, either in the course of
their legs, or at their extremities,
numerous suckers, by which they form
a vacuum every time their legs come
in contact with any surface. It is in
this w-ay that flies craw'l upon a per-
pendicular surface, or on a smooth
mirror, or walk along the ceiling of a
room. The structure of these suckers
is very beautiful, and is best seen in
the common Blue-bottle Fly {Musca
voinitoria — see Fig. 47), the great
\\'ater Beetle (Ditisctts J!iargi?!a-
lis), and the yellow Saw-Fly (Cimex
luttaj. But the most remarkable
organs of locomotion in insects are
their wings.
Fishes effect their locomotion by
their fins, and of these they employ
chiefly the pectoral and ventral pairs, which are strictly analogous
to the upper and lower extremities of the superior tribes of animals.
Some fishes effect their progression by the motion, not of the fins,
but of the spine ; as the Lamprey, which has neither pectoral nor
ventral fins, and which seems to move in its natural element, the
(J mud, entirely by the lateral flexion of its
_,-;-. spine, which it first draws into an S-like
_,.-'' i \ curve, and then shoots forward the an-
i \ terior portion. The same is the case
also with the Eel, when it creeps on
land. Others again, as most flat fishes,
which, like the Lamprey, have neither
pectoral nor ventral fins, use their tails
principally in making progress in the
water. This operation is extremely sim-
ple. Everj'body knows that the ordinary
way of propelling forwards a boat is by
rowing ; that is to say, by means of one
or more pairs of oars passed over its
sides, the action of which is exactly
similar to the pectoral fins of fishes.
But it is likewise well known that a boat
may be, with equal certainty, urged for-
wards by what is called sculling ; that
is to say, by means of one oar passed
over its stern, and continually moved in
the water from side to side. Now, it is
precisely upon this latter principle that
the tail of fishes moving from side to
side, operates in propelling them for-
ward. It is evident that the oar on the
one hand, and the tail on the other, in
this alternate lateral motion, is con-
tinually displacing a quantity of water
great in proportion to the length of the
instrument employed, and consequently to the sweep which it
makes in its oscillation ; and it is by the resistance which the
water makes to this displacement, by the oar or tail, in coming
from its extreme sweep to the longitudinal axis of the boat or fish,
that either is urged onwards. " Let us suppose," says Dr. Roget,
"that the tail is slightly inclined to the right, as shown in the
preceding figure. If in this situation the muscles of the left side,
tending to bring the tail in a right line with the body, are sud-
denly thrown into action, the resistance of the water, by reacting
against the broad surface of the tail in the direction P R (see Fig.
48), perpendicular to the surface, will cause the muscular action to
give the whole body an impulse in that direction, and the centre of
gravity, C, will move onwards in the direction C B, parallel to P R.
This impulse is not destroyed by the further flexion of the tail towards
the left side, because the principal force, executed by the muscles,
has already been expended in the motion from R to M, in bringing
it to a straight line with the body ; and the force which carries it on
to L is much weaker, and therefore occasions a more feeble reactioQ.
M
Fig. 48. — Motion of Fishes.
LOCOMOTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.
JS
When the tail has arrived at the position L, indicated by the dotted
outline, a similar action of the muscles on the right side will create a
resistance, and an impulse in the direction of K L, and a motion of
the whole body in the same direction, C A. These impulses being'
repeated in quick succession, the fish moves forward in the diagonal,
C D, intermediate between the directions of the two forces," of which
it is the resultant.
In reptiles, taking the Serpents, we find that their motion is
effected by means of their spine. At page 3, ante. Fig. 3, an en-
graving illustrating the skeleton of the Cobra has been given. The
ribs in these animals are the only organs of progression. It is one
of the animals that do not employ legs for motion on the ground.
Some Lizards can move up perpendicular surfaces by a species of
suction ; the soles of their feet, as in the Gecko, being provided with
a series of small plates, which, being drawn up at pleasure, produce
the vacuum necessary for their adhering to a wall or other surface.
In the water, most reptiles use their legs as fishes do their fins.
The progression of birds, when on land, is effected by either walk-
ing or hopping on their posterior extremities only, birds being the
only proper bipeds among the lower animals ; and they are enabled
to keep themselves erect without effort, since their centre of gravity
corresponds to the region where the anterior extremities are attached,
owing, in most birds, to the legs being directed forwards, and the
toes more elongated ; but in some — as
the Penguin and the Puffin — to the trunk
of the body being placed almost verti-
cally. (See Fig. 49). Birds are enabled
to float in the water, owing to their
specific gravity being in general less
than that of the fluid ; and hence they
displace only as much of it as is equal
to their own weight, according to the
well-known hydrostatic law. They move
along its surface by the action of webbed
feet, the Swan appearing to use its wings,
in addition, almost in the manner of
sails. But the characteristic organ of
locomotion in birds is their wings, cor-
responding, in their more essential parts,
as well with the pectoral fins of fishes
as with the fore-legs of reptiles and
quadrupeds, and the arms of man. The
motions of these are effected by a mass of muscles, weighing more
than all the rest of the muscular system of the animal, and arising
from a breast-bone of a larger size than is met with in any other class
of animals ; the immense power thus acquired being no more than is
necessary to enable them at once to support themselves in the air,
and to move through it with astonishing velocity. The former they
effect by continually renewing the column of air below them — and
which must be displaced, in order to allow of their falling to the
ground — more rapidly than this displacement can take place ; and
the latter, by using their wings in the manner of oars, while the tail,
at the same time, ser\'es them as a rudder. In this way birds, as the
Carrier Pigeons, are known to have travelled at the rate of sixty, or
even one hundred, miles an hour.
Among the Mammalia, locomotion is almost invariably made by
the feet, and hands in the case of the Apes, Monkeys, &c. A re-
markable exception, however, occurs in the Whale, an analogous tribe,
by which motion is effected in a manner similar to that of fishes.
But the Cetaceffi have no air-bladder, which is an important element
of motion in fishes. The tail of the Whale, &c., is the chief organ of
locomotion. It is a most powerful instrument ; and in whaling dis-
tricts it is a common occurrence for the boats to be broken in half
by a single blow of that appendage. The downward and upward
motion of the tail in Cetaceous animals, gives to many of them, as
Fig. 49. — Penguin.
Fig. 50. — Harpyia Pallasii.
they sport near the surface of the w^ater, the appearance of a revolv-
ing wheel. Hence, perhaps, the suggestion of a Sea-serpent, a
monster yet to be discovered. The motion of the Whale resembles
that of the screw-steamer, while that of the fishes more nearly
resembles that of the paddle-steamer, the fins partly acting as
paddles.
Very few quadrupeds are capable of aerial motion : exceptions,
however, arc found, in the case of the Hat, the Flying Squirrel, and
the Flying Femur. Their progression is effected, not like the flying
fishes and birds, simply by their anterior extremities, nor like the
Flying Lizards, by their ribs, but by winglike membranes extended
between their anterior and posterior extremities, the motions of both
of which are requisite to call them into action. (See Fig. 50).
Quadrupeds in general use their upper limbs only in conjunction
with their lower in the act of progression ; but some few, as Squirrels
and Apes, use them also as we do our arms, the arrangement of
their skeleton being expressly adapted for the purpose. In standing,
they use in general all the four legs ; and as the centre of gravity is
thus preserved without effort, they easily sleep in this posture. Some
few, however, as the Kangaroo and Jerboa, rest on their hinder legs
alone, the centre of gravity falling, in them, almost perpendicularly;
but such also use their strong tails, like another leg, to steady them.
In climbing, some, like the Walrus or the Lizard, seem to attach
themselves to any surface by forming a vacuum under their feet ; but
the majority use their claws for this purpose. In the case of the
Kangaroo, &c., motion is effected by a series of leaps that the ani-
mal can produce, owing to the great development of the muscles of
the hind-legs. Leaping is a motion also practised by fishes, insects,
&c., as may be observed, in regard to the latter, in the Flea, which
can jump through a space equal to several hundred times that of its
own length.
DISTRIRUTION OF MAN AND THE LOWER ANUtALS.
One of the most interesting studies that is connected with Natural
History, is that of the distribution of animals on the face of the globe.
When the question is confined to man alone, the science of FxHNO-
LOGY (nation-study), is that mostly dealt with. In its present use
the term is of extended character, for this science not only deals with
the different nations of the world, but also with the varieties of the
human species. We do not purpose entering into this subject
further than to give a general idea of the characteristics of human
variety, due to a number of causes ; but it must be distinctly under-
stood that we deal in this work with JIAN as arising from one pair of
human beings ; and our views, therefore, will be in entire opposition
to what is called the theory of " Evolution." To be plain, we mean
that man is, ^cr se, a sole member of the Bimana, and that he has
no more psychical relation to the Quadrinnana, than an Ape has to
a Cod-fish. It will be desirable that we should first take a general
view of the distribution of the entire animal kingdom, before' direct-
ing special attention to the peculiarities of man himself.
Whatever theories may be adopted, in ethnology, with respect to
the races or varieties of men ; in zoology, regarding animals ; in
botany, as to plants, &c. ; and the inferences we may draw, geolo-
gically, from specimens of extinct species, respecting their former
regions of existence ; — it is patent to the most cursory observer, that,
with the exception of man, all classes and families of animals and
plants may be so arranged as to be considered indigenous to certain
climates. The varieties of species are certainly very numerous ; and
normal characteristics are often modified by various circumstances.
Thus the breed of cattle and Horses, the quality of fruit, (Src, are
respectively the subjects of change when those are removed from the
country in which they exist in a wild or uncultivated state. The art
of training both plants and animals to undergo and bear this change,
has, of late years, been carefully studied, and exceedingly interesting
results have accrued. The subject is one of great importance in
a commercial point of view, as it is now being constantly attempted
to introduce animals, &c., into our colonies, not only to improve the
existing stock, but also to add other and useful forms to it. The
Alpaca, Salmon, poultry. Pheasants, &c., have thus been transported
to our Australian settlements, and are likely to be extremely produc-
tive, and of great service ; and the cinchona plant has similarly been
carried to India, and has already afforded a most abundant supply of
quinine, so essential in cases of debility, ague, Otc, in tropical
climates. These show striking instances of the value which is
attached to the study of physical geography in connection with that
of Natural History.
The distribution of plants is a matter of great importance, not
only for the vegetable food of man, but as also affecting those
animals on which he depends for sustenance, carriage, farm-labour,
&c. ; and hence every civilised country has certain features, both
physical and social, which more or less distinguish it from others.
It is true that the extensive application of steam in railways, vessels,
machiner)', &c., is fast obliterating these distinctive characteristics
in many places ; but the progress of such improvements is slow,
compared with the extent over which they must spread, before the
revolution they have to effect is completed. In our country such
progress is rapid, as also in many others in Europe and North
America ; but most of the colonics still have to depend on brute
force for the saving of human labour.
We have already pointed out, at pages i and 4, ante, the great
i6
DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.
points of distinction that exist in animals in relation to their teeth,
their food, and their habits. In the particular case of our Sheep
and Horses we have an illustration of this. These animals depend
entirely for sustenance on the grasses or inferior cereals ; and where
such can be obtained of good quality, and in sufficient abundance,
the breed of each is not only supported in quantity, but the quality
is simultaneously improved. In England, particular attention has
been paid to this ; and the breeds have been so improved, that the
Horses, cattle, and wool of this country equal any other, and, in
many cases, exceed in quality those of the very countries from which
the original stock was first imported. This has arisen chiefly from
our climate being peculiarly suitable for such purposes, aided by
judicious training, and careful attention to the natural history of
each animal.
We next turn to inquire how far climate, latitude and longitude,
and elevation, and other circumstances of the surface of the earth,
affect the distribution of the lower animals.
Turning to Lapland, and the extreme north of Europe generally,
we find that cattle and Horses are there replaced by an entirely
different animal, the Reindeer. An almost total absence of grass is
compensated for by an abundance of lichen, which is the favourite
food of that useful creature ; and thus the exigencies of the climate
are completely met by a peculiar adaptation of the vegetable to the
animal kingdom, brought about even by its extreme severity; whilst
the human being has, "in one animal, a source of food and clothing,
and a beast of draught. The Camel in Africa and Arabia, the
Elephant in India, the^Llama in Peru and Chili, &c., are instances of
a similar kind— all tending to show how climatic variety is com-
pensated for, in a manner as complete as the circumstances of the
case require.
The subjects of food, temperature, and clothing, must be simul-
taneously considered in connection with the distribution of animals ;
for these three points are those on which their existence depends ;
the skin and its covering (see ante, p. 6) being an additional and
most important matter in the economy of animal life. In the
vegetable kingdom, the organs of respiration and digestion are of so
simple a character as to' be more easily adapted to varieties of
change, and the food is usually present. On the other hand, the
animal has nothing but its instincts to guide it in the search for food ;
and from this arise all the circumstances which affect its longevity,
productive powers, &c. ; the accident of its life being induced
by its cravings for sustenance, and, in fact, struggles for existence.
Commencing with one of the lower forms of animal life, as the
Moltusca, we find them pretty equally distributed throughout the
waters of the ocean ; but always in respect to the peculiarities of
each climate ; for certain kinds are found only within well-defined
limits of latitude, beyond which they rarely exist. Amongst the
lowest class of creatures, the coral Polypi are almost exclusively
confined to certain parts of the Pacific Ocean, where, for ages past,
they have been slowly but surely rearing islands, now rapidly
becoming the centres of civilisation. Amongst Fish, again, we find
that some are confined to certain zones, beyond which they are
rarely seen : instances of this are found in the Salmon tribe, which is
limited to the cool, temperate, or sub-arctic zones. But many of
the tribes, apparently indigenous to our northern seas and rivers,
have their representatives or substitutes in those of low latitudes, the
species corresponding, except in some physiological adaptation
required by altered circumstances of existence ; the type being
retained, whilst the exact identity is somewhat affected.
Amongst the licpiilia, as the Lizards, or Saurian tribe, the Lori-
cata, &c. — of which our common Field Lizard is typical, and the
analogue of the Crocodiles and Alligators of the Nile, India, and
America — the development proceeds rapidly as to size and strength,
as lower latitudes are reached. The variety of these classes is very
extensive about the equatorial and tropical regions, where they
abound both on land and in water. Equally, amongst Birds, also,
the same climatic law is influential ; the Eagle of Scotland and
Norway has its family represented in the Himalayas, and by the
Condor in the Andes ; and we may observe the same fact throughout
the whole class. In some islands, however, exceptions exist, as in
the Apteryx and the Dinornis of New Zealand, the Emeu of Australia,
the Dodo of Madagascar, &c. ; but still, comparative^ anatomists
can find connecting links for this apparently broken chain.
With respect to Mammalia, the distinction of climate is very
remarkable. The Qiiadrianana (Monkeys, &c.) are invariably
inhabitants of tropical countries ; as are the Carnivora (the Lion,
Tiger, &c.), with comparatively few exceptions. The Pachyderniata
(Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c.) are nearly limited to
those regions. The Rodeutia (Beavers, Rats, Hares, &c.) are
more extensively distributed, for their food is more generally
diffused in its grov/th. A similar remark applies to the
Insectivora. The Edentata are almost exclusively confined to
tropical countries, especially on the south of the equator: they
include the Ant-eater, Pangolin, Sloth, &c. The Ruminantia, in
which our domestic animals (of which we have already spoken) are
comprised, embrace a vast variety, as the Camel, Llama, Deer,
Giraffe, Goat, Bison, Buffalo, &c. Amongst the Horse tribe, or
Solidungula, we may notice how much the Ass is degenerated in
our climate, compared with his appearance, temper, &c., in regions
more southerly, as in Arabia, Asia Minor, &c. , where he appears
to great advantage ; and, indeed, there some species are of great
beauty, and even swiftness, as is seen in the Djiggetai of Central
Asia. Possibly the Zebra may also be allied to it, for it partakes of
many of its characteristics. The Sirenia, as the Manatees and
Dugongs, resemble, in many respects, our Cetacea (Whales) and
PinJiipedia (Seals) ; whilst the Marsupialia (Kangaroos) are allied
to the Opossum of America.
Taking the two most prolific continents of animal life, some
remarkable facts appear, that show how much the physical character
of the country influences the species, &c. , of animals. For example,
Africa contains over 300 species of animals, of which 242 are peculiar
to that continent. Of fifty-five species of Quadrumana, forty-eight
are peculiar; of the Chiroptera (Bats, &c.), there are thirty species,
of which twenty-six are peculiar ; of the Carnivora, sixty-six species,
of which fifty-two are peculiar; of the Rodentia (Hares, &c.), forty-
eight species, having thirty peculiar ; of the Edentata, three, all
peculiar ; of the Pachydermata (Elephants, &c.), fifteen species,
twelve peculiar ; of the Ruminantia, seventy-three species, sixty-three
peculiar ; and of ten species of the Cetacea (Whales, &c.), eight
are peculiar to Africa. In Asia there are no less than 180 species
of the Ape and Monkey tribe, and other animals are characterised
of peculiar species in a manner similar to that found in Africa.
We have specially remarked on the clothing of animals, as being
peculiarly related to the climate in which any species is indigenous.
Several remarkable instances of this maybe cited. The Arctic Bear,
Thalassarctos maritimus of naturalists, exclusively a native of the
polar regions, is clothed with a profusion of hair, the texture and
colour of which prevents the rapid conduction and radiation of heat
from its body. Even the feet are covered with hair, which is
supposed to give it a firm hold when walking over the snow and ice.
The Arctic Fo.x, Vitlpes lagopiis, is similarly clothed with abundant
fur ; but what is remarkable, the hair, which is of a dark-brown
colour in summer, becomes quite white in winter, increasing rapidly
in length and thickness, just as the exigency of the severe climate
necessitates such a protection. Some species of the Hare, as the
Leptis variabilis, and of the Weasels, as the Ermine {Mustela
erminea), which are confined to the colder climates, have the colour
of the fur changed similarly as winter approaches : this may
frequently be noticed in both animals in the northern parts of our
own country. Amongst the Dog tribe, or Ca?zidce, as the New-
foundland and St. Bernard breed, we find a similar provision against
the extreme cold, contrasting strongly with the clothing of the Grey-
hound, &c., which are indigenous to milder climates. Numerous
instances of this kind might be adduced ; but the above will be
sufficient to show how much the natural clothing, &c., of the
animal becomes self-adaptable to climatic extremes, and excessive
ranges in the temperature of the seasons.
With respect to the growth of food specially adapted to certain
species of animals, and which we have already noticed in respect to
cattle, Horses, Sheep, &c., we may add a few more instances that
are well worthy of notice, as indicative of the climate of many
regions. The Deer tribe are very fond of certain kinds of lichens,
and both the plants and animals begin to be simultaneously developed
as the climate becomes suitable for each. In the north of Scotland,
for example. Wild Deer are scattered sparsely, and so is their
lichen-food ; but as we proceed further north, as in Lapland, Ice-
land, and Greenland, both the animal and vegetable — which are,
comparatively speaking, a curiosity in our country — become essential
to the existence of the inhabitants ; the lichen islandicus, or Iceland
moss, for example, being an abundant and characteristic production
of that country.
Taking an extreme case of a similar nature, let us transfer our
observations to a climate of an entirely opposite character — namely,
that of the parched deserts of Northern Africa and Arabia. The
herbage produced is at once scanty and coarse, and utterly unfit to
support Horses ; but the Camel feeds well on it, and is also enabled,
by its peculiar constitution, even to accumulate a kind of stock of
food, in the shape of the fat which forms its humps, and which are
gradually assimilated into the system whenever its ordinary food
cannot be obtained. Its stomach is so arranged in deep cells, as to
enable it to retain a store of water when necessary, the cells being
expanded or contracted by the voluntary or instinctive action of the
quadruped. If taken far northward, it is removed from its natural
sphere, and will die, in places where the Horse tribe are produced in
the greatest numbers, and in the best condition ; yet the Llama,
which is the Camel of South America, is impatient of heat, and,
being a native of the Andes, frequently retreats, in warm weather, to
the snow-line — generally living in flocks, at a great altitude above
the sea-level. In Peru and Chili, the Llama is employed as a beast
of draught ; as is the Camel in Arabia and Africa ; and, like it,
affords food and clothing to the natives of those rocky and mountain-
ous countries. Singularly enough, it varies from the Camel (whose
feet are adapted for walking on sand) in having completely divided
toes, which are thus so suitable for climbing the rocks ; and also in
DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.
17
the absence of humps, which its more abundant, or perhaps exten-
sively diffused, food renders unnecessary. Its clothing is a woolly
hair, remarkable for its warmth, and it effectually protects the ani-
mal from the sudden changes of climate that occur in travelling from
the plains to the mountains, so universal near the western coasts of
South America.
From what has been already stated, it will be evident that certain
species of animals are only found in definite tracts or zones. Such
localities have been termed spccijic centres ; and it is from these
that animals of certain species have been spread, accidentally or
otherivise, in countries to which they do not naturally belong — m a
like manner, indeed, to the transplantation of objects of vegetable
growth into climates similar to those in which they grow naturally.
In judging of the original place of any species, it must be borne in
mind, that influences besides those of climate are constantly active
in effecting changes ; and none, perhaps, more so than the progress
of civilisation. Man has driven before him many animals from their
ancient haunts ; as, in our own country, the Wolf, Bear, Hyrena,
Beaver, &c., have long been extinct. In geology, we are often able
to judge of the climate which must have existed ages ago, in many
places, by finding fossils of certain animals, comparing them with
existing species, and inferring, from the habits of such, what must
have been those of their ancient families. An instance of this kind
is presented by the Fossil Elk of Ireland, which has undoubtedly
existed since the creation of man. It is, therefore, highly essential
that the exact specific centre of any recent and existing species
should be carefully ascertained, as otherwise, in the comparison of
them with fossil remains, serious errors may arise. Occasionally we
meet with animals whose specific centres are so exactly shown, as to
leave no reasonable doubt of their being confined to one region. Of
this kind arc the Ornithorhyncidai and Echidnidcc, natives exclu-
sively of Australia and Tasmania. These two families resemble
each other in some respects : the Ornithorhynchus, however, is dis-
tinguished by having the jaws precisely like the bill of the duck, with
a body resembling that of the ordinary quadruped ; many of the
organs, &c., presenting analogies to that of the birds. In the
Echidna, the snout is produced into a long cylindrical organ, the
body being thick and short, and covered with hairs. These two
families are certainly paradoxes in natural history, and afford re-
markable instances of the restriction of animals within certain specific
centres.
Perhaps we may be indebted for the discovery of these singular
creatures (and entertain the hope of many more in the Australian
continent), to the fact, that man has, as yet, done little there in "im-
proving " its immense extent of uncultivated, and, indeed, unexplored
territory. Not only does civilisation wage war with the brute crea-
tion, but even our own species, when found as Aborigines in any
country, soon undergo a similar fate, as may be witnessed in nearly
the whole of the northern portion of the American continent, but
especially in that called the United States. This will be specially
noticed hereafter. In many parts, wholesale extermination, or extra-
dition, has been resorted to, especially in the southern districts ; and
the destruction of the Aborigines by the Spaniards, in other parts of
the continent, is too fresh in the minds of our readers to require re-
cital here. In most instances, the original inhabitants, where
undisturbed and completely acclimatised, live happily and healthily
in regions which are almost surely the grave of the intruding white
man. The coasts of South America, Western Africa, &c., afford
illustrations of this fact, and astonishingly declare, even in the case
of the almost ever-accommodating constitution of our species, that
we are subject to the law of specific centres, the removal from which
may be productive of danger, or extinction in some cases — only,
imder any circumstances, to be provided against by an intelligence
of which the lower kinds of animals are entirely destitute.
But although quadrupeds seem unable to exist in other than
climates similar to that in which they are native, except under
special circumstances — as when under the care of man — and, further,
cannot shift from place to place, in cases of sudden changes of tem-
perature, for any great distance; we find amongst the Birds a
powerful instinct, by which they remove themselves from one country
to another at certain seasons, and so escape the inconveniences or
death which they would otherwise have to suffer. In some birds, as
the Swallow, this migratory instinct is most strongly manifested,
even so far as to cause them to forget their progeny, if it have been
hatched late in the summer season, and but just previously to the
usual time of their autumnal flight for other regions. This instinct
is not confined solely to one order of birds, nor to any particular
climate, at least within the limits of the temperate and Arctic zones,
but is almost universal. Amongst the Natatores, some of the Auks,
which are Arctic birds, leave their native regions, and visit our
coasts — going, as winter advances, even so far south as Italy and
Sicily : so do the PuflBns, Terns. Teals, Widgeons, Pochards, Wild
Swans and Geese, Flamingoes, &c. Of the Grallatores, the
Crakes, Snipes, Tatlers, Spoonbills, Storks, Herons, Cranes, &c.,
similarly migrate ; some of this order spending the winter in Africa
and South Asia, returning to the far north to breed in spring. The
Ctirsores, Ostriches, &c., possessing wings of but a rudimentary
nature,_ are, like the quadrupeds, confined to one region throughout
their lives; and their physical characters accord with this law of
their existence. Amongst the Rasorcs, some are migratory, as the
Quails, ^c. ; but, generally speaking, they remain in their native
country, having but little powers of flight. It is from this order that
man has selected, out of the class of birds, those which are now
domesticated ; amongst them being the Fowl tribe. Pheasants,
Partridges, the Peacock, &c. The Columba:, or Doves, in this, as
in most respects, resemble the Rasores : some, however, as the
Turtle-dove, Coltimba turttir, are migratorj'. In this order is in-
cluded the extinct Dodo. The Scuiisn/cs, comprising the Cuckoos,
Woodpeckers, Parrots, and Toucans, have at least the first-named
bird migratory, as is well known by its welcome visit to this country
in early spring. Amongst the Passeres — one of the largest orders of
birds, including our chief songsters — the Nightingale is another wel-
come visitor to England, extending its passage to Sweden, Denmark,
and Russia, but rarely going so far north with us as even the south
of Scotland : the migration of the Swallow tribe is familiar to all.
The Raptorcs, or Birds of Prey, comprising the Owls, Eagles, Fal-
cons, &c., like the Cartiivora amongst the Mammalia, confine
themselves to their own specific centres, having a ready supply of
food generally at their command, and their clothing being abundantly
provided in the thick covering of feathers which protect them in all
seasons.
So far we have noticed the distribution of animals inferior to man.
From the brief summary we have given, it will appear that the whole
system of animated nature is so regulated that every circumstance is
provided for. From the Quadrumana to the lowest protozoa, all the
conditions of sustenance, growth, reproduction, &c., are singularly
adapted to each order, genus, and species. But if the specific
centres of the individual be changed, there is a certain elasticity in
the laws of nature by which the conditions of such specific centres
may be modified. Hence arises our power of acclimatising animals
in similar climates, although situated thousands of miles apart :
within certain limits, in fact, we are able to transfer, for example,
the animals of our climate to those of a similar character (as in
Australia) in latitudes south of the equator. If we can provide
similar food, it does not, in many instances, prevent our removing ani-
mals far from their original centre ; bearing in mind, however, the
additional conditions of temperature and climate in general.
We next turn to the distribution of our own species, MAN : and
without entering deeply into Ethnology (see p. 15, ante), we may
draw attention to several matters illustrating the most interesting
parts of that science.
A little reflection reminds us that our world is peopled with a vast
variety of human beings, whose differences are at once physical,
mental, and moral. These three qualities of our race almost always
vary simultaneously ; in fact, there is evidently an established law
which governs moral and mental development, in connection with
that of the body. In the same tribes of any nation, the difference of
the sexes is due, not so much to an original mental and moral cast,
as to the difference of physical organisation. It hence follows, that
whatever influence acts on the body, reacts on the sentient principle ;
and, by a repetition of action, a permanent habit is created, which
at last becomes a distinctive feature of the individual of the tribe,
and, consequently, of that -"ariety of the human species to which it
belongs. With the broad causes, and their specific effects, we
cannot here deal, but must confine ourselves entirely to such as arise
from the action of climate, as of heat, moisture, &c., and the
ordinary food that the climate in which the individual resides, affords
for his sustenance. We cannot enter into the philological distinc-
tion of the varieties of man ; that is, those relating to speech or
language, dialects, &c. For a description of these we must refer
the reader to works by Latham, Pritcliard, and others, where such
matters are fully discussed.
Commencing with the northern regions, we find the Esquimaux
and Laplanders, inhabitants of the Arctic zones, generally speaking,
to be of exceedingly small stature, and ordinarily deficient of mental
and moral culture. They mostly lead a travelling life, obtaining
their food by the chase ; some of it, as the Seal, &c., being of the
coarsest kind : the habitations, with the Esquimaux, are generally
snow-burrov/s. For a lengthened period of the year they live in
darkness, owing to the long night which the absence of the sun
occasions during winter; and hence their climate cuts them off from
most associations of the beautiful in nature, which, to more favoured
people in the south, are sources of education, and refinement of mind
and taste. The entire duties of their existence seem, in fact, to be
comprised in two branches — one, of seeking their food ; and the
other, of eating it. Frequently owing to the depth of snow, supply
fails them, and thus another misfortune is added to the peculiarities
of their condition, by the nature of the climate in which they con-
stantly live.
To those dwelling in the temperate zones, it may seem impossible
to picture a more forlorn state than that possessed by such people.
Yet they seem to find an existence not only tolerable, but even have
enjoyments, which are certainly peculiar to themselves. Habit and
nature have so far acclimatised them, that they rarely, if ever, stray
iS
VARIETIES OF MAN.
into more southerly climes ; the Reindeer, Doffs, Fish, Seals, &c.,
which are, like them, indigenous to the country, provide them in
food, with clothing, and the means of moving from place to place ;
and the oil of the Whale, with such drift-wood as is cast on the
shores of the lakes and seas, affords fuel and artificial light. In
fact, they are as much adapted to what we may call the ' ' specific
centre " of their existence, as are any of the lower forms of creation
to which we have previously devoted our inquiries. In person, both
Esquimaux and Laplander, although of short stature, are strong,
active, and hardy : they are dirty in their habits, addicted to the use
of ardent spirits when they can obtain them, and the Esquimaux are
e.xtravagantly fond of oil as an essential article of food.
The latter particulars are, however, explicable on chemical and
physiologiv.al principles. The intense cold of the climate requires a
constant supply of carbonaceous matter in the food, which, by slow
combustion, during the process of respiration, may educe animal
heat. That the craving for fatty matter is not confined to them,
under such circumstances, has been proved by the experience of all
Arctic navigators ; and we were informed, as an instance of the
kind, by an eminent commander of one of the expeditions in those
regions, that tallow candles were often eaten by our own seamen
whilst they were journeying with sledges over the snow— so powerful
does our instinct lead us to its gratification, even in objects which,
under other circumstances, would be turned from with extreme
disgust. With respect to the use of ardent spirits in cold climates,
we may notice that, in Sweden, eight gallons are consumed by each
individual, on an average for the whole population, annually ; and in
the northern parts of Great Britain, it is well known that stimulants
may be drunk with impunity to an extent which would be exceed-
ingly injurious, if not fatal, in warmer climates.
Although anticipating subsequent observations, we must here
contrast the necessities of the inhabitants, their tastes, and the
natural productions of the country, with those of regions of a different
climate, for the purpose of impressing on the minds of our readers
the fact, that each zone is, in every respect, peculiarly adapted for
the wants of the individuals whose " specific centre " of existence is
found within it. Turning, for this purpose, to Spain, Portugal,
South-France, Italy, and Greece, we notice that the characteristic
vegetable productions (the only sure indications of climate) are just
such as the exigencies of those climates demand. The fruits, «&c. —
as the grape, melon, orange— the salads, leguminous products, &c.,
are all chiefly composed of water, which has an exactly opposite
alimentary effect on the animal system to that of the carbonaceous
food, so abundantly provided in the northern regions. In the former
countries, the external temperature leaves little to be required in the
way of heat-giving food ; whereas in the Arctic climes such is abso-
lutely essential. Even the natural starch-food of hot countries has
but little heating power, as is seen in the rice of Egypt, India,
America, &c.
The remarks which we have made respecting; the Esquimaux, may
be, within certain limitations, applied to all tribes living northward
of the parallel of 68° to 70° north latitude, in both hemispheres.
They have, so far as is yet known, no analogues in the southern or
Antarctic circle, as the inhabited land in those regions does not
extend northward beyond about 60° S. ; or, perhaps, Tierra del
Fuego, in lat. 55° S., is the extreme inhabitable limit.
We must now take a broad zone — say from 65° to 40° of north
latitude, between which are comprised what are called the temperate
regions. With but comparatively trifling exceptions, in respect to
number, the whole of the civilised world may be considered to be
comprised within these limits, excluding, of course, the Chinese
empire. Nearly the whole of inhabited Europe, and North America,
containing together about 350 millions of people, is embraced
between those parallels ; and here art, science, literature, commerce,
&c., have their origin and home. Without being too minute in our
inquiries, it is impossible not to notice the peculiarities impressed
on each variety of the human species living within these limits, by
the circumstances of climate, which, in many cases, corresponds in
its boundary to the political and social divisions. Moisture and
dryness as distinctly mark their traces, both physically and mentally,
on each people, as they do on the productions of the earth, amongst
the vegetable kingdom. Contrast, for instance, the phlegmatic
Dutchman with the volatile and vivacious Frenchman ; or the
plodding and steady-going Briton, even with himself, when trans-
planted into the drier climate of the Canadas and the United States.
The latter country, although peopled by immigrants from every
civilised nation in Europe, has, during the last seventy years, pro-
duced a variety of humanity, as distinctly marked in physical,
mental, and social peculiarities, and, as contrasted with the original
stock, as are the changes which have ever been produced by the
acclimatisation of any plant. Indeed, it will come within the
experience of any thoughtful person, that removal from a moist to a
dry climate, produces, in the course of years, a great effect on any
individual, which is typical of the change of species-characteristics,
to which we have just called attention. Generally speaking, the
perception becomes keener ; the interval between volition and
action shorter ; and hence, boldness of enterprise, whether political
or commercial, arises as a natural result : the adage, " Caelum, non
animan tniefa?if," &c., of the Latin poet, might have held good
when only the narrowest sea had to be crossed, but loses its force in
our time, when oceans are less thought of than were lakes in former
days.
The Chinese empire presents as marked a peculiarity in human
history, as the paradoxical Australian animal * — to which reference
has already been made — does in natural history ; the specific centre,
in either case, being as decidedly marked. Secluded, until within
recent years, almost completely from the rest of the world by a
national policy, the Chinese have preserved for ages the individual
peculiarities which denote their physical, mental, and moral condi-
tion. Their language — oral and written — habits, customs, dress,
religion, &c., all seem siii-generis, and afford a most interesting
study to the ethnologist. The greater portion of their country is
comprised between the parallels of 20° and 40° of north latitude, and
hence they are nearer the equator by several degrees than is any
portion of Europe. But the climate does not greatly differ from that
of the south of France, Spain, Portugal ; and, coincident with that
fact, we notice that, in many respects, the productions of the earth
resemble such as are found in the countries just named. The
Chinese territories, therefore, although situated, geographically, in
the subtropical zone, really belong, climatically, to that of the warm
and cool-temperate ; and it is remarkable how many of the mental
characteristics and acquirements of the people correspond to those
possessed by nations similarly situated in Europe. Their ingenuity
is surprising ; the arts and sciences have made great progress ; and,
in many respects, they excel Europeans. All the appliances of agri-
culture and commerce are of a very advanced character; and in
works both of utility and ornament, they are frequently copied or
imitated by western rivals. The Japanese, whom we include with
the Chinese, have shown astonishing skill in imitating articles of
European manufacture ; and some optical instruments, as telescopes,
&c., which they have produced, have astonished us by their excel-
lency of construction. Although but a few years have elapsed since
a steam-vessel was first seen by them, they have been able to pro-
duce engines, boilers, &c., so complete, as to run vessels of their
own construction on their waters. They contrast wonderfully with
the nomadic tribes in Central Asia, who, within the same parallels of
latitude, but living at a great elevation, and in a severe climate, are
still in a semi-savage state, devoid of all the arts, and chiefly exist
to gratify the instincts of animal nature.
Africa, owing to the intense heat, and the unhealthiness of its
climate, has been, with but trifling exceptions, little explored.
Around its coasts various settlements have been established by many
nations, since the fall of the Egyptian and Carthaginian empires, up
to the present day ; but every glimpse into its interior has revealed
human nature in its darkest forms, both literally and metaphorically.
The Africans of the interior are completely isolated, both by the
climate and difficulties of access ; and seem to be split up into so
many varieties, that scarcely anything but the physical characteristic
has been arrived at, respecting them, with any degree of certainty.
The negroes are distinguished from every other variety of the human
race by the darkness of the skin, the woolliness or cotton-like cha-
racter of the hair, protruding and thick lips, and a yellow sclerotica
of the eye (see a7ite, p. 10). In contrast with these we may describe
the Nubians, who, although dwelling between latitudes 13° and 24°
north, are yet situated in a climate strikingly different from that of
the negro and Hottentot country — that of the Nubians being from
3,000 to 4,000 feet of elevation above the sea-level. Of the inhabit-
ants in the neighbourhood of Lake Tshad, it may be remarked, that
they are perhaps the lowest specimens of humanity, and the most
complete savages, in every respect, that the world can afford.
In North and South America, situated between 70° of north and
55° of south latitude, great variety subsists. The Esquimaux we
have already described ; and, between their country and Mexico,
numerous tribes of Indians roam, whieh are now rapidly becoming
extinct. In Mexico, between 15° and 30° of north latitude — yet,
generally speaking, at about 6,000 or 8,000 feet of elevation above
the sea-level, and, therefore, although situated, geographically, in
the tropics, climatically nearly in the temperate zone — civilisation
formerly existed to an astonishing extent. The pyramids, temples,
grottoes, aqueducts, bridges, and other ruins, attest the skill of the
former inhabitants, not only in architecture, but also in sculpture,
picture-writing, &c. Passing to the Carib islands, we meet with the
analogues of the African ; whilst in Patagonia, between 39° and 55°
of south latitude, we notice a fine, tall, robust, active, and warlike
race, terminating, in a cool climate, the last vestige of humanity to
the south of the equator.
It is impossible for us to enter fully into the description or illustra-
tion of the various groups into which the human race is divided by
ethnologists. We shall, therefore, choose the following as a type of
some of the most important varieties, for the description of which we
are indebted to Dr. Latham.
In the arrangement adopted by Dr. Latham, his first group comes
* See remarks on the Omithorbyncbus, &c., at p. 17.
VARIETIES OF MAN.
»9
under the Mongolian variety, and is spread over Ladakh, Bultistan
(or Little Tibet), Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, Butan, Northern India,
Arakhan, the Burmese Empire, Siam, Cambojia, Cochin-China,
Tonkin, China, the Andaman Islands, Nicobar, Carnicobar, Hainan,
and the Mergiii Archipelago. The divisions of the group are
Tibetan (or Bhot), Siamese (or Thay), Burmese, Peguan (or Mon),
Cambojian, Anamitic (or Cochin-Chinese), Chinese — various tribes
imperfectly distributed and described as Sub-Himalayans, Nagas,
and Sifan — Mincopic (or Andaman Islanders), and Nicobarians.
The Mongolian is characterised by a short head, a broad skull,
and a fiat face. (See Fig si-) So decided are these features, that
Fig. SI. — The Mongolian.
the conformation of his head and face is a recognised term of
ethnology. Many populations have, if not exactly the same, at
least similar characteristics more or less distinct from those which
mark the Mongolian.
The most constant characters of this vast and important group lie
in the structure of their numerous languages, and in the conforma-
tion of the bony parts of the head and face. In complexion there
are wide differences. The colour, however, of the hair is uniformly
dark. Neither is there any broad separation between the taller and
the shorter tribes in respect to stature. They are more under-sized
than over-sized. The chief physical differences lie in the tints of
the skin. The lightest-coloured tribes are the natives of Cochin-
China and Tonkin, who speak the Anamitic language, and who are
not very widely separated from the true Chinese. These latter are
tawny, or parchment-coloured ; so much so, in fact, as to leave no
doubt as to the character of their hue. It is yellow — yellow rather
than brown — or black-yellow rather than copper-coloured ; though
this tinge is by no means unknown. In respect to the Anamese, it
has been remarked that they wear more clothing, and expose the
body less than any of the populations around them. Yet we doubt
whether this gives us the true reason for their comparative fairness.
They lie between a mountain range and the sea ; occupants of a
district wherein no vast rivers form alluvial tracts, and where the
wooded slope of the mountain-side replaces the swamps of Cam-
bojia, Pegu, and the other countries in the same latitude. Now,
the former are the conditions that most favour lightness of com-
plexion ; just as the latter determine a tendency to the colour of the
Negro.
The second group are the Turanians, who extend over Mongolia,
Mantshuria, Siberia, Independent Tartary, Turkistan, Anatolia,
Roumelia (or Turkey in Europe), parts of Bokhara, Persia, Armenia,
Syria, the Crimea ; Lapland, Finland, Esthonia, Livonia, the
Russian government of Archangel, Olonetz, Novogorod, St. Peters-
burg, Iver, Yaroslav, Vologda, Permia, Viatka, Kazan, Simbirsk,
Saratov, Astrakan, Caucasus, Nizhnii-Novogorod, Penza, Tambov,
Hungary, the Kurile Islands, Japan, and Kamskatka.
The primary divisions of these are — ist, the Mongolian stock ;
and, the Tungusian stock ; 3rd, the Turk stock ; 4th, the Ugrian
stock ; 5th, the Peninsular stock. These five divisions constitute
tlie great Turanian class, which some call Scyfhiati. The pro-
posed name is Persian. Much as the Greeks and Romans called all
nations except themselves barbarians, the ancient Persian de-
signated, by the name Turan, all those parts of Central and
Northern Asia from which so many wild and formidable enemies
were in the habit of descending upon the south. The ancestors of
the Turks, Mongols, and Ugrians, were assuredly among them.
The third group is that of the Caucasian, in the circumscribed
signification of the term. (See Fig. 52.) The physiognomy of this
Fig. 52.— The Caucasian,
variety is European rather than Mongolian ; whilst its language is
rather Monosyllabic than European. The area occupied is the
mountainous region of the Caucasus ; and its divisions are — ist, the
Circassians ; 2nd, the Mizhdzhedzhi (Mizhejeji) ; 3rd, the Iron ; 4th,
the Georgians; 5th, the Lesgians ; 6th, the Armenians.
In physical conformation the mountaineers of the Caucasus strik-
ingly resemble those of Persia, and the higher castes of India. It
is, also, like that of the Southern Europeans rather than the Northern,
Central, and Eastern Asiatics. It is, in short, Caucasian, in the
rude and loose sense of the word. The populations of Georgia and
Circassia had been considered as models of female beauty and manly
strength, although both may have been exaggerated. Those who
have lived among the Caucasians, and have had opportunities of
judging of them as a whole, are not so favourable in their estimation
of either the beauty of the one or the strength of the other sex.
Pallas (as quoted by Pritchard, in' his "Natural History of Man")
writes, that the men, " especially amongst the higher classes, are
mostly of a tall stature, their form being of Herculean structure.
They are very slender about the loins, have small feet, and uncom-
mon strength in their arms. They possess, in general, a truly
Roman and martial appearance. The women are wo^ uniformly Cir-
cassian beauties ; but are, for the most part, well-formed, have a
white skin, dark-brown hair, and regular features." He adds, " I
have met with a greater number of beauties among them than in any
o\hQV unbolts hednviWon." Klaproth writes, that "they have long
faces, and thin straight noses ; " and speaks of the Abyssinians, a
tribe of the Circassians, as being "distinguished by narrow faces;
heads compressed at the sides ; by the shortness of the lower part of
their faces ; by prominent noses, and dark-brown hair."
Little is known of the Mizhdzhedzhi other than that their dialects
cut them off from those around them. They occupy a central dis-
trict equally removed from the Black and the Caspian seas, at the
fountain-head of the Caucasian rivers. The Iron are also central,
occupying the water-shed between the Terek and the Kaban in the
north, and the Kur in the south, overlooking the wide valleys of
Georgia, as well as coming in contact with the mountain defiles of
Tshetshentsh. Their creed is an imperfect Christianity of recent
origin. The most favoured part of Georgia is the valley of the Kur ;
the province of Kartulinia, of which Tiflis is the principal city. A
large portion of Georgia, however, consists of a rugged mountain-
range, occupied by the Mingrelians, the Imeritians, and the Swani.
The Georgians are, of all the Caucasians, the most advanced in civi-
lisation, and the Mizhdzhedzhi the rudest The Lesgians occupy
the most eastern parts of the Caucasus, extending from the shores of
the Caspian to the Tshetshentsh and Iron frontiers. Daghcstan is
their country. The prophet-warrior, Schamyl, was a Lesgian. The
Armenians lie to the south of the Caucasus, rather than occupy a
portion of it, and were the first of the group to make use of an alpha-
20
VARIETIES OF MAN.
bet, and to be converted to Christianity. This was efifected by their
contiguity to Syria. They are mostly spread over the world — in
Turkey, in India, and in Russia — as bankers and merchants. Geo-
graphically, their country is contiguous to Kurdistan, or the country
of the Kurds, who, however, belong to the Persian stock.
The fourth group is the Persian, which is Caucasian rather than
Mongol. It occupies Persia, Kurdistan, Afghanistan, Beluchistan,
parts of Bokhara, the Kohistan of Cabul, and Kafristan. Its divi-
sions are Persians, Kurds, Afghans, Beluchi, and the populations of
Kafristan, Kohistan, and of Cabul, collectively called Paropamisans.
The greater prominence of feature, and the comparative narrow-
ness of the zygomatic space, which contrasts the Caucasian with the
Turanian and Monosyllabic groups, are found throughout Persia.
At the same time, the colour of the skin is darker, but not so dark as
to create difficulties. Nearly all the Caucasian area is wood and
mountain : the greater part of the Persian a table-land, with an ex-
treme temperature.
Group fifth comprises the Indian stock, the organisation of which
is referred to two types. In one the skin is dark, the face broad, the
features coarse. In the other, the features are regular, the head
dolikhokephalic, the skin brunette rather than black. These popu-
lations inhabit India, Ceylon, the Maldive Islands, parts of the Mo-
nosyllabic frontier, and the mountains of the southern part of Belu-
chistan ; that is, the country of the Brahui.
The si.\th is named the Oceanic group, occupying the peninsula of
Malacca, Sumatra, Java, and the chain ending in Timor and Rotti ;
Borneo and the chain leading to the Philippines ; the Philippines ;
the Bashi and Babyani Isles ; Formosa, Celebes, and the Moluccas;
the islands between Timor and New Guinea ; and Madagascar.
The divisions comprehended in it, are the inhabitants of the Pelew
Islands and Lord North's Isle ; the Caroline and Marianne Islands ;
the Navigators', Society, Friendly, Marquesan, and Sandwich Islands
groups ; Easter Island and New Zealand ; the Fije Islands ; New
Guinea and the islands to the east of them, called the Louisiade
Archipelago, Tanna, New Caledonia, Tasmania, and Australia. The
colours of these populations vary from yellow to brown, and from
brown to a darker hue, approaching black. Those parts which lie
nearest to the continent, and from which Oceanic diffusion first took
its rise, include, along with the Malaccan peninsula, the islands of
the Javanese, Celebes, Floris, Banda, Molucca, and Philippine
Archipelagos — namely, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and other islands.
It commences with the parts about Sumatra and the Malaccan
peninsula, and ends with the Philippines. In the sea-coast towns,
and in the commercial communities, the religion is Mahometan ; the
F'g- S3.— The Malay.
greater portion of the population being known by the name of Malay.
(See Fig. 53.)
The seventh group are the Americans, occupying the Aleutian
Isles and North and South America. The physiognomy is pro-
nounced modified Mongolian ; the departure from the type being the
most marked on the water-system of the Mississippi, and tlie coast
of the Atlantic.
Dr. Latham is of opinion that the originals of the great American
group came from North-eastern Asia. His reasons for thus making
short work of a hitherto long question, lie in the recent additions
made to our geographical and ethnological knowledge of the parts
to the west of the Rocky Mountains — of the northern parts more
especially ; of Russian America, of New Caledonia, and of Oregon.
It is only recently that our knowledge of these districts has been con-
siderably extended, more particularly in regard to their ethnology.
He gives other reasons for establishing the original connection be-
tween the Old and the New Worlds in a population point of view;
but for their perusal, we must refer the reader to his own works.
In treating of the larger groups of America, the Esquimau.^ take
precedence, being eminently maritime in their habits, and occupying
islands like the Aleutian Archipelago ; peninsulas, like the Aliaska,
or broken lines of coast, such as those which form the shores of the
Arctic Sea. Even in Russian America, Greenland, and Labrador,
large blocks of land as they are, it is not only along the coasts that
the Esquimaux are located. They form one of the great North
American populations, that extends from west to east of the continent,
from the Pacific to the Atlantic. A very interesting collection of
their implements, dresses, ornaments, &c., may be found in the
British Museum. The articles have been collected by various Arctic
navigators during the last half century.
Another population is the Athabascan, which extends to the great
inlet of Hudson's Bay. At Cook's Inlet, 60° north latitude, the
Athabascan appears in the Pacific, and to the north of Port Nelson,
or Hudson's Bay, in the Atlantic. As a general rule, the southern
limit of the Esquimaux is the northern limit of the Athabascan ; the
extension being, in both cases, from east to west (or vice versa),
being horizontal. The Athabascans, however, extend from north to
south as well as from east to west ; and what is more remarkable,
they have given offsets. Just as the Magyars of Hungary belong to
the essentially northern stock of the Ugrians, from which, however,
they are geographically separated by a wide interspace ; so do cer-
tain tribes of Mexico and California — tribes on the very verge of the
tropics — belong to those very Athabascans, whose true area is the
inland parts of Russian America, the northern range of the Rocky
Mountains, the valley of the Mackenzie river, the parts about the
Great Slave Lake, and the parts about Lake Athabasca, — whence
the name. Some of them lie within the Arctic Circle. An illustra-
tion of an American Indian is given in the following cut (Fig. 54).
54. — An American Indian.
The general distribution of the Athabascans is more important
than the details. The chief tribes, however, are— the Chipewayans
(or Northern Indians, so called) ; the Beaver Indians ; the Daho-
dinni ; the Strong-bows, the Hare-Indians ; the Dog-ribs ; the
Yellow-knives ; the Takulli (or Carriers) ; the Tsikanni ; the Sussi ;
the Loncheux; and the Kenay of Cook's Inlet, along with other
minor tribes. To these we must add the outlying sections of Oregon,
VARIETIES OF MAN.
31
California, and Mexico. In Oregon the Athabascans consist of throe
small tribes, of which the first two — the Kwaliokwa and the Tlat-
skana — lie at the mouth of the Columbia river — one north, the other
south of it. The third tribe is that of the Urukna, lying on the river
so called. This is in 43° north latitude In California, the Navatos
and Jecorillas (wild tribes of the desert) arc shown, by tlieir language,
to be Athabascan ; as are some other smaller Californian tribes.
In Me.xico, some of the Apatches are Athabascan ; so far south
have Athabascan offsets been found. The extent to which the tribual
organisation prevails may be seen from the following list of names : —
1st, the Tantin, or Talkotin ; 2nd, the Tsilkoti)!, or Cliiltokin ;
3rd, the Naskotiii ; 4th, the l^hatlisthi ; 5th, the Tsatsnotin ; 6th,
\\\Q Niclaantin; 7th, the yVA// <?«////« ; 8th, the Nailiantin ; gth,
W\^ Nikoglia>2tin ; 10th, the Tii/ski'dn/in; and, nth, the habinc
Indians. These are the j«i5-divisions of a single Athabascan divi-
sion—the Takulli, of New Caledonia The following cut is an
illustration of a Takulli Chief.
^^^c:.
Fig. 55.— A Takulli Chief,
The great Algonkin class extends but little to the west of the
Rocky Mountains ; so that its east and west, or horizontal direction,
is more limited than that of the Esquimaux. It is, however, the
largest of all the North American groups. It subtends both the
Athabascan and the Esquimaux areas : the former from the Rocky
Mountains to Hudson's Bay ; the latter in the southern and central
parts of Labrador. Here the country of the Skoffi (or Nascopi) and
Sheshatapush reaches 60° north latitude. On the south, the parts
about Cape Fear, and in South Carolina (34" north latitude), are
Algonkin, the occupancy of the now extinct tribe of the Pamtico.
I he vast area of the Algonkins surrounds and enclos s that of the
Iroquois, suggesting the idea of encroachment, conquest, and dis-
placement. If the Iroquois family cover less ground than the Algon-
kin, its historical prommcnce is equal, or even greater. The famous
confederacy of the Five Nations was Iroquois. The once formidable
Mohawks were Iroquois. The Sioux hold the valley of the Missouri,
the foot of the Rocky Mountains, the Red River, the Arkansas to
the south, and the greater portion of the Buffalo countries.
The eighth group embraces the African stock, whose organisation
is characterised by the head being rarely other than dolikhokephalic ;
the hair rarely straight ; always, with individuals resident on their
native area, black ; skin dark ; in certain localities attaining the
tnaxtmum amount of blackness. In such cases the hair is crisp,
and the lips thick ; that is, the physiognomy is that of the Negro.
The area occupied by this group is Africa, minus the island of
Madagascar (wholly or in part), ^lus Arabia and portions of Syria
and Persia.
The Aramaeans, or populations speaking languages allied to the
Arabic and the Hebrew, and called Semitic — the Arabians, the
Syrians, the Jews, and the Ethiopians of Abyssinia, constitute this
class — a class pre-eminently characterised by its early civilisation,
and its monotheistic forms of belief. With the Jew the face is
massive. With the Arab of Arabia, in his most (so-called)
Caucasian form, the face is oval: forehead vaulted; nose straight,
or aquiline ; lips thin ; even when thick, not projecting. Hair
wavy, or curled; complexion, various shades of brown ; limbs spare.
With the Arab of Africa, the colour is sometimes nearly black ; the
frame more massive, and limbs fleshy.
The Amazrig group contains the tiative populations of the Desert
of the Sahara, of the greater part of the country to the north thereof,
and of the Canary Islands. Hence it occurs in the oasis of Siwah,
near the Egyptian frontier, in Fezzan, Tunis, Algeria, and Morocco.
The descent of the Amazrig is from the ancient Gertulians, Numi-
dians, and Mauritanians ; their chief divisions — the Ammonians
(Siwah being the ancient Ammonium), the Kabails of the range of
Mount Atlas, the Tuariks (of the Sahara), and the Guanches. This
last was the name of the aborigines of the Canary Isles, now extinct.
Their tongues are often called Berber, from the extent to which
tliey are allied to the Hebrew and Arabic. They have, also, been
called J?/ (^-Semitic.
The Nilotic group is one, amongst others, which connects the
so-called Semitic and the «/3-Semitic classes with the true African.
The Egyptians form a separate group, as also do the Aramaeans.
The Kaffre families, like the Amazrigs, extend over a vast space
from east to west ; indeed, all across Africa, from the Cape to the
Equator, and on both coasts of the continent. The Hottentot family
occupies a large and undetermined district south of Benguela, and,
according to Dr. Latham, has a better claim to be considered as
forming a second species of the genus Homo (man) than any other
section of mankind.
The ninth group embraces the European, with a Caucasian
physiognomy, occupying Western, Central, and Southern Europe.
Its divisions comprise — ist, the Basks; 2nd, the Skipitar; 3rd, the
Kelts, or Celts ; 4th, the Greeks and Latins ; 5th, the Sarmatians ;
6th, the Germans.
The Basks, or Basques, occupy Biscay, and parts of Tuscany and
Navarre. The Skipitars comprise the populations of Albani. This is
their native name, and their place in ethnological science has also yet
to be satisfactorily determined. The Kelts, or Celts, speaking the
Gaelic, occupy a portion of Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland, and
the Isle of Man. The British branch occupy Wales and Brittany.
In England, the blood is, more or less, Keltic, with Anglo-Saxon
modifications. In France, it is Keltic with Roman. The language,
in the former case, is German — in the latter, Latin — in respect toits
affinities.
The populations speaking the Greek and Latin languages, and
the languages therefrom derived, are the ancient Romans, and the
other populations of Central Italy. The language of this branch was
extended, by the Romans, over Gaul, the Spanish peninsula, the
Grisons, and the Danubian Principalities. In these countries the
language is more Roman than the blood. The Hellenic branch
comprises the ancient and modern Greeks ; both with a large amount
of mixed blood. The Sarmatian stock falls into two divisions : the
Lithuanian and the Slavonic ; the former occupying Lithuania and
Courland, with parts of Livonia and East Prussia ; the latter
occupying Russia, Poland, Gallicia, part of Lusatia, Bohemia, Mo-
ravia, part of Hungary, Servia, and Illyria. In Poland and Bohemia
the stock is, probably, the purest. In Russia there is a considerable
amount of Ugrian ; in Bulgaria, Turkish ; in Germany, German,
intermixture.
The Germans include all the populations whose language is
related to the German. In detail, it comprises the populations of
Germany, Holland, England (and, by extension, the United States,
Canada, 'Australia, &c.), Denmark, Nonvay, Sweden, the Feroe
Isles, and Iceland. The Dutch province of Friesland gives us the
German stock in the greatest purity — that is, freedom from foreign
intermixture. Eastward, it becomes, more or less, Slavonic ; west-
ward, more or less Keltic.
83
QUADRUMANOUS ANIMALS.
CHAPTER II.
THE QUADRUMANA (FOUR-HANDED), INCLUDING THE APES, GIBBONS, AND MONKEYS.
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ff^i
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N die preceding chapter atten-
, tion has been drawn to the
natural history of man him-
Mirx^ self, and of him as typical of
the rest of the Mammalia. It was
,,^ pointed out that Man is distin-
^).- guished, as regards all his organs, func-
f)\ ('^ tions, powers, &c., but especially in re-
spect to his intellectual condition, as
the head of all living creatures.
|^^<^[^ As most resembling man in structural and
"' ~ other conditions, the Quadrumana, or four-
■"AMi^^fT) "VJf handed animals, follow next in order of descrip-
y^LM' v"^ ^wn. In respect to the skeleton of these, Pro-
^^^Sc- -'-' fessor Owen remarks that the Sloth is an e.xclu-
\ sivcly arboreal animal ; its diet is foliage ; it has
, ^ but to bring its mouth to the leafy food, and the lips
'" and tongue serve to strip it from the branches. The
^l) extremities serve mainly to climb and cling to branches,
^ " and occasionally to hook down a tempting twig.
I There is, however, another much more extensive and
U diversified order of arboreal mammals, destined to
' subsist on the fruits and other more highly developed
products of the vegetable kingdom than mere leaves.
In the Monkeys, Baboons, and Apes, the extremities
are endowed with prehensile faculties of a more perfect and
varied character than are the Sloths ; and this additional
power is gained by a full development of the digits in normal
number, with free and independent movements, which, in
one of them — the first or innermost — are such as that it can
be opposed to the rest, so that objects of various size can
be grasped. This modification converts a foot into a hand ;
and, as the mammals in question have the opposible
"thumb" on both fore and hind limbs, they are called
" Quadrumana," or four-handed. The rest of the limb manifests
a corresponding complexity or perfection of structure ; the trunk
is adjusted to accord with the actions of such instruments, and
the brain is developed in proportion with the power of execut-
ing so great a variety of actions and movements as the four-
handed structure gives capacity for. In the skull of the Quadru-
mana (see ante, p. 4, Fig. 9) are seen indications of a concomitant
perfection of the outer senses : the orbits are entire, and directed
forwards, with their outlets almost on the same plane ; both eyes
can thus be brought to bear upon the same object. The rest of
the face, formed by the jaws, now begins to bear a smaller pro-
portion to the progressively expanding cranium. The neck, of
moderate length, has its seven vertebrae well developed, with the
costal processes large in the fifth and sixth : the dorsal vertebra:,
twelve, in the species figured of the Orang-Outan (see Fig. 56, p. 23),
show, by the convergence of their spines towards the vertical one on
the ninth, that this is the centre of movement of the trunk. The
lumbar vertebrae are four in number : in the inferior Monkeys they
are seven, and the anterior ones are firmly interlocked by well-
developed anapophyses and metapophyses. The sacrum is still
long and narrow. The tail, in some of the
lower Quadrumana, is of great length, includ-
ing 30 vertebra; in the Red Monkey {(Jercopi-
tliccus ruber), in which the anterior are com-
plicated by having ha;mal arches. Tlic clavi-
cles are entire in all Quadrumana. The hume-
rus has its tuberosities and condyloid crests
well developed. The radius rotates freely on
the ulna. The wrist has nine bones, owing to
a division of the scaphoid, besides supple-
mentary sesamoids adding to the force of some
of the muscles of the hand ; the thumb is pro-
portionally shorter in the fore than in the hind
foot. The patella is ossified ; and in most
Baboons and Monkeys there is a fabella behind
each condyle of the femur. The fibula is
entire, and articulated with the tibia at both
ends. The tarsus has the same number and
relative position of the bones as in man ; but
the heel-bone is shorter, and the whole foot
rather more obliquely articulated upon the leg,
the power of grasping being more cared for
than that of supporting the body ; the inner-
most toe forms a large and powerful opposible thumb.
There is a well-marked gradation in the Quadrumanous series,
from the ordinary quadrupedal to the more bipedal type. In the
Lemurs and South American Monkeys, the anterior thumb is shorter
and much less opposible than the hinder one ; in the Spider-Monkeys
it is wanting, and a compensation seems to be given by the remark-
able prehensile faculty of the curved and callous extremity of the
long tail. This member in the African and Asiatic Monkeys is not
prehensile, but the thumb of the fore-hand is opposible. In the True
Apes the tail is wanting, i. e., it is reduced to the rudiment called
" OS coccygis ; " but the fore-arms are unusually developed in certain
species, hence called " Long-armed Apes." These can swing them-
selves rapidly from bough to bough, traversing wide spaces in the
aerial leap. The Orang (Fig. 56) is also remarkable for the dispro-
portionate length of the arms ; but this difference from man becomes
less in the Chimpanzees. The large species called Gorilla, which of
all brutes makes the nearest approach to man, is strictly " Quadru-
manous ; " the great toe, or " hallux," being a grasping and oppo-
sible digit. But the hiatus that divides this highest of the Ape tribe
from the lowest of the human species, is more strikingly and
decisively manifested in the skull (see ante, p. 4, Fig. 9). The com-
mon teeth in the male Gorilla are developed, as in the male Orang,
to proportions emulating the tusks of the Tiger ; they are, however,
weapons of combat and defence in these great Apes, which are
mostly frugivorous. Nevertheless, the muscles that have to work
jaws so armed, require modifications of the cranium akin to those
that characterise the Lion — viz., great interparietal, 7, and occipital,
3, crista; and massive zygomatic arches. The spines of the cervical
vertebrte are greatly elongated in relation to the support of such a
skull, the facial part of which extends so far in advance of the joint
between the head and neck. The Chimpanzees, moreover, differ
from man in having thirteen pairs of thoracic movable ribs. The
long and flat iliac bones, the short femora, so articulated with
the leg-bones as to retain habitually a bent position of the knee,
the short calcanea, and the inward inclination of the sole of the foot,
all indicate, in'the highest as in the lowest Quadrumana, an inaptitude
for the erect position, and a compensating gain of climbing power
favourable for a life to be spent in trees.
In the osteological structure of man (Fig. 57), the vertebrate
archetype is furthest departed from by reason of the extreme modifi-
cations required to adjust it to the peculiar posture, locomotion, and
endless variety of actions characteristic of the human race.
As there is nothing, short of flight, done by the moving powers of
other animals that Serpents cannot do by the vertebral column alone,
so there is no analogous action or mode of motion that man cannot
perform, and mostly better, by his wonderfully developed limbs. The
reports of the achievements of our athletes, prize wrestlers, prize
pedestrians, funambulists, and the records of the Shark-pursuing and
Shark-slaying amphibious Polynesians, of the equestrian people of
the Pampas, of the Alpine chasers of the Chamois, and of the scan-
sorial bark-strippers of Aquitaine, concur in testifying to the in-
tensity of those varied powers, when educed by habit and by skilled
practice. The perfection of almost all modifications of active and
motive structures, seems to be attained in the human frame, but it is
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE QUADRUMANA—TIIE GORILLA.
aj
a perfection due to especial adaptation of the vertebrate type, with a
proportional departure from its fundamental pattern. Let us see how
this is exemplified in the skeleton of man (Fig. 57), viewing it from
the foundation upwards.
In the typical mammahau foot, the digits decrease from the middle
to the two extremes of the series of five toes ; and in the modifications
of this type the innermost is the first to dis-
appear. In man it is the seat of excessive
development, and receives the name of
" hallux," or " great toe ; " it retains, how-
ever, its characteristic inferior number of
phalanges. The tendons of a powerful
muscle, which in the Orang and Chimpan-
zee are inserted into the three middle toes,
are blended in man into one, and this is
inserted into the hallux, upon which the
56. — Skeleton of the Orang.
Fig. 57. — Skeleton of Man.
Note. — At p. 2, Fig. i, the names of each bone in the human skeleton
are given, and in Fig. 2 a skeleton of the Gorilla is afforded, which
may be compared with the above cuts.
force of the muscle, now called "fJcxor longus pollicis," is exclu-
sively concentrated.
The arrangement of other muscles, in subordination to the peculiar
development of this toe, make it the chief fulcrum when the weight
of the body is raised by the power acting upon the heel, the whole
foot of man exemplifying the lever of the second kind. The strength
and backward production of the heel-bone relate to the augmen-
tation of the power. The tarsal and metatarsal bones are coadjusted,
so as to form arches both lengthwise and across, and receive the
superincumbent weight from the tibia on the summit of a bony vault,
which has the advantage of a certain elasticity combined with
adequate strength. In proportion to the trunk, the pelvic limbs are
longer than in any otiier animal ; they even exceed those of the
Kangaroo, and are peculiar for the superior length of the femur, and
for the capacity of this bone to be brought, when the leg is extended,
into the same line with the tibia ; the fibula is a distinct bone. The
inner condyle of the femur is longer than the outer one, so that the
shaft inclines a little outwards to its upper end, and joins a neck
longer than in other animals, and set on at a very open angle. The
weight of the body, received by the round heads of the thigh bones,
is thus transferred to a broader base, and its support in the upright
posture is facilitated. At page 2, a7itc, Figs, i and 2 are represen-
tations of the skeleton of man and the Gorilla, which will aid the
reader in understanding the comparative anatomy of man and the
Apes, and the difference between their osteology.
In the'previous chapter we have called attention to many points of
difference that essentially distinguish the Apes from man. In the
structure of the brain and skull (see ante, p. 4, Fig. 9), the Quadru-
mana exhibit a gradual approach to the human type, especially in
the young animals. In the following cut (Fig. 58), is the representa-
tion of the skull of a male Gorilla, in w-hich the recession of the fore-
head is very marked. As the Quadruraana increase in age, the jaws
Fig. 58.— Skull of the Gorilla.
Fig. 59.— Teeth of the Gorilla.
gradually lengthen, until, in the adult Gorilla, Orang, and Chim-
panzee, they form a prominent muzzle, almost as long as that of a
dog.
The dentition of the Quadrumana is especially characterised by
the canine teeth being exceedingly large and strong, and interlocking
like those of a carnivorous animal, as is shown at a a in Fig. 59,
which represents the teeth
of an adult Gorilla. Thus
it becomes necessary that
gaps should be left be-
tween the canines and the
incisors, or false molars,
for the reception of the
canines of the opposite
jaw, while in man the teeth
run in an uninterrupted
series in both jaws. The
form of the teeth, how-
ever, is very similar to
that which prevails in the
human subject, the molars
being broad and obtusely
tubercular, as, indeed, is
generally the case in ani-
mals that feed on fruit or
a mixed diet. The orbits
are always closed, and the
eyes of moderate or large
size. The ears are usually
small, but vary greatly in
form. The skin is covered
with hairs on all parts,
except the palms of the
hands, and the face and
buttocks of some species.
The tail is sometimes
rudimentary, qr wanting,
but usually of consider-
able length, and its ex-
tremity is often capable of being employed as a prehensile organ,
which is of great ser\'ice to the animal in its residence among
trees. The nails are generally flat, like those of man ; but some
species are furnished with curved claws, whilst others possess such
claws on some fingers, and flat nails on the rest. The mamma; are
usually two in number, and placed on the breast.
The Quadrumana vary much in height, some of the Apes equal-
ling man, while others are not larger than a Squirrel. They are
almost exclusively confined to the tropical regions. In Asia there
have been reckoned 180 species of the Ape and Monkey tribe ; and
in Africa there are fifty-five species, of which forty-eight are
peculiar so far as that continent has been explored. The Gorilla,
Chimpanzee, Baboons, and Monkeys abound in West Africa. The
Baboons inhabit the mountains and rocky heights, while the
Monkeys chiefly frequent the woods and forests.
The highest group of the Quadrumana is that in which the animals
are destitute alike of tails and cheek-pouches ; these arc the
aiithromoriphous A^es, so called because they make the nearest
approach to man. Among these are the Gibbons {Hylobates) of the
East, in which the arms are so long as to reach to the ground when
the animal stands upright. The Orang-Outan also belongs to the
man-like Apes. The Chimpanzee /'7>-<?^/o(/y/cj«/^(?r^ belongs to the
same genus as the Gorilla. They are the most anthromorphous of
all the Apes, and, therefore, with them we shall commence the
natural history of the Qitadriimana.
These animals are divided, as a whole, into two groups — viz., i.
Those inhabiting the Eastern hemisphere, as Africa, Arabia, India,
China, &c., and called Cafarrhi/KS, because their nostrils converge
at the lower extremities, and are only separated by a very narrow
cartilage ; and 2nd. Those inhabiting the Western hemisphere, as
the warmer portions of Central and Southern America, and called
Plafyrrlii)i(S, whose nostrils open in a direction parallel to each
other, and which are separated by a cartilage as wide at the base as
at the upper extremity.
THE GORILLA.
{Troglodytes Gorilla.)
When, in 1861, M. Du Chaillu published his "Explorations and
Adventures in Equatorial Africa," he threw an apple of discord
among naturalists that has excited more acrimonious discussion than
perhaps any other branch of science has been subjected to since the
days of Newton and Leibnitz. The theory of "development" has
been strengthened ; and many eminent men in this and other
countries, have boldly declared that Man is, after all, only an im-
proved kind of Ape. It is not for us to enter into a discussion which
can never come to a satisfactory conclusion : we shall, therefore,
simply describe the Gorilla in its habits, &c., and leave our readers
H
THE GORILLA
to draw their o\\ti conclusions as to how far we "Ape," or are
"Aped " by, the Monkey tribe.
Leaving much that is sensational in M. Du Chaillu's account of
the Gorilla, the following extract is given, in which he describes his
own views of the habits, &c., of the animal, as seen in its native
country of West Africa.*
Fig. 60.— A Male Gorilla.
The common walk of the Gorilla is not on his hind legs, but on
all-fours. In this posture, the arms are so long, that the head and
breast are raised considerably ; and, as it runs, the hind legs are
brought far beneath the body. The leg and arm, on the same side,
move together, which gives the beast a curious waddle. It can run
at great speed. The young, parties of which I have often pursued,
never took to trees, but ran along the ground ; and at a distance,
with their bodies half erect, looked not unlike negroes making off
from pursuit ; the hind legs moved between the arms, and those were
somewhat bowed outwards. I have never found the female to attack ;
though I have been told, by the negroes, that a mother, with a young
one in charge, will sometimes make fight. It is a pretty thing to
see such a mother with the baby Gorilla sporting about it. • * *
When the mother runs off from the hunter, the young one grasps
her about the neck, and hangs beneath her breasts, v/ith its little
legs about her body. (See Fig. 63, represcntingafemale with young).
I think the adult Gorilla utterly untamable. • * • Several young
Gorillas my men captured alive, and they remained with me, for short
periods, till their death. In no case could any treatment of mine,
kind or harsh, subdue these little monsters from their first and last-
ing ferocity and malignity. • • • The Gorilla is entirely and con-
* "Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa;" (S61 : p. 332,
(tSiJ,
stantly an enemy to man— resenting its captivity, young as my spe-
cimens were— refusing all food except the berries of its native
woods, and attacking, with teeth and claws, even me, who was in
most constant attendance upon them.
The strength of the Gorilla is evidently enormous. A young one,
of between two and three j'ears of age, required four stout men to
hold it ; and even then, in its
struggles, bit one severely. That
with its jaws it can indent a
musket-barrel, and with its arms
break trees from four to six inches
in diameter, sufficiently proves
that its vast bony frame has
corresponding muscle.
The Gorilla has no cries or
utterances that I have heard, ex-
cept • • • the short, sharp bark,
ind the roar of the attacking
male, and the scream of the
female and young when alarmed ;
except, indeed, a low kind of
buck, with which the watchful
nother seems to call her child to
her. The young ones have a cry
when in distress ; but their voice
is harsh, and it is more a moan
of pain than a child's cry.
There is no doubt that the
Gorilla walks in an erect posture
with grcaterease, and for a longer
lime, than either the Chimpan-
•ee or Nshiego Mbouve. When
^tanding up, the knees are bent
.it the joints outward, and his
back has a stoop fojrward. His
track when running on all-fours
is peculiar. The hind feet leave
no traces of their toes on the
'ground. Only the ball of the
luot and thumb, which answers
to our great toe, seem to touch.
The fingers of the fore-hand
are only lightly marked on the
.;round. (See Figs. 61 and 62.)
In height Gorillas vary as much
as men. The adult male in my
collection ranges from five feet
two inches to five feet eight ;
and the parts of the skeleton
which my friend Professor Jeffries
Wyman has, are so much larger
than any in my possession, that
I am warranted in concluding
the animal to which it belonged
to have been at least six feet two
inches in height. The femjile is
much smaller, less strong, and of
lighter frame. One adult female
in my collection measured, when
shot, four feet six inches.
The colour of the skin iri the
Gorilla, young as well as adult, is
intense black. The colour does
not appear, however, except in the face, on the breast, and in the
palms of the hands. The hair of a grown, but not aged specimen.
Fig. 61.— Sole of the Foot of the Gorilla.
is, in colour, iron-grey. (See specimen in the British Museum. —
1£d.) The individual hairs are ringed with alternate stripes of black
lALE AND FEMALE GORILLA.
THE GORILLA.
*5
and grey, which produce the iron-grey colour. On the arms the
hair is darker, and also much longer, being sometimes over two
inches long. It grows upwards on the fore-arm, and downwards
on the main arm. Aged Gorillas * • * turn grey all over.
In the adult male the chest is bare. In the young males • • •
it is thinly covered with hair. In the female, the mammas have but
Fig. 62.— Back of the Hand of the Gorilla.
a slight development, and the breast is bare. The colour of the hair
in the female is black, with a decided tinge of red, and not ringed as
in the male. The hair on the arms is longer than that on the body,
and is of a like colour. The reddish crown which covers the scalp
canmcs of the male, which are fully exhibited when, in his rage he
draws back his lips, and shows the red colour of the inside of 'his
mouth, lend additional ferocity to his aspect. In the females these
canines are smaller. The almost total absence of neck, which gives
the head the appearance of being set into the shoulders, is due to
the backward position of the occipital condyles, by means of which
the skull is set on the trunk. The brain-case is low and compressed,
and the lofty ridge of the skull causes the cranial profile to describe
an almost straight line from the occiput to the supra-orbital ridge.
The eyebrows are thin, but not well defined. The eyes are wide"
apart ; the ears are smaller than those of man, but in form closely
resemble the human ear. * * • The profile of the trunk shows a
slight convexity. The chest is of great capacity. • • • Xhe
abdomen is of immense size. * • • The arms have prodigious
muscular development, and are very long, extending as low as the
knees. The fore-arm is nearly of uniform size from the wrist to the
elbow. The great length of the arms, and the shortness of the legs,
form one of the chief deviations from man The arms arc not sr.
long when compared with the trunk, but they are so in comparison
with the legs. These are short, and decrease in size from below
the knee to the ankle, having no calf. The superior length of the
arm (humerus), in proportion to the fore-arm, brings the Gorilla, in
that respect, in closer anthropoid ailinities with man than any other
of the Apes.
The hands of the animal (see annexed figure), especially in the
male, are of immense size, strong, short, and thick. The fingers are
short and of great size ; the circumference of the middle finger at
the first joint being, in some Gorillas, over six inches. The skin on
1' ig. 63. — A Female Ouulla, ami young one.
of the male is not apparent in the female till she is almost grown up.
In both male and female the hair is found worn off the back ; but this
is only found in very old females.
The eyes of the Gorilla are deeply sunken, the immense overhang-
ing bony frontal ridge giving to the face the expression of a constant
savage scowl. The mouth is wide, and the lips are sharply cut,
exhibiting no red or thin edges, as in the human face. The huge
the back of the fingers, near the middle phalanx, is callous
(hard), and very thick, which shows that the most usual mode of pro-
gression of the animal is on all-fours, and resting on the knuckles.
The thumb is shorter than in man, and not half so thick as the fore-
finger. The hand is hairy (as shown in Fig. 62) as far as the
division of the fingers ; these, as in man, being covered with short
thick hairs. The palm of the hand is naked, callous, and intensely
26
THE GORILLA.
black. The nails are black, and shaped like those of man, but
smaller in proportion, and projecting very slightly beyond the end of
the fingers. They arc thick and strong, and always seem much
worn. The hand of the Gorilla is almost as wide as it is long ; and
in this it approaches nearer to man than any other of the Apes. The
foot is proportionally wider than in man. The sole is callous and
intensely black. The toes are divided into three groups. Inside
the great toe, outside the little toe, and the three others, partly
united by a web. The two joints of the great toe measured, in
one specimen, si.x and a-half inches in circumference. The foot
Fig. 64.— Pongo, brought to Europe in 1S77.
^of the Gorilla is longer than the hand, as in man ; while, in the other
Apes, the foot is somewhat shorter than the hand. With the excep-
tion of the big toe, the others present a great likeness to those of
man, being free only above the second phalanx; they are slio-htlv
covered with thin hair. ^ }
The views that Du Chaillu has expressed in reference to the Gorilla
have been the subject of much animadversion. Several eminent
naturalists combated his statements ; and it was not until very re-
cently that an opportunity was afforded, in Europe, to study the
habits of the animal as it appears in daily life, in what we may
call a civilised condition.
In 1877, a specimen (illustrated by Fig. 64) was located in the
Koyal Aquarium, Westminster, London, and was stated to be the
only living one, with the exception of one in Wombwell's Mcnao-erie
many years ago, that has been seen in Europe. It was brouo-ht
from Africa by Dr. Frankenstein, of the German West African
Expedition, and for the previous year and a-half had been an
object of great interest and curiosity in the Berlin Aquarium. It
arrived in London at the end of July. This Gorilla, which had an
air ol juvenile antiquity about it, was three and a-half years old,
three feet high, had grown three and a-half inches during 1876, and
increased iilb. in weight in the same period. It was coal black •
the face human in expression ; the form pudgy, with long arms and
legs, capable of rapidly assisting locomotion. It was a docile
amusing, and performing animal ; turned on a trapeze, and climbed
a rope, and was largely exercised in watching the gambols of a
\?l^^^ Chimpanzee (a year and a-half old), and the ^German dog
i'iock. • The gastronomic capacities of the Gorilla were most
comprehensive. Whereas in its natural state it would live on
bananas, pineapples, and birds' eggs (rifled from the nest), one
of its first meals at the Aquarium
was rump-steak and potatoes —
the guest dipping the food in the
salt to obtain the requisite zest.
Wine and beer were- also taken
with a relish. It died in the fol-
lowing November, at Beriin.
At p. 29 will be found an illus-
tration of an Enraged Gorilla.
M. Du Chaillu, in his " Explora-
tions of Equatorial Africa " (1861,
P- 349). gives the following de-
scription of the animal when
excited : —
" The Gorilla is not gregarious.
Of adults, I found almost always
one male with one female, though
sometimes the old male wanders
companionless. In such cases,
as with the ' rogue ' Elephant,
he is particularly morose and
malignant, and dangerous to ap-
proach. Young Gorillas I found
sometimes in companies of five ;
sometimes less, but never more.
They are difficult to approach, as
their hearing is acute, and they
lose no time in making their es-
cape ; while the nature of the
ground makes it hard for the
hunter to follow after. The adult
animal is also shy ; and I have
hunted all day, at times, without
coming upon my quarry, when I
felt sure that they were carefully
avoiding me. When, however,
at last fortune favours the hunter,
and he comes accidentally or by
good management upon his prey,
he need not fear its running
away. In all my hunts and en-
counters with this animal, I
never knew a grown male to run
away. When I surprised a pair
of Gorillas, the male was gene-
rally sitting down on a rock or
against a tree, in the darkest
corner of the jungle, where the
brightest sun left its traces only
in a dim twilight. The female
was mostly feeding near by ; and
it is singular that she almost al-
ways gave the alarm by running
off with loud and sudden shrieks.
Then the male, sitting for a mo-
ment with a savage frown on his
face, slowly rises to his feet, and
looking with glowing and malign eyes at the intruders, begins
to beat his breast, and, lifting up his round head, utters his
frightful roar. This begins with several sharp barks, like an
enraged or mad Dog, whereupon ensues a long, deeply gut-
tural, rolling roar, continued for over a minute, and which,
doubled and multiplied by the resounding echoes of the forest, fills
the hunter's ears like the deep rolling thunder of an approaching
storm. As I have mentioned before, I have reason to believe that I
have heard the roar at a distance of three miles. The horror of the
animal's appearance at this time is beyond description. At such a
sight I could forgive my brave hunters for being sometimes overcome
with superstitious fears, and ceased to wonder at the strange, weird
' Gorilla stories ' of the negroes."
In another part of the same work, M. Du Chaillu gives a life-like
picture of his first sight of a Gorilla.
" Suddenly, as we were creeping along, in a silence which made a
heavy breath seem loud and distinct, the woods were at once filled
with the tremendous barking roar of the Gorilla.
" Then the underbrush swayed rapidly just a-head, and presently
stood before us an immense male Gorilla. He had gone througn
THE CHIMPANZEE.
THE CHIMPANZEE.
27
the jungle on his all-fours ; but when he saw our party he erected
himself and looked us boldly in the face. He stood about a dozen
yards from us, and was a sight I think I shall never -forget. Nearly
si.K feet hicrh (he proved four inches shorter), with immense body,
huge chest, and great muscular arms, with tiercely-glaring, large,
deep grey eyes, and a hellish expression of face, which seemed to be
like some nightmare vision — thus stood before us the king of the
African forest. He was not afraid of us. He stood there, and beat
his breast with his huge fists till it resounded like an immense bass
drum, which is their mode of offering defiance ; meantime giving
vent to roar after roar. • • • He advanced a few steps — then
stopped to utter that hideous roar again— advanced again, and
finally stopped at a distance of about six yards from us : and here,
just as he began another of his roars, beating his breast in rage,
we fired and killed him."
Since M. Du Chaillu published his work, not very much has been
added to our knowledge of the habits of the Gorilla. His immense
strength is one of the most remarkable features of this animal ; and
certainly the muscular development of the arms, chest, and legs is
of the most extraordinary character. The stuffed specimen in the
British Museum, although apparently young, gives an idea of what
the Gorilla would be in his native haunts. The face has a fierce
appearance. The teeth show prominently from the mouth, and
the canines call to mind those common in carnivorous animals.
THE CHIMPANZEE.
(Troglodytes niger.J
The Chimpanzee {Pongo and Engeco, Battel, in Purchas's
" Pilgrims ; " Barys, Ban's, and Qiwjas Morroti of Barbot, Dapper,
&c. ; Smitten, Bosman ; Pongo, Buffon ; Pongo or Great Black
Orafig, Shaw; yoc/fo, Audebert ; Chimpanzee, Scotin's
print, 1738; Troglodytes, Ho7no nocturmis, Linnaaus ;
Troglodytes tiiger, Desmarest), is a native of the forests
of Western Africa, extending from our colony of Sierra
Leone, as far as the Congo River. The specimens of
this animal which find their way to Europe, are always
young animals, and they rarely live long in captivity.
For a long time the Chimpanzee and the Orang-Outan
were considered as the nearest approach to humanity.
But the re-discovery of the Gorilla, by Du Chaillu, has put
them so far in the shade (see p. 23). The general appear-
ance of the adult Chimpanzee is given in the following
cut (Fig. 65).
Buffon, who adopted the terms Pongo and Jocko (from
pongo, inchego, engeco, or enjocko), in his great work
(1756), gives an imperfect sketch of a living young Chim-
panzee which he saw at Paris in the year 1740, and which
was taken in Gaboon. At that time Buffon was not
aware of any distinction between the African and the
Indian animals. To the African Chimpanzee the name
of Pongo is appropriated, and to the Indian Orang that
of Jocko. Shaw describes " the Pongo, or Great Black
Orang-Outan," as a native of Africa, and the " reddish-
brown or chestnut Orang-Outan, called the Jocko," as a
native of Borneo and the other Indian islands. With
regard to the Smitten, Barris, Boggo, &c., and which
have been applied by the early travellers apparently to
the Chimpanzee, there is every reason to believe that
they really refer to the Mandrill.
Mr Ogilby was the first to point out that the Chim-
panzee is, as it would seem, alluded to in a work of great
antiquity — the " Periplus Hannonis." It appears that a
Carthaginian navigator, named Hanno (a.C. 500, or about
that period), sent on an expedition of discovery, coasted
Western Africa, and sailed from Gades to the island of
Cerne in twelve days ; and thence, following the coast, hu
arrived, in seventeen days, at a promontory called the
West Horn. Thence, skirting a burning shore, he arrived
in three days at the South Horn, and found an island
inhabited by what were regarded as wild men, called by
the interpreters Gorilloi, who were covered with long
black hair, and who fled for refuge to the mountains, and
defended themselves with stones. With some difficulty
three females were captured, the males having escaped ;
but so desperately did they fight, biting and tearing,
that it was found necessary to kill them. Their pre-
served skins were carried by Hanno to Carthage, and
hung up in one of the temples as consecrated trophies of
his expedition. From this time till the sixteenth century
of our era we hear nothing of the Chimpanzee; for the
western coast of Africa was, as it may be said, re-dis-
covered only in the fifteenth century. >
One of the most trustworthy of our earlier travellers, Andrew
Rattel, a sailor, who was taken prisoner in 1589, and lived many
years in Congo (Purchas's " Pilgrims "), describes two animals, the
Pongo and the Engeco, the former as high and stouter than a man,
the latter being much less. The Pongo, which is doubtless the
Chimpanzee, he describes as having sunken eyes, long hair on the
sides of the head, a naked face, cars and hands, and the body
slightly covered. The limbs diifcrcd from those of man, being desti-
tute of calves, but the animal walked upright. In its disposition it
is stated to be grave and melancholy, and even when young far from
frolicsome ; at the same time it is swift and agile, and is sometimes
known to carry away young negroes. He further states that these
animals constructed arbours in which they slept. Their diet con-
sisted of fruits, nuts, &c. ; and their muscular strength is such that
ten men were unable to overcome one. Upon the death of one of
their community, the survivors cover the body with leaves and
branches of trees.
Bosman, Froger, De la Brosse, and others describe the Chimpan-
zee as living in troops, which resist the attacks of wild beasts, and
even drive the Elephant from their haunts. They possess matchless
strength and courage, and it is very dangerous for single individuals
to pass near their places of abode. Bosman states that on one occa-
sion a number of them attacked, overpowered, and were proceeding
to poke out the eyes of two slaves, when a party of negroes arrived
to their rescue. That they surprise and carry away the negresses
into the woods, and there detain them sometimes for years, is as-
serted by all, and an instance came under the personal notice of De
la Brosse. Captain Paine was assured that similar instances hap-
pen in Gaboon. De la Brosse says they build huts, and arm them-
selves with clubs, and that they walk either upon two feet or four, as
occasion may require.
Lieutenant Matthews, R.N., who resided at Sierra Leone during
the years i785-'6-'7, and whose letters, describing this part of Africa,
appeared in 1788, informs us that the " Chimpanzees," or "Japan-
zees," are social animals ; and that "they generally take up their
Fig. 65. — The Cliimpanzcc.
abode near some deserted town or village where the papau-tree
grows in abundance, of the fruit of which they are very fond. They
build huts nearly in the form in which the natives build their houses.
28
THE CHIMPANZEE— NSCHIEGO MBOUVE—KOOLOKAMBA—SOKO.
which they cover with leaves ; but these are only for the females and
young to lie in ; the males always lie on the outside. If one of them
is shot, the rest immediately pursue the destroyer of their friend, and
the only means to escape their vengeance is to part with your gun,
which they directly seize upon with all the rage imaginable, tear it
to pieces, and give over the pursuit." The terrestrial habits of the
Chimpanzee are confirmed by other observers.
Lieutenant Henry K. Sayers, who in 1839 brought a young
Chimpanzee to England, which he had procured in the BuUom
country, the mother having been shot, states that "trees are
ascended by the Chimpanzees (as he is led to conclude) only for
food and observation." From the natives he learned that "they do
not reach their full growth till between nine and ten years' of age,
which, if true, brings them extremely near the human species, as
the boy or girl of West Africa, at thirteen or fourteen years old, is
quite as much a man or woman as those of nineteen or twenty in
our more northern clime. Their height, when full-grown, is said to
be between four and five feet ; indeed I was credibly informed that a
male Chimpanzee, which had been shot in the neighbourhood and
brought into Free Town, measured four feet five inches in length,
and was so heavy as to form a very fair load for two men, who
carried him on a pole between them. The natives say that in their
wild state their strength is enormous, and that they have seen them
snap boughs off trees with the greatest apparent ease, which the
united strength of two men could scarcely bend. The Chimpanzee
is, without doubt, to be found in all the countries from the banks of
the Gambia in the north to the kingdom of Congo in the south, as
the natives of all the intermediate parts seem to be perfectly
acquainted with them. From my own experience, I can state that
the low shores of the Bullom country, situated on the northern shores
of the river Sierra Leone, are infested by them in numbers quite
equal to the commonest species of Monkey. I consider these ani-
mals to be gregarious ; for when visiting the rice farms of the chief
Dalla Mohanimadoo, on the Bullom shore, their cries plainly
indicated the vicinity of a troop, as the noise heard could not have
been produced by less than eight or ten of them, The 72atives ■aX^.o
affirmed that they always travel in strong bodies, armed with sticks,
which they use with much dexterity. They are exceedingly watch-
ful, and the first one who discovers the approach of a strangerutters
a protracted cry, much resembling that of a human being in the
greatest distress. The first time I'heard it I was much startled;
the animal was apparently not more than thirty paces distant ; but
had it been \>vAfive I could not have seen it from the tangled nature
of the jungle, and I certainly conceived that such sounds could only
have proceeded from a human being who hoped to gain assistance by
his cries from some terrible and instant death. The native \vho was
with me laid his hand upon my shoulder, and pointing suspiciously
to the bush, said, ' Massa, Baboo live there,' and in a few minutes the
wood appeared alive with them, their cries resembling the barking
of dogs. My guide informed me that the cry first heard was to
inform the troop of my approach, and that they would all immediately
leave the trees, or any e.^alted situation that might expose them to
view, and seek the bush ; he also showed evident fear, and entreated
me not to proceed any farther in that direction. The plantations of
bananas, papaus, and plantains, which the natives usually intermix
with their rice, constituting the favourite food of the Chimpanzees,
accounts for their being so frequent in the neighbourhood of rice-
fields. The difficulty of procuring live specimens of this genus
arises principally, I should say, from the superstitions of the natives
concerning them, who believe they possess the power of ' witching.' "
But in regard to all the man-like Apes, as we have seen, for
example, in the case of the Gorilla, little is known of their native
habits when they have attained full age. As a rule, it is believed
they become very savage, and hence live specimens of an adult
cannot be brought to Europe. The last specimen that was brought
to England died some time ago, and before its adult propensities
could be studied. The preceding cut (see a7ite. Fig. 65) represents
an individual which formerly was in the menagerie of the Zoological
Society. Its figure was short and stout ; chest broad ; shoulders
square ; abdomen protuberant ; forehead retreating behind the
supra-orbital ridge, the cranium otherwise well developed ; nose flat ;
nostrils divided by a very thin septum ; lips extremely mobile, and
traversed by vertical wrinkles ; ears large, naked, and prominent ;
eyes lively, deep-set, and chestnut coloured ; neck short ; arms
slender, but muscular, and reaching, when the animal stands erect
as possible, just below the knee : all the four hands well developed,
with opposable thumbs ; the nails human-like ; the hair moderately
coai^e and straight, longest and fullest on the head, down the back,
and on the arms, thin on the chest and abdomen ; on the fore-arm it
is reverted to the elbow ; backs of hands naked to the wrist ; muzzle
sprinkled with short white hairs ; skin of the face dusky black ; ears
and palms tinged with a purplish hue ; hair glossy black : total
height, two feet. The lower limbs are less decidedly organised for
arboreal habits than in the Orang ; but their tournure is obliquely
inwards, the knees being bowed out, but the soles of the feet are
capable of being applied fairly to the ground. It runs about with a
hobbling gait, but very quickly, generally assisting itself by resting
the knuckles of the two first fingers of the hand on the ground, to do
which it stoops its shoulders for^vards : it can, however, and does
walk frequently upright. Its pace is a sort of waddle, and not per-
formed, as in man, by a series of steps in which the ankle-joint is
brought into play at each successive step, the heel being elevated,
and the body resting on the toes ; on the
contrary, the foot is raised at once and set
down at once, in a thoroughly plantigrade
manner, as in stamping, which indeed is an
action it often exhibits, first with one foot,
then with the other. It grasps with its
feet, which are broad and strong, with
astonishing firmness, and has been seen,
while resting on a perch, to throw itself
completely backwards, and, without using
its hands, raise itself again into its previous
position — a feat requiring both great power
and agility.
The general bony structure of the an-
thropoid Apes has already been explained,
in comparison with that of man, in the pre-
ceding chapter (see p. 2, et seq.) The
annexed cut (Fig. 66) illustrates the skele-
ton of the Chimpanzee, and Fig. 67 the
skull. We have already drawn attention
to the peculiarities of the skull compared
with that of man, &c., at p. 4, a7ite : and
in the following description of the Orang-
Outan, some further peculiarities and differ-
ences vill be pointed out, which nearly
equally serve for the Chimpanzee.
The dentition is the same as that in the
human species (see ante, p. 5), as regards
number ; but the essential difference of
this, and other members of the Ape tribe,
has already been mentioned at p. 23, a7itc.
The Nsciiiego Mbouve {T7-oglodytes Cat-
7-tis, or 7>'o§-. Tsctiiego) ; The Koolo-
IvAMiiA {IVog: Konto-Ka77iha, or 7"/'og.
Aub7-yi) ; and the SoKO [T/'og. Soke).
Fig. 6<3.— Skeleton of These animals all belong to the same
Chimpanzee. genus as the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee ;
and, consequently, to the man-like or an-
thropoid Apes. For the discovery of the two first-named above, we
are indebted to Du Chaillu during his travels in the Gaboon district of
Western Africa. He describes the Nschiego Mbouv6 as of a height
of about four feet, and of the habit of constructing nests — a circum-
stance which led to his discovery of one of the species. He states
it to be smaller than either the Gorilla or Chimpanzee, and with a
Fig. 67. — Skull of Chimpanzee
black bald head, which is a distinctive character. The skin is black
where there is no hair. The shoulders and back have black hair,
about three inches long, and the hair on the legs is dirty grey mixed
with black. The arms have long black hair, but shorter than in the
Gorilla. He considered the Nschiego as not so powerful as that
animal ; its chest is not so large, but the arms and fingers are a little
longer, as are also the toes. The nose is not so prominent, but the
mouth is wider and the ears larger. The teeth are smaller, but of
the same number, thirty-two (see ante, p. 23). It has a call
resembling the sound hew-hew-hew, which is a call of the male to
his mate. The nests for shelter which the Nschiego constructs are
formed of long branches, and leaves laid over one another carefully,
so as to render the roof capable of sending off water. These nests
Du Chaillu considers are made for protection against the nightly
rains.
The Koolo-Kamba (so called from its cry, " Koola-Koolo ") has
many points of resemblance with the Nschiego, Gorilla, and Chim-
THE GORILLA.
29
Fig. 6S. — The Enraged Gorilla,
30
THE SOKO—THE ORANG-OUTAN.
panzee — in fact, to partake of some of each of their characters, and
so forming a link between them. It also resembles the Baboon by
being capable of going on all-fours. In some respects the Koolo
resembles man more than the rest of the Troglodytes. The foot is
Fig. 69.— Orang-Outan, formerly in the collection of the Zoological Society.
of great help, owing to its peculiar construction, to the animal in
climbing, and resembles a small hand. The arms resemble those of
the Chimpanzee, and the exterior of the animal much resembles that
of a frog. Briefly, from the comparatively meagre description of the
Koolo, it may be almost considered as a nondescript animal, and in
many respects sui generis.
The Soko was discovered by the late Dr. Livingstone, who at first
considered it as a Gorilla. One of its characteristics is that of biting
off the toes and fingers of its captors, if it have the chance. It
similarly treats a Leopard, biting off its paws, and leaving it to die
through loss of power of locomotion. The Sokos build an inferior
kind of nest, and seem gregarious. Their food consists of wild fruit,
especially bananas. It is a stranger to the coast-line inhabited by
the Gorilla and Chimpanzee.
So little is known of these animals, that we shail content ourselves
with the preceding brief remarks, more especially as nearly every
account that has been given of new species of the African Apes, has
not only been tinged with romance, but, in some cases, almost
opposed to subsequent acquired experience. Thus the young Gorilla
(illustrated and described at p. 26, ante), in many respects, as regards
temper, food, habits, &c., entirely reversed the opinion previously
held in respect to its kind.
THE ORANG-OUTAN.
(Simia satyrus.)
When this animal was first introduced into Europe, and especially
into England, it created an immense sensation, and was familiarly
known, even among children, as the Wild Man of the Woods. We
well remember the specimen which was, many years ago, in the collec-
tion of the Zoological Society, in the warm dress which he wore, and
represented by the annexed cut, which we reproduce for the amuse-
ment of our young readers. In his appear-
ance, as thus seated in a chair, he greatly
resembled an invalided old gentleman,
although himself of comparatively youth-
ful age.
So different are the characters, depen-
dent upon age, which the Orang-Outan
assumes at different periods of its growth,
and so much in many respects do the males
differ from the females, that no little con-
fusion has arisen ; and the young, which is
the Simia satyrus of Linnasus, has been
proved to be identical w'ith the Asiatic
Pongo {Pongo being a term that has been
applied to all anthropoid Apes, for want
of a better) ; the latter, as Cuvier suspected,
and indeed asserted, and as Professor
Owen has proved, being the adult. (See
Tratis. Zool. Soc, vol. i., "Osteology of
Chimpanzee and Orang.")
The Orang is only found in Borneo and
Sumatra. It would appear that a species,
of large size, distinct from the great Bor-
nean Orang, exists in Sumatra. Some
naturalists, it is true, are disposed to re-
gard the Bornean and Sumatran large
Orangs as identical ; and it must be allowed
that some difficulty exists which remains
to be cleared up. Professor Owen has
pointed out certain differences in the con-
tour of the respective shells, which seem to
justify those who contend for a distinction
of species. In the adult male Bornean Orang
(Fig. 71), there are huge callosities, or pro-
tuberances of callous flesh on the cheek-
bones, giving a strange aspect to the
countenance, and which are presumed to
be absent in the Sumatran Orang. They
are certainly not depicted in Dr. Abel's
figure of the head of the adult Sumatran
Orang (Fig. 70). With respect to difference
of colour, little stress can be laid upon it :
the Sumatran species is said to be of a
much lighter colour than the Bornean ; but
all the Bornean Orangs we have examined
(and those not a few), have been of a
chestnut colour, or bright sandy rufous
passing into a chestnut on the back, and
scarcely, if at all, darker than the Sumatran
adult female formerly in the collection of
the Zoological Society.
The Sumatran animal is said to exceed
the Bornean in stature. According to
Dr. Abel, the male Orang killed at Ram-
boon, on the north-west coast of Sumatra,
exceeded seven feet in stature — a singular exaggeration, as is now
allowed. In the span of the arms and hands, this animal, he states,
measured 8 feet 2 inches ;
and in the length of the feet,
14 inches. Now in the speci-
men of a Sumatran female
once in the collection of the
Zoological Society, which
could not have stood higher
than 3 feet 6 inches, the
span of the arms and hands
was 7 feet 2 inches, and the
length of the foot io\
inches. That the Suma-
tran Orang does not ex-
ceed the Bornean may there-
fore be safely concluded.
The largest Bornean male
Orang, an adult, with large
facial callosities, which we
ever examined, measured 4
feet 6 inches from head to
heel; but Temminck, in his
monograph of the genus,
says, " Our travellers in-
form us, by letters from
Bangarmasing, in the island of Borneo, that they have recently
procured Orangs of 5 feet 3 inches in height, French measure "
Fig. 70. — Head of adult Sumatran Orang.
THE ORANG-OUTAN.
(5 feet 9 inches Eng-lish). In both the Borncan and Sumatran speci-
mens, the ung-ueal, or nail-bearing- phalanx of the hind thumb is
sometimes absent, sometimes present, in both sexes ; sometimes it
is present on one foot, and wanting on the other. The annexed cut
(Fig-. 72) represents an Orang in his native haunts.
31
It is true that the protuberance of the face is considerably diminished
and the facial angle thus materially enlarged ; but to make up for
the feebleness of the upper jaw, consequent upon this reduced size of
the bones comprising it, additional strength is needed to resist the
strong pressure of the enormous temporal muscles (those of the
Fig. 71.— Adult Male Bornean Orang.
In reference to the skeleton of the Orang-Outan (Siniia safyrusj,
Professor Rymer Jones remarks, that taking it as one of the most
perfect examples met with in the class (of anthropoid Apes), it is at
once evident that such an animal 's by no means adapted to walk
in an erect position, although well fitted to maintain a semi-upright
attitude, such as is best calculated for climbing. The skull (see Fig.
^'g- 73.— Skull of Orang-Outan.
73), whose very outline indicates brutal ferocity, is armed with canine
teeth, scarcely less formidable than those of the Tiger, and the massive
jaws of the creature are moved by muscles almost equally powerful.
Fig. 72. — The Orang in his native h.iunts.
temples). This is given by adding strong buttresses to the outer
angle of the orbit (the seat of the eye), formed bv the union of the
frontal and the jugal (jaw) bones ; and thus the whole outline of the
face becomes more humanised. Another advance towards the con-
dition of the human skull is apparent in the position of the foramen
magnum (a large oval opening at the back of the head), and of the
condyles of the occipital bone, which are considerably advanced for-
wards, beneath the base of the cranium, thus allowing the head to be
articulated to the atlas, at a very considerable angle, with a line
drawn through the axis of the spine (see Fig. 56, p. 23, ante) — a
condition favourable to the erect posture.
The thoi'ax is well formed and capacious, giving great freedom of
respiration ; but the spinal column is short and clumsy ; neither docs
it present those graceful sigmoid curves (those like the Greek letter
S), that convert the human spine into a perfect spring, upon the top of
which the head is carried.
Professor Jones further remarks, that in the Orang, the arms (Fig.
74) are of inordinate length, and extremely powerful ; the joints per-
fect, and the clavicle w-ell formed. But in the construction of the
pelvic extremities, the difference between this and the human skele-
ton becomes strikingly apparent. 1\\.e. pelvis is long, and the ossa
2'//// narrow; the thighs and legs so short, that when the creature
stands erect, the tips of the fingers almost touch the ground. Upon
the ground, indeed, the living animal puts the spectator in mind of
a human being crippled at the lower extremities ; but in its native
trees, these members, like those of the Sloth (see Professor Owen's
remarks at page 22, ante), are admirably suited to the circumstances
under which the Orang is ordained to live. A comparative illustra-
tion of the foot of man and that of the Orang is given in a following
cut (Fig. 75).
In all respects, the organisation of the Orang (we refer to both
Bornean and Sumatran animals) fits him almost exclusively for
arboreal habits : on the ground his progression is more awkward
than that of the Chimpanzee ; for the abbreviation of the posterior
limbs, their inward tournure, their pliancy, owing to the absence of
%
32
THE ORANG-OUTAN.
the ligamenfidn feres of tlie hip-joint, and tlie mode of treading, not
upon the sole, but the outer edge of the foot, tend all to his dis-
advantage. Among the trees, however, the case is reversed. In
the mighty forests of his native climates he is free and unembarrassed,
though by no means rapid in his movements; there the vast reach
of his sinewy arms enables him to seize branches at an apparently
hopeless distance ; and by the
powerful grasp of his hands or
feet he swings himself along.
In ascending a tall tree, the
inward tournure of the legs
and ankle-joints, and the free-
dom of the hip-joint, facilitate
the application of the grasping
foot, as is well depicted in
Fig. 76, which is a representa-
tion of a female Orang, taken
from life. The length and
narrowness of the hands and
feet render them hook-like in
character (see Fig. 75) : while
the short thumbs, set as far
back toward the wrist as possi-
ble, act as a fulcrum against
the pressure of the lingers
while grasping the branch to
which the animal is clinging.
The following is a descrip-
tion of a nearly adult male
Orang from Borneo, in the
Paris Museum: — The head
is large, the forehead naked,
retiring and flat ; large fleshy
callosities, in
the form of
somewhat cre-
scentic ridges,
occupy the ma-
lar bones, ex-
tending from
the temples, and
giving a singu-
lar and even
hideous expres-
sion to the phy-
siognomy. The
eyes are small
and set closely
together ; the
nose is de-
pressed ; the
septum of the nostrils thin, and carried out to blend
with the skins of the upper lip ; the nostrils are
oblique ; the lips are thick and fleshy, and the upper
one is furnished with scanty moustaches; the chin is
furnished with a long and peaked beard. The hair is
very long and thick on the back, shoulders, arms, and
legs ; very scanty on the chest, abdomen, and inside
of the thighs ; the hair of the fore-arms is reverted to
the elbows ; the hair of the head is directed forwards
from a common centre of radiation on the back of
the neck, or rather between the shoulders. The
contour of the body is heavy, thick, and ill-shapen ;
the arms with the hands reach to the heel ; the
thumbs of the hind feet are nailless ; the general
colour is deep chestnut. Total height, 3 feet 8
inches. Breadth of face across the callosities, 9
inches.
The physiognomy of the Orang is grave, melan-
choly, and even apathetic, but in adults not un-
accompanied by an expression of ferocity ; the huge
fleshy callosities on the sides of the face adding
an air of brutish grossness. The head leans forward
on the chest ; the neck is short ; and loose folded
skin hangs round the throat, except when the
lar}'ngal sacs are inflated ; this loose skin is then
swollen out, like a naked shining tumour, extending
up along the sides of the face under the small
angular ears, filling up the interspace between the
chin and chest, and encroaching upon the latter;
the lips are wrinkled, and possess extraordinary
mobility ; the animal can protrude them in the form
of a snout or proboscis, contracting the mouth to a
circular orifice, or, on the contrary, draw them back,
and turn them in various directions. The breadth of
the chest and shoulders conveys an idea of great strength ; the abdo-
men is protuberant ; the hair, which falls o"^ the back and shoulders in
long masses, forms a covering to the animal crouching in repose,
necessary as a protection by day against the burning rays of the
sun, by night against the heavy dews, and during the rainy seasons
as a shelter from the falling showers. The palms of the hands have
lines and papilla:, as on those of the human subject. All the naked
parts of the body, with the exception of the orbits and lips, which are of
a sallow, coppery tint, are silvery-grey or plumbeous. The thickness
of the incisor teeth, which in adults are worn down to a flattened
surface, as are also the molar teeth, shows that they are put to
rough work; and, as Professor Owen remarks, it is probable that
their common use is to tear and
scrape away the tough, fibrous,
outer covering of the cocoa-nut,
and perhaps to gnaw through the
denser shell. As already stated,
the dentition of the Orang is the
same as that of the human being.
Roth the Chimpanzee and the
Orang, however, differ from the
human subject in the order of the
development of the permanent
teeth. The second molar, Mj,
comes into place before either of
the premolars has cut the gum,
and the last molar, M3, is acquired
before the canines. We have
treated the question of deciduous and permanent teeth at large in the
preceding chapter, at pp. 4 and 5, both as regards man and the inferior
animals. The huge canines are doubtless defensive weapons, which,
in connection with the muscular strength of these animals, enable
them to offer a more than successful resistance against the Leopard,
and render them formidable opponents even to the Tiger. Of the
habits of the Orang in a state of nature our knowledge is limited.
I^'S- 7S- — Foot of Man and of
Orans-Outan.
Fig. 74- — Skeleton of Orang-Oulan.
Fig. 76. — Female Orang-Outan in the act of climbing.
It tenants the secluded recesses of the forest in the hilly and central
districts of Borneo and Sumatra; living, as it would appear, a
THE ORANG-OUTAN.
Zl
secluded lite, and not being, like the Chimpanzee, gregarious ; nor
does it, like that animal, build huts, but, in accordance with its
arboreal predilections, it constructs a rude seat or platform of inter-
woven boughs and twigs among the branches of the tallest trees, on
which it takes up its abode. Here the adult male will sit, as is said,
for hours together listless and apathetic. His movements are slow
and indolent : when attacked, he swings himself from branch to
branch, clearing vast intervals with ease, but not with the rapidity
which has been imagined, and which is displayed by some of the
Gibbons. If at last driven to extremity, he defends himself with
determined resolution, and his prodigious bodily powers and prowess
render it dangerous to venture on a close assault. The females are
devoted to their young. A few years since, Captain Hall repaired
to Sumatra purposely to obtain one of these animals, but at his out-
set he experienced a serious obstacle in the difficulty of procuring
guides to conduct him to their usual haunts : this proceeded from
the fears of the natives, who not only believe that the Orangs possess
a natural dominion over the great forests, but that they are animated
by the souls of their own ancestors. Succeeding at length in this
preliminary part of the undertaking, the captain soon met with one
of the objects of his search, a female, which he describes as having
been five feet in height. When first discovered she was sitting on a
branch of one of the highest trees, with a young one in her arms.
Upon being wounded she uttered a piercing cry; and immediately
lifting up her little one as high as her long arms could reach, let it
go among the topmost branches. While the party approached to
fire again she made no attempt to escape, but kept a steady watch,
glancing her eye occasionally towards her offspring, and at last
seemed to wave her hand, to hasten its departure, which it safely
effected.
The following summary is the result of repeated observations upon
young living specimens : — The progression of the Orang on the
ground is slow and vacillating, and is rather dependent on the arms
(which from their length act as crutches, supporting the body between
them), than upon the lower limbs, which are ill calculated for such
service. When left entirely to itself on the floor, the young Orang,
if incited to walk, supports its weight on its arms, applying the bent
knuckles to the ground, which, from the length of the arms, is an
easy action. The lower limbs are at the same time bowed outward,
and the outer side of the foot is placed upon the floor. In this atti-
tude it waddles along, the arms being the main support : when
indeed it wishes to hasten its progress, it fairly swings the body for-
ward between the arms, as if impatient of the hobbling gait to which
the structure of the lower limbs restricts it. The lower limbs, how-
ever, are not incapable of supporting the body alone, and it can
waddle along very fairly, especially if it can lay hold of anything by
which to steady itself in its progress. In climbing it is at its ease,
and confident, but deliberate. It will suspend itself with its head
downwards, sometimes by the hand and foot of the same side, the
disengaged hand being stretched to seize objects within its reach ;
sometimes by the hook-like hands, or the feet alone, varying its
grotesque attitudes in the most singular manner, and in all display-
ing the freedom of the hip-joint. Its arboreal progress is not by
bounding like a Monkey, but by swinging from branch to branch,
grasping them by its hands in succession. Habitually dull and
inanimate, it has still its times of sportiveness, and will engage in
play with those to whom it has attached itself, following them to
court their notice, or pursuing them in mimic combat. It has little
curiosity, and is fond of sitting covered up by blankets or other
articles of defence against the cold, and will wrap itself up with con-
siderable dexterity. To those who attend it it becomes very affection-
ate, and readily obeys their voice, recognising its name, and the
words and tones of command Confinement is annoying to it in
the extreme, and disappointment irritating. From these causes
paroxysms of passion are often exhibited, in which it will dash itself
about uttering a whining cry, and manifesting ever)' token of anger.
We have seen a young Orang make the most strenuous efforts to
escape from his inclosure, striving to force the door or the frame-
work ; and then, screaming with disappointment, swing from branch
to branch, and again repeat its endeavours, excited to the extreme,
and all because its keeper had left it for a short time. Nothing but
his return and attentions would pacify it.
Dr. Abel states that his young Orang displayed great alarm at
the sight of some live Turtles, and also of a Tortoise ; looking at
them with horror from a distant place, to which he had retreated
for security, and projecting his long lips in the form of a Hog's
snout, while at the same time he uttered a sound between the
croaking of a Frog and the grunting of a Pig. The young Chimpan-
zee which lived, in the year 1836, in the menagerie of the Zoologi-
cal Society, recoiled with horror from a large Snake introduced into
the room by way of experiment, and also regarded Tortoises with
aversion ; and a young Orang in the same menagerie, before which
a Tortoise was placed, stood aghast, in an attitude of amazement
ludicrously theatrical, gazing upon the crawling animal with fixed
attention and evident abhorrence. On the other hand, we have seen
a young Orang play with a full-grown Cat, drag it about, put the
animal on its own head, and carry it from branch to branch, regard-
less of its scratches and struggles to get free. Fred. Cuvier notices
the same fact, which we have ourselves verified. The young Orang
may be taught to use a spoon, a cup, or glass with tolerable pro-
priety, and will carefully put them down on the table, or hand them
to some person accustomed to receive them. To this point F.
Cuvier also alludes, as well as to the care it takes in adjusting its
bed, and covering itself warmly with blankets and other materials
when retiring to rest.
The young Chimpanzee, in comparison with the Orang, is far
more lively, animated, and frolicksome ; and displays much more
curiosity, being alive to everything which takes place about it, and
examining every object within its reach with an air so considerate
as to create a smile in the face of the gravest spectator. In alert-
ness it exceeds the Orang, and is to the full as gentle and affection-
ate, and more intelligent. The expression of intelligence is indeed
well denoted by the vivacity of its eyes, which, though small and
deeply set, are quick and piercing.
The following remarks by Mr. W. S. Dallas, quoted from the
" Circle of the Sciences," will form a fitting conclusion to the pre-
sent chapter.
" The highest order of the i!/(2;«/«ff//« includes only the human
species. By Linnxus it was amalgamated with the Monkeys and
Bats in his order P/-/>«a^i'j; subsequent writers separated it under
the above denomination ; and some even refused to allow the human
race to enter the zoological series at all. Some modern zoologists,
however, have recurred to the views of Linnasus so far as to have
revived the order of Primates for the reception of Man and the
Quadriimaiia, holding that the highest of the latter tread so
closely upon the heels of humanity, that it is not easy to draw the
line between them. This view is also held by the advocates of the
theory of the progressive development of animals, whose object, of
course, must be to lessen as much as possible the distance between
the most anthropomorphous Apes and the human race ; but any one
who will compare (a Gorilla) an Orang, or Chimpanzee, with a Man,
will at once see that the differences in organisation are so great,
that it would require many steps of progressive development to pass
from the one to the other. Independently of the great bulk of the
brain, and the consequently increased size of the skull in the human
species, the bones of the face are much smaller in proportion, and
less prominent ; the teeth are more even, and form a continuous row
in each jaw. The arms are much shorter than in the highest Apes,
and the thumb is much longer in proportion to the fingers, and
endowed with a greater degree of opposability and power of motion ;
and the hand is consequently adapted for a greater variety of pur-
poses. But it is in the adaptation of the hind-limbs solely to the
purposes of terrestrial progression that we find the greatest difference
between Man and the Apes. In the latter these members are shorter
than the arms, and always furnished with an opposable thumb ; the
animals never walk upright from choice ; and when they do their
gait is awkward and hobbling, from their inability to apply the whole
sole of the foot to the ground. In Man, on the contrary, the deve-
lopment of the posterior members is carried to a great perfection,
the thigh especially being longer and more powerful in proportion
than in any other animal ; the flat sole of the foot affords a firm
base, and the anterior members are thus left free for ihe perform-
ance of those multifarious offices to which Man is undoubtedly in-
debted for the whole of his physical superiority over all other created
beings." On this interestinir subject the reader will find additional
remarks in the following chapters.
34
THE GIBBONS.
CHAPTER HI.
QUADRUMANA.-TPIE GIBBONS (GENUS HYLOBATES).
fe^^'^^^^^te* =.-e?^£5*=-'-'iss^^^'W»«s-'
YLOBATES is a term applied
," ' to a genus of Apes, tVie last
of the anthropoid kind, and there-
fore resembling, in many respects,
the Troglodytes and Simia, de-
scribed in the previous chapter.
The aa.me Hylobafes is derived from
the Greek, signifying "walkers in
the woods." The Gibbons are also
termed"Long-armedApes" from the
length of their anterior extremities,
by the conformation of which they
are enabled to make extraordinary
feats of leaping, swinging, itc. They
are chiefly confined to the Malay
countries of Southern Asia and the ad-
jacent islands, Java, Borneo, &c. The
Gibbons differ from the thick-set Orang in
the slenderness of their form ; the chest
IS indeed broad, and the shoulders muscu-
lar, but the waist and hips are contracted ;
there are small ischiatic tuberosities
hidden by the fur, on wliich the animals
often iLSt, tlie commencement, so to speak, of a
structural peculiarity carried out to its maxi-
mum in the lower groups. The hands and feet
aie admirably formed for clinging with tenacity
to the branches. The arms are of excessive
length, reaching, in the erect attitude, to the
ankle-joint; the hands are remarkably long
and slender, the naked palm is linear, ex-
panding at the base of the fingers, which arc
covered down the backs with fur ; the thumb
of the fore-hands, though very short, resembles
and direction, and is scarcely or not at all
it seems to rise from the wrist, owing to the
almost complete separation of the metacarpal bone from that of the
first finger ; and the ball formed by its adductor muscles is trifling.
The feet are long and slender, and their thumb is greatly developed,
so as to form an antagonist to the other toes conjointly. In some
species the first and second finger of the foot are more or less united
together: this union in the Siamang is carried to the last joint. The
lower limbs are short, and bowed in, and the ankle-joint has that
inward tournure so advantageous to an arboreal animal ; but the
hip-joint is secured by the l/gamenium teres In one species, the
Siamang, there is a large laryngal sacculus. The skull is well
formed, though the forehead retreats. The rami of the lower jaw
are narrow. The incisor teeth are moderate, the canines slender ;
the molars moderate, with the crown broad, and bluntly tuber-
the fingers in form
opposable to them ;
culate. Dental formula (Fig. 77.)
Incisors, i ;
4
canines,
softer in some species than others : on the
fore-arms it is in most species reverted to
the elbows ; in one or two it is erect. The
prevailing colours of these animals are from
black to brown, brown-grey, and straw-
yellow.
The Gibbons sweep from branch to branch
with arrow-like velocity: their mode is to
suspend themselves by their long arms,
and by an energetic muscular movement to
launch themselves onwards, aiming at a
distant branch, which they seize with ad-
mirable precision. Most live in troops or
families ; some species frequenting the
mountain-ranges covered by forests of fig-
trees, others keeping to the forests of the
plains.
The head of the Gibbon is small and of
an oval figure, and the face is depressed ;
the expression of the countenance being
grave, gentle, and rather melancholy. All
utter loud cries, whence, in imitation of
the sound, has arisen the name of Wou-
wou, which appears to be common to two
or three species. Fred. Cuvier has applied
it to the Agile Gibbon ; but Camper had previously appropriated
it to the Silvery Gibbon, said by Dr. S. Miillcr to be called Oa-oa
by the natives of Java, a word differing little in the sound from
wou-wou, or woo-woo. None of the Gibbons attain to the stature
of the Orang, about three feet being the height of the largest
species standing erect, an attitude which they arc capable of
molars,
■-5 = 32.
The Gibbons are clothed with deep thick fur,
Fig. 77.— Teeth of Gibbon.
assuming on the ground or any level surface, along which 'Jicy
waddle, at a quick pace, in the manner of the Chimpanzee, using
the arms as balancers, or occasionally touching the ground with the
fingers.
in reference to the locomotion generally of the Qtiadrumana,
but especially of the Gibbons, Professor Owen remarks, that the main
purport of the modifications of the motory system is to make them
climbers. By the development and direction of the hallux (see atite,
foot of Gorilla, p. 24, Fig. 61), the hind-foot is converted into a hand,
with unusual power of prehension, especially in the Gorilla : the joint
of the hand is so modified as to give it a free motion cxcentric to the
THE GIBBONS— THE SIAMANG.
3S
nxis of the leg, whereby its outer edge is applied to the ground ; the
whole limb is shortened, disproportionately so in the best climbers,
as the Siaman.cr (to be afterwards described in this chapter), in
which also the hind-limb may be unfettered for its acts of manipula-
tion by the absence of the ligamciitiini teres of the hip-joint.
The length of the iliac bones relates to elongation of the muscles
for rotating the hind-limb and hand more quickly and through
greater spaces. Corrclatively, the scapular arch approximates to
the condition of the pelvic one by the extension of complete clavicles
(o the manutrium, and the head of the humerus is received into a
deeper and more secure socket than in Bhnana. This is well
exemplified in the Long-armed Gibbons, which enjoy that peculiar
mode of locomotion termed " brachiation" (arm-motion). The body
is set into pendulous vibration by the action and reaction of the
muscles of one arm and of the trunk, the force finally attained, and
the swing being such as to propel the animal some distance through
the air; a bough is seized by the opposite out-stretched arm, and
the momentum is supplied in aid of a repetition of the action to gain
a longer launch. Professor Owen states that he had seen, in the
Zoological Gardens, London, an aSrial leap of upwards of fifteen feet so
effected by the long arms of a captive Gibbon. M. Duvaucel, observ-
ing them in their native forests, testifies to their passing through a dis-
tance of forty feet from bough to bough. Mr. Martin, when curator of
the Zoological Society, watching the same female {Hylobates agilis,
see -post hac, p. 37) which had been the subject of Professor Owen's
study of the brachiating mode of motion, states that a live bird
being set at liberty in her presence, she marked its flight, made a
long swing to a distant branch, caught the bird with one hand in her
passage, and attained the branch with her other hand, her aim at
both the bird and the branch being as successful as if one object
only had gained her attention.
In reference to the Gibbon, generally, Mr. Andrew Murray remarks
that they seem to be a transition of form between the Anthropoid
and the other Catarrhinse (see a7ite, p. 23). The genus is, of course,
peculiar to the East, and Mr. Murray would restrict their species to
only four.
Thk Siamang {Hylobates syndaciyhts). — The Siamang (Fig. 78)
is the largest of the Gibbons, being upwards of three feet in height,
Fig. 7S. — Siamang.
and at the same time robust and muscular. The fur is woolly and
black ; the first and second fingers of the feet are united to each
other, and there is a huge laryngal pouch on the throat, covered with
black naked skin, which, when the sac is distended with air, is
smooth and glossy. The use of this apparatus is not very apparent ;
most probably the sac has some influence on the voice ; for Mr. G.
Bennett (" Wanderings," &c.) observes, that when the Siamang in
his possession was irritated he inflated the pouch, uttering a hollow
barking noise, the lips being at the same time pursed out, and the
air driven into the sac, while the lower jaw was a little protruded.
It is this noise which M. Duvaucel describes, as we suspect, when
he states that the Siamang rouses occasionally from its lethargy to
utter a disagreeable cry approaching in sound to that of a Turkey-
cock, and which he takes upon himself to say expresses no sentiment
and declares no wants. Mr. Bennett noticed that the sac was in-
flated, not only during anger, but also when the animal was pleased.
It is exclusively in Sumatra that the Siamang is found : it is abun-
dant in the forests, especially in the neighbourhood of Bencoolen,
which resound with the loud and discordant cries of the troops shel-
tered among the lofty branches. Duvaucel says that this species is
slow, inanimate, and destitute of activity among the trees ; and on
the ground it is so overcome by fear as to be incapable of resistance ;
that in captivity it exhibits no pleasing traits, being at once stupid,
sluggish, and awkward, unsusceptible either of feelings of grateful
confidence or of revenge, and regarding nothing with interest. On
the contrary. Sir T. S. Raffles, who kept several of these animals,
describes the Siamang as bold and powerful, but easily domesticated,
gentle, confident, and social, and unhappy if not in company with
those to whom it is attached. Nay, M. Duvaucel contradicts him-
self: first he says all its senses are dull and imperfect, and then
gives an account of its extreme vigilance and acuteness of hearing,
and of the affection of the mothers for their young. Jf a young one
be wounded, the mother, who carries it or follows it closely, remains
with it, utters the most lamentable cries, and rushes upon the enemy
witli open mouth ; but being unfitted for combat, knows neither how
to deal nor shun .a blow. " It is," he adds, " a curious and interest-
ing spectacle, which a little precaution has sometimes enabled me to
witness, to see the females carry their young ones to the water, and
there v.'ash their faces, in spite of their childish outcries, bestowing a
degree of time and care on their cleanliness, which, in many cases,
the children of our own species might envy." The Malays informed
him that the young are carried respectively by those of tlieir own
sex ; and also that the Siamang frequently falls a prey to the Tiger,
under the influence of that sort of fascination which intense terror
produces, and which the Snake is said to exercise over birds and
Squirrels.
Mr. G. Bennett's account (" Wanderings," (S:c.) of the Siamang
which he kept for some time, gives us a very favourable impression of
its disposition and intelligence. The adroitness and rapidity of its
inovements, the variety of attitudes into which it threw itself, when
climbing about the rigging of the vessel in which it was brought
from Singapore, and the vigour and prehensile power of its limbs,
indicated its adaptation to the branches of the forest. Its disposi-
tion was gentle, but animated and lively, and it delighted in playing
frolics. With a little Papuan child on board this Siamang became
very intimate ; they might often be seen sitting near the capstan, the
animal with his long arm round her neck lovingly eating biscuit
together. In his gambols with the child he would roll on deck with
her, as if in mock combat, pushing with his feet (in which action he
possessed great muscular power), his long arms entwined round her,
and pretending to bite. With the Monkeys on board he also seemed
desirous of establishing amicable companionship, evidently wishing
to join them in their gambols ; but as they avoided his company,
probably from fear, he revenged their unsociableness by teasing
them, and pulling their tails at every opportunity. He recognised
his name, and would come to those he knew when called, and soon
became a general favourite, for his liveliness was not accompanied
by the love of mischief. Yet his temper was irritable, and on being
disappointed or confined, he would throw himself into fits of rage,
screaming, rolling about, and dashing everything aside within his
reach : he would then rise, walk about in a hurried manner, and
repeat the scene as before. W^ith the cessation of his fit of anger
he did not abandon his purpose, and often gained his point by
stratagem when he found that violence was of no avail.
When vessels were passed at sea, it was very amusing to see him
take his position on the peak haulyards, and there gaze on the
departing ship till she was out of sight. After this he would descend,
Fig. 79. — White-handed Gibbon.
and resume his sports. One instance of his intelligence is peculiarly
interesting. Among various articles in Mr. Bennett's cabin, a piece
of soap greatly attracted his attention, and for the removal of this
soap he'had been once or twice scolded. One morning Mr. Bennett
36
THE SILVERY AND AGILE GIBBONS.
was writing, the Siamans: being present, in the cabin ; when casting
his eyes towards the animal, he observed him taking the soap. " I
watched him," says the narrator, " without his perceiving that I did
so ; he occasionally cast a furtive glance towards the place where I
sat. I pretended to write ; he, seeing me busily engaged, took up
the soap and moved away with it in his paw. When he had walked
half the length of the cabin, I spoke quietly, without frightening
Fig. So. — silvery Gibbon.
him. The instant he found I saw him, he walked back again, and
deposited the soap nearly in the same place whence he had taken it :
thus betraying, both by his first and last actions, a consciousness of
having done wrong." This animal died when nearing our shores,
to the regret of all the crew.
#^i:^^.i
Fig. 8l. — Agile Gibbon.
White-handed Gibbon {Hylobates lar). — To this species we
refer both the Grand Gibbon and the Petit Gibbon of Buffon. It is
the Simia longimana of Erxlebenj and the Sitnia albimana of Vigors
and Horsfield, the Pithecus lar of Geoffrey, and the Pithccns varie-
gatiis of Geoffroy, Kuhl, and Desmarest. The fur is soft and
woolly ; the colour varies from dirty-brownish, or from yellowish-
white, to deep umber brown or blackish-brown, the crupper being
paler ; the face is encircled by a band of white ; the hands and feet
are white ; the first and second finger arc sometimes united at the
base.
The White-handed Gibbon (see Fig. 79) is a native of Malacca
and Siam ; but of its peculiar habits nothing is ascertained. It is
one of those species which has hitherto been in a state of confusion ;
but from which opportunities of examining numbers of specimens
have enabled us, as we trust, to disentangle it. The collection of
the Zoological Society of London usually possesses one or more of
this species.
Silvery Gibbon, or Wou-wou {Hyloiatcs leiiciscus).—'X\\\?,
Gibbon is a native of Java, where it was met with by M. Muller, who
states that it is called there Oa-oa, from its cry, whence also the
name Wou-wou, which has been given to other species. The fur is
fine, long, close, and woolly ; the general colour is ashy-grey, some-
times slightly tinged with brown, and paler on the lower part of the
back ; the sides of the face are white ; the soles and palms are black.
According to Muller, the tint of grey varies in intensity, and some-
times has a brownish, sometimes a yellowish tone, the face being
encircled with white or light grey. In aged animals the chest
becomes of a blackish colour.
It is to the celebrated anatomist Camper that we owe the recogni-
tion of the Silvery Gibbon, or Wou-wou, as a distinct species. The
specimen which he dissected was brought from one of the Moluccas :
in these islands it is reported to frequent the dense jungles of tall
canes, amongst which it displays astonishing activity. Two or three
living individuals appear at different times to have existed in England.
Of these one belonged to Lord Clive, and is described by Pennant.
It was good-tempered, lively, and frolicsome. Specimens have been
kept in the menagerie of the Zoological Society of London.
Agile Gibbon, also known under the native titles Ungka-puti
and Ungka-etam (Hylobates agilis, F. Cuv. ; Hylobates lar ;
H. RafflcsiiJ.
This interesting Gibbon, of which a front view is given in
Fig. 81, is a native of Sumatra, and owing to certain variations
in colour, to which it is subject, has been formed into two
distinct species — an error now corrected. M. Muller, in refer-
ence to this Gibbon, states that it is curious to observe its
numerous variations. "Two individuals are never precisely
the same ; and we were therefore disposed to conclude, during
the early part of our stay in Sumatra, that there were really
different species of what, as it proved, is but one Hylobates :
for it was only after the examination of individuals of different
colours, and after we had killed many of both sexes and various
ages, that we came to the conclusion that the Oengko-itam,
or Black Oengko, and the Gengko-poetih, or White Gengko, of
the Malayans, were the same species."
The general colour of this species varies from black to
brownish-yellow and yellowish-white ; a white or pale stripe
traverses the brow ; and the sides of the face and throat are
often grey or flaxen : in black or dark individuals the lumbar
region and crupper are usually of a pale rusty-brown or yellow-
ish; the pale individuals have the throat, chest, and abdomen
of a darker brown. The pale-coloured females often produce
black young, and the black as often young of a pale colour.
(See Fig. 82.) We have seen straw-white young. The fur is
soft and woolly : the two first fingers of the feet are united
together at the base.
The Agile Gibbon usually lives in pairs, and is timid and
gentle : its activity and velocity of its movements are wonder-
ful ; it escapes pursuit almost like a bird on the wing. On the
slightest alarm it ascends rapidly to the top of a tree ; it there
seizes a flexible branch, swings itself two or three times to gain
the requisite impetus, and then launches itself forward, re-
peatedly clearing without effort and without fatigue.
Some time ago a female of this species was exhibited in
London. The activity of this animal in the large compart-
ment in which it exercised itself, and the velocity and precision
with which it launched itself from branch to branch, excited
the admiration of all who beheld it. Distances of twelve and
eighteen feet were thus cleared, the Gibbon keeping up a
succession of launches, without intermission and for a great
length of time, and all the while exhibiting an air of noHclui-
lance, as if the feat was of the most easy performance. In
her flight (for so indeed it might be termed), the Gibbon seemed
but to touch the branches with her hands in her progress, the
impetus being acquired during that momentary hold ; and it
could not be doubted that if the animal had been in the enjoy-
ment of liberty in her own native forest, distances far exceedino-
eighteen feet would have formed no interruption to her progress.
It was curious to witness how she could stop in her most rapidflio-ht
when the momentum was at the highest, and it might naturally have
been supposed that a gradual cessation would have been required.
THE AGILE GIBBON— THE IIOOLOOK AND YUEN.
37
Suddenly as thougfht, however, she arrested her progress ; the
branch aimed at being seized by one hand, a rapid and energetic
movement raised the body up ; the branch was then grasped by the
hind hands, and there she sat, quietly gazing at the astonished
spectators of her extraordinary gymnastics. With the same
abruptness did she throw herself into action. Admirable was the
— IV-male Agile Gibbon and Young.
precision with which she calculated her distances and regulated the
impulse necessary to clear intervals varying from four, five, or six,
to eighteen feet : such indeed was her quicltness of eye, that when
apples or other fruits were thrown at her, or so as to pass near her in
her flight, she would catch them without apparent effort, and at the
same time without discontinuing her career.
While exerting her feats of agility, the Gibbon ever and anon
uttered her loud call-notes, consisting of the syllables oo-ah, oo-ah,
in a graduated succession of half-tones, ascending in the scale till an
exact octave was attained, when a rapid series of descending notes,
producing a shake, during the execution of which the lips vibrated
and the whole frame quivered, concluded the strain. The quality of
these notes was not unmusical, but their loudness was deafening as
heard in the apartment, and when uttered by these animals in their
native forests, must resound far through their stilly depths. It is
principally in the morning that the Gibbon exerts the whooping cry,
which is doubtless its call to its mate or companions, and it was at
that time that we heard it. It should be observed that at first the
syllables were slowly and distinctly repeated, and on the same note, E.
As the tones rose in the chromatic scale, the time quickened, till,
gaining the octave, the descent by half-tones was inexpressibly
rapid : this ended, two barks followed, each composed of the high
and low E, sounded nearly together. At the conclusion the animal
was always violently agitated, as if wrought up to a high pitch of
excitement, and shoolc with all her strength the branch to which she
was clinging, or the netting, the cords of which she grasped with
her hands.
The following notes will give a correct idea of the musical call of
this Gibbon : —
Altrgrctto.
Aixi tUrnndtt.
:q=q:
— I—
T^T-
:^-
F — '^ — 1 — \ — H — H-»-J— J— ei i-G— B--
U U L- U U U U
l> U U I.
isdJSS^f^^^
u u u
PreHiiStmo.
, (c (c (c (( (( a (( (( (( ((
E£B=-3E-:z^3:^-ESJFi
a a a
I This interesting animal was timid and gentle ; she greatly pre-
I ferred the presence of females to that of men, and approached them
and received their attentions with pleasure : there is reason to believe
that ill-treatment had made her suspicious of the sex from which she
had experienced injury. She was intelligent and observant, and her
quick eyes seemed to be ever on the watch, scrutinising every person
and observing all that passed around hcrj The muscular pow-cr of
the arms, shoulders, and chest was very great, and the muscles were
finely developed ; the chest was broad, and the shoulders high ; the
reacli of the extended arms was about six feet, and the animal,
when erect, stood about three feet from the heel to the top of the
head. The form and proportions of this Gibbon arc adapted for
arboreal progression, consisting of flying launches from branch to
branch.
The following is a profile view of a male Gibbon.
Fig. 83. — Profile of Male Agile Gibbon.
The remaining species of the Hylobates, or True Gibbons, are
the HOOLOOK {Hylobates Hooiook), and the Yuen {Hylobates
ptlealiis). There is little known as regards their habits, &c. ; but
specimens may be seen in the British Museum. The Hooiook is a
native of Hindostan, has a height of about two feet and a-half, is of a
black colour, and possesses the usual characteristics of the Gibbons.
The Yuen, a native of an island near Camboja, derives its name
from its love of climbing. The male is black ; but there seem to be
varieties as regards their colour, from the description given of them
by Chinese writers.
A careful perusal of the foregoing description of the characters of
the Anthropoid Apes, will place the reader in a position to judge ot
the salient points of the " Evolution or Development" theory, now so
strongly advocated by some of our most eminent naturalists. With
them, man is either an improved Monkey or Ape, or the Ape is a
degenerate man. It is somewhat remarkable, that the uncivilised in-
habitants of the Monkey regions, both in Asia and Africa, have an
idea that the Ape is a specimen of degenerated humanity ; and some
curious reasons have been assigned. In one case the natives say the
Apes were formerly men, but having a great aversion to pay taxes, a
former race ran off into the woods, and by successive degradations
became converted into Apes. Both in Asia and Africa, a general
idea is held, on the part of the "savages," that the Apes and
Monkeys are the progeny of the ancestors of the living race of men ;
and, as such, these animals are held sacred, and on no account are
killed. In the following chapter numerous instances of this kind
will be related. (See p. 39.) .
With us, in Europe, the theorists take the opposite view, and
regard man as an elevated Ape. But without entering into the
details of the theory, it may be remarked, that the relation of the
Apes, Gibbons, Monkeys, and Lemurs to the Bats (as will be seen in
the next two chapters), is one of vci'y gradual degradation, flic
successive steps are slow ; and, in fact, the likeness between each
successive class, where they are connected, is such, that, as in the
case of the Flying Lemur, it has actually been classed with the Bats.
On the other hand, the transition from the highest form of Ape to
the lowest form of man (see pp. 3 -^nd ^- ««^'') '= sudden, viarked,
and decisive. There is no gradation ; and the Evolutionists have yet
to discover species between Man-dom and Ape-dom as will even give
a colour to their theory, whether in regard to the skeleton, organs,
functions, &c., of the Bimana and Quadruntana, as contrasted or
Cpnnected with each other.
38
THE MONKEYS.
CHAPTER IV.
QUADRUMANA — THE MONKEYS (SUB-FAMILY, CYNOMORPHA, OR DOG-LIKE).
HE two previous cliaptcrs have been de-
voted to the description of what are called
Anthropoid, Anth)-omorplious, or Man-
like Apes, including the genera of Tro-
glodytes, Simla, and Hylubatcs. We
next turn to the sub-family of Cynomor-
pha, or Dog-shaped, or Dog-like animals,
which embrace those usually known as
MoNKEVS. It hence appears, that so far as
the old world is concerned — that is, Europe,
Asia, and Africa — the Catarrhi/ia} (see
ajite, p. 2;^) may be divided into two sub-families,
embracing respectively the Man-like and Dog-like
Qiiadrumana. It is to the latter that we have
now to draw attention.
The Cy7ioinorpha, or Monkeys, are so called,
because in many respects they resemble the Dog
in appearance, especially when they go on " all-
fours." In intelligence, however, and, if we may
so say of Monkeys, in their mental character, they
in many respects exceed the Anthropoid. While
full of fun they have the power of affection, by
which they attach themselves to persons or places.
Man can easily teach them a variety of tricks or
"accomplishments," that make them amusing
companions. They are divided into two kinds —
viz., those that have, and those that do not have cheek-pouches. In
the following description of them, they will be divided into five
genera;— viz., i. Semnopltkccl, or Sacred Apes; 2. Colobus, or
Thumbless Monkeys ; 3. Cercopltheci,Qi'Y3\\&A. K-^Q.%; ^. Ulacacus,
or Macaques ; and lastly, 5. the Cynocephalus, or Baboons.
Much difference of opinion has existed as to the classification of
the Monkeys in respect to their species and varieties, owing to the
circumstance of age, &c., changing them at different periods of life.
The species again are very numerous, and spread over a wide area,
embracing India and adjacent islands, and most parts of Africa.
But one European species exists, and that is the Alagof, or Bar-
BARY Ape. Its single station is the Rock of Gibraltar ; there, how-
ever, it is not abundant, only a few animals being now there in a
wild state. For obvious reasons we shall have to restrict our descrip-
tion of the five genera within limits, illustrating the most important
species and their varieties. We shall commence with the Seiiiiio-
^itheci, or Sacred Monkeys.
THE MONKEYS, OR PRESBYTES— SACRED MONKEYS.
(Genus Semnoplthecics.)
The genus Semnopithecus was established by Fred. Cuvier, and
anatomy has confirmed the propriety of this genus, originally estab-
lished upon external characters.
The Generic Characters are as follow : — muzzle depressed ; head
round ; superciliary ridge prominent, and with a row of long stiff
hairs projecting forwards and upwards ; molars crowned with obtuse
tubercles, the last molar of the lower jaw with a fifth tubercle seated
posteriorly; cheek-pouches wanting; laryngal sac large; ischiatic
callosities moderate ; body slender, limbs long and thin ; the thumb
of the hand small, short, almost rudimentary ; stomach large and
liighly sacculated ; intestines long ; tail long and slender; fur soft,
(lowing, and often glossy.
The dental formula (Fig. 84) is as follows : — incisors, -^; canines,
4
'-Hi. ; molars, i^.
i-i 5-5
The incisors are small ; the canines large.
broad, and compressed ; the molars are bluntly tuberculate ; and as
they wear down, the surface shows the enamel very distinct and
deeply indented. We have already noticed the dentition of the
Qiiadrumana at p. 23, ante. The skull (Fig. 85) may be charac-
terised as round, the orbits large and squared, with an abruptly
prominent superciliary ridge, and with boldly projecting margins ;
the inter-orbital space is broad, and the face depressed ; the lower
jaw, however, is very deep, and the space for the masseter muscle
considerable ; the chin recedes obliquely. The hands of the Semno-
pitheci are remarkable for their elongation and narrowness, and for
the almost rudimentary condition of the thumb, which cannot be
brought into action as an antagonist to the fingers ; the feet also are
narrow and elongated, but the thumb is stout and well developed.
There are no cheek-pouches, as in the ordinary Monkeys, but a
large laryngal sac extends over the whole of the throat, communi-
cating with the larynx (windpipe) by means of a large aperture.
The stomach is sacculated in an extraordinary manner, the sacculi
Fig. 84.— Teeth of Monkey.
being in all probability preparatory receptacles for the vegetable
aliment, which undergoes digestion in an elongated pyloric portion.
Cuvier calls the Setnnoplthecl Slow Monkeys ; but it is only in a
certain sense that they merit the title. The length and slendemess
of the limbs and body detract, if not from their agility, at least in
some degree from the abruptness of their movements, which have a
Fig. 85.— Skull and Canine Tooth of Monkey.
more sweeping character than those of the Cercoplthect. Nevcrthe.
less, they leap and bound among the branches of their native forests
with great ease, and to vast distances, their long tail acting as a
THE SACRED AND PROBOSCIS MONKEYS.
39
director or balancer in their motions. Less lively, less petulant, and,
perhaps, less inquisitive than tlio Ccrcopithcci, they appear at times
as if oppressed with melancholy, and in captivity, at least, sit in
listless apathy. While young- they arc very gentle ; but when adult
they become sullen, morose, and vindictive ; and their long canines
render them truly formidable. In their native regions they associate
in troops. In some parts of India, certain species, as the Eiitcllus,
are regarded as sacred, and tolerated notwithstanding their depre-
dations. Many species attain to considerable dimensions.
The Senuiopithcc! zxii all natives of India and its islands, and the
Malay Peninsula. As already stated, this genus is held sacred in
many parts of India. The species that holds the most prominent
position in this respect is the Hoonuman.
The Entellus, or IIoonujian, or H.VNUsrAN {Sctiniopithecus
cntelliis). — This Monkey is found throughout the whole southern
part of India, and in some parts in great abundance. It is so called
after a certain important personage of the same name in Hindoo
Mythology, and is held in reverence accordingly, but not by the
people of Mahratta, where it is called Makur. It occurs in large
troops in the woods of the Western Ghauts. In Lower Bengal,
where it makes its appearance towards the latter end of winter (for it
would seem that it migrates from the upper to the lower provinces,
and vice versa in this part of India), the pious Brahmins venerate it,
supply it with food, and zealously endeavour to prevent its molesta-
tion by Europeans. According to Dr. Fryar, and others, these
Monkeys, in Malabar, towards Ceylon, and at the straits of Balagat,
are deified. At Dhuboy (see Forbes's " Oriental Memoirs "), they
are, if not worshipped, protected, from motives of humanity to the
brute creation, and a general belief in metempsychosis. According
Enltllus, or Hoonuman.
to the latter author there are as many Monkeys as human inhabitants
in Dhuboy, and the roofs and upper parts of the houses seem entirely
appropriated to their accommodation. To strangers they are un-
bearably annoying. Fig. 86 represents the Hoonuman.
In Dhuboy, if a man wish to revenge himself on his neighbour for
any insult or injury, he takes the opportunity, just before the
periodical rains (about the middle of June) set in, and when the tiles
have been adjusted to meet that season, of repairing to his neigh-
bour's roof, and scattering over it a quantity of rice, or other grain.
This is soon discovered by the Monkeys, who not only devour it, but
pull up all the tiles in search of what has fallen through the crevices.
At this critical juncture the rain commences ; no one can be found
to reset the tiles ; the house is deluged, the furniture ruined, and the
depositaries of grain, generally formed of unbaked earth, soaked
through by the falling torrent.
The celebrated banian-tree, on the banks of the Nerbuddah, is
tenanted by hosts of Monkeys and myriads of Snakes, The antics
and gambols of the former are very amusing ; if they ever suffer
from the Snakes, they repay the poor reptiles with interest. When
they see one asleep, twined round a branch, they seize it by the
neck, and, descending, run to the nearest stone, and on it commence
to grmd down the reptile's head, frequently looking at it and
grmning at their progress. When convinced that its fangs are
destroyed, they toss it, writhing with pain, to their young, and seem
to rejoice in its destruction.
t ^"I'^'^ii? ^"'^"'^ °^ ^^''- f'"'tics, on a shooting excursion, killed a
lemale Monkey under tliis tree, and carried it to his tent, which was
soon surrounded by forty or fifty of the tribe, who made a great
noise, and with .ncnacing gestures advanced towards it. On pre-
senting his fowling-piece, they hesitated and appeared irresolute,
f ;i,°"u' "^ *'''°"^ '"^ ^^^ ^"'^ station in the van appeared to be
at the head of the troop, stood his ground chattering and menacin"-
in a furious manner, nor could any cilorts less cruel than fnin"-
drive him off. He at length approached the tent door, and by every
token of grief and supplication seemed to beg the body of the
deceased, which was then given to him ; with every token of sorrow
he took it up in his arms, embraced it with conjugal affection, and
carried it off to his expecting comrades. The artless behaviour of
this poor animal wrought so powerfully on the sportsmen, that they
resolved never to level a gun again at one of the Monkey race.
The Kahau, or Yv.ov.O'&ci-s'Mo'iiv.YM {Scmnopithccus larvatus,
or Scmno. Nasalis).—1\\\^ <;n'-ri,-s is the Guciton a loiixuc ficz of
Fig. S7. — Adult Kah.au.
Buffon, the Nasalis larva fits o{ Gso^iroy, and the Nasa/is rccurvus
(young) of Vigors and Horsfield. (See Fig. 87.) This Monkey is
remarkable for the uncouth development of the nose, forming a
sort of proboscis capable of dilatation, with the nasal apertures under-
neath the bent-down apex, and divided from each other by a thin
cartilage ; along the upper surface of this singular organ runs a
longitudinal depression, indicating the division between the two
canals. The cars, which are small, and the face, together with the
Fig. 8S. — Face of Adult Kahau. F:g. S9. — Face of young Kr.li.iu.
Fig. 90. — Nose of adult Kahau,
seen from beneath.
Fig. 91. — Skull of Kahau.
palms, are of a leaden colour, with a slight tinge of yellow ; the neck
is short ; the throat swollen from the enormous lar}-ngal sac. On
the sides of the neck and shoulders the hair is long, compared with
that of the rest of the body. The top of the head, the occiput, and
40
BLACK-CRESTED MONKEY, BUDENG, AND DOUC.
the scapular portion of the back, are of a rich chestnut-brown ; the
sides of the face and a stripe over the shoulders are yellow ; the
general colour of the body is fine sandy-red. The crupper, the tail,
the fore-arms, and legs are cinereous ; the under parts are yellow ;
the tail is somewhat tufted at the tip. A full beard in the male
advances forward, and curls up under the chin, almost to the long
nose. In the young, regarded by some naturalists as a distinct
species, the nose is somewhat recurved, and shorter than in the
adult. That this distinction is not specific, as we formerly believed,
we have fully satisfied ourselves by the examination of specimens in
Paris. Figs. 88, 89, and 90, represent the face of the adult Kahau ;
that of the young ; and the nose of the adult as seen from beneath.
Fig. 91 is the skull of the Kahau ; it has all the characters of a true
Scm tiop ithecus.
The male Kahau is remarkable for size and strength, and, from the
magnitude of the canines, must be a formidable animal. The female,
however, is considerably smaller — a circumstance noticed by Wurmb,
who says these Monkeys " associate in large troops ; their cry, which
is deep-toned, resembles the word kahau. They assemble morning
and evening, at the rising and setting of the sun, along the borders
of rivers, and are to be seen on the branches of lofty trees, where
they offer an agreeable spectacle, darting with great rapidity from
one tree to another at the distance of fifteen or twenty feet. 1 have
not observed that they hold their nose while leaping, as the natives
affirm, but I have seen that they then stretch out their paws in a
remarkable manner. They are of different sizes ; some, indeed,
are seen which are not above a foot in height, but which yet have
young."
The Kahau, as far as is known with certainty, is a native only of
Borneo : perhaps it is to be found also in Sumatra. M. Geoffroy
states it to inhabit the Malay Peninsula, but we are not aware that
it has ever been seen there. The adult male measures 2 feet in
the length of the head and body, and 2 feet 4 inches in that of the
tail. It has never been brought alive to Europe.
The Black-crested Monkey {Senuiopithccus ?nelalophos ;
Fig. 92. — Black- crested Monkey.
Cimcpaye, or Siinpai of F. Cuvier, not Raffles). — This slender and
beautiful species is a native of Sumatra (Fig. 92). The head is small ;
the fur is long, soft, falling, and glossy ; the top of the head is orna-
mented with a long compressed crest. The general tint is a fine
bright golden rust colour, pure and rich on the limbs, but slightly
washed with a dusky tint on the back ; the abdomen and inside of
the limbs are paler than the other parts. The crest is washed with
a dusky tinge, passing into black at the tip. A black or blackish
line, beginning over the eyes, passes across the temples, and turning
up over each ear, merges into the colour of the crest. The skin of
the face is dusky-bluish ; the palms, soles, and nails are black.
Length of head and body, i foot 8 inches ; of tail, 2 feet 8 inches. It
is said to be extremely active, and to tenant the remote parts of the
forest ; but of its exclusive habits nothing is known.
The Budeng, or Negro Monkey {Semtzopithecus maurus). —
The Budeng is a native of Java ; the general colour is black ; the fur
is long and silky ; the hairs, diverging from the crown of the head,
conceal the ears. The young, after birth, are of a pale reddish-
j-ellow ; first a grey discoloration appears on the hands ; then this
begins gradually to spread, extending to the shoulders and sides ; as
it spreads it becomes darker, and at last passes into black (Fig. 93).
The Budeng, according to Dr. Horsfield, is grave, sullen, and
morose : it is abundant in the extensive forests of Java, where it
associates in large troops, often of more than fifty individuals. On
the approach of man they set up loud screams, and so violent and
incessant are their motions, that decayed branches are often detached
and precipitated on the spectators. The natives chase them for the
sake of their fur, which is jet black, silky, and employed in riding
equipages and military decorations. They are seldom kept alive,
from the sullenness of their temper, which renders them anything
but agreeable. While young they feed on the tender leaves of plants
and trees ; but w^hen adult, on wild fruits of every description.
Fig. 93. — Budeng and Young.
The Douc, or Duk {Scm7iopHheais iiemaus, F. Cuv.) Py-
gathrix iiemcsits, Geoffr. ; Lasiopyga iiemaiis ; Presbyfes iiemcsus.
— The Douc, a genuine example of the genus Sernnopitliecus, is one
of the most beautiful, if not the most beautiful, of all the Monkey
race. We give the following description from a fine adult male in
Fig. 94. — Ccchin-Chjna Monkey.
the Paris Museum. The face is naked, and of an orange colour,
surrounded by full long whiskers of a glossy whiteness ; the fur of the
forehead is blackish, passing into delicate grizzled grc) , which is
THE GUEREZA AND WHITE-THIGIIED COLO BUS.
41
the colour of the whole head, the back, the sides, and abdomen,
each hair having- annulations of white and dusky black to the number
of eleven or twelve. From the eyebrows to the cars extends a pencil
of chestnut red ; the throat is white ; a band, or sorget, of chestnut
red, extends across the top of the chest from shoulder to shoulder,
succeeded by a band of black spreading over the top of each shoulder.
The fore-arms, the tail, and a square patch above its root are of a
snowy white. The knees, the legs, and the tarsal portion of the feet
are of a rich chestnut ; the fingers, the toes, and the tliighs are
black ; space round the callosities, white ; callosities and naked skin
of the palms, yellow. Fur, full and soft. Length of head and body
to root of tail, 2 feet i inch. Native country, Cochin-China. (See
Fiff- 94)
The Douc has never been brought alive to Europe, and of its
habits and manners we have but meagre information. Bezoar-stones
are said to be frequently found in its stomach, a proof that it is sac-
culated, as in the other Semnopitheci, and also in the Colobi.
It has been stated that these animals live in troops, more or less
numerous, in the vast woods which cover the country along the shore ;
and their manners are certainly far from being wild, as has been
supposed. They are, indeed, little troubled by the presence of man,
and often come near to the habitations of the Cochin-Chinese, who
appear to offer them but little molestation, and do not attempt to
draw from the beautiful fur of the Doucs all the advantages which
might be obtained from such a source.
Though Buffon, on the authority of M. de Poivre, gave the name
of Douc to this species, as its native appellation, nevertheless it
would seem that such is not the term by which it is known in Cochin-
China. M. Rey, the captain of a French merchantman, who visited
that country in i8i9-'20, informs us that these Monkeys are there
called Venam, which, he says, signifies " men of the woods." M.
Rey had no difEculty in killing numbers of them ; but it was not
without great trouble that he succeeded in capturing living indi-
viduals. So numerous were they, that on one occasion, in the course
of a few hours, a hundred were slaughtered. Desirous, however, of
taking some alive, for the purpose of transporting them, if possible,
to France, he set to work in earnest. In the attempt many were shot
dead, and others wounded ; and as they fell, the survivors collected
round the dead and dying, endeavouring to carry them off into the
deeper parts of the forest. Three young ones were ultimately secured,
which held so fast round the bodies of their dams, that it required no
small effort to detach them. They did not reach France alive. M.
Rey remarks that this species of Monkey greatly resembles the
Orang-Outan in stature and inoffensive manners, inhabiting the
mountains and tops of the loftiest trees, and living on fruit. Its fur
he describes as being exceedingly fine. Some of the males measured,
when standing upright, about 4 feet 4 inches in height.
There are some other species of the Semnoj>itheci, of which, how-
ever, but little is known, and of which the limits of our space forbid
description and illustration.
The Monkeys.— Genus Colobus, or Colobos.
The Monkeys of this genus are restricted exclusively to Africa : in
all respects they resemble the Semiiopitheci ; but the thumb, which
in the latter is small, is in these wanting or reduced to a mere nail-
less tubercle — hence the name Colobus, or stunted, from the Greek.
What the Semiiopitheci zxe. in India, the Colobi 3.Te. in Africa. Till
lately only two species were known ; but the list now contains
F''S' 95- — Guereza.
several accredited species, to which others will no doubt be added
as we extend our researches in Western Africa, along the borders of
the Gambia, and the island of Fernando Po.
The Gukreza (Colobus Gucrcza ).—Ocncra.\ colour black ; sides
of the body and top of the loins ornamanted with long pendent white
hairs, forming a fringe-like mantle ; face encircled by white ; tail
ending in a white tuft. Native country, South and West Abyssinia.
(See Fig. 95.)
The Guereza, which is the Abyssinian name of this species, lives,
according to Riippell, in small families, tenanting the lofty trees in
the neighbourhood of running waters. It is active and lively, and at
the same time gentle and inoffensive. Its food consists of wild fruits,
grain, and insects. It is only found in the provinces of Godjam,
KuUa, and Damot — more especially in the latter, where it is hunted
by the natives, who consider it a mark of distinction to possess a
buckler covered with its skin, the part used being that covered with the
long flowing white hairs. Ludolph (in the " Hist, .^thiop.," lib. i.)
Fig. 96.— White-thighed Colobus.
has made express allusion to this animal, but he figures a different
species under its name — a circumstance of by no means uncommon
occurrence in classifying Monkeys.
The White-thighed Colobus fColobus leticoiMrus, Ogilby).
— This beautiful Monkey is a native of the banks of the Gambia.
The fur is long, fine, silky, and shining ; the general colour is
black ; a white frontal band spreads from the forehead over the
whiskers on the sides of the face, and passing down occupies the
throat, so that the face is surrounded with white, which is narrowest
Fij. 97. — FuU-maned ColuLus.
on the forehead. The hairs covering the thighs externally are white,
more or less mixed with black, and gradually merging into the
general hue. The tail is long, and of a snowy white. (Fig. 97.)
G
42
THE GUENONS.
The White-tliighed Colobus has never been observed by European
travellers in its native forest ; the skins, mostly imperfect and
wanting the head, are brought down by the negroes from the interior
for the purposes of barter.
The Full-maned Colobus (Colobus j)olycomos). FuU-
bottomed Monkey, Pennant : Giicnon d Caiiiail, Buffon. — The full-
maned (Cloaked, or Many-haired) Colobus is a native of the
forest of Sierra Leone : it is called by the natives, " the king of the
Monkeys," on account of the beauty of its colours, and the caniail,
which represents a sort of diadem. (See Fig. 97.) Its fur is in high
estimation, and applied to different ornamental purposes. The
head and upper part of the body are covered with long hairs falling
over the head and shoulders, forming a sort of mane-like hood
and pelerine, whence the name given to it by Buffon. Pennant's
title is in allusion to the full-bottomed periwig worn in his day.
These long hairs are mingled yellow and black ; the face is brown ;
the body covered with short jet-black hair ; the tail is snowy white,
and tufted.
Tejiminck's Colobus {Colobus Temminckii, Kuhl, " Beitr.,"
1820).— The top of the head is black, as is also the occiput, which
latter is slightly sprinkled with rufous ; the back and the outside of
the humerus and of the thighs are of a sooty black, with a tinge of
Fig. 9S. — Temrainck's Colobus,
slate-blue. The sides of the face, the chest, the sides of the humerus,
and the whole of the fore-arms are of a rufous colour, which becomes
deeper and brighter on the hands ; the anterior part of the thighs,
the knees, and the legs are also rufous, the feet being of a deeper
hue ; the throat, together with a line along the chest and abdomen,
are of a sandy-yellow ; the middle of the chest and of the abdomen
is abruptly of a dirty yellowish-white, varying to white ; the tail at
the base is black, with rufous hairs intermixed ; it then assumes a
chestnut red or rufous colour, becoming again darker at the extre-
mity ; an obscure dusky line runs along the whole of its upper
surface. The naked skin of the face is brown, with a tinge of red
purple ; the palms and soles are of a purplish black. It was on a
very pale-coloured and aged female of this species in the Museum
of the Zoological Society, London (26, Cat., " Mamm.," 1838),
brought from the river Gambia, that Mr. Ogilby founded his Colobus
fuliginosus , afterwards termed by him C. r'ufo-fiilighius.
The original of Kuhl's description was formerly in Bullock's
museum. With respect to the native country of this species, it is
now ascertained to be Gambia. Length of head and body, 2 feet 2
inches ; of tail, 2 feet 6 inches. Nothing relative to the habits and
manners of this species, as it exists in its native forests, has been
collected.
The Monkeys — Genus Cercojiiihecus — or Guenons.
In this genus, which is an extensive one, and includes at least
twenty species, are comprehended the ordinary long-tailed Monkeys,
or Guenons, of Africa. The muzzle is moderately prominent ; the
facial angle 45° to 50° (see ante, p. 4) ; the head is round ; the
superciliary ridge moderate ; the molar teeth are crowned with acute
tubercles ; the last molar of the lower jaw with only four tubercles :
there are ample cheek-pouches ; the laryngal sac is variable ;
ischiatic callosities moderate ; general contour light, but vigorous ;
limbs muscular ; stomach simple ; tail long ; the hairs composing
the fur annulated.
The Cercopitheci are all restricted to the African continent ; but
one species only, the Vervet {C. pygerythrus, or C. lalandii, and
one species of Baboon, the Chacma), inhabits Africa south of the
Capricorn. These animals are arboreal in their habits ; they tenant
the wild forests that skirt the rivers, and associate in troops, beingf
gregarious in their habits. Their actions are full of energy ; their
disposition is restless, petulant, and inquisitive. During infancy
they are gentle, but as age advances they become irascible and
malicious. Their displeasure is expressed by grinning and chatter-
ing ; and though they seldom venture to make a decided attack, yet,
collected in troops in their native woods, they endeavour to harass
and annoy intruders within their territorial domains, and are not
to be repelled without difficulty. Their diet is almost exclusively
frugiverous ; and they often commit great havoc in the fields of
grain adjacent to the wooded districts ; and that, not only by what
they devour on the spot, but also by what they carry away in their
cheek-pouches, which extend below the angle of the lower jaw, and
which, when an opportunity occurs, they cram with food to be eaten
at leisure. In these Guenons the thumb of the fore-hands 's more
Fig. 99. — Teeth of Guenons.
developed than in the Semiiopitheci, and the hands themselves
are shorter, and have better pretensions to the title than the long
slender graspers of their Asiatic relatives. The dental formula
is as follows: — Incisors A, canines i-^, molars 5^l5 = 72. Of
4 i-i S-S
these the canines (see Fig. 99) are very large, compressed, with a
sharp cutting edge posteriorly.
The Mona (Cercopithecus Mona). La Mone of Buffon ; the
Varied Ape oiVst^xnaxit. (See Fig. 100.) — The hairs annulated with
grey, yellow, and black, or with red and black, producing the various
tints of the fur. Head of yellowish-olive colour ; a black frontal
stripe above the eyebrows is surmounted by another of a whitish tint,
more conspicuous in some individuals than in others ; back, chestnut-
brown ; haunches and limbs, externally, dusky black ; tail black, with
a white spot on each side of its origin on the crupper ; under parts
and inside of limbs white ; whiskers very full, of a yellowish tint,
slightly washed with black ; skin of orbits and cheeks, bluish-purple ;
lips flesh-coloured; ears and head of a livid flesh-colour; length
of head and body, i foot 8J inches ; tail, i foot 1 1 inches. The Mona
is a native of Western Africa (Guinea), but of its manners in a state
of nature little is known. It bears our climate better than most of its
congeners : we have observed many adults in captivity, and always
found them savage and irritable.
The term Mone, or Mona, is of Arabic origin, and is the Moorish
THE DIANA AND GREEN MONKEYS.
43
name for all long-tailed Monkeys indiscriminately, From Northern
Africa the term passed into Spain, Portugal, and Provence ; nor has
it stopped here : it is evidently the root of our word Monkey, which
has exactly the same meaning, but wliicli has been supposed to be a
corruption of the word monikin, or inauakin. To say no more, it
seems going out of the way to seek in our own language for the
Fig. loo. — Mona.
name of a foreign animal, with which our Saxon forefathers, and
indeed ourselves, till at a comparatively late era, were unacquainted,
and which, when imported, was so with the name also, by which it
was known to the people from whom it was originally obtained.
The Diana Monkey {Ccrcopithecus Diana). Le Rohzvay ott
Palati)ie of Buffon ; the Palatine and Spotted Monkey of Pennant
and Shaw. — The top of the head, the back of the neck, the shoulders,
sides, and middle of the body are of a deep grizzled ashy grey ; the
hairs being annulated with white and black, and white at the lips.
This grey tint darkens into black on the hands ; the tail is grey, be-
coming black at the extremity ; a crescent-shaped line of long white
hairs (surmounting a band of dusky black), and resembling Dian's
silver bow, has suggested the animal's name. The sides of the face
are covered with long, bushy, white hairs, which merge on the chin
into a long, thin, flat, and pointed beard. The front of the neck and
the anterior part of the humerus are white ; the latter with an abrupt
line of dcmarkation. (See Fig. loi.)
Fig. loi. — Diana Monkeys.
On the middle of the back commences a mark of deep chestnut,
which gradually widens as it descends to the root of the tail, forming
an elongated triangle with the base on the crupper. A line of white,
beginning at the root of the tail, runs obliquely along the outer side
of each thigh to the knee ; the lower part of the abdomen and the
inner side of the thighs are abruptly of an orange-yellow, orange-red,
or bright rust colour. The face is long and triangular, and, together
with the ears, intensely black. Length of head and body about
2 feet; of tail, about 2 feet 4 inches. This richly-coloured Monkey is
a native of Guinea, Congo, and Fernando Po. It is very rarely
brought alive to Europe ; nor indeed are its skins common in collec-
tions. We have observed only one specimen in the Paris Museum,
from the Gold Coast. Three specimens were in the collection of the
Zoological Society, London. Of these, one died some years since in
the menagerie of the Society : the other two were brought from Fer-
nando Po. Of the habits of the Diana in its own forests we know
nothing. While young, in captivity it is gentle, active, familiar, and
very playful : its frontal crest, and "beard of formal cut," give a
singular aspect to its physiognomy. The latter it has been observed
to be solicitous in keeping neat and clean, holding it back when
about to drink, lest it should dip into the ffdid. Considering the
range of country through which this species is spread, the scarcity
of this Monkey in the menageries and collections of Europe is rather
surprising.
The Green Monkey {Cercopithecns sabrntis, or Ccrco. calli-
frichtis). The St. Jago Monkey of Edwards; Le Callitriche of
Buffon ; Cere, viridis of Hermann. — The general colour of the upper
parts is olive-green, the hairs being annulated with black and yellow ;
on the outer side of the limbs a greyish tint prevails ; the hands and
feet are grey ; the under surface of the body and inside of the limbs
are white, with a faint tinge of yellow. The hairs on the side of the
face are full and long, and directed up towards the ears, spreading
Fig. 102. — Green Monkey.
in the manner of a frill; their colour, with that of the hairs of the
throat, is bright but delicate yellow. The tail is olive-green above,
passing into yellow at the tip ; the face, ears, and palms are black.
(See Fig. 102.)
The Green Monkey is a native of Senegal and the Cape de Verd
Islands. It is most probable that this is the species to which Adan-
son refers, under the name of Singe verte, as being abundant in the
woods of Podor, along the Niger; and of which he killed twenty-
three in less than an hour, and in the space of twenty fathoms, without
one of them having uttered a single cry, although they collected
several times, knitting their brows, gnashing their teeth, and making
demonstrations of an intended attack. (" Voy. au Senegal," by M.
Adanson, 1757.)
In captivity the Green Monkey is alert, active, and intelligent, but
spiteful and malicious. F. Cuvier, however, describes an adult which
was good-tempered, gentle, and familiar, and expressed pleasure on
being caressed : such exceptions are rare.
Fig. 103. — The Lesser \Yliite-nosed Monkey.
The Lesser White-nosed Monkey {^Cercopithecus petau-
rista). Blanc-ncz of AUamand ; Ascagiie of F. Cuvier and
Audebert.
44
THE MANGABEY AND THE MACAQUES.
There are two distinct species of White-nosed Monkey, both
natives of the forests of Guinea ; of these, one is the Hochcur of
Audebert, the Winking Monkey of Pennant, the Cercopithcais
nictitans of Geoffrey. "The general colour of the Hocheur is black,
freckled with white ; the limbs are black ; the whiskers, of the
general colour, are ample ; the chin is beardless ; the nose, which
is broad and elevated, is white from between the eyes to the nostrils
The Lesser White-nosed Monkey, or ^/a;/c-««(see Fig. 103), has
only the lower half of the nose white, but this colour extends to the
adjacent part of the upper lip ; the face is covered with short black
hairs, those on the cheek-bone having a fulvous tinge ; the whiskers
and beard are white, as also the throat, chest, and abdomen. A
streak of black hair runs from the face below the ear, and loses itself
on the top of the shoulder ; and between this black line and the hairs
of the head, a conspicuous streak of white runs below the ears. The
general colour of the back and head is reddish olive-brown ; the
hairs being ranged with fulvous and black. A band across the
forehead above the eyes, and a band traversing the top of the head
from ear to ear, are black ; a grey tint prevails on the limbs, deepen-
ing to dusky black on the hands and feet. Tail dusky grey above,
white beneath. Length of head and body, about i foot 4 or 5
inches ; of the tail, i foot 9 or 10 inches.
This species is common in Guinea, and is frequently brought to
Europe, but does not well endure our uncongenial climate. It is
gentle, graceful, and intelligent, but not without a mi.xture of the
caprice and petulance of its race. The lightness and agility of its
actions, its playfulness, and beauty, certainly render it very attrac-
tive ; but it dislikes to be taken hold of or interfered with : so that
though as docile as most Monkeys, it becomes familiar only to a
certain extent. A Bla7ic-nez in the possession of AUarnand,
though usually good-tempered and sportive, became angry if inter-
rupted while feeding, and also when mockery was made of it. We
have observed a sensitiveness to ridicule or mockery in other species,
and a strong desire to resent the insult, which is evidently felt.
The Mangabey, or Collared White -eyelid Monkey
[/Sthiops torquatus). Cercoccbiis ^thiops, Geoff. ; Cercopithectis
^thiops, Kuhl. — In Martin's " Natural History of Quadrupeds," a
sub-genus termed .iEthiops is there proposed for two, if not three
Fig. 104. — The Collared White-eyelid Monkey.
closely-allied species (the White-eyelid Monkeys), which differ on
tangible grounds from th&Cercopztkeci — namely, in the presence of a
fifth tubercle on the lower jaw ; the magnitude of thg upper middle
incisors ; and the hairs being destitute of annulations. For these
Monkeys, with other Guenons by no means closely allied to them,
Geoffrey proposed his genus Cercocebus — a genus, the indeterminate
characters of which, from the incongruity of the species thus brought
together, was perceived by Desmarest, who, unwilling to sink it,
endeavoured to reform it by the removal of some species and the
addition of others : so that the genus as instituted by the one natu-
ralist, and that remodelled by the other, were two different assem-
blages ; and the characters of both equally vague and indefinite. It
therefore seems best to sink the genus altogether, and place the
White-eyelid Monkeys in a separate sub-genus, to which the title
jEthiops has been already applied. (See Fig. 104.)
The Collared ^Vhite-eyelid Monkey (the Mangabey a Collier of
Buffon and F. Cuvier), like the Sooty White-eyelid Monkey, is a
native of Western Africa. The general colour is fuliginous or sooty
black, passing into black on the limbs and hands. The top of the
head is chestnut-coloured ; the whiskers, throat, and collar round the
neck are white. The upper eyelids are conspicuously dead-white.
The native habits of this Monkey are not known : in captivity it is
gentle, active, and familiar, and testifies, by a sort of jabber and grin,
its recognition of those for whom it has a partiality. We have ob-
served many individuals, and have found them to be among the most
diverting of their race. They would play a number of amusing
tricks in order to attract the attention of bystanders, and gain a
share of the nuts and biscuits they saw dealt out to their companions ;
and they testified their gratitude by a quick vibratory movement of
the lips, producing a jabbering noise. When offended, their ill-
temper was transient, and they soon became reconciled to the object
of their anger. In their gambols with other Monkeys they were
invariably good-natured. The Mangabey unites the Ccrcopithcci
and the Macaci, next to be described.
The Monkeys— Genus Macacus — or Macaques.
The distinctions between the genus Macacus and Cercopifhccus,
though in some points definite, are in others rather variations in
degree than anything positive. In the Macaques, or Macaci, the
body is stouter, the head larger in proportion, the limbs more
muscular, and the tail shorter than in the Guenons. The muzzle is
heavy ; the forehead is flattened behind a bold superciliary ridge ;
the callosities are large, and mostly surrounded by a naked space of
skin. There are ample cheek-pouches, and Cuvier states that a
laryngal sac is always present. The last molar of the lower jaw has
a fifth tubercle, and the molars are broad (see Fig. 105). The tail is
Fig. 105. — Teeth of Macicus.
variable : in some it is of considerable length, and in these the
general form approaches to that of the Guenons. In others again
it is short and slender ; and in others it is reduced to a mere tubercle.
The ears are angular. The Macaques are all natives of Asia. Like
the Guenons, which they seem to represent, the long-tailed species
tenant the forest in troops, and are remarkable for activity and im-
pudence. Emboldened by tolerance, they become in many places
very audacious, pillaging the garden and fields of grain, and their
rapacity is seconded by address and cunning.
The Toque, or Radiated Macaque {Macacus radiatus). —
This species is the Bontiei Chinois of Buffon ; the Simia Sinica of
Gmelim ; tlie Toque of F. Cuvier.
The forehead is abruptly depressed behind the superciliary ridge,
which is very bold ; the skin of the forehead is transversely wrinkled,
and covered with short hairs, diverging laterally on each side from
the middle longitudinal line. These hairs are continued round the
temples, following the projection of the superciliary ridge, and occu-
pying the space before the ears. A circular cap of rather long hair,
THE TOQUE, SHUNDER, WANDEROO, AND MAG02.
45
radiating from the centre, is seated flat on the crown. The muzzle is
prominent, and the physiognomy malicious ; the form is robust ; the
tail generally long. The general colour is greenish olive-grey, the
hairs being annulated (or ring-formed) with dusky-black and pale
yellow • the under surface is ashy-white ; the ears are large and flesh-
coloured, with straggling long grey hairs. The limbs are of a paler
tint than the back. The sides of the face and throat are thinly clad
with greyish hairs ; the naked skin of the face is of a tanned flesh-
colour. ^ , „
The Toque is one of the commonest of the Macaques in our mena-
Fig. io6. — Toque.
g'eries, and appears to be widely disrtibuted throughout India. It is
found in Malabar. It inhabits the Western Ghauts, where it is
called Waanur by the Mahrattas : it is abundant in Madras, and
even in the southern regions of Nepal. In the Mahratta country,
portions of the mighty forest are, as Mr. Elliot states, left untouched
by the axe or knife, forming an impervious shade for the growth of
the black pepper, cardamom, and maripalm {Caryota urens).
These parts, called kans, are the favourite resort of wild animals :
here the Entellus abounds, and its loud and piercing cries may be
frequently heard sounding through the dense foliage : the Radiated
Macaque, also, which is common over the whole country, may be
seen in troops, tenanting the wildest jungles. It is not, however,
confined to these woodland recesses : it lives, as if at home, in the
most popular towns, where it carries off fruit and grain with the
greatest coolness and address, and commits incessant petty depreda-
tions. The e.xamplesof this species which we have seen in captivity,
have been all remarkable for intelligence and activity, and equally
so for petulance when young, and irascibility — even ferocity —
when adult. We have seen them display every mark of rage
against persons who did not appear to give any definite offence.
Numbers of these animals are kept in the Hindoo temples, where
they are exceedingly jealous of intruders of any other species, which
they drive forth from their asylum with the utmost hostility — a circum-
stance witnessed by M. de Maisonpre in the enclosures of the pago-
das of Cherinan.
The Bhunder, Rhesus, or Patas (Macacus Rhesus). This is
Fig. 107. — Bhunder.
the Patas a queue courte of Buffon ; the Maiinon, or Rhesus, of
F. Cuvier. (See Fig. 107.)
The general colour of the fur is olive-green, with a wash of brown
on the back ; the crupper and thighs, externally, orange-red ; the face
orange-red. The tail short. The skin of the throat and abdomen
is loose, and usually hangs in folds. The Bhunder is a native of
India, and is very abundant on the banks of the Ganges, being
greatly reverenced by the Hindoos. It swarms not only in the woods,
but in towns and villages, tenanting the tops of the houses. It
would appear, from the account of Mr. Johnson, in his " Indian Field
Sports," that in some places ample provision is made for the support
of these animals. At Bindrabun, a town near the holy city of
Muttra, more than a hundred gardens arc cultivated, and all kinds
of fruits grown, at the expense of pious and wcaltliy natives, for
their supply. Not content with remaining outside the houses, they
boldly invade the rooms, and steal everything that tempts them,
such as bread, sugar, fruit, &c., ransacking every place in their
search. To injure one is not only to bring down the vengeance of
the whole host, but, what is more, of the besotted natives, as was
experienced by two young officers who imprudently fired, while on a
sporting excursion, at one of these Monkeys. They were mounted on
an Elephant, and no sooner was the profane assualt committed, than
the inhabitants of Bindrabun rose incensed to the highest degree :
they pelted the gentlemen and the Elephant w-ith bricks and stones,
and drove them into the river : the two officers and the driver were
drowned ; but the Elephant landed about six miles lower down the
river, and was saved. In the district of Cooch Bahar, a large tract
of country is considered by the natives as in part the property of
these Monkeys ; and therefore, when they cut the grain, they leave
a tenth part piled in heaps for these creatures, which come down
from the hills and carry off their allotted tithes. In captivity, the
Rhesus, or Bhunder, displays cunning and sagacity ; but is at the
same time obstinate, savage, and irascible.
The Wanderoo ('Macacus stlenusj. Ouanderou and Lowando,
Buffon ; Lion-tailed Baboon, Pennant and Shaw. (See Fig. 108.)
The general colour of this species is black ; the tail is of moderate
Fig. loS. — Wanderoo.
length, and tufted at the tip ; the face is encircled by a mane of long
hairs of a whitish or light ash colour, sometimes pure white ; the face
is black ; the callosities flesh-coloured.
This large and powerful Macaque is a native of Malabar and
Ceylon. Knox, in his historical relation of Ceylon, evidently
describes this animal. They are, he says, " as large as our Englisli
Spaniel Dogs, of a darkish-grey colour, with black faces, and great
white beards from ear to ear, which make them show just like old
men. They do but little mischief, keeping in the woods, eating
only leaves and buds of trees ; but when they are caught they will
eat anything. This sort they call, in their language, Wanderows.
In captivity, the Wanderoo is surly and unsocial, and disposed to
tyrannise over the other inmates of its compartment.
The Magot (Macacus i>iuusj.—T\\\?. Monkey, also called the
Barbary Ape, is the only species of Monkey found in Europe, and is
confined to the Rock of Gibraltar. It is nearly allied to the
46
THE BABOONS— THE CHACMA AND MANDRILL.
Baboons, or Cynocephali, which will be next described. The Magot
measures from two to two and a-half feet in length, and has decidedly
the appearance of a Dog ; but it has no tail, or rather only one of an
entirely rudimentary kind. Naturalists arc sorely puzzled to account
for the presence of this Monkey in Gibraltar ; and no satisfactory
reason for it has yet been given.
The Monkeys— Genus CynoceJ>halus—'Q\'ROOT<is.
In the massive Baboons composing this genus, we find the charac-
ters of the Macaques exaggerated, so to speak, to their ulitimatum,
and consequently impressing us with an idea of degradation in the
scale ; we recognise an approach, in form and aspect, to the Ca?--
nivora, and, on reflection, appreciate the distance to which we have
receded from the Chimpanzee and Gorilla.
Of large stature and prodigious force, the Baboons, though never
voluntarily assuming an erect attitude, are to a great degree
terrestrial, inhabiting rocky and mountain districts, rather than
forests and woodlands. The head is heavy, not from cranial
development, but from that of the face, which is prolonged and
thick, resembling that of a Mastiff, the muzzle being truncated, and
the nostrils at its extremity. The bones are more or less swollen,
and the superciliary ridge beetles over the scowling eyes, giving an
expression of brutal and revolting ferocity.
The neck and shoulders are voluminous ; the chest is deep, and the
great power and equal proportions of the limbs are favourable for
quadrupedal movements. They climb trees with facility, but prefer
craggy rocks and precipices, among which they dwell in security.
In temper they are morose and daring, and their physical powers
render them formidable. It is only during youth that they are
tractable. They congregate in troops, and are bold and skilful in
their predatory excursions.
To bulbous roots, berries, and grain, the Baboons add eggs.
Scorpions, and insects, as their diet : nor is it quite clear that they
are not carnivorous as well as herbivorous. In domestication they
relish cooked meat, and even devour raw flesh with avidity. They
do not arrive at maturity till the seventh or eighth year of their age.
All the Baboons are African : one indeed, \h.e. Hamadryas, is found
in the mountain districts of Arabia, as well as in those of Abyssinia,
and was well known to the Egyptians. They form two sections, of
which the members of one have tails of moderate length, and those
of the second, tails of extreme shortness. Of the latter are the
Mandrill and Drill, which are also marked by a characteristic modi-
fication of the form of the head. Out of the various species, the
three following have been selected for description and illustration.
the depredations it commits in their cultivated enclosures. In its
mountain /astnesses it is safe from pursuit, and troops may be
frequently seen on the overhanging rocks, gazing at the traveller as
he traverses the mountains.
An old male Chacma is more than a match for two large Dogs ;
and the boors of the interior will rather venture their Hounds upon a
Lion or Panther than one of these animals. Yet to no animal do the
Dogs show a more inveterate hostility. Burchell states, that on one
occasion, a small company of them, being chased by his Dogs,
suddenly turned upon their canine foes, and defended themselves
most effectually. They killed one Dog on the spot by biting it
through the great blood-vessels of the neck, and disabled another
by laying bare its ribs. Even the Leopard, Hyaena, or wild Dog is
sometimes mastered by a troop ; though the former, surprising indi-
viduals, destroys numbers. The devotion of the females to their
young is very great, and in their defence they are ready to brave
every danger.
The food of the Chacma consists, in a great measure, of bulbous
Fig. 109.— Chacma.
The Chacma, or Pig-tailed Baboon (Cynoce^hahis for-
carnisj. The Singe Noir of Le Vaillant ; the Choak-Ka7na of
Kolbe ; Papio Conzafus, Geoffroy. — About the shoulders and neck
the hairs are long and mane-like ; the general colour is grizzled
dusky black, with a tinge of olive-green ; the face is black, with a
hue of violet ; the upper eyelids are white ; the tail descends to the
hock-joint, and is carried arched yet drooping down, as in Figs. 109
and 1 10. The male attains the size of a large Mastiff, and is very
formidable. Length of adult, nearly 3 feet, exclusive of the tail,
which measures about 27 inches.
The term Chacma is a corruption of the Hottentot name T'cha-
camma for this species, which inhabits the rocky mountains through-
out the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, where, in the remoter
districts, it is very abundant, and well known to the farmers from
roots, particularly of the babiana ; and it is customary for troops
to descend from the precipices into the secluded valleys of rich
alluvial soil where these plants luxuriate. \Vhen suddenly surprised,
the crj- of alarm is raised, and the troop ascend the rocky cliffs,
often several hundred feet in perpendicular height, with surprising
agility, the young clinging to their mothers, and the old males
bringing up the rear. Besides bulbs and grain, they are fond of
eggs, and greedily devour Scorpions, which they seize, nipping oft"
the sting with so rapid an action as to prevent the hands from
being wounded. In captivity, while young, the Chacma is good-
tempered and frolicsome ; but as age advances it becomes savage
and dangerous.
The Mandrill (Cynocephalus Mormon) Le Choras, Buffon ;
Fig. III. — Mandrill.
Maniegar , Bradley ; Great Babooyi, Pennant ; Variegated Ba-
boon. Lev. Mus. ; Ribbed-7iosed Baboon, Pennant; Simia Mormon
and Maimon, Linn. (See Fig. in.)
The general colour of the adult male is olive-brown, passing into
whitish in the under parts ; a golden-yellow beard hangs from the
chin ; the hair of the forehead and temples converges to a peak ;
skin round the callosities red. The nostrils have abroad rim around
THE BABOONS— THE DRILL.
47
them, at the extremity of the muzzle ; the tail is short, and nearly
hid by the fur. The cheelc-bones are enormously swollen, rising
like two ridges, and the skin is obliquely marked with deep furrows ;
a streak of brilliant vermilion, commencing on the beetling super-
ciliary ridge, runs down the nose, and is diffused over the muzzle.
Ears, palms, and soles violet-black. In the female the cheeks are
less swollen, and the scarlet is pale or wanting. In the young the
cheeks are little if at all swollen, the furrows barely discernible, and
the colour black. It is not until the fourth or fifth year, when the
second dentition is fully complete, that the characters of maturity
are assumed ; and to this point there is a gradual progress, the
bones of the face developing, the colour of the skin changing, the
muzzle becoming broader and thicker, and the furrows more
marked.
This massive, powerful, and ferocious Baboon is of huge size, and
very dangerous. It is a native of Guinea and other parts of Western
Africa, where it is greatly dreaded by the natives, who assert that it
frequently attempts to carry off women into the deep forests where it
resides, and occasionally succeeds. However this may be, certain
it is, that in captivity, the appearance of a female will excite in the
Mandrill unequivocal manifestations of brute passion, and any
attention to her the most furious jealousy.
In its native forests the Mandrill associates in large troops, which
are more than a match for the fiercest beasts of prey, and often
make incursions into villages
and cultivated fields, which they
plunder with impunity. In their
movements on the ground they
are quadrupedal ; but their ac-
tivity is very great, and they
leap and climb with the utmost
facility. Their voice is deep and
guttural, consisting of hoarse,
abrupt tones, indicative of fury
or malice. That the species is
abundant in Western Africa, is
proved by the numbers of young
individuals brought from time
to time to Europe ; these, how-
ever, very rarely attain to ma-
turity ; the period of dentition,
which is accompanied by such
marked changes, being pecu-
liarly critical In captivity this
Baboon is ferocious and male-
volent ; one in the possession of _
Mr. Wombwell killed a Monkey,
a Beagle, and a Java Sparrow, which by accident came within his
reach. A splendid specimen died, some years ago, in Mr. Cross's
menagerie. He was accustomed to smoke, and to drink porter,
which latter he quaffed with an amusing air of gravity, holding the
mug with great address while seated in his arm-chair. His temper
Fitr. 112. — Young Mandrill.
was violent in the extreme, and the slightest offence roused him
to fury: his appearance was then terrible, and well calculated to
alarm the boldest ; nor could any man, without weapons, have had
any chance in a contest. The annexed cut is an illustration of a
young Mandrill. (See Fig. 112.) j
The Drill (Cynocephalus leuco^httsj. — Tlie Drill is a native
of Guinea. The head is large ; the muzzle thick, with elevated
maxillary protuberances, which, however, are not furrowed. The
general contour is robust. The tail is very short, and carried erect.
The general colour is greenish-olive above, ashy-white beneath ; the
beard is short and orange-coloured ; the face and ears are glossy
black; the palms copper-coloured. The female is smaller, with a
shorter muzzle and paler tint of colouring. The young males
resemble the female till the second dentition is complete. It would
appear that the Wood Baboon, the Cinereous Baboon, and the
Yellow Baboon of Pennant, are the young of the Drill at different
stages of growth.
The Drill approaches the Mandrill in size ; and though gentle
when young, becomes, when adult, as sullen and ferocious as that
animal. Adults are, however, rare in menageries, the acquisition
of the permanent teeth being critical : but young specim.ens arc far
from uncommon. These have often been confounded with the
young of the Mandrill ; indeed, it is to Frederick Cuvier that we owe
the recognition of the Drill as a distinct species, for the confused
descriptions of Pennant afford us nothing tangible. In its wild
state the Drill resembles the Mandrill as regards habits and
manners ; and travellers seem to have confounded the two species
together, and even rai.ted up their history with that of the Chim-
panzee.
Among the zoological novelties exhibited at the Alexandra
Palace, in the north of London, in the autumn of 1877, were an
Abyssinian family of Monkeys, called the Gelada Monkeys, which
were imported into this country by Messrs. Hagenbeck and Rice, of
Hamburg. They were confined in a cage, and attracted much atten-
tion. Dr. Riippell, the German traveller, is credited with having
discovered this rare species of Monkey some fifty years ago, in the
mountains of Abyssinia ; but he did no more than introduce the skin
of one of the animals into England. The family in the Alexandra
Palace was seven in number, and had some peculiarities of form and
in the hair. The male possessed a profusion of hair over the shoulders,
arranged in a manner resembling a cape ; and this protection would
seem to be necessary in the cold mountainous region in which the
animals live. A distinctive feature in the animals is a small trian-
gular space in the chests of both males and females. This space is
of a pink colour when the animal is in repose ; but under irritation
the colour becomes red. The father of the family was about three
feet high, and the youngest did not exceed the size of a small
Kitten. Specimens may be seen in the Gardens in Regent's Park.
48
AMERICAN MONKEYS.
CHAPTER V.
QUADRUMANA.— THE AMERICAN MONKEYS (GROUP PLATYRRHIN^).
«
♦ ^:>
^■w it ■■-■
N the last three chapters we have dealt with
the Monkeys of the Old World, which
are grouped under the title of Catar-
rJtiiics, for reasons already explained at
p. 23, a7ite. It now remains to consider
the Monkeys of the New World (America),
which are grouped under the title of
f.■^ ^ -■'^■-itAji - ---- .^ Plafyrrhinie, and so called for reasons
tt®7r - : ■» >;- p'*--~\;^^ explained at the page above alluded to.
- '^ •*-■■ ' ^-"^ They are divided into two great families —
namely, the Cebida Monkeys, and HapalidcE, or
Marmozets (Cebidaj. The American Monkeys differ
from the Monkeys of the Old World in the following
particulars. The thumb of the fore-hands is never
opposable to the fingers. Callosities are always want-
ing. Cheek-pouches always wanting. Nostrils lateral,
with elevated margins, and separated from each other
by a wide septum. Tail often prehensile, never wanting
or rudimentary.
Professor Owen remarks, that regarding dentition
in the South American Quadrumana, the number of
teeth is increased to thirty-six, by an addition of one
tooth to the molar series on each side of both jaws. It
might be concluded, a priori, that as three is the typical
number of true molars in the placental Mammalia with
two sets of teeth, the additional tooth in the Cebincs would be a pre-
molar, and form one step to the resumption of the normal number
(four) of that kind of teeth. The proof of the accuracy of this infer-
ence is given by the state of the dentition in any young Spider
Monkey P^/t'/fj-^, or Capucin Monkey ^Ct'i^zcj^, which may corres-
pond with that of the human child; i.e., where the whole of the
deciduous dentition is retained, together with the first true molar on
each side of both jaws. If the germs of the other teeth of the
permanent series be exposed in the upper jaw, the crown of the
premolar will be found above the third molar in place, as well as
above the second and first. As regards number, therefore, the
molar series, in the South American Monkeys {Mycctes, Aieies,
Cebiis), is intermediate between that of the genus Mustela and of
Felis ; the little premolar in iliistela shows plainly enough which
of the four is wanting to complete the typical number in the South
American Monkey, and which is the additional premolar distinguish-
ing its dental formula from that of the Old World Monkeys and
man.
Zoologists have rightly stated, as a matter of fact, that the little
Marmozet Monkeys [Hajia/c, Ouistiti), HapalidcB, " have only the
same number of teeth as the Monkeys of the Old World — viz., 32,
But the difference is much greater than
4 i-i 5-5
this numerical conformity would intimate. In a young JaccJuis
■penicillatus, I find that there are three deciduous molars displaced
by three premolars, as in the other South American Quadrumana,
and that it is the last true molar, the development of which is
suppressed, not the premolar ; and thus these diminutive Squirrel-
like Monkeys actually differ from the Old World forms more than
the CebidcB do ; i. e., they differ not only in having four teeth
(j5 2^77), which the Monkeys of the Old World do not possess, but
also by wanting four teeth [m 3 _ ), which those Monkeys, as
^vell as the Cebidce, actually have. It is thus that the investigation
of the exact homologies of parts, leads to a recognition of the true
characters, indicative of zoological affinity." (Owen.)
The Cebidce are exclusively confined to the warmer regions of the
New World; so that, although the species are numerous, their
extent of territory is far more limited than that occupied by the Old
World Monkeys. Their northward range is bounded (in the tenth or
eleventh degree of latitude) by the Caribbean Sea ; for they occur
neither in the Caribbean group of islands, nor in Hayti, Cuba, or the
Bahamas. Though found in the region south of the territory of
Panama, they do not advance to Yutacan or Mexico. South of the
line their range extends to the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth degree
of latitude, including Brazil, Peru (east of the great chain of the
Andes), and Paraguay. All are arboreal, frequenting the dense
forests, which, as Humboldt observes, are so thick and uninterrupted
on the plains of South America between the Orinoko and the Amazon,
that, were it not for intervening rivers, the Monkeys, almost the only
inhabitants of these regions, might pass along the tops of the trees for
several hundred miles together without touching the earth.
In South America, Monkeys are ordinarily killed as game by the
natives for the sake of their flesh ; but the appearance of these
animals is so revolting to Europeans, that it is only from necessity,
and after custom has familiarised the sight, that they can force
themselves to partake of such fare. The manner in which these
animals are roasted also contributes to render their appearance dis-
gusting. " A little grating or lattice of very hard wood is formed,
and raised a foot from the ground. The Alonkey is skinned and
bent into a sitting posture, the head generally resting on the arms,
which are meagre and long ; but sometimes these are crossed be-
hind the back. When it is tied on the grating, a very clear fire is
kindled below ; the Monkey, enveloped in smoke and flame, is
broiled and blackened at the same time. Roasted Monkeys, par-
ticularly those that have a round head, display a hideous resem-
blance to a child ; the Europeans, therefore, who are obliged to feed
on them, prefer separating tlie head and hands, and serve only the
rest of the animal at their table. The flesh of Monkeys is so dry and
lean, that M. Bonpland preserved, in his collection at Paris, an arm
and hand which had been broiled over the fire at Esmeralda, and no
smell arose from them after a number of years."
American Monkeys— Genus AidesSvvD^'B. Monkeys.
This gQnus, which includes the Spider Monkeys, is characterised
thus : — Head round ; face moderately developed ; limbs long and slen-
der. Tail longer than the body, thick at the base, strongly prehensile,
and naked for a considerable space beneath at its extremity. Fore-
hands either destitute of an externally apparent thumb, or with the
thumb a mere tubercle. Nostrils separated by a wide septum, and
obliquely oval. Ears moderate, naked, with reflected margins.
Dentition as already described. Fur long, crisp, or rather harsh,
sometimes silky ; prevailing colour black.
In the slenderness of the limbs, and in the staid, quiet, and almost
melancholy expression of the face, the Spider Monkeys remind us of
the Gibbons ; both are timid and gentle, with an air of listlessness,
lost only under excitement.
From the length of the limbs, and the remarkable flexibility of the
joints, the motions of the Spider Monkeys on all-fours on the ground
seem to be crawling and indeterminate. They tread on the inner edge
of the fore-paws, and to a great degree on the outer edge of the hind-
paws, and endeavour to assist themselves by attaching the tail to every
object as they proceed. They often, however, assume the erect atti-
tude, and walk thus better than any other of the long-tailed Monkeys.
When proceeding in this manner the tail is raised up as high as the
shoulders, and then bent downwards at its extremity, evidently
acting as a balancer while the animal moves steadily along. The
^l ir Iff/ Sf ,r , <i
Fi". 113. — Chameck.
proper place of these T^Ionkeys is among the branches of the forest ;
There their movements are rapid, easy, and unconstramed ; their
progression is by a series of swinging evolutions, m the performance
AMERICAN MONKEYS— THE CHAMECK, MARIMONDA, COAITA, AND MIRIKI.
40
of which the Hmbs and tail take an equal share. The latter organ,
the strcnn-th and prehensile powers of which are very great, enables
them to alisume the most varied attitudes. In ascendmg or descend-
inn- trees, or in traversing the branches, it is in continual requisition ;
they coil'it round branch after branch in their passage, turning it in
various directions, and applying it with wonderful precision. They
often suspend themselves exclusively by it, and swinging until a
sufficient impetus is gained, launch themselves to a distant branch,
or stretching out their arms, catch it as they vibrate towards it.
The advantages of this additional instrument of prehension are pal-
pable ; its senses of touch are finger-like ; and it is capable of
seizing small objects with great address. They are said to intro-
duce the extremity of the tail as a feeler into the fissures and hollows
of trees, for the purpose of hooking out eggs or other substances.
The Chameck {Afeles subpenfadactylusy—lm long, flowing,
glossy, and jet black. The fore-hands have a minute naiUess
tubercle in place of a thumb. The face and ears are naked, and of
a red flesh colour, with a tint of dusky brown. Length of head and
body about twenty inches : of the tail, twenty-five inches. Native
country, Peru. (See Fig. 113.) , ,
The aURiMONDA [Afeles Belzebuth, Desm.).— Fur smooth and
glossy ; general colour brownish black, deeper on the hands and
Fig. 114. — Mavimonda.
feet, but fading on the loins and sides of the haunches to a glossy
greyish-brown. The long hairs at the angle of the jaw, those of the
throat, under parts and inside of the limbs, dirty straw colour or
yellowish-white. A space along the under surface of the tail, at its
base, rusty yellow. Skin of the face blackish-brown, becoming of a
tanned flesh colour about the lips and nose and around the eyes.
Native country, the borders of the Orinoko, Cassiquiare, Para, &c.
(See Fig. 114.)
The Coaita [Afeles Panisais). The Quatto of Vosmaer. —
General colour black, the fur being long, coarse, and glossy ; more
scanty on the under parts of the body than on the upper. Face and
ears of a flesh colour, with a tanned or coppery tinge. Neither in
this nor the Marimonda is there any thumb on the fore-hands.
Native country, Surinam and Guiana. (See Fig. 115.)
In their general habits and manners, these three species of Spider
Monkeys agree so closely, that the details of one are applicable to
the rest. In captivity the Chameck is grave and gentle, but dis-
plays extraordinary agility ; its intelligence approaches that of the
Gibbons. We have seen individuals repeatedly walk upright with
great steadiness — cross their compartment to the window, and there
gaze for a considerable time with an air amusingly like that of a
human being, as if contemplating the state of the weather, the pro-
gress of vegetation, or the actions of persons passing by. At the
same time the Chameck (and the same observation applies to the
other) is not disposed to court the notice of the spectators around it,
or invite the attention of strangers. Towards those by whom it is
regularly fed it displays confidence and partiality. In its gambols
with others of the genus, it exhibits great address in avoiding or re-
turning their sportive assaults, and executes with surpassing ease
the most fantastic manoeuvres.
The Marimonda is termed Aru by the Indians of the Rio Guiania,
and is a favourite article of food with the natives of the borders of
the Cassiquiare, the higher Orinoko, and other rivers, and its broiled
limbs are commonly to be seen in their huts. It is listless- and
indolent in its habits, and is fond of basking in the warm rays of the
sun. Humboldt states that he has frequently seen these animals,
when exposed to the heat of a tropical sun, throw their heads back-
wards, turn their eyes upwards, bend their arms over their backs,
and remain motionless in this extraordinary position for hours
together. They traverse the branches leisurely, and unite in com-
panies, forming the most grotesque groups, their attitudes announc-
ing complete sloth.
In captivity the Marimonda is gentle, and exhibits nothing of the
Fig. 115. — Coaita.
petulance of the Guenos or the violence of the Macaques. Its
anger, when excited, is very transient, and announced by pursing up
the lips and uttering a guttural cry, resembling the Ou-6. Humboldt
notices the facility with which this animal can introduce its tail into
the narrowest crevices, select any object it pleases, and hook it out.
The Miriki [Eriodes fuberifer, Isid., Geoff.). Afeles liypoxan-
thiis, Prince de Wied-Neuwied, but not of Desmarest. — The Miriki
and one or two more species have been recently separated from the
Fig. 116. — Miriki.
genus Afeles, and formed into a distinct group. There are indeed
several differences between these animals and the ordinary Spider
Monkeys, which, if taken together, justify the adoption of the genus
Eriodes (Fig. 116). The nostrils are rounded, the interval between
them is narrow, and their aspect is downwards, not lateral. The
molar teeth, instead of being small, are large and quadrangular,
50
AMERICAN MONKEYS— THE HOWLERS.
and the crown of the first two molars of the upper jaw is boldly and
irregularly tuberculate : the incisors arc small. 'The dentition, in
fact, approaches close to that of the Howlers {Mycetes) ; and it is
worthy of remark that, in F. Cuvier's work on the teeth of quadru-
peds, his figure of the teeth of the Howling Monkeys is in reality
copied, as M. Isidore asserts, upon his own knowledge, from the
teeth of a species oi En'odes. (See Fig. 117.) Besides these, there
are other characters of minor importance.
The fur of the Miriki is soft and woolly, of a yellowish-grey, the
Fig. 117. — Teeth of Howling Monkey.
base of the tail and the circumjacent hairs being tinged with rufous.
The fore-hands are furnished with a minute rudimentary thumb, in
the form of a nailless tubercle ; the face is flesh-coloured, sprinkled
with greyish hairs. Native country, Brazil. The Miriki, in its
general habits, agrees with the Spider Monkeys. It lives associated
in troops in the vast forests, and displays great agility. Fruits form
its principal diet. The Prince of Wied-Neuwied states that the
Miriki seldom approaches the abodes of man, keeping to the depths
of the woods ; Spix also states that it lives in troops which make the
air resound with their loud cries, incessantly uttered during the day.
At the sight of the hunter they ascend with extraordinary rapidity
the topmost branches of the trees, and passing from one to another,
are soon lost in the recesses of the forest. The Brazilians call this
Monkey Miriki and Mouriki ; the Botacudas term it Koupo.
American Monkeys— Genus J/jrc/cy— Howlers.
The Howlers, or Howling Monkeys, as the animals of this genus are
termed, constitute a natural and well-marked group, distinguishable
from the Spider Monkeys by their greater robustness, by the more
proportionate contour of the limbs, by the development of the bone
of the tongue {os hyoides), which is greatly enlarged and hollow, by
the expansion of the lower jaw, especially at its angle, the promi-
nence of the muzzle, and by the possession of a thumb (not oppo-
sable) on the fore-hands. The form of the head is pyramidal ; the
fur of the forehead is directed upwards, that of the rest of the head
forwards; on the external surface of the fore-arms it is directed from
the wrist to the elbow ; the under parts of the body are almost
naked ; on the back and shoulders the fur is full, long, soft, and
glossy. The tail is strongly prehensile, and naked at its extremity
beneath. The hollow drum formed by the os liyoidcs communicates
with the interior of the cartilaginous expansion of the larynx (Fig.
118), in which are several membranous valvular pouches. This ap-
paratus gives to the voice extraordinary volume and intonation. The
bowlings uttered by the troops of these Monkeys are astounding,
and usually heard in the morning, at sunset, and during the dark-
ness of night. Shrouded amidst the gloomy foliage of the woods,
they raise their horrid chorus, " making night hideous," and start-
ling the traveller who, for the first time, hears it. It is not, however,
only during the night or at daybreak and evening that the Howlers
exert their voices ; they are affected by electric changes [in the con-
dition of the atmosphere ; and when, during the day, the gloomy sky
foretels the approach of a thunder-storm, their dissonant yells resound
through the gloomy woodlands. The range of the Howlers is from
Guiana to Paraguay. According to Spix and Humboldt, they
subsist principally upon fruits and leaves. The females produce one
at a birth, and the mother carries her young clinging to her back
until old enough to act for itself. In their disposition the Howlers
are melancholy and morose ; their move-
ments are tardy and inert ; on the ground
they never attempt to walk on the liinder
limbs alone. When pursued or alarmed,
they retire slowly and take refuge in the
highest branches of the trees, to which,
if shot with a bullet or arrow, they often
remain suspended by the tail when life is
extinct. As they are of large size, and
fatter than other Monkeys, they are in great
request with the Indians as food ; but are
seldom or never kept in confinement, having
nothing pleasing in their manners, voice,
or appearance.
The Araguato, or Ursine Howler
[^Alycctes 2t?-su!i/s). Araguato de Caracas
of Humboldt. — The extent of the face,
destitute of hair, is more circumscribed than
in most of the genus, and is of a bluish-
black colour, with long, scattered, black
bristles on the lips and chin. The chest
and abdomen are well clothed with hair.
The fur is long, resembling that of a young
Bear. The general colour is golden rufous,
paler round the sides of the face, but deeper
on the beard. In the figure of this species
given in Humboldt's work, the hair of the head is represented as
all directed backwards from the forehead to the back of the neck ;
we hesitate not to say, by a mistake of the artist. Native country,
Brazil, Venezuela, &c. (See Fig. 119.)
It was after landing at Cumana, in the province of New Anda-
lusia, that Humboldt and Bonpland first met the Araguato, while on
an excursion to the mountains of Cocollar and the cavern of Gua-
charo. The convent of Caripe is there situated in a valley, the plain
Fig.
llS. — Drum of Howl-
ing Monkey.
Fig. 119. — Araguato.
of which is elevated more than 400 toises above the level of the
ocean ; and though the centigrade thermometer often descends dur-
ing the night to 17 degrees, the surrounding forests abound with
Howlers, whose mournful cries, uttered when the sky is overcast, or
threatens rain or lightning, are heard at the distance of half a
league. The Araguato was also met with in the valleys of Aragua
to the west of Caracas, in the Llanos of the Apure and of the Lower
Orinoko, and in the Carib missions of the province of New Barce-
lona, where stagnant waters were overshadowed by the Sagoutier of
America, a species of palm with scale-covered fruit and flabelliform
leaves, among which it dwells in troops. South of |the cataracts of
the Orinoko it becomes very rare. Of all the gregarious Monkeys,
the Araguato was observed in the greatest abundance ; on the
borders of the Apure Humboldt often counted forty in one tree ; and
in some parts of the countrj^, he afiirms that more than 2,000 existed
in a square mile. They travel in the forests in long files, consisting
of twenty or thirty individuals or more, and proceed with deliberation.
An old male usually leads the troop, the rest follow his movements,
AMERICAN MONKEYS— THE CAPUCINS.
51
and when he swings from one branch to another, the whole file, one
by one, perform, in " order due," the same action on the same spot.
In other species also this habit has been observed. According
to Waterton, the Araguato is very-
partial to the seeds of the vanilla, a
creeper which ascends the trees to
the height of forty or fifty feet.
American Monkeys— Genus Cehus
—The Sapajous, or Capucins.
The Sapajous, as the animals ot
this genus are termed, are prehen-
sile-tailed, but the tail is everywhere
clothed with fur, so that, though
capable of grasping, and naturally
curled round at its extremity when
not in use, as in the Spider Monkeys
and Howlers, it is not, as in these
latter animals, an organ of tact, nor
so powerful a grasper.
The Monkeys of this genus are all
diurnal in their habits, and for the
most part of small size. The French
call them Sapajous, Sajous, Sais,
and Capucins : they are also called
AVeepers {^Singes fleureitrs), from the
plaintive piping noise which many of
them utter. Humboldt states that the
Creoles of South America call them
"Matchi," confounding under this
denomination very distinct species.
In temper and disposition the Cebi
are lively and docile ; they show great
attachment to some persons, and a
capricious aversion to others. They
are intelligent, mischievous, and in-
quisitive. Their activity and address
are surprising ; in their native forests
they live in troops, feeding on fruits,
grain, insects, and eggs. So amus-
ing are they in their gambols, that
even the apathetic natives will stop
their canoes and watch their frolic:;
with interest. They are, from their
liveliness and docility, great favour-
ites, and often kept domesticated ; but
their amusing habits do not protect
them from the poisoned arrows of the
Indians.
The head is round, the muzzle
short, and the limbs proportioned.
The dentition as usual : the incisors
of the upper jaw are larger tlian
those of the lower ; the canines are often strong and large ; the
molars are rather small. The ears are rounded. The species are
very numerous, and involved in much confusion. Fig. 120 represents
one of the Capucin Monkeys.
Horned Sajou {Ccbus Faiuelhis, Linn.). Sajoit cornu, F.
Cuvier (not of Buffon.) — The general colour of the fur is brown,
deepening to an almost black tint on the top of the head, on the
middle of the back, and on the legs, hands, feet, and tail. A ban-
deau of hair rises on the for ehead, the extremities of which are
elevated in the form of egrets, or pencil-like tufts : these tufts are
less conspicuous in the female. The sides of the face are garnished
with white hairs. All the naked parts, and the skin under the fur,
are violet-coloured. Native country, Brazil : it is found in the
provinces of Rio Janeiro. It is not until maturity that the horns or
frontal tufts are acquired. In captivity the Horned Sajou is lively
and amusing, active and good-tempered. {See Fig. 121.)
The Yellow-breasted Sajou {Cebus zanihosfenws, Prince
Maxim., Kuhl, Desmar.). Sai a grosse tete, Cebus Moiiachics, F.
Cuv. ; C. Za7ithocephalus, Spix. — This is one of the species which
has been in confusion, but from which we trust it is extricated. The
head is large, the forehead broad and covered with very short hair ;
the limbs are robust, the tail thick : in size this species is superior
to the Homed Sajou. The forehead and anterior part of the head,
and the hairs of the cheeks, which are full on the malar bones, are
yellowish-white ; a dusky line, commencing before the ears, encircles
the face ; the chest, the shoulders, and the anterior part of the
humerus, are orange-yellow ; the fore-arms, the legs, the anterior
portion of the back, and the tail, are black ; the sides of the body
and the haunches are reddish-brown ; the abdomen, rich rufous
chestnut. The depth of the tints varies with age ; the fore-arms and
legs are often freckled with rufous, and the tail grizzled with yellowish-
white, especially at its base and underneath.
This species inhabits the woods of Rio Janeiro and St. Paul. We
have seen a fine specimen from Bahia, Brazil. It is a young male
which F. Cuvier figures as the Sai a grosse tcte. He adds also the
scientific appellation Motiachus, which having been already given
120. — Capucin Monkey ; genus Cebus,
Fig. 121. — Horned Sajou.
52
AMERICAN MONKEYS— THE CACAJAO.
to a very distinct Monlcey [Cebiis Motiachiis, Fischer; Pithecia
Monachtts, Geoffroy), cannot be retained vvitliout confusion. Ac-
cording to Spix, the Yellow-breasted Sajou associates in large troops,
■nhich often visit the fields of maize, where they commit great deprc-
Fig. 122. — Yellow-breasted Sajou.
dations. In captivity it is gentle, mild, and confiding; and though
timid, fond of being noticed by those to whom it is familiarised.
(See Fig. 122.)
The Brown Sajou fCcbus Apella). Sajou bnm, Buffon.—
Head round ; colouring variable both as to intensity and markings.
(See Fig. 123.) The following details are taken from specimens we
have rigorously examined : — Hair of the temples short, scanty, and
directed upwards. On the top of the head the hair is moderately
long, and forms a cap, with an anterior, slightly elevated, marginal
ridge advancing from the centre of the forehead along the sides of
the head, so as to produce a somewhat triangular figure ; face
covered with short dusky hair ; that about the lips white ; ears large
and nearly naked. From the black cap on the top of the head a
blackish line extends down before the ears, and spreads over the
beard-like hairs of the throat. The outer surface of the humerus is
greyish, but a black line from behind the ears sweeps over the
Fig. 123. — Brown Sajou.
shoulder, and runs along the anterior margin of the humerus to the
fore-arm, which is black, grizzled with brownish-grey. The general
colour is brownish-black, passing into black on the middle of the
dorsal line, on the haunches, tail, thighs, and legs : the fur is
glossy. Another specimen has the sides of the body and outside of
the thighs of a glossy pale chestnut-brown, and the temples yellowish-
grey, washed in the middle with black. The Ccbiis Apella is the
Capucin Monkey of Pennant and Shaw, but not the Simla Capucina
of Linnffius, which is the Sai of Buffon, the Weeper Monkey of
Pennant and Shaw.
The Brown Sajou is a native of Guiana, and is plentifully brought
over by vessels trading to the coast, so that it is common in our
menageries. Its liveliness and activity are remarkable, and it bears
our climate well. There are several instances of its having pro-
duced young in France, and each time a single offspring, to which
both parents were strongly attached. In disposition the Brown
Sajou is good-tempered, but capricious. It is very intelligent and
amusing. A male which was living a few years since in the gardens
of the Zoological Society, would employ a stone for the purpose of
breaking nuts too hard to be crushed by the teeth ; or if no stone
were at hand, he would strike them forcibly against any hard surface,
so as to split the shell : we have seen other Sajous do the same.
This species is continually in the habit of making grimaces ; it
grins, wrinkling up the face in a very singular manner; its ordinary
cry is plaintive, but when in anger the voice is shrill and elevated.
In climbing, the tail is in constant requisition as a grasper. Though
fruits and other vegetable productions constitute the diet of this
species in its native forests, they are not exclusively so ; insects are
highly relished ; and there is every reason to believe that eggs and
young birds are also acceptable. A linnet, which by way of experi-
ment was introduced into a cage where two of these Monkeys were
confined, was instantly caught by the strongest of them, and killed
and eaten with scarcely even the ceremony of stripping off the
feathers.
American Monkeys— Genus Pithecia— Zk-avs.
The Monkeys of this genus are termed Saki by the French. The
tail is not in the slightest degree prehensile : it is shorter than the
body, and generally bushy. The head is round, the muzzle moderately
prominent. In the lower jaw the incisors project almost as in the
Lemur, being compressed, narrowing at the points, and are closely
compacted together ; the upper incisors are nearly vertical and square,
differing greatly in appearance from those of the lower jaw. Canines
large, strong, and three-sided. The molars bluntly tuberculate.
The Sakis, or Fox-tailed Monkeys, live either in pairs, or small
troops of ten or twelve, and are usually seen on the outskirts of
forests bordering rivers. They are to a certain degree nocturnal in
their habits : some indeed have been considered decidedly so ; but it
would appear that, like the Howlers, they are the most animated
just before sunrise and after sunset, at which times they utter their
loud cries in concert. All are active and vigilant, and not easy to
be surprised or captured.
The Cacajao [Plt/iccla melanocephala'). — This Monkey is also
called in America Caruiri. The body is rather robust, but elongated ;
the head is ovate, oblong, and depressed on the crown ; the ears
Fig. 124. — Cacajao.
have a backward situation ; the tail is short, and ends abruptly.
The face is black, as are also the ears ; the head is covered with
full, long, black hairs, directed from the occiput forwards to the fore-
head, where they become parted in the centre. The hairs of the
back are long, and of a brownish-yellow : this colour passes, on the
thighs and tail, into a brighter or ferruginous tint. The fore-arms
and legs are black or blackish. The chin is beardless, and the nose
short, broad, and flat. Native country, the borders of the Cassi-
quiare and Rio Negro ; and in Brazil, those of the rivers Solimoens
and 19a. (See Fig. 124.)
The present Saki is described by Humboldt, and is doubtless
identical with one also described and figured by Spix, which he
terms Ouakary, and which he found in the forests between the rivers
Solimoens and I^a (Brazil). He states that these Monkeys congre-
gate in troops, frequenting the margins of large streams ; and that
during their journeys from one part of the forest to another, they fill
the air with their piercing and disagreeable cries. Humboldt in-
forms us that the Cacajao, or Cacaho, as it is called by the Mara-
tivitan Indians of the Rio Negro, is not common in the territories
which he explored, for he only saw one individual, which he
bought, in an Indian cabin at San Francisco Solano ; and from
AMERICAN MONKEYS—THE COUXIO AND YARKE.
53
which, after death, he took an accurate drawing-. It was younsf ;
but he was assured by the Indians of Esmeralda, that though
it attains to a considerable size, its tail is not sensibly ann-mentcd in
length. According to the information obtained by Humboldt, the
Cacajao inhabits the forests which border the Cassiquiare and Rio
Negro, associating in troops : when kept in confinement it is voracious
and listless, but gentle and timid, even shrinking from the societj' of
other small Monkeys. liaron Humboldt's specimen trembled
violently at the sight of a Crocodile or Serpent. When irritated it
opens its mouth in a strange manner, and its countenance becomes
distorted by a convulsive sort of laugh.
From the length and slenderness of its fingers, it grasps anything
awkwardly ; and when about to seize an object, bends its back and
extends its two arms, at the same time assuming a singular attitude.
It eats all sorts of fruits — the most acid as well as the sweetest. It
is termed Caruiri by the Cabres of the mission of San Fernando, near
the junction of the Orinoko, the Atabapo, and the Guaviare ; Mono
feo (hideous Monkey), and Chucuto, or Mono rabon (short-tailed
Monkey), by the Spanish Missionaries of the Cassiquiare.
The Couxio, or Jacketed Monkey {Pithecia Sagiilata,
Traill, in " Mem. Wern. Soc.," ii.). The confusion in which this
species has been involved is very remarkable. The following are
Fig. 125. — Male Couxio,
its synonyms : — Cchiis Sagulatiis, Fisch. ; Ccbus Satatias, Hoff-
mans ; Fithccia Sataiias, Kuhl and Geoffr. ; Shnia Chiropotes,
Humboldt ; Pithecia Chiropotes, Geoffr., Kuhl, Desra. ; Brackyurus
Jsraelita, Spix. (See Figs. 125 and 126.)
Head, limbs, and tail black ; the general tint of the back and
top of the shoulders is grizzled rusty-brown or brownish-grey, differ-
ing in depth in different individuals. The hairs of the body are pale
at the roots, sometimes indeed nearly white. The under parts are
scantily clad. The hair of the head radiates from a point on the
occiput, and on the sides of the forehead forms two conspicuous
Fig. 126. — Female Couxio,
elevated tufts, with a depression between them. These tufts fold
over and conceal the ears, which are black and naked. The face is
black, and furnished at its sides with full bushy whiskers, which meet
under the chin, forming an enormous glossy-black beard, directed
obliquely forwards, and which gives a peculiar aspect to the physi-
ognomy. The teeth are large— the canines formidable. The head
IS large and rounded, and the nostrils very widely separated from
each other. On the outer side of the fore-arms the hairs are reverted.
Native country, Guiana and the borders of Rio Negro, &c. Of the
four distinct specific appellations (viz., Sa^ulafa, Satauas, Chiro-
pnfcs, and Israi-ltfa), wliich we regard as belonging all to one
animal, that oiSagulata claims the preference, being the name under
which the species was first described by Traill. Baron Humboldt,
who erroneously regards the Satanasof Hoffmansogg (which he calls
Couxio de Grand Para) and his Chiropotes (which he terms Capucin
de rOrCnoque) as distinct, thus describes the latter (a description
applicable to each variety, under whatever name it may stand in the
works of naturalists) :— The Capucin de I'Orenoque (Couxio,
P. Sagulata) is robust, agile, wild, and very difficult to tame.
\Vhen irritated, it raises itself up, grinds its teeth, rubs the extre-
mity of its beard, and leaps around the object of its revenge. In
these accessions of fury, Humboldt says that he has seen it drive
its teeth into thick boards of the Ccdrcla odorata. It drinks but
rarely, and takes the water in the hollow of its hand, which it carries
carefully to the mouth, so as to avoid wetting its beard. If aware
that it is observed, it does not perform this singular action. Sir Rt.
Ker Porter (see " Proc. Zool. Soc," London, 1834, p. 41), in a
description of the P. Sagulata, distinctly states that the animal
drinks frequently, bending down and putting its mouth to the water,
apparently heedless of wetting its beard, and indifferent to the
observations of lookers-on. He never saw it take the water in the
hollow of the hand, as described by Humboldt. Yet that it was
observed by the latter we cannot doubt ; in our menageries, however,
it drinks in the ordinary way of other Monkeys. According to
Humboldt, the Capucin de I'Orenoque does not associate in troops ;
a male and female in company wander by themselves through the
forests, where their cry may be heard. In the vast wilds of the
Upper Orinoko, south and east of the cataracts, this Monkey is com-
mon, and the Aturian Indians, as well as those of Esmeralda, cat
many of these animals at certain seasons of the year. In other parts
of Guiana it secris to be much more rare.
The individuals which we have seen in captivity have all displayed
a morose and savage temper : on the slightest provocation they
would menace the offender with their teeth, wrinkling up the skin of
their face, and displaying their immense canines, their eyes at the
same time gleaming with fury. Towards other Monkeys they were
reserved, and disliked to be intruded upon.
The Yarke, or White-headed Saki {Pithecia Icucocephala).
The male and female of this species differ so much that it is not
surprising that they should have been described as distinct species.
Fig. 127. — Female Yarke.
The synonyms are as follows : — Male — P. lencoccphala, Geoffr.,
Desm. ; Saki, Buffon ; Yarque, Buff., " Supp. ;" Yarlii:, F. Cuv. ;
P. ochrocephala, Kuhl. Female — P. 7-ufiventcr, Geoffr., Desm.,
Kuhl, &c. ; P. riifibarbafa, Kuhl. ; P. capillaiuc7itosa, Spix ; S. Pi-
thecia, Linn. ; Singe de iiuit. Buff. ; Fox-tailed Monkey, Pennant.
Male. — The whole of the anterior part of the head covered with
short close hairs of a white or rusty-white tint, varying in depth ;
occiput jet-black, whence a narrow line is continued over the head
to the nose ; fur of the body and tail very long, rather harsh, and of
a brown colour, more or less inclined to black ; under part of chin
and throat naked and of an orange tint ; abdomen also nearly
naked ; tail busby ; on the shoulders the long flowing hair has a
tendency to divide.
Fctnale. — The hairs of the head, excepting on the interior part of
the forehead, instead of being short, close, and stiff, are long, like
those of the body, and radiate forwards and laterally. Between
the eyes is a patch of short pale hairs. The fur of the body is long,
of a dark or blackish-brown tint, freckled paler, the hairs being
s*
AMERICAN MONKEYS—THE SAIMIRI AND DOUROUCOULI.
annulated once or twice at the top with pale rusty-brown. In the
male there is no annulation of the hairs. The scanty hairs of under
parts are pale rusty-red. The long- radiating- hair of the head is of
the same colour as that of the rest in the upper parts. In Fig. 127,
■which is that of the female, it is represented too pale. Till recently,
the female of the present Saki has been regarded by natiyalists as a
distinct species. The determination of its identity with the Yarke
is due to M. Schomburgh, whose opportunities of observing this
Monkey in its native region of Guiana have been very abundant, and
-who, a few years since, transmitted specimens of both sexes to the
Zoological Society, London. More recently he brought other
specimens to England. His testimony on the point is clear and
decisive.
Buffon, who figures a young male, which he terms Saki, describes
the hair of the head as radiating, and of a whitish tint ; whence we
may suppose that, till approaching maturity, the males resemble the
females in their " chevelure mal rangee," as he calls it, excepting
as regards its colour.
The Yarke appears to live in small troops, which tenant the
bushes rather than the trees of the forest, living, according to M. de
la Borde, upon the fruit of the guava, and also upon bees, demolish-
ing their combs : they also eat all kinds of grain. The female
produces only a single offspring at a birth, -which she carries on her
back.
American Monkeys— Genus Cal/Mrfx—'BEA.vii'EVL
Hair or Fur.
In the genus Callithrix the head is short and rounded ; muzzle
short ; ears large ; general form slender ; tail equalling or exceed-
ing the length of the body ; not prehensile ; nails, excepting on
hind-thumbs, long and narrow. Fur soft and delicate ; canines
moderate ; lower incisors vertical and contiguous to the canines.
Ears large, and more or less triangular.
The animals of this genus are light, active, and graceful, but so
extremely delicate, that they do not endure removal from their own
country -n-ithout the greatest care. These little Monkeys are termed
Sagoins by the French : in their native regions they inhabit the
depths of the forests, and are diurnal in their habits ; most are
gregarious ; fruits, insects, eggs, and birds constitute their food,
and though habitually gentle and timid, they become animated even
to ferocity at the sight of living prey. The ordinary voice of these
Monkeys is a short reiterated note, which, when they are hurt or
alarmed, is changed to a shrill cry.
The Saimiri, or Squirrel Monkey {CaUifhrix sciurciis,
Dcsm.). Titi de I'Orenoque, Humboldt. — General colour, greyish-
olive ; the face white, ' the lips and chin black ; the limbs tinged
Fig. 12S. — Saimiri.
-with fine rufous or gold colour ; the tail black at its tip ; ears large
and white ; palms flesh-coloured ; eyes large and hazel, with a pink
circle round the iris ; under parts of body greyish-white. Length of
head and body. \2\ inches; of tail, 17 inches. Native country,
Brazil, Cayenne, Guiana.
This slender and elegant little Monkey is widely spread : it is one
of the earliest of the American species with which naturalists be-
came acquainted ; and is most probably the Sapajou de Cayenne of
Froger. (See " Rclat. du Voy. de Gennes," 1698.) Its intelligence,
its beauty, and sportiveness, render it a favourite in its own country,
where it is domesticated in preference to most others of its race. It
is frequently imported into Europe, but our climate is very uncon-
genial. Though the tail of the Saimiri has no truly prehensile
power^ it is used as a sort of boa, for protection against cold ; and
-when numbers cro-s\'d, huddled together, as they are often seen to do
in the wood, they bring it between the hind-legs, and twine it over
the shoulders and round the neck, interlocking their arms and legs
for the sake of warmth. This use of the tail we have observed in
specimens in captivity. Highly sensitive and susceptible, the
Saimiri displays its feelings by the expression of its countenance ;
in which pleasure, surprise, and fear, as they are experienced, are
strongly depicted.
Insects, and especially Spiders, are eagerly sought for and de-
voured by this Monkey ; and, as Humboldt states, it gives no little
trouble to entomological travellers, who may be tempted to keep it
domesticated. If it can obtain access to their store-boxes, it will
devour every specimen, taking each from the pin without injury to
its own fingers.
In their dense and humid forests, troops of these Monkeys may be
seen traversing the branches in single file, the females carrying
their young on their backs. The foremost leads and regulates the
movements of the rest, and as he leaps from branch to branch with
admirable grace and precision, all follow in succession. They
ascend the "nebees," or natural ropes of creeping plants which
intertwine among the trees, with great rapidity. Towards sunset
they ascend to the very tops of the palm-trees, and there sleep in
security. Accustomed to dense and humid forests, under a sky often
covered with clouds, the Saimiri endures with difficulty the dry and
burning atmosphere of the coasts of Guiana, or the adjacent dis-
tricts ; and it becomes melancholy and dejected in proportion as it
quits the region of the forests and enters the Llanos. In captivity
in our climate, though depressed by its influence, the Saimiri is very
engaging. It has a habit of gazing intently on the faces of those
who notice it — a peculiarity alluded to by Humboldt, who says that
it will attentively watch the motion of a person's lips in speaking,
and that if it can climb on his shoulder, it -nill touch his teeth or
tongue with its fingers. The usual voice of this species is a low and
quickly-repeated whistle ; but when hurt, or incommoded by wet,
rain, or other cause of annoyance, it utters a plaintive cry.
American Monkeys— Genus Nocfliora, or Nycfijiithecus.
Thecharacteristics of this genus are — the head large; muzzle short;
eyes large and nocturnal ; nostrils separated by a moderate septum.
Ears moderate, w4th an acute folded apex, the free portion being
circumscribed. Nails long, narrow, and channelled ; fingers of
fore-hands (Fig. 130) not extensible to the full. Tail long, non-
prehensile. Humboldt proposed the term Aofus for this genus,
which, by right of priority, should be retained ; it is rejected, how-
ever, because its meaning (earless) involves an error.
This genus has been regarded by many naturalists as a transition
from between the American Monkeys and the Lemurs. It is true
that, as far as general aspect and nocturnal habits are concerned,
the resemblance between the Douroucouli and Lemurs is apparent ;
still, however, the relationship (setting aside that common to all
Quadrutnana) is one of analogy, not affinity ; for the Douroucouli,
Fig. 129. — Douroucouli.
in its dentition, is more remote from the Lemurs than is the genus
Pithecia ; and in this point it agrees with Callithrix.
The Douroucouli [Nocthora trwirgata, F. Cuv.). Pithecia
AMERICAN MOXKEYS—THE MARMOZETS.
'&*>
Fie. iiO. — Profile and Feet of Douroucouli.
vtiriquouina, Geoffr. ; Callitlirix iiifiilatiis, Lichtenst. ; Nyc-
tipithccus feliiitis, and voci/creus, Spix.— Head round ; muzzle
sliort ; eyes larg-e, with circular pupils. General colour, greyish-
brown above, pale rufous below ; a whitish triangalar mark over each
eye, .bounded by an inter\-ening mark of black ascending from the
root of the nose, and another running from the angle of the mouth,
passing the outer angle of
the eye. (See Figs. 129 and
130.) Tail black at the apex.
General form, slender; palms
flesh-coloured ; face dusky ;
nails black. Length of head
and body, thirteen inches ; of
the tail, eighteen inches.
Native country, Guiana, Bra-
zil.
According to Humboldt,
the Douroucouli inhabits the
dense forests of the Cassi-
quiare and Esmeralda, at the
foot of Mount Duida, and the
environs of the cataracts of
Majeures, between the 2nd
and 5th degrees of N. lat.,
300 leagues from the coast of
French Guiana. According
to Spix, it is found near Para,
and in the forests of Taba-
tinga, on the confines of
Brazil and Peru.
The Douroucouli is noctur-
nal in its habits, and sleeps
during the day. It is greatly
incommoded by light, and
seeks the holes of trees, or
similar places, for conceal-
ment. When roused it is dtiU and oppressed, and can scarcely
open its large white eyelids. Its attitude during repose is crouching.
On the approach of dusk, all the lethargy of the Douroucouli leaves
it, and it becomes restless and impetuous, and roams about in quest
of insects and small birds. In addition to these, various fruits,
seeds, and vegetables constitute its food ; but the quantity of solid
aliment it consumes is comparatively little : it drinks even less, and
but seldom. It glides, Cat-like, through apertures so narrow as to
appear incapable of admitting it, and its actions resemble those of
vivirine animals. Its beautiful glossy fur is in great request ; the
natives make tobacco-pouches and other articles of it, which they
sell. A male and female are often taken together in the same hole
asleep ; for the Douroucouli lives not in troops, but in pairs, and is
strictly monogamous. The nocturnal cry of this animal is ex-
tremely loud and sonorous, and resembles that of the Jaguar :
besides this, it utters a mewing noise like that of a Cat, and also a
deep, harsh, guttural note, represented by the syllables qiier, quer.
When irritated, its throat becomes distended ; and in the posture
then assumed, and in the puffed state of the fur, it resembles a Cat
attacked by a Dog.
In 1833, a young male lived for a short time in the menagerie of the
Zool. Soc, London. Its aspect and movements were very Lemurine ;
its large eyes, which it opened when the dusk of evening came on,
were brilliant, and gave an animated expression to its countenance
not exhibited during the day, when it rested crouching on its perch,
lethargic and motionless. It lived chiefly upon bread sopped in
milk, refusing meat, either dressed or raw.
American Monkeys— .az^^/zif^s—MARMOZETs.
This is the second of the great divisions or families into which
the American Monkeys are divided, already referred to in our intro-
ductory remarks on the Monkeys of the Western Hemisphere. (See
aute, p. 48.) They are ranged under the genus Hapale. Specimens
of the Marmozets, Tamarin, &c., may be seen in the gardens of the
Zoological Society, Regent's Park, London ; and several stuffed
specimens are contained in the British Museum.
Genus Hapalc, Illiger {Jacchus and Midas, Geoff. ; Saguinus, in
part, of Lacepede). — The Marmozets, or Ouistitis, as the Monkeys of
this genus are termed, are distinguished from the rest of the
American groups by some peculiarities m their dentition.
Dental formula : — incisors, 4 ;
4
true molars, ? — ^=32.
2 — 2
canines, i; false molars, ^ ■';
(Fig. 131.) Of the incisors of the upper jaw,
the two middle are the largest ; those of the lower jaw equal the
lower canines in length ; the tubercles of the molars are acute. The
muzzle is short ; the nose is salient, with nostrils widely separate ;
the limbs are short ; the fingers slender, and all, excepting the hind-
thumbs, which are remarkably short, are furnished with sharp, long.
compressed, hooked claws, like those of a Squirrel. The fur is full and
soft ; the tail longer than the head and body, and generally bushy.
General contour, stature, and actions. Squirrel-like. The Marmozets,
or Ouistitis (so called from their sharp whistling crj-), are diurnal in
their habits ; they arc irritable in tlieir temper, but timid, and by no
means remarkable for intelligence. The most prominent feature in
their disposition seems to be extreme caution, an instinctive quality
necessary to their preservation ; for though nimble and quick, they
are subject to the assaults of the smaller beasts of prey, and of
Hawks and Snakes. Still they are not cowardly, and will defend
themselves with great spirit against the attacks of an enemy far
stronger than themselves. Linnffius, in his account of the Common
Fig. 131. — Teeth of Marmozet.
Marmozet, states that it displays great hatred towards Cats, and
attacks them with ferocity — an observation founded most probably on
a single example which came under his immediate notice.
None of the American Monkeys are more sensitive of cold than
the Marmozets, and nature has well provided for their comfort ; not
only is the fur deep, soft, and warm, but the long, full tail is twisted,
as in the Saimiri, round the body, which, during their noctural
repose in some hollow tree, is gathered up into as small a space as
possible ; and in this crouching attitude they resemble a ball of fur
with a little face projecting from it.
These animals are easily rendered tame, and their elegant figure —
their soft silky fur coloured with blending tints — their nimbleness and
diminutive size, have contributed to render them favourites in their
native climate as well as in other parts of the world. From obser-
vations made upon the INIarmozets in captivity, it appears that they arc
more prolific than other Monkej's, producing two or even three young
ones at a birth. In their native regions^viz., the deep forests of Para,
Guiana, and Brazil — they associate in small families, and feed upon
various fruits and insects, devouring the latter with great eagerness.
The Common Wx'va.lozKY: (Hapale Jacchus j. Ouistiti, Buffon ;
Sanglin, Edwards ; Jacchus vulgaris, Geoffr. ; Sintia Jacchus,
Linn. — Fur long and soft, variegated black, white, and rusty-yellow,
the black and white forming alternate undulations. Ears surrounded
by a large plume of erect hairs, white, sometimes tipped with dusky
black, and sometimes perhaps largely washed with black, if not
quite black. Head and throat dusky black : a white frontal mark
above the root of the nose. Tail annulated, dusky black and white.
Native country, Brazil, Guiana. (See Figs. 132 and 133.)
Little has been recorded respecting the natural habits of this
beautiful animal, beyond the facts of it congregating in small fami-
lies, of being active and shy, and of its subsisting upon insects and
eggs, together with fmits, such as bananas and mangoes, of which
it is very fond. It is frequently brought to Europe, and has not only
lived several years, but produced young in the menageries of France
and England. Distrustful, especially towards those whom it is not
accustomed to see, it retires from observation, and ou being touched
S6
AMERICAN MONKEYS— THE MARMOZETS.
utters its peculiar whistling cry, or becomes angiy and resists the
unwelcome attempt to court its confidence. When undisturbed it
displays much liveliness, and exerts its activity, leaping from perch
to perch with Squirrel-like address, and in all its actions justifying
the expression of "nimble Marmozct," used by Shakspeare.
Extremely sensitive to cold, no little of the Marmozet s time is
Fig. 132. — Marmozet.
passed in protecting itself against the changes of temperature to
which our atmosphere is subject. All the wool, cotton, or other soft
materials with which it is furnished, it will carry to some convenient
corner of its cage, or to an inner dormitory, and there completely
bury itself in the downy mass, from which it will peep out on a
person's approach, but from which, unless induced by the offer of
tempting food, it can seldom be induced to emerge altogether. When
two or three are confined in the same cage, they huddle themselves
together, and lie nestled in their bed.
The Marmozet eats bread, fruits, and finely-minced meat : it feeds
Fig- '33' — Group of Marmozets.
in a crouchino- attitude, and usually holds everything between its two
fore-paws, the long hooked nails assisting it. Edwards, in his
" Gleanings " speaking of one of these animals which came under
his own observation, informs us that it fed upon various articles of
diet, as biscuits, fruits, pulse, insects, and Snails ; and that, being
one day at liberty, it darted upon a small gold-fish which was in a
bowl, killed it, and greedily devoured it. After this occurrence,
some small Eels were offered to it, which at first frightened it by
twisting round its neck ; but it soon overcame and eat tlicm.
In the first number of the "Magazine of Natural History," an
interesting account is given by Mr. Neill, of the manners of one of
these Monkeys, which he purchased at Bahia, the capital of the
province of St. Salvador, Brazil. At first, as he states, it displayed
great wildness and even fierceness, screeching most vehemently
when any one offered to approach it ; and it was a long time before
it was so reconciled even to those who fed it, as to allow the slightest
liberty in the way of touching or patting its body ; it was impossible
to do this by surprise, or by the most stealtliy and cautious approach,
as the creature was not still for a moment, but was continually turn-
ing its head from side to side, eyeing every person with the most
suspicious and angry look ; and its sense of hearing was so exceed-
ingly acute, that the slightest noise, or even a whisper, was sure to
arouse it. Its diet consisted of fruits, such as bananas, mangoes,
and Indian corn ; but when, during the voyage, these failed, it eagerly
fell upon the Cockroaches, of which it effectually cleared the vessel.
It would frequently eat a score of the larger kind, which are two
inches and a-half long, and a great number of the smaller ones,
three or four times in the course of the day. It was quite amusing
to see the Marmozet at its meal. When it got hold of one of the
large Cockroaches, it held the insect in its fore-paws, and then in-
variably nipped the head off first ; it then pulled out the viscera and
cast them aside, and devoured the rest of the body, rejecting the dry
elytra (wing-cases) and wings, and also the legs of the insect, which
are covered with short, stiff bristles. The small Cockroaches it ate
without such fastidious nicety. In addition to these insects, milk,
sugar, raisins, and crumbs of bread were given to it. From London
it was conveyed to Edinburgh. There, contrary to the statement of
Linnffius, who says that it is an enemy to Cats, it made acquaintance
with one, with which it fed and slept, and lived on the best terms
imaginable. Though it became gradually tamer, it never lost its
original wildness and distrust.
The first account of the Marmozet having bred in Europe is given
by Edwards (" Gleanings "), who received it from a lady living at
Lisbon ; a pair of these animals, during her residence there, having
produced young. They were at first ugly, and almost destitute of
fur, and clung to the breasts
of the mother ; but as they
grew larger, they mounted her
shoulders and back : when
tired with carrying them, she
would detach them from her
by rubbing them against a wall,
or anything in her way : the
male would then take charge
of them till she was inclined
to resume her duties.
In the year 1819, three young
ones, a male and two females,
were produced in the me-
nagerie of Paris. Their colour
was of a uniform deep grey ;
the tail was almost destitute of
hair ; and they were born with
their eyes open. M. F. Cuvier,
in describing their domestic
economy, confirms the account
given by Edwards ; but con-
finement, in this instance, so
far destroyed the admirable
instinct, common even to the
most savage animals, that one
of the little ones was killed by
its mother before it had an
opportunity of asserting the
strongest claim to her affec-
tion ; and the other two, which
she eagerly cherished the mo-
ment they commenced deriving
theirnutriment from the natural
fountain of life, were deserted
by both parents when the sup-
ply from that source, probably
from improper nourishment,
^ prematurely ceased. During
the short time they existed, the
task of nursing them almost
wholly devolved upon the male
parent which, at first, most assiduously cherished them, placing
them when they claimed his protection, either under him or upon
his back, and thus carrying them about. The female avoided, as
much as possible, the troublesome charge, receiving them unwil-
MADAGASCAR MONKEYS— THE LEMURS.
57
linfjly from her partner; and the moment she had suppUed them
with nourishment, again forcing them upon his attention, at the
same time uttering a peculiar cry, as if asking him to ease her of
a burthen with which she was intolerably fatigued. In 1832, a pair
bred in the gardens of the Zoological Society, at the Regent's Park,
London, and produced twins, which, however, died; as generally
happens to Monkeys bred in England.
The Marikina, or Silky Tamarin {Hapale rosalia). Midas
rosa/ia, Geoffr.— The Marikina is one of the species of the present
group, which M. Geoffrey has separated, upon not very tangible
grounds, into a genus termed Midas. Fur long, silky, and of a
glossy golden yellow ; hairs of the head long and falling, parted
rig. 134. — Marikina.
down the middle of the crown by a line of short rust-brown hairs ;
ears concealed by the long hair of the head ; tail almost tufted at the
ape.x. (See Fig. 134.) This species is subject to considerable varia-
tion in the richness of its colouring : we have seen specimens of a
straw-yellow, with a silvery lustre. Its native countries arc Guiana
and Brazil.
Two or three opportunities have been afforded us of observing this
beautiful species in captivity. Judging from these individuals, this
animal is more confiding and less irritable than the Common Mar-
mozet, which, however, it resembles in its actions. When alarmed
or angry, it utters a shrill cry, and slightly raises the long hairs
around the sides of its face, displaying its teeth, as if threatening to
bite. Contrary to Buffon's opinion, who considers it to be more
hardy than most of its congeners, it appears to be fully as susceptible
of the changes of our climate, and indeed dies immediately if ex-
posed to damp or wet.
In this opinion Fred. Cuvier fully coincides. These animals, he
observes, are natives of Brazil, and from the delicacy of their con-
stitution they cannot be kept alive in France without the greatest
care to preserve them from the influence of atmospheric changes, and
especially from the cold and humidity of the winter season : under
the depressing effects of wet and chilly weather, they lose all their
sprightliness, droop, and die. Speaking of the individual figured in
his splendid work, and which was brought, in 1818, from Brazil to
Paris, where it lived for a short time in the menagerie of the Jardin
des Plantes, he states that it was very active and lively, and, like a
bird, preferred the topmost perches of the cage. On the least alarm
it always concealed itself ; and though it appeared gratiiicd with the
notice and caresses of those whom it knew, and came to them when
called, it never returned any expressions or signs of attachment as
other Monkeys do when noticed by persons to whom they are at-
tached. It disliked strangers, and retired from them, regarding them
with looks of defiance, and menacing with its feeble teeth. Fear or
anger it expressed by a short, sharp, whistling cry ; but sometimes,
as if from ennui, it raised its voice into a louder or more prolonged
note. In these details, the individuals described by Fred. Cuvier re-
sembled the specimens which have lived in the vivarium of the Zoo-
logical Society, London. The interest which attached to them
resulted only from the lustre of their silky fur, and from the elegance
of their actions, for it was evident that their intelligence was very
circumscribed. That prying curiosity, always amusing, sometimes
troublesome, which Monkeys in general exhibit, appeared to form no
part of their character ; and the confidence they manifested towards
those accustomed to feed them, was unmixed with tokens of attach-
ment or gratitude. Still, it is diflficult to form a correct idea of the
character of animals from individuals in confinement ; and it cannot
be doubted that in its native forests, of which it is one of the orna-
ments, the Marikina, like the Squirrel of our woods, displays habits and
manners calculated to excite the interest of the observer. Of these,
however, nothing is definitely known. According to Prince Maxi-
milian, the Marikina is more rarely found in Brazil than in Guiana.
CHAPTER VI.
QUADRUMANA.— MADAGASCAR MONKEYS, OR LEMURS.
(Group or Family, Lemurid.e and Lemuroida.j
EMURS, family Lenuiridcs, and genus
Lemur, with the Lemuroida, form a third
and last group of the Quadrzi>?ta>m.
They differ from the Monkeys of both
worlds in dental characters, but in quadru-
manous structure they approach those of
the old, having opposable thumbs on the
fore-hands as well as on the hinder pair.
- ^s^T^-jt, N, The contour of their body is very
|'^~'^^/::^5\^V peculiar : the general form is slender
and elongated ; the head is pointed and
somewhat Fox-like ; the nostrils have a sinuous open-
ing, terminating a sharp, naked, somewhat prominent
muzzle ; the eyes are large, and of a nocturnal cha-
racter ; the limbs are long, especially the hinder pair,
which in some species greatly exceed the anterior ;
the fore-hands have a true thumb, but in some species
the index-finger is abbreviated ; the thumb of the
hinder hands is large and greatly expanded at the
tip ; the index-finger of those hinder pair (and in the
Tarsier, the next also) is armed with a long, subulate,
slightly curved claw ; the other nails are flat ; the fur
is full and woolly ; the tail varies, it is never prehen-
sile, and is sometimes wanting : habits pre-eminently
arboreal. If we compare the skull of the Monkey
(Fig. 13 s) with that of the ordinary Lemurs (Fig. 136), we shall observe
many distinctions. The volume of the Lemur's skull, taken in
relationship to that of the face, is greatly diminished ; no trace of a
forehead remains, but the
frontal bone falls so com-
pletely back behind the de-
veloped and projecting facial
portion or muzzle, as to pre-
sent an almost level surface
along the nasal bones to the
top of the head. The occi-
pital condyles have the same
posterior situation as in the
Dog, so that the head is
suspended from, rather than
even partially balanced on,
the vertebral column. The
orbits are not completely
walled within, but open into
the temporal foss;c, and
have an obliquely lateral
aspect ; the nasal bones run
the whole length to the tip of the snout, or nearly so ; the lower
jaw is long and narrow, and consists of two rami, perfectly separate
at the chin. Here, indeed, we first meet with the symphysis of the
Fig. 135.— Skull of the Monkey.
58
AfADAGASCAR MONKEYS— THE LEMURS.
lower jaw unobliterated, even in the most advanced period of life.
In man and the Monkeys this suture is not apparent, even in the
youngest subjects ; but in the lower Mammalia, excepting in the
Pachydermaia, as a general rule, it is always present.
136. — Skull of Lemur.
The teeth are as follows : — Four small incisors above in pairs,
with an intermediate space between them for the reception of the
points of the lower incisors and lower canine teeth. The lower
incisors (in the true Lemurs) are four in number, but they are accom-
panied by the lower canines, which, except that they are stronger
and larger, resemble the incisors in form and direction. They are
long, pointed, compressed, in close contact with each other, and
direct obliquely forwards. The canines of the upper jaw are com-
pressed, pointed, and sharp on their posterior edge. The molars
are crowned with sharp angular tubercles.
Dental formula of the genus Zez^z^r (Figs. 136, 137): — Incisors, - ;
i-i 6-6 ^
canines, y^ ; molars, g^Tg" The first false molar below is stout,
and resembles a canine, whence has arisen the idea that it is so
really, and that the lower incisors were 6 instead of 4.
rig- 137.— Teeth of the Lemur.
Professor Owen remarks, that most of the Lemurina have
t fr^' "^^^> together with remarkable modifications of their
incisive and canine teeth, of which an extreme example is shown in
the pectinated tooth of the Galeo;pithecus. The inferior incisors
slope forw^ards in all, and the canines also, which are contiguous to
them, and very similar in shape.
Genus Zi?«2«;-.— Head long, muzzle pointed, eyes moderate and
oblique ; ears short and hairy ; tail long and bushy ; mammffi two,
pectoral. Most are natives of Madagascar : arboreal, nocturnal.
Their movements are light, sweeping, elegant, and precise. Their
usual voice is a low inward grunt, but they often break forth into an
abrupt hoarse roar, producing a startling effect. The term Lemur
(from the Latin Leinurcs, Ghosts) was first adopted by Linnseus in
allusion to the nocturnal habits and stilly sweeping movements of
these singular animals.
The following remarks, extracted from the " Circle of the
Sciences," in the section of Zoology, contributed to that work by
Mr. W. S. Dallas, F.L. S., Sic, are of considerable interest and
value, as showing the connection of the Lemurs with the Chiro^tera
and I?isecirjora, which we shall deal with in the next chapters. Mr.
Dallas also gives his own views as to the classification of the
Lemurs, which differ somewhat from that we have adopted, but in
no material degree. In fact, so many opinions have been held in
regard to the classification of each family of the Quadrumana,
that the most proficient naturalist has to "feel his way" to the
truth.
Mr. Dallas remarks, in regard to the GaIeo;pithectd(r, or Flying
Lemurs, that they evidently connect the Qicadru}nana with the
Chirojitera (Bats, &c., which will become the subject of description
in our next chapter), and which have indeed been placed in the
latter order by many zoologists. They certainly differ in many im-
portant particulars from the Quadnimatia, more especially in the
total want of opposable thumbs on all the feet, which are composed
of five fingers, arranged in a single line, and united together by a
small membrane. These fingers are, however, adapted for
climbing, and are not, as in the Bats, prolonged to furnish support
to broad membranous wings, although the animals are furnished
with a very broad fold of skin, which extends from the sides of the
neck to the wrists, from these to the base of the feet, and is even
continued between the hind-legs so as to involve the tail, in the
same way as in many of the true Chiroptera. It is evident that this
membrane, which is entirely clothed with hair, is to be regarded like
the similar provision of the Flying Squirrels and Phalangers, merely
as a sort of parachute, by means of which its possessor is enabled to
perform leaps of amazing extent, although it must be confessed that,
in its general arrangement, leaving the structure of the hands out of
the question, it presents a wonderful similarity to the wing of a Bat.
In other respects, the Galeoj>ithecidcB exhibit, in a remarkable
manner, characters intermediate between those of the Lemurs and
the true Chiroptera. The form of the head is the same as in the
former group ; but the orbits are incomplete, as in the Bats. The
dentition resembles that of the Lemurs, but presents some curious
characters. The incisors are four in the upper, and six in the lower
jaw ; the former are placed quite at the sides of the jaw, so as to
leave a wide vacant space in front ; and the second, or hindermost
incisor, is inserted by two roots, which give it the appearance of a
false molar ; and that is also the case with the following tooth,
which may be regarded as the representative of the canine. The
lower incisors project in front of the jaw, and the four intermediate
exhibit a singular structure, being very broad, flat, and deeply
notched or cleft into teeth something like those of a comb. The
GaleopitliecidiB differ from the other
Qjcadrmnana in the possession of two
pairs of pectoral mammae.
These singular animals are all inhabit-
ants of the Indian islands, where they
live in the forests, and pass the days sus-
pended by their hind-legs, like the true
Bats, from the branches of trees. The
night is their period of activity, and they
then climb about the trees with great
ease, and glide from one to another by
the aid of their broad lateral membranes.
In this way it is said they will pass over a
space of more than a hundred yards.
They appear to feed upon almost any-
thing, but principally fruits, insects, small
birds, and their eggs.
The best known species {Galeopithe-
cits "joUta7is, Fig. 138) is found in Java,
Sumatra, and Borneo. It measures about
twenty inches in length. (It will be fur-
ther described in this chapter.)
Another section of this order also includes one family — that of the
Chiromyda — which, as far as we at present know, has only a single
representative, the C/iiro/nys Madagascariensis, or Aye- Aye, which
presents characters of as problematical a nature as those of the
preceding family. The Chiromys, in fact, appears to form the con-
necting link between the Quadnanana and the Rodents ; and it has
been placed by different zoologists in both these orders. (A full
description of this animal will be found at a future page, with an
illustration.)
In its form, this remarkable animal presents a close resemblance
to a Squirrel ; and, when first discovered, it was supposed to be a
species of the old genus Sciurus, Its dentition also is almost iden-
Fig. 138.— Flying Lemur
(Galcopitliecus volitans).
MADAGASCAR MONKEYS— THE LEMURS.
59
tical with that of a Rodent animal, consisting of a pair of powerful
incisor teeth in each jaw, separated from the molars by a wide
empty space ; the canines are entirely deficient. The skull, how-
ever, is distinguishable from that of a Rodent from its having the
orbits encircled by a complete bony ring. The structure of the feet
is also different ; the anterior members have five very long, slender
fingers, armed with claws : and the thumb, although not exactly in
the same line with the other fingers, is scarcely opposable ; but the
posterior members arc furnished with complete hands, of which the
thumb has a flat nail, and the first finger a subulate claw, like that
of the true Lemurs. The body of this animal is clothed with longish,
smooth hairs, with an under-coat of a woolly nature. The tail is
long and bushy, and the ears large and naked. The mamma; are
situated on the groin.
In a third group, which includes two families, and to which the
name oi Prosimicc has been given, we find the thumbs of the hind-
feet always opposable, and the first finger furnished with a claw,
even when the others bear nails. The teeth are of three kinds, and
never show any resemblance to those of the Rodenfia ; the nose is
usually slender and pointed, and the tail long and bushy. These
animals appear to lead from the typical Qiiadrumana to the Insec-
tivora.
We have selected the following members of the Lcmuridcc,
Lemitrince, or Lcmnroida for illustration, commencing with —
The Ruffled Lemur {Lonur Macaco). Le Vari, Buffon. — This
is one of the largest and most beautiful of the genus, exceeding a
Cat in size. Its fur is of admirable texture, being full, fine, and
silky; the tail is long and bush}'. The general ground is pure white,
on which large black patches are tastefully arranged ; the tail is
black ; a full ruff of longer hairs than those of the body surrounds
the face — whence its English appellation. (See Fig. 139.)
Of the native habits of this and the other Lemurs in the deep
forests of Madagascar, little is known : they avoid the presence
of man ; and though harmless,
will defend themselves with
great resolution, inflicting severe
wounds with their sharp ca-
nines. They associate together
in troops, and after sunset their
hoarse loud roar may be heard
in dissonant chorus, resounding
among the recesses of the wood-
land wilderness. The roar of
the Ruffed Lemur is peculiarly
deep and sonorous. During the
day the Lemurs sleep in their re-
treats. Fruits, insects, reptiles,
small birds, and eggs constitute
their food.
When taken young, these ani-
mals soon become familiar, and
are fond of being noticed and
caressed, exhibiting considerable
attachment to those who attend
them ; but they will bite severely
persons who have irritated them.
In captivity, with due care,
they bear our climate well, though
they are impatient of cold, as
might be inferred from their soft
thick fur. They are fond of sit-
ting perched on the fender before
a fire ; and in this situation they
will spread their hands, half
close their eyes, and testify un-
equivocal satisfaction. During
the day they sleep in a ball-like
figure on their perch ; and if t\j;o
be in a cage together, they sit
close to one another with their
tails wrapped, boa-like, round
each other's body, so as to make
one round ball, from which, on
being disturbed, two heads sud-
denly make their appearance.
Though less intelligent than
Monkeys in general, they are more gentle and confiding: they
will put their heads to the bars of" their cage, to have them
scratched and rubbed, and by their actions invite notice. They
have little of the prying, mischievous, petulant disposition of
Monkeys, so that with due precaution they may be trusted in a room
at liberty. When presented with food, they usually take it in their
hands ; but we have seen them feed upon soft bread without holding
it. They lap fluid like a Dog. They bound and leap with the most
astonishing agility, gracefulness, and address ; and when in motion
the tail is elevated in a sigmoid (like the capital letter S in the
Greek language) form, and not trailed after them. Strong light
greatly incommodes them ; their ej'cs gleam at night ; and the pupil
is transverse, dilating with the advance of evening dimness.
The White-fronted Lemur {Lemur, or Prosimia albifrons).
—Fur ruddy or bronzed-grey above : male with the forehead and
Fig. 140. — White-fronted Lemur.
sides of the face white ; female with the same part of a deep grey.
The female and the Lemur A!ijua7iensis (Maki d'Angouan) are
distinct, contrary to the opinion of Lesson. (See Fig. 140.)
The White-fronted Lemur is gentle, affectionate, and lively : it
Fig- 139.— Ruffed Lemur.
leaps with great agility, and after a spring of many yards, pitches so
lightly on fts fingers as hardly to attract the notice of the ear. Its
nfanners are the same as those of its race in general. ,, , .
The Flocky or Woolly Lemur {Indrts laniger). Maki a
Bourre of Sonnerat ; Lemur lanigcr, Lichanotus la>2iger,
Indris /a«7>(:;-.— This speices, which was first described and
figured by Sonnerat, as the Maki A Bourre, has been, wc know not
why regarded as a species of Indris (Z?<r//a«y//^J, Illiger),and placed
in that genus. Cuvier doubted its alliance to that group; and for
ourselves we hesitate not in referring it to the genus C///;;o^a/<?«J,
Geoffr., founded for the reception of certain Lemurs described and
6o
MADAGASCAR MONKEYS— THE LEMURS.
figured by Commorson, but till lately unknown to European
naturalists. (Fig. 141.)
The Flocky Lemur is about a foot in the length of the head and
body, the tail being nine inches long. The colour is pale ferruginous
above, white beneath ; the fur is e.xtremely soft and curled, deepest
about the loins. Face black ; eyes large and greenish-grey. The
Fig. 141. — Flocky Lemur.
fingers of both fore and hind hands are furnished with long pointed
claws, the thumbs only having flat nails.
In the museum at Paris we e.xamined a species of CJiirogaleus
closely allied to (perhaps identical with) the Flocky Lemur : it was
labelled Chi)-ogaleus Milii. Head broad and flat ; ears moderate
and hairy. Fur soft, full, curly, and glossy, of a fine fawn-brown,
paler between the eyes, which are large, and surrounded by a brown
disk. The hairs are all lead-coloured at the base : chin, throat,
under surface, and inside of limbs white. Tail fawn-brown. Teeth
as in the genus Lemur. Nails minute, flat, but sharp-pointed ;
those of the thumbs as usual. Length of head and body about
fourteen inches ; of the tail, twelve inches. Of two specimens, one
was presented to the museum by M. Goudot ; the other, alive, by
M. le Baron Milius. Native country, Madagascar.
The Short-tailed Indris (^Lichanofus brevicaudatus, or
L'Indri, Sonnerat ? Lndris brevicatidatus, Geoffr. — The genus
Licha?!otus (or Indris) differs, in some details of dentition, from the
genus Le}7iur, to which in most points it is closely allied. The
Fig. 142. — Short-tailed Indris.
following description of the Indris was taken from a fine specimen in
the Paris Museum. The anterior part of the face nearly naked ; the
forehead, temples, throat, and chest white ; the ears, the occiput,
shoulders, arms, and hands black. The lower part of the back
brown, which colour divides on the haunch into two lines, which rnn
down the buttocks and spread on the thighs, leaving the crupper,
tail, and posterior part of the thighs white ; the root of the tail is
tinged with yellow. Anterior part of thighs and feet deepening into
black ; heels white, with an anklet of greyish-white ; breast brown.
Flanks and lower part of belly white ; and also the inside of the arms.
Fur beautifully soft and woolly. Thumbs very large and powerful; fore-
toe small and united to the next, almost to the last joint : it is armed
with a long sharp nail. The nails of the thumbs and fingers, and
also of the toes, the first excepted, are small, flat, sub-keeled, and
pointed. Length from muzzle to root of tail, two feet ; of the tail,
three inches; of the hind-feet, seven inches and a-half. This animal
is represented in Fig. 142.
The Indris is a native of Madagascar, where it is said to be
frequently trained by the natives for the chase. Its voice resembles
the wailing cry of a child. The word Indris is said to signify, in the
Madagascar language, a " man of the woods."
The Diadem Lemur, or Indris {Propiikecus, or Indris Dia-
defna, Benn.). — Mr. Bennett proposed the genus Propithecus for
this Lemur, which is a native of Madagascar, and which appears to
Fig. 143. — Diadem Lemur.
us, notwithstanding the length of the tail, to belong in reality to the
genus Lichanotus. It is, in fact, a long-tailed Indris. (Fig. 143.)
Description : — Face nearly naked, with short blackish hairs about
the lips, and equally short yellowish-white hairs in front of the eyes.
Above the eyes, the long, silky, waved, and thickly-set hairs which
cover the body commence by a band of yellowish-white crossing the
front, and passing beneath the ears to the throat. This is succeeded
by black, extending over the back of the head and neck, but becom-
ing freely intermingled with white on the shoulders and sides, the
white gradually increasing backwards, so as to render the loins only
slightly grizzled with black. At the root of the tail fulvous, that
colour gradually disappearing until the extreme half of the tail is
white with a tinge of yellow. Outer side of the anterior limbs, at
the upper part, of the slaty-grey of the sides, below which it is pale
fulvous, ffands black, except tufts of long fulvous hair at the ex-
tremities of the thumb and fingers, extending beyond and covering
the nails. Outer sides of the hinder limbs, after receiving a tinge of
fulvous from the colour surrounding the root of the tail, of a paler
fulvous than the anterior limbs : this becomes much deeper on the
hands, which are fulvous, except on the fingers, where there is a very
considerable intermixture of black, the terminal tufts, equally long
with those of the anterior hands, being, as in them, fulvous. The
under surface white throughout, except the hinder part of the throat,
where it is of the same colour with the sides of the body. Hairs
generally long, silky, waved, erect, and glossy ; shorter and more
dense on the crupper, where they offer a sort of woolly resistance.
General character of those on the tail, that of the body-hair, but
shorter.
Thumb of anterior hands slender, placed far back, and extremely
free ; thumb of hinder hands very strong. Length of body and head,
measured in a straight line, i foot 9 inches ; of the tail, i foot 5 inches.
Anterior limbs, exclusive of hands, 7J inches in length from the
body; posterior limbs, 15J inches. Muzzle shorter than in the
Lemurs generally ; the distance from the anterior angle of the orbit
to the tip of the nose (i J inch) being equal to that between the eyes.
Ears rounded, concealed in the fur: length, 1 inch; breadth, \\
inch. In a young specimen that was at Paris, the yellow tint on the
limbs was very bright and golden.
Associated with the Madagascar Monkeys, are the Asiatic
Lemuroids, which will be next described.
ASTATIC LEMUROIDS-TUE LORIS.
ix
The Asiatic LEMUROms-Genus S/e>io^s, Loris, or Nycikchus.
This ?enus properly belongs to the Lemuroids. or Lemur-like
l\Ionkeys The dentition is the san^e as m the Lemur, but the
tubercles on the crowns of the molars are more acute The animals
of this 4oup are termed Loris, or Slow Lemurs. They are charac-
°er sed by the head beins? round, the muzzle short and acutely
pointed; the eyes large, full, bright, and approximating to each
o°her; the ears short, round, open, and almost buned m the fur ; the
tai completely rudimentary, and the limbs slender. Two species
are known, both natives of India and its islands, especially Ceylon,
Tava, Sumatra, &c. , ,. , , a
^ These animals have been long celebrated for the slowness and
caution of their movements, to which may be added a remarkable
tenacity of grasp, in conjunction with the power in the limbs ot
exerting a long continuance of muscular contraction. In the arteries
both of the anterior and posterior extremities there is a peculiarity
first detected by Sir A. Carlisle, and met with in the limbs of the Sloth
and a few other instances. No sooner has the mam artery, a single
tube reached the commencement of the limbs, but it assumes another
character : instead of continuing its course as a simple tube, g'vmg
off branches as it proceeds (the usual mode), it becomes suddenly
subdivided into a congeries of small tubes intertwined together, and
communicating with each other freely, thus forming an elongated
plexus, which may act as a sort of reservoir, and carry onwards a
large volume of blood. The relation of this plexus to the bulk of the
limb it supplies with blood is greater, in point of volume, than that ol
the simple artery in ordinary animals. ,, ,. , , ,. , v
The Slow-paced Loris [Stenope, or Nycticebus tardigradus).
—Fur soft, and full ; colour brownish-grey, a deep chestnut stripe
passing down the middle of the back ; this stripe, continued on to
Fig. 144. — Slow-paced Loris.
the head, gives off a branch which encloses each ear, and another
which encircles each eye, and extends to the angles of the mouth ;
figure short, hind-limbs longer than the fore-limbs. Eyes, large,
nocturnal, with transverse pupils ; muzzle short and pointed. Length,
twelve or thirteen inches. (See Fig. 144.)
The Slender Loris (Loris, or Stenops gracilis). — IMuzzle pro-
duced, slender, acute; figure slight; limbs very long, thin, and meagre.
General colour rufous-grey ; the under parts whitish ; space round
the eyes dusky ; fur soft ; a whitish or white frontal spot points to the
interval between the eyes. Length of head and body, nine inches.
These two singular animals are eminently nocturnal and arboreal :
they sleep during the day on their perch, in a crouching attitude,
■with the body drawn together, and the head doubled down upon the
chest. At night they prowl among the forest boughs in search of
food ; their large glaring eyes now glow with peculiar lustre ; not an
insect, not a bird escapes their scrutiny : they mark their victim ;
stilly, and imperceptibly as the minute-finger traverses the dial-plate,
do they advance upon their prey ; and not less surely does the
minute-finger attain a given mark than they their prey : when it is
once within range of their grasp, they seize it by a rapid instantane-
ous action. Besides birds, insects, and eggs, fruits also form part
of their diet.
Of all the LemuridcB which we have seen alive, none appear to be
so susceptible of cold, or so incommoded by daylight, nor are any so
apparently dull and inanimate from morning till evening. They
appear as if in a state of continual torpor ; yet if exposed to the in-
fluence of warmth, they will rouse up, not only on the approach of
twilight, but even during the hours of day, if shielded from the glare
of the sun. When fairly awake, and comfortably warm, they delight
to clean and lick their full soft fur, and will allow themselves to be
caressed by those accustomed to feed them.
Mr. Baird, in an interesting paper in the " Magazine of Nat.
Hist." vol. i., 1829, remarks, that all the known Mammalia close their
eyelids in a direction upwards and downwards ; and, in general, the
upper eyelid is the one possessing the greatest degree of motion.
He found, however, that in his Slow-paced Lemur the eyelids were
brought together in a diagonal direction, or outwards and inwards.
Fig. 145. — Slender Loris.
which gave the animal, at the moment of shutting its eyes, a most
peculiar look. It was the under or outer eyelid that had the greatest
degree of motion, the upper or inner one being almost fixed ; and he
concludes that the orbicularis ociili must be very powerful. After
the death of the animal, and when Mr. Baird had left this country
on a second voyage to India, the eye was dissected by Dr. Knox,
who found that the movement of the eyelids aBove described did not
depend on any peculiar structure, but merely on the greater degree
of strength of the orbicularis muscle.
Mr. Baird also observed another peculiarity in the species. " Be-
neath the tongue proper," says he, " if I may so call it, which is
somewhat like that of the Cat, though not rough, is another tongue,
white-coloured, narrow, and very sharp-pointed, which he projects
along with the other one when he eats or drinks, though he has the
power of retaining it within his mouth at pleasure." Mr. Baird,
however, had not been able to see any particular purpose to which
he applied it ; but he saw him use this double tongue when eating
flies, of which he was exceedingly fond, snapping them up most
eagerly when presented to him, and catching them himself when
they were reposing in the evening upon the walls of the room.
Pennant, Vosmaer, Sir W. Jones, Mr. Baird, M. d'Obsonville,
and others have published detailed observations made upon Loris in
captivity, and their accounts coincide with the facts which have
come under our own notice.
Vosmaiir's specimen (5. tardigradus) ate fruits, such as pears
and cherries, with relish ; and also dry bread and biscuit ; but if
dipped in water, would touch neither. When offered water, it smelt
it, but drank not. Eggs were favourite diet. " II aimait a la fureur
les ceufs," are the 'words of Vosmaer, who, concluding from its
appetite for eggs that it would eat birds, gave it a live Sparrow,
which it instantly killed with a bite, and ate the whole very greedily.
He gave it a live Cockchafer, to try whether it would eat insects : it
took the offering in its paw, and devoured it completely. VosmaCr
afterwards gave it a Chaffinch (pin(;on) which it ate with much
relish, and afterwards slept for the remainder of the day. He often
saw it still awake at two hours past midnight ; but from half-past six
in the morning its sleep was so sound, that its cage might be cleaned
without disturbance to its repose. If forcibly awakened during the
day in order to teaze it, it was vexed, and bit the stick ; but with a
very slow motion, repeating the cry, Ai, ai, ai, drawing out the ai
each time in a plaintive, languid, and trembling note, in the same
manner as is reported of the American Sloths. When it was thus
harassed for a long time, and thoroughly roused, it crawled two or
three times round its cage, and then slept again. Mr. Baird imornis
us that he obtained his specimen at Pulo-Penang (Prince of Wales
Island) ; and at the time he wrote, it had been nearly ten months in
his possession. Its food consisted of fruit and small animals, such
as birds and mice. The plantain was the fruit of which it was tond,
and was the only food Mr. Baird saw it eat when he first got it into
his possession. The necks of fresh-killed fowls formed the major
part of its sustenance during the voyage. It was particularly fond
of small birds : these, when put into the cage, it killed speedily, and
63
ASIATIC AND AFRICAN LEMUROIDS.
stripping off the feathers, soon devoured them, eating the bones as
well as the flesh. Veal was preferred to all other butcher's meat,
and it was fond of eggs : meat boiled, or otherwise cooked, it would
not touch. Sugar appeared to be grateful to its palate, and it ate
gum-arabic. The juice of oranges was also greatly relished ; and,
unlike Vosmaer's specimen, it readily fed upon bread sopped in
water and sprinkled with sugar; and lapped water eagerly like
a Cat.
The Asiatic Lemuroids— Genus TarjzwJ— Taesiers.
The Tarsiers, of which few species are known, are distinguished by
the rounded figure of the head, and the extreme shortness of the
muzzle ; by the enormous size of the eyes ; and the extraordinary
length and slenderness of the hinder limbs, of which the tarsus is
thrice as long as the metatarsus. The fingers, both of the anterior
and posterior limbs, are elongated and slender ; the hind-thumb is
well developed, with a small triangular nail, and the first and second
fingers are furnished with small, pointed, narrow claws. The ears
are large, naked, and capable of being folded. Tail long, covered
with short hair. The first description of the Tarsier {T. spectrutn)
is due to Daubenton, who gave it this title, in allusion to the length
Fig. 146. — Teeth of Tarsiers.
of the tarsi. Gmelin, misled by its apparently anomalous structure,
placed it in his genus Didelphis (the receptacle alike of Opossums
and Kangaroos), under the name of D. macroiarsus. Pennant,
misled by the tarsi, termed it the Woolly Gerboa. M. F. Cuvier con-
siders its dentition fo approximate to that of some of the Bats.
Dental formula (Fig. 146) : — Incisors, 1 ; canines, i^ ; molars,
2 I — I
6-6 ^ i8
6-6 i6'
In their habits the Tarsiers are arboreal and decidedly nocturnal,
preying on birds, eggs, insects, &c. : one species is a native of the
Moluccas, the other of the island of Banca.
Mr. Dallas (already quoted at p. 58, ante) makes the following
remarks on the comparison that subsists between the Loris and
Tarsiers : — The TarsidcB consist of insectivorous animals, charac-
terised by the acute tubercles of their molars. The incisors are very
variable in number ; the canines are large ; the nose is more or less
pointed ; the eyes are usually very large, and directed forwards ; and
the ears arc large and membranous. The tail is long, sometimes
bushy, and occasionally furnished with a tuft of longer hair towards
the tip. The tarsus in these animals is usually of considerable
length : this is especially the case in the typical genus Tarshcs,
in which the toes of the hind-feet vary most curiously in their
development. Both the fore and hind feet are furnished with
opposable thumbs. In the genus Otolicnus, the ears are exceedingly
large, like those of the Bats, and can be folded down in the same
way. These are all nocturnal animals, of small size, natives of the
tropical parts of Africa, and soiae of the Indian islands, where they
live in the forests, and climb about the trees at night in search of
insects.
A second family, very closely allied to that of the preceding, is
that of the Nycticeoida;, or Loris, which, in fact, differ from the
Tarsida: principally in the small size of the ears, and the complete
deficiency of the tail. They are also remarkable for the large size
of the eyes, which are placed close together on the front of the head.
There are only two known species of this family, natives of India
and the Indian islands ; they are nocturnal in their habits, and very
slow in their movements — whence the name of Slow Lemurs is fre-
quently applied to them ; their food is said to consist of small birds
and insects, which they are able to capture at night, notwithstand-
ing the extreme slowness of their movements.
The Banca Tarsier {Tarshis Bancanus, Horsf.). — This species
was obtained by Dr. Horsfield in Banca, near Jeboos, one of the
mining districts, where it inhabits the extensive forests. The fur is
deep, soft, thick, and woolly, enveloping the head, body, limbs, and
Fig. 147. — Banca Tarsier.
root of tail, where it terminates abruptly. The general colour is
brown inclining to grey, especially on the inside of the limbs and the
under parts ; a rufous wash appears on the head and outer surface
of the limbs. The tail, which equals the head and body in length,
is nearly naked, except at its base : towards the extremity it is
covered with a soft down, which forms, near the tip, a very obscure
tuft. The backs of the hands are covered with a very soft down :
the palms are naked, and provided with several prominent cushions,
calculated to assist in climbing and perching with safety on the
branches. (See Fig. 147.)
African Lemuroida— Genus Galago—lnY. Galagos.
The Moholi (Galago Moholi). — We select, as an example of
the genus Galago {Otolicmis, 111.), the Moholi of Southern Africa.
The Galagos, though they approach the Lemurs in the dental
characters, differ from those animals in many well-marked and
important points. (See Fig. 148.) The ears are large, membranous,
naked, and, as in the long-eared Bats, capable of being folded down
over the external orifice. The posterior limbs are greatly developed,
and especially at the tarsal portion. The eyes are large and full ;
the head is round ; the muzzle pointed ; the tail long ; the fingers,
both of the fore and hind hands, long and slender, with the usual
sharp claw on the first finger of the hinder pair. The fur is full,
soft, and woolly. The skull (Figs. 149 and 150) is more globular, and
with larger orbits than we find in the Lemurs : it is more elevated
above, and broader.
The Galagos are nocturnal animals : during the day they sleep on
the branches, their ears being folded down ; on the approach of
night they are all animation, and, with ears expanded and glistening
eyes, they begin their prowl for food. They watch the insects flitting
among the leaves : they listen to the buzzing of their wings amidst
the foliage, and dart upon the incautious fluttererwith great activity.
In addition to insects, they feed on fruits and gum ; and one species
is abundant in certain gunitforcsts m the great desert of Sahara.
MADAGASCAR LEMURS— THE A YE- A YE.
The Moholi was found, by Dr. Smith, close to the Limpopo river,
in about 25° S. lat. He observed these animals spring-ing- from
branch to branch, and from tree to tree, T\ith extraordinary facility.
In their manner they considerably resembled the Monkeys, par-
ticularly in grimaces aud gesticulations. According to the natives,
the species is entirely nocturnal, and rarely to be seen during the
63
Genus Chiromys, or Cheiromys—TwE. Aye-Aye.
The genus Chiromys was established by Cuvier for the reception
of that cxtraordmary animal the Aye-Aye, respecting the affinities of
which so many conllicting opinions have iDcen advanced.
rig. 148. — Moholi.
day, which the animal spends in the nest. This it forms in the
forks of branches or in cavities of decayed trees ; and in these nests,
constructed of soft grass, the females bring forth and rear their
young (generally two at a birth). Dr. Smith states that the food of
the Moholi consists principally of pulpy fruits, though there is reason
to believe it also consumes insects, as remains of the latter were dis-
covered in the stomachs of several individuals which he examined.
Dr. Smith, for the reasons stated in his work, considers this anima)
Fig. 149.— Skull of Moholi.
different from Galago Senegalensis. He gives an elaborate anato-
mical description, and good figures, of the more important and
interesting parts of this animal.
The general colour is grey, with wavy or bnndled markings of a
darker tint, and the limbs are washed with yellow; unde"r-parts
white; tail red-brown; ears flesh-coloured. Length from nose to
tip of tail, si.xteen inches.
The preceding are some of the most important of the Lerauroids of
Asia and Africa, resembling the Madagascar Lemurs.
Fig. 150. — B.ise of Skull of Moholi and Lower Jaw, natural size.
The Aye-Aye {Chironzys Madagascarintsis) is a native of
Madagascar, where it appears to be extremely rare, and chiefly, if
not exclusively, restricted to the western part : most probably it
tenants remote solitudes seldom visited by the natives, and never by
Europeans. It was discovered by Sonncrat, and described by him
in his " Voyage aux Indes " (Paris 1781).
Sonnerat regarded the Aye-Aye (so called, like one of the Sloths
from its cry) as allied to the Lemurs, the Monkeys, and the
Squirrels ; and subsequent writers have taken opposite views, ac-
cording as they have been biassed by one part of its organisation
or another, or according to their ideas of the respective value of
characters, deduced from one set of organs or another. Pennant
Gmelin, Cuvier, Fleming, and Swainson, place it among the
Rodents; Linnaeus and Schreber regard it as a Lemur. (See Fig-
152-)
M_. de Blainville, in his pamphlet " Sur quelques Anomalies de
systeme Dentair," &c , observes, that notwithstanding the Rodent-
like character of its organisation, its manners and habits prove it to
be a true Lemur, having absolutely no relationship with the Rodents,
no aflSnity to them, in spite of all that many naturalists have*"
imagined ; and, after a careful examination of the specimen and
skull, we coincide in this opinion.
The teeth consist only of incisors and molars (see skull. Fig. i";i):
the incisors are two in each jaw, strong and powerful : those' below
are compressed laterally, but are deep from back to front ; their
roots are carried backwards each in an alveolus, or socket, e'xtend-
ing almost the whole length of the ramus of the jaw ; they are
acutely pointed, their apex resembling a ploughshare. These teeth
strongly remind one of the huge curved canines in the lower jaw of
the Hippopotamus. The upper incisors are not so obliquely pointed,
and are also smaller than the lower. Between the incisors and the
molars an unoccupied space intervenes. The molars are four on
each side above, three below, small, and of simple structure. The
head is moderate and rounded, and the muzzle is rather short and
pointed. The eyes are very large and nocturnal. The osseous ring
of the orbits is complete (Fig. 151). The ears are large ; andobscure
furrows on their internal aspect, seem to denote that, as in many
Bats, they are capable of being folded down : they are, in fact, Bat-
like, black, naked, and smooth.
The fore-paws have each five fingers ; that whicTi represents the
thumb is short, and arises beyond the base of the rest ; these are
long and slender: the middle finger is very thin, but it is exceeded
in length by the third or ring finger ; the thumb is not opposable,
and, like the other fingers, is furnished with a strong, sharp, hooked
64
THE AYE-AYE— THE FLYING LEMURS.
claw. The arms are short in proportion to the posterior limbs ; the
latter being long, and terminating in prehensile feet. The thumb is
well developed and protected by a flat nail : the toes are of mode-
rate length and shortness ; but the first is the shortest, and, as in the
Fig. 151.— Skull of Aye- Aye.
Lemurs, is armed with a straight pointed claw; the rest have
large hooked claws. The tail is long and bushy, with coarse black
or brownish-black hairs : the general colour is ferruginous-brown,
passing into grey on the sides of the head, the throat, and belly ;
Fig. 152. — Aye-Aye.
the feet are nearly black. Beneath the brown outer-coat there is, on
the back and limbs, a fine thick under-coat of soft yellow wool, which
appears more or less through the outer. In the female the teats are
two, and ventral. Length of head and body, i foot 6 inches ; the
tail being nearly the same.
According to Sonnerat, who kept two of these animals, a male
and female, in captivity, it would appear that the habits of the Aye-
Aye are nocturnal. By day they see with difiicultv, and the eyes,
which are of an ochre colour, resemble those of an Owl. Timid and
inoffensive, they pass the day in sleep, and when roused up their
motions are slow, like those of the Loris : they have also the same
fondness for warmth ; their thick fur, indeed, sufliciently proves their
impatience of cold. During the day the Aye-Aye conceals itself in
its secluded retreat — some hole or excavation — whence it issues forth
on the approach of darkness in quest of food ; its diet consists of
buds and fruits, together with insects and their larva; ; for the latter
it searches the crevices and bark of trees, drawing them forth by
means of its long finger, and so conveying them to its mouth. Son-
nerat kept his specimens alive for two months, feeding them upon
boiled rice, in taking up which they used their long slender fingers,
much in the same manner as the Chinese do their chop-sticks. Son-
nerat remarks that, during the whole of the time these animals
lived, he never observed them set up their long bushy tail, like a
Squirrel, but that, on the contrary, it was always kept trailing at
length.
Considering the length of time that has intervened since the dis-
covery of the Aye-Aye by Sonnerat, and visited as the island of Ma-
dagascar has been by Europeans, it is somewhat strange that no
additional specimens, beyond the one that Sonnerat deposited in the
museum at Paris, have been obtained, until about twelve years ago,
when Mr. Mellish, while visiting Madagascar, procured a living
specimen, which he presented to the Zoological Society of London.
But it only survived its arrival in England for a few months. The
animal is now among the stuffed specimens in the Society's museum.
Genus Ga!eoJ>iihecus—Tn^ COLUGOS,
OR Flying Lemurs.
This genus contains those strange animals
the Colugos, called Flying Lemurs, Flying
Cats, Flying Foxes, &c., by voyagers. The
first notice of the Colugo is by Bontius, who
terms it " Vespertilio admirabilis." It was
afterwards figured by Seba, under the name
of Felt's volatis Ternaiatius : Linnaeus subse-
quently placed it among the Lemurs, under
the title of Lemur volans. Cuvier places it at
the end of the Bats. The query then at once
arises — to what group is the Colugo to be re-
ferred ? M. Geoffroy, who denies its relation-
ship to the Bats, observes that it is still less a
Lemur, and that its head is altogether that of
a true " Carnassier." Notwithstanding this
authority, in our views its afiinities, inter-
mediate as they may be between the Lemurs
and other groups, place it within the pale of
the Lemurine family.
The Colugo is an animal of the size of a
Cat, furnished with an extensive parachute
consisting of a lateral membrane, not only
between the anterior and posterior limbs, but
also between the posterior limbs, so as to in-
clude the tail, which is of considerable length :
the fingers of the fore-paws are also included
in this extensive membranous expansion. The
whole of the upper surface of the body and
lateral membranes is covered with woolly fur,
but the under surface is nearly naked. The
parachute is capable of being folded up ; but
when on the stretch for action it forms a
wide expanse, not, indeed, endowing its pos-
sessor with true powers of flight, but en-
abling it to take long sweeping leaps from
tree to tree with the utmost facility, in a
manner similar to other Monkeys, as the
Gibbons, &c. (See Fig. 153; and Fig. 138,
at page 58, ante.')
The general aspect of the head is Lemu-
rine : the muzzle is produced ; the nostrils are
lateral, naked, and sinuous ; the eyes mode-
rate ; the ears short and pointed. The anterior
limbs are long : the hands are divided into five
fingers ; the first, or thumb, separated from
the rest, though not antagonising with them,
is short ; the remaining four are nearly equal ;
all are armed, not with flat nails, but with
large, deep, hooked, sharp-edged, and retractile claws. The hinder
limbs slightly exceed the fore-limbs in length, and the feet are
similar in character to the fore-hands.
THE FLYING LEMURS.
6S
Cuvier gives the dental formula as follows : — Incisors,
o— o 6—6
canines, „ ; molars,
Fred
4 _ _ _ -
^; canines, ^3^ ; molars, ^^—^ = 34. (See Fig. 154.) Mr. Water-
house, whose excellent paper on the skull of the Colugo is in the
"Zoological Transactions," vol. ii., gives the dentition thus : —
Incisors, 5JIr ; canines, ^^— ; false molars, ?^^ ; true molars,
4 I- I 2-2
1-A =
4-4
The upper incisors are placed laterally in pairs, with a wide inter-
val between each pair, occupying the anterior part of the jaw : the
34-
length, and its skull was 2 inches iij linos in length. The anterior
mcisor of the upper jaw is broad, and divided by two notches into
three distinct lobes ; the ne.\t incisor on each side has its anterior
and posterior margins notched ; and the first molar (or the tooth
which occupies the situation of the canine) has its posterior edge
F'g- IS3-— Colugo.
first IS small, compressed and jagged, or pectinated ; the second is
similar, but somewhat larger. The two false molars above rise up
with sharp points ; the molars are crowned with acute insectivorous
tubercles. The lower incisors are deeply and finely pectinate.
(Figs. 156, 158, Nos. 4 and 5.) The canines are serrated.
Fig. 154.— Teeth of Colugo.
Some naturalists have considered the species of Colugo to be
three ; while Fischer and others recognise only one, varying in
colour according to age or sex. It has, however, been demonstrated
by Mr. Waterhouse, from a rigorous investigation of a series of
skulls, that there are tw'o distinct species ; and at one of the scien-
tific tpeetings of the Zoological Society of London, he pointed out
the distinguishing characteristics with illustrations.
The first and larger species measured about two feet m total
Fig. 155. — Skull of Galcopithecus Tcmmincldi.
distinctly notched. This tooth is separated by a narrow space,
anteriorly and posteriorly, from the second incisor in front and the
second molar behind ; the temporal ridges converge towards the
occiput, near which, however, he observed, they are separated
usually by a space of about four lines. This is probably the Galco-
Fig. 156.— Lower Jaw and Teeth of GaUopitlucus Tmmiiukii,
^ithecus volans of authors ; but the identity cannot be said to be
The second species, G. Philippinensis, was described by Mr.
Waterhouse as being usually about twenty inches m length, and it3
66
THE FLYING LEMURS— QUADRUMANOUS FOSSILS.
skull as measuring two inches seven lines in length. He observed,
that this species may be distinguished from G. Temminckiihy the
proportionately larger ears, and the greater length of the hands.
The skull, too, he described as narrower in proportion to its length,
the muzzle as broader and more obtuse, and the orbit as smaller.
The temporal ridges, he remarked, generally meet near the occiput,
or are separated by a very narrow space. The anterior incisor of
the upper jaw is narrow, and has but one notch ; the next incisor on
each side is considerably larger, longer, and stronger than in G.
Tcnuninc!;!!, and differs, moreover, in having its edges even : the
same remark applies to the first false molar. In this species the
incisors and molars form a continuous series, each tooth being in
contact with that which precedes and that which is behind it. But
Mr. Waterhouse concluded by observing, that the most important
difference, perhaps, which exists between the two species in question,
Fig. 157. — Skull of Cahopithccus Philippinensh.
consists in the much larger size of the molar teeth in the smaller
skull, the five posterior molars occupying a space of ten lines in
length, whereas in G. Tennniiickii, a much larger animal, the same
teeth only occupy nine lines. Several minor points of distinction
existed besides tliose here mentioned.
Fig. 15S. — Lower Jaw and Teeth of Galcopithcctis Philippinmsis.
If the reader will examine Figs. 155, 156, 157, 15?, he will be
enabled to compare the form of the skull, and the variations in the
characters of the teeth presented by these two species respectively.
Fig. 155 represents the skull of the Galeopithecus Tcmminckii ; a,
as seen from above ; b, as seen from below. Fig. 156 represents the
lower jaw and teeth of the same species {G. Tcmminckii) : i, the
under side of the lower jaw ; 2, side view of the same ; 3, the three
foremost teeth on cither side of the upper jaw; 4, 5, outer and inner
incisors of the lower jaw. Fig. 157 rapresents the skull of G. Pliilip-
^ii!e7isis : a, the upper side ; h, the under side. Fig. 158 represents
the lower jaw and teeth of the same species ((?. Philippinensis):
I, under side of the lower jaw; 2, side view of the same; 3, the
three foremost teeth of the upper jaw ; 4, 5, outer and inner incisors
of the lower jaw. If these skulls and teeth be compared, so many
and important distinctions will be perceived, that all doubt as to the
correctness of the views entertained by Mr. Waterhouse will be
dissipated.
These strange and perplexing animals are natives of the Moluccas,
Philippines, and various islands of the Indian Archipelago. In their
habits they are arboreal and nocturnal, and feed, as it is supposed,
upon fruits, insects, eggs, and birds. During the day they remain
in the depths of the forests, suspended like a Bat from the branches,
with the head downwards, and clinging by the hinder claws, im-
mersed in tranquil sleep. At night they rouse up, are active in tra-
versing the trees in every direction, and sweeping from one to another
with great address, in search of food. Though of a disagreeable
odour, their flesh is eaten by the natives. The females are said to
produce two young at birth, which adhere to the teats of their
parent. Camelli, in a MS. on the subject in the British Museum,
asserts the female to have a double abdominal pouch, in which the
young are carried ; but in this statement he is certainly erroneous.
Fossils of the Quadrumana.
It is only very recently that the fossil relics of quadrumanous
animals have been discovered ; previously to this discovery, the
Qiiadriiinana were regarded as having no fossil prototypes. In 1836,
M. Lartet announced his discovery of the fossil bones of a large
Monkey, consisting of a lower jaw with its dentition complete, a
molar tooth with four tubercles, a bone of one of the fingers, a
portion of the thigh bone, together with the bones of the instep, &c.
They were found at Sanson, two leagues south of Auch (in the
department of Gers), in a tertiary formation extending from the south
of Auch to the foot of the Pyrenees, and apparently the result of a
long succession of water alluvia. From the characters of the denti-
tion, there can be no doubt that the animal belonged to one of the
Old World sections of the SimicB — namely, the Gibbons {Hylobaies) ;
if indeed it be not the representative of a genus no longer extant.
M. Lartet has named this iossW species Piihecus a?2iiquits. With
these relics occurred those also of the Mastodon, Rhinoceros, Dino-
therium, Pateotherium, &c. Within the last few years, the fossil
relics of three species of Ape or Monkey have been discovered in the
Sewalik hills, a portion of sub-Himalayan range, imbedded in a
tertiary stratum. Two of these species are due to the researches of
Captains Falconer and Cautley, and one to the labours of Lieu-
tenants Baker and Duvaud. Of these fossil Simiada, one, as the
fragments indicate, exceeded in size any living species of the present
day : the second was also a large animal, superior to the Entellus
Monkey in size ; the third appears to have been about equal to the
Entellus, and was probably an Orang.
In the basin of the Rio des Velhas, in South America, Dr. Lund,
a Swedish naturalist, has discovered the fossil remains of extinct
Qiiadruma7ia ; and it is interesting to know that they belong to a
form closely related to that of the existing American Monkeys, termed
Sapajous (see a?ite, p. 51) : but the animals must have far exceeded
any living species. The larger, indeed, must have been upwards of
four feet in height. Dr. Lund terms it ProfopitJieais Brasilieiisis :
the other, and smaller, he terms Callithrix ^primaviis. We have,
then, evidences of the existence of Quadrumana at a remote epoch,
in continental Europe, Asia, and America ; but what is more un-
expected, we have proof that, at some era, ihe^ existed in our island
(if then an island), when, as we may imagine, its surface was very
different from what it now appears.
The first example, a portion of the lower jaw, containing the last
molar teeth, was found, with the teeth of Sharks (in 1837), '" ^ deep
layer of whitish sand, beneath a stratum of blue clay on the banks of
the river Deben, at Kingston, near Woodbridge, in Suffolk. This
bed of clay is in many places overlaid by crag, and may probably be
assigned to the age of the London clay. In the stratum of sand, the
fossil teeth and portions of the lower jaw of an Opossum were also
discovered. (See "Mag. Nat. Hist.," 1839, pp. 448, 450.) The
extinct Monkey, as proved by the characters of the molar tooth, be-
longed to the genus Macacns {see ante, ^. 44), or at least to a genus
very closely related to it. The tooth, it may be observed, is some-
what narrower than in any recent species of Ilacacus ; but the pos-
terior fifth tubercle presents, as in most of that group, two cusps,
instead of being simple, as in the genus Semno^ithecus. (See
ante, p. 38.)
In the " Annals of Natural History," Nov., 1839, Professor Owen
describes a second tooth found in the same locality, which he identi-
THE CHIROPTERA, OR BATS.
67
fies as the second molar of a Macaque ; and from being well worn, it
is evident that the individual to which it belonged was aged at the
time of its death. It differs from the corresponding tooth of a recent
Macaque, in having a slight ridge along the base of the anterior
part of the crown ; and the same character occurs also in the molar
previously alluded to, and which was rigorously examined by the
same philosophic anatomist. M. d'Orbigny's remark respecting the
beds above the chalk in the neighbourhood of Meudon, seems appli-
cable in the present case, viz.— "That in the lower part of the
plastic clay, new features are discovered to obtain, demonstrating, in
an especial manner, that various genera of mammals were living at
the epoch when that layer was formed."
That the Siinioi should have existed in our latitudes at the time of
the deposition of the London clay is not surprising, when wc con-
sider the tropical character of the fossil fruits so abundant in that
deposit : we say London clay (as the geologists designate it), because
the blue stratum, beneath which the fossil teeth were found, belongs
undoubtedly to that formation. Mr. Wood, in reference to one of
these relics, obsen^es, "As this fossil certainly belongs to some
quadrumanous animal, there is no formation to which it could be so
appropriately assigned as that of the London clay ; the tropical
character of the Fauna as well as the Flora of that period being such
as to justify an assumption of a warmer climate quite suitable to the
existence of our Macacus." Besides the teeth of animals of the
Monkey tribe, a fragment of the jaw of an Opossum, in which one of
the false molars is retained, has been discovered in the same deposit.
CHAPTEK VII.
MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CHIROPTERA, OR CHEIROPTERA— BATS.
A>;*s
^.
IV/
jS3
, ' Ji ^!/^
'^^
ENOTED by one peculiarity, the
Bats form a distinct order of the
Mammalia ; that is, from their power
of flying in the air. In the last chap-
ter we have drawn attention to the Flying
Lemur, and have pointed out its relation to
the Chiro;ptera, or hand-viinged animals.
\Ve thus notice a gradual transition from the
Quadrmiiajia — which are entirely, as a habit,
terrestrial animals — to the Bats, which are chiefly
aerial in their habits, the Lemurs forming a con-
necting link.
In dealing with this order we shall first quote
the remarks of Mr. W. S. Dallas, as given in
the " Circle of the Sciences." The order in-
cludes those species of the Mammalia in which
the general characters of the groups are most
singularly modified, so as to adapt them for the
exercise of the power of flight, of which they
alone, of all the Mammalia, are possessed.
In three other groups of this class, we meet with
animals to which the appellation of flying has
been given ; but these only possess the power of
gliding through the air by the agency of an ex-
panded skin which serves to buoy them ; their
aerial motion, consequently, differs only in ex-
tent from the spring of an ordinary mammal.
In the Chiroptera, on the contrary, the anterior
members are as completely organised for true
flight as are those of a bird.
This will be evident from an examination of
the following cut, in which the special organisa-
tion of the Bat, in regard to flying, is illustrated.
It will be instructive to the student of Natural
History, to compare the different portions of this
skeleton with that of the human species, given at
page 2, Fig. i ; that of the Camel, at page 5,
Fig. 14 ; and that of a species of Bat, described
and illustrated by Fig. 50, at page 15, ante, where
the various powers of locomotion of Mammalia
are entered into generally.
The Bats are really flying Insectivora : in the
air they pass the active portion of their exist-
ence, and revel in the exercise of their faculties.
Their organs of flight, however, consist not, as
in the bird, of stiff feathers disposed in order
and based upon the bones of the fore-arm, but
of a large thin membrane stretched over and
between the limbs, to which the bones act as
stretchers, like the strips of whalebone in an
umbrella, the tail in many species assisting also,
as illustrated by Fig. 159, below. Of this mem-
brane the bones of the arms and hands are the
principal supporters and levers of motion — we
say hands, because, though not graspers, such
must the anatomist consider them. All these
bones, those of the carpus excepted, are slender
and remarkably elongated ; and here we refer to
the skeleton of the Bat (Fig. 160). The hume-
rus, f, is long and slender, but much more so
is the radius, g, the only complete bone of the fore-arm, the
ulna, h, being reduced to a mere rudiment. The carpus, i, con-
sists of six bones in two rows, the first row having two, the second
row four bones, on which are based the metacarpal bones of the
thumb, /', and of the fingers, /. These bones of the fingers are
very slender and of extraordinary length, diverging from each
Fig. 159. — Skeleton of a Bat,
cl, ckivicle ; 7i, humenis ; en, ulna ; r, radius ; ca, carpus ; /;', thumb ;
mc, metacarpus ; ///, phalanges ; 0, scapula ; /, femur ; //, tibi.i.
other as they proceed. They are, however, movable upon the meta-
carpus, and are not only capable of closing together, but of bcmg
folded down in contact with the fore-arm. The phalanges, or true
finger-bones, m, carry on the elongation of th.s framework and
taper to a point, like the extremity of an anghng-rod unfurnished
with nails or claws. These fingers are essential, not 0"'y ^°r JfJ^H
out the wing to a due distance, but for keeping its margins stretched
out, and fo? folding it down when requisite. In some genera the
first finger consists but of one very fine bone ;_ the second hnger con-
sists of three : occasionally the first finger is tipped with a very
68
THE SKELETON OF THE BATS.
small hook-like nail. The thumb, /•, is free, and usually short, con-
sisting of a metacarpal and two digital bones, the last of which is
armed with a strong hooked claw. Such then is the hand of the
Bat, essentially an apparatus for flight. Thus designed and con-
structed, rotation of the fore-arm would not only be an unnecessary,
but indeed an inconsistent endowment ; its motion, therefore, is
Fig. l6o. — Skeleton of Bat,
simply hinge-like, while that of the shoulder is, to a great extent,
rotatory. , , • ^.i.
It will easily be conceived that a membrane so extensive as the
wing of the Bat, will require, for its effective movements, an extraor-
dinary development of the muscles which govern it. That part of
the skeleton, therefore, on which these muscles are fixed is accord-
ingly modified (see Fig. i6o) ; the clavicles, d, and scapula;, e, are of
great magnitude and strength ; the sternum, or breast-bone, though
narrow, has a keel-like elevation along its anterior surface, analo-
gous to what is seen in birds, while its upper end is developed into a
manubrium, a, for the support of the large clavicles, which are thus
thrown far laterally, the pectoral muscles being at the same time
exceedingly voluminous ; indeed the whole of the osseous and mus-
cular structure of the Bat is concentrated upon its organs of flight.
The hinder limbs can scarcely be regarded as organs of locomotion ;
they principally serve, in conjunction with the tail where present, to
keep the membrane duly expanded— they are therefore comparatively
feeble : the toes are five in number, and armed with sharp hooked
claws, by which the animal suspends itself while at rest in its re-
treat. When with folded wings
the Bat attempts to proceed
along a level surface, its move-
ments, though tolerably quick,
are awkward and shuffling ; and
it uses the claw of its thumb
as a hook for catching hold of
any irregularities in order to drag
itself along : hence, on a smooth
polished surface it is greatly
embarrassed ; but in the hollows
of trees, in the crevices of ma-
sonry, and in rough chinks or
fissures, it can climb and crawl
about with considerable facility,
as also about the wire-work of
a cage, as we have often wit-
nessed. The ground, however,
is not the destined province of
the Bat— the air is its home ; it
is here that these singular crea-
tures are all alertness, pursuing
their insect prey, and uttering
their short sharp cry as they
wheel in circling flights, or per-
form their abrupt and zigzag
evolutions. r . t)
Professor Owen, in remarking on the skeleton of the Bats, con-
siders that the form of limb presented by the arm and hand,
offers the most striking contrast to the burrowing trowel of the
Fig. 1 6 1.— Skeleton of the Bat—
( Vespertilio miirinus).
Mole. Viewed in the living animal, it is a thin, widely-expanded
sheet of membrane, sustained like an umbrella by slender rays, and
flapped by means of these up and down in the air, and with such
force and rapidity, as, combined with its extensive surface, to react
upon the rare element more powerfully than gravitation can attract
the weight to which the fore-limbs are attached ; consequently the
body is raised aloft, and borne swiftly through the air.
The mammal now rivals the bird in its faculty of pro-
gressive motion ; it flies, and the instruments of its
atrial course are called "wings." The whole frame
of the Bat is in harmony with this faculty, but the
Mammalian type of skeleton is in nowise departed
from.
The vertebral formula of the common Bat ( Vesper-
tilio imirimis. Fig. i6i), is — 7 cer\'ical, 12 dorsal, 7
lumbar, 3 sacral, and 8 caudal vertebrje. The chief
characteristics of the skeleton are — the gradual dimi-
nution of size of the spinal column from the cervical to
the sacral regions ; the absence of neural spines in the
vertebra; beyond the dentata ; a keeled sternum ; long
and strong, bent clavicles, 58; broad scapula;, 51;
elongated humeri, 53; more elongated and slender
radius, 55 ; and still longer and more slender meta-
carpals and phalanges of the four fing-ers, ii. Hi, iv, v,
W'hich are without claws, the thumb, i, being short,
and provided with a claw : the pelvis, 62, is small,
slender, and open at the pubis, 63 ; the fibula, 67, is
rudimental, like the ulna, 54, in the fore-arm. The
common Bat has a long and slender stiliform append-
age to the heel, 68, which helps to sustain the caudo-
femoral membrane. The hind digits are five in number,
short, subequal, each provided with a claw; they are
the instruments by which the Bat suspends itself, head
downwards, during its daily summer sleep, and con-
tinued winter torpor.
The skull in these animals is usually short, the jaws
being but moderately produced ; the dentition varies
in the different families, according to the food on which
the creatures subsist. (See Fig. 162.) The sternum is furnished
with a more or less distinct crest, serving, like the same part in
birds, for the attachment of the powerful muscles of the wings.
The tail is very variable in its development, and is frequently in-
cluded in a portion of the membrane (called the iiiterfemoral
membrane), which extends from one hind-leg to the other, and
Fig. 162. — Head and Skull of Common Bat.
that evidently performs an important part in steering the animals
in their at^rial course. The body is covered with a soft down, but
the membrane of the wings only exhibits a few scattered hairs.
The mammae are placed on the breast ; and the young, when suck-
ing, are carried about by the mother, clinging to that part of her
body : from the position of the teats, the Bats were included by
Linnffius with the Monkeys, and the human species in his first order,
the Primates.
In the Bat, the senses of smell and hearing, as might be con-
cluded from the development and complication of their respective
organs, are wonderfully acute. In several extensive genera, with a
view to the refinement of these senses, w'e see the nose furnished
Fig. 163. — Trifoliatecl Megaderma.
with a membranous foliation or leaf of most delicate structure, and
often complex in its arrangement ; while the external membranous
ears are large, expanded, and often united together, having folds or
THE CHIROPTERA, OR BATS.
69
an inner reduplication, and capable of being folded down. (See
Fig. i-jo, \.\\e head, oi Ifcgcidcrma fft/oiiiim.) In short, both the
osteological characters of the skull, and the development of the ex-
ternal appendages, traversed by multitudes of nerves, announce the
acuteness both of smell and hearing. But these creatures have
another sense, that of feeling, so exquisitely refined as to require
especial notice'. The wings of these creatures consist, as we have
stated, of a delicate and nearly naked membrane of great ampli-
tude ; and these, as well as the membranous tissues of the ears and
nose, are abundantly supplied with nerves, and have their sensibility
so high, as to afford something like a new sense which stands in
the stead of sight. The modified impressions which the air in
quiescence or in motion, however slight, communicates — the tremu-
lous jar of the faintest current — its temperature ; the indescribable
condition of such strata as are in contact with different bodies, are
all apparently appreciated by the Bat. If its eyes bo covered up —
nay, if it be even cruelly deprived of sight — it will pursue its course
about a room with a thousand obstacles in its way, avoiding them
all ; neither dashing against the walls nor flying foul of the smallest
thing, but threading its course with the utmost precision and quick-
ness, and passing adroitly through apertures, or the interspaces of
threads placed purposely across the apartment. This endowment,
which almost exceeds belief, has been abundantly demonstrated by
the experiments of Spallanzani and others ; it is the sense of touch
refined to an inconceivable degree of perfection, rendering the Bat
aerial in feeling as in habits.
Bats are all crepuscular or nocturnal ; during the day they sleep
in their recesses, hanging head downwards, suspended by the hind-
feet. Numbers often congregate together on one common dormi-
tory ; and in Java and other adjacent islands, one of the most extra-
ordinary sights is that of a tree literally loaded with a crowd of
huge Roussettes, or Flying Foxes {Pteropus), all clustered together
in pendant rows along the branches. In our latitudes the Bats all
hibernate, hanging in the same manner as during their ordinary
sleep ; but whether this law of hibernation prevails among those
species which are natives of the hotter regions does not appear to be
satisfactorily determined ; probably it does, for the Tenrec (an
animal allied to our Hedgehog) hibernates in Madagascar, its native
country.
The Bats are extremely numerous, and are distributed over every
portion of the globe, excepting in the coldest latitudes ; it is, how-
ever, in the warmer regions that they are the most abundant, and
attain to the largest dimensions.
We have said that the Bats are insectivorous ; some, however, are
bloodsuckers ; and some, as the Roussettes (Pteropus), eat fruit,
plundering the gardens of their choicest productions. It would
seem that some of the Brazilian Bats also are frugivorous, devour-
ing the fruit of the fig-tree, and that it is almost impossible to pre-
vent the mischief, as they will creep, like Mice, under the netting
spread to protect the trees.
In regard to classification, the Bats are divided by Mr. Gray into
five great sections or tribes, as follows, under two primary heads : —
I. Istiophori, or Leaf-nosed Bats. — Nostrils placed in a bald
space, often elevated behind into a leaf; teeth acutely tubercular ;
index-finger not clawed.
Tribe I. Phyllostomina. — Nose-disc expanded into a leaf behind,
simple, and pierced with the nostrils in front.
Tribe 2. Rhinolophina. — Nose-disc expanded into a leaf behind,
and with a pit or process between the nostrils in front.
II. Anistiophori. — Simple-nosed Bats. Nostrils without a nasal
leaf.
Tribe 3. Vespertilionina. — Grinders acutely tubercular ; wings
broad and large ; tail elongated and inclosed in the large conical
interfemoral membrane ; upper incisor teeth near the canines, with a
central space.
Each nostril placed m front of a groove, with a spiral, convolute,
outer margin lobed anteriorly.
Tribe 4. Noctilionina. — Grinders acutely tubercular ; wings long
and narrow ; body thin ; tail thick, short, the tip appearing on the
upper surface of the large interfemoral membrane.
Tribe 5. Pteropina. — Grinders bluntly tubercular; nose simple;
nostrils slightly produced ; end of index-finger clawed ; head
conical ; ears simple ; wings long ; lower joint of thumb long,
united to the wing by a membrane ; interfemoral membrane short ;
tail none, or short. Fruit-eating Bats of Indian Islands and Poly-
nesia.
Mr. W. S. Dallas remarks, that the Chiroptera may be divided
into four families, of which the first two include the pre-eminently
insectivorous species. The first of these is that of the Vespertilio-
nidce, or true Bats, in which the teeth resemble those of the true
Insectivorous Mammalia, but vary greatly in number. The incisors
are two or four in the upper, and two, four, or six in the lower jaw ;
and the molars either four or five in the upper, and five or six in the
lower jaw. The canines are rarely of large size; the anterior or
false molars are compressed and cutting, and the true molars are
furnished with sharp tubercular crowns, adapted, like those of the
Insectivora, for crushing the hard skins of Beetles and other insects.
All the fingers are quite destitute of nails or claws, and the middle
finger has only three joints; the tail is usually well developed, and
fixed in the interfemoral membrane, but is sometimes free {Tapho-
zoi/s) ; it is also occasionally longer or shorter than the membrane,
but generally reaches its posterior margin. The ears vary greatly
in size, being sometimes shorter than the head, .and sometimes very
long, and furnished with an inner fold : but the nose is always desti-
tute of leaf-like appendages.
The second family is that of the Rhi/idophidcs, or Horse-shoe
Bats, which resemble the true Bats in their general structure and
habits, but differ from them remarkably in the possession of compli-
cated, leaf-like, membranous appendages on the nose, which give
them a very singular and often forbidding appearance. They re-
semble the common Bats in their general habits, but appear to be
even more nocturnal ; and their places of sojourn during the day are
usually the darkest caverns that they can find.
In the third family, that of the Phyllostomtda:, or Vampyres
(described below), the canines are long and sharp ; and in the genus
Desinodits, which possesses only two incisor teeth in the upper jaw,
these are also of great size and very acute, forming a pair of formid-
able lancets. Nothing is known of the habits of the species of this
genus ; but from the structure of their teeth they would seem to be
well adapted for the same diet as the true Vampyres.
The fourth family of the order, and the one which evidently ap-
proaches most closely to the Quadnimaita, is that of the Pteropida;,
or Roussettes — sometimes called Fox Bats, in allusion to the Dog-
like form of the head, of which the jaws are more prolonged than in
the other Bats. In these Bats the incisors are of small size, and
four in each jaw ; but they sometimes fall out as the animals increase
in age ; the canines are also small, and the molars have blunt
tubercular crowns, indicating a fruit diet ; but the tubercles are often
worn away, and the teeth then exhibit a flat surface. The ears are
always of moderate size ; the eyes are larger than in the other Bats ;
and the nose is always destitute of membranous appendages. The
tail is short, and the interfemo-
ral membrane very small, or
entirely deficient. The first
finger is short, and furnished
with a distinct nail or claw.
The limited space at our dis-
posal will not allow us to
enter into the discussion of the
opinions expressed in regard
to the classification of Bats ;
still less can we describe arid
illustrate the numerous species
and their varieties. The follow-
ing have been selected as a
general illustration of the most
important features of the Chir-
optera of this and other coun-
tries.
Fig. 164. — Head of the Vampyre Bat
(Phyllostoma spectrum).
Vampyre Bats— Genus P?iyl-
lostoma.
In the P/tyilosiomidts, or
Vampyres, the canine teeth are
of large size, and the middle finger consists of four joints, includ-
ing the metacarpus. Like the Rhinolophidcc, which they replace in
America, they are furnished with a membranous nasal appendage,
Fig. 165. — Crenulated Javelin Bat.
and the ears are usually ample, and furnished with a distinct mem-
branous auricle. In almost all the species of this family there are
four incisor teeth in both jaws. (See the above remarks.)
70
THE VAMPYRE BATS.
The Phyllostoinidce are peculiar to the tropical portions of
America, where they are met with very abundantly. 1 hey are
crenerally of a larger size tlian the animals of the other families,
the Vampyre (Phyllostoma spectrum. Fig. 167) being sometimes
nearly two feet and a-half in extent of wing, and their propensities
exhibit a corresponding degree of ferocity. ,, v
The Crenulated Javelin Bat (^Phyllostoma crentilatum),
Fig. 166. — Greater Javelin Bat.
and the Greater Javelin Bat {PhyUosfoma ^erspia'llaficm).—
These two, illustrated by Figs. 165 and 166, are found in South
America. They are, however, little known.
The Vampyre Bat {Phyllostoma spectrum), whose head has
been illustrated in Fig. 164, is a native of South America. Piso
thus describes its habits :— These Bats " seek out every kind of
animal and suck their blood ; but in Maranham there is a certain
kind which approaches by night the naked feet of men, and wounds
them for the sake of sucking human blood. The bite is so slight and
subtle, that the wounded do not feel it before the bed, covered with
blood,' gives token of the wound. So great a quantity of blood flows
from the envenomed bite, that it can only be stopped with difliculty,
and the peril is imminent unless a cure by the prescribed remedies be
effected. The inhabitants first wash these wounds with sea-water,
and afterwards apply hot ashes, or even cautery, if the blood be not
stopped." Captain Stedman, who states that he was bitten, thus
describes the operation :— " Knowing, by instinct, that the person
they intend to attack is in a sound slumber, they generally alight
Fig. 167. — Vampyre Bat.
near the feet, where, while the creature continues fanning with its
enormous wings, which keeps one cool, he bites a bit out of the tip
of the great toe, so very small, indeed, that the head of a pin could
scarcely be received into the wound, which is consequently not
painful ; yet through this orifiee he continues to suck the blood until
he is obliged to disgorge. He then begins again, and thus continues
sucking and disgorging till he is scarce able to fly ; and the sufferer
has often been known to sleep from time into eternity. Cattle they
Fig. 1 68. — Skeleton of Vampyre,
generally bite in the ear, but always in places where the blood flows
spontaneously. Having applied tobacco-ashes as the best remedy,
and washed the gore from myself and my hammock, I observed
several small heaps of congealed blood round the place where I had
Fig. 169.
lain upon the ground ; on examining which, the surgeon judged I
had lost at least twelve or fourteen ounces during the night."
Fig. 167 represents the general appearance of the Bat. Its skeleton
is shown in Fig. 168, and its canine and incisor teeth in Fig. 169.
From various accounts, themselves a little over-coloured, have
arisen extravagant representations and false statements, to which
too much credit has been given : blood-sucking pro-
pensities, moreover, have been attributed to the Bats of
Java and other countries, without any authority ; and the
tongue, instead of the sharp lancet-like teeth, has been
regarded as the instrument by which the puncture is made.
D'Azara, speaking of the blood-sucking Bats of South
America {and he is a faithful describer);' observes that
" the species w-ith a leaf upon the nose differ from the
other Bats (of Paraguay) in being able to run, when on the
ground, nearly as fast as a Rat, and in their fondness for
sucking the blood of animals. Sometimes they will bite
the wattles and crests of fowls while asleep, and suck their
blood. The fowls generally die of this, as gangrene is
engendered in the wounds. They bite also Horses, Mules, Asses, and
homed cattle ; usually on the shoulders, buttocks, or neck, as they
are better enabled to arrive at those parts, from the facilities afforded
them by the mane and tail. Nor is man himself secure from their
attacks : on this point I am able to give a very faithful testimony,
since I have had the ends of my toes bitten by them, four times,
while I was sleeping in the cottages in the open country. The
wounds which they inflicted, without my feeling them at the time, were
circular, or rather elliptical ; their diameter was trifling, and their
depth so superficial as scarcely to penetrate the cutis." The blood
drawn " is merely from the capillary vessels of the skin, and is ex-
tracted thence, beyond doubt, by the action of sucking or licking."
Nobody " fears these animals or gives himself any trouble about
them."
To the same effect is Mr. Swain's testimony. " They are con-
stantly in the habit of attacking animals during the night, and
sucking their blood. Our own Horses and Mules, on many occasions,
after having arrived at the end of the day's journey, and being turned
out to graze, would be brought in by the guides in the morning with
their shoulders and haunches covered with blood ; neither is it an
uncommon thing for these real Vampyres to enter the habitations of
the natives, and fasten on the legs of some incautious sleeper who
has not snugly secured his feet beneath the coverlid. Stories, in-
deed, are told of these incautious sufferers having bled so profusely
as to have died ; but we never could ascertain the fact, nor did we
ever suffer from the visits of these midnight phlebotomists."
Mr. Darwin was fortunate enough to capture a blood-sucking Bat
{Des?nodus D' Orbigiiyi, Waterhouse) in the act. " The Vampyre
Bat," says Mr. Darwin, in that part of his highly interesting book
which relates his adventures when travelling on horseback in the
neighbourhood of Rio Janeiro, " is often the cause of much trouble
by biting the Horses on their withers. The injury is generally not so
much owing to the loss of blood as to the inflammation which the
pressure of the saddle afterwards produces. The whole circum-
stance has lately been doubted in England : I was, therefore, fortu-
nate in being present when one was actually caught on a Horse's
back. We were bivouacking late one evening near Coquimbo, in
Chile, when my servant, noticing that one of the Horses was very
restive, went to see what was the matter, and fancying he could dis-
tinguish something, suddenly put his hand on the beast's withers,
and secured the Vampyre. In
the morning the spot where the
bite had been inflicted was
easily distinguished, from being
slightly swollen and bloody.
The third day afterwards we
rode the Horse without any ill
effects."
" It is interesting," says
Mr. Waterhouse, "to find that
the structure of the animal is
in perfect accordance with the
habits above detailed by Mr.
Darwin. Among other points,
the total absence of true molars,
and the consequent want of the
power of masticating food, is
the most remarkable : on the
other hand, we find the canines
and incisors perfectly fitted for
inflicting a wound such as de-
scribed, while the small size
of the interfemoral membrane
(giving freedom to the motioni
of the legs), together with the
unusually large size of the thumb and claw, would enable the Bat, as
I should imagine, to fix itself with great security on the body of
the Horse."
Fig. 170. — Head oX Megadcrma from.
THE HORSE-SHOE AND TRUE BATS.
7«
In the Megaderms (genus Mcgadcrma) the ears are very large ;
the nose-leaf is simple and erect ; "there is no tail ; and the incisor teeth
are wanting. The Trifoliated Megaderma (Mcgadcrma trifoliumj
has already been illustrated at page 68, ante, Fig. 163. In that cut,
b represents the skull of the ilega-
dcr/na/rons, a native of \\'estern
Africa : also represented in the
preceding cut.
Horse-shoe Bats— Genus
Rhinolophus.
The genus Rliiiwlophus in-
cludes the Horse-shoe Bats.
The lesser Horse-shoe Bat is one of
the smallest British species of the
order. In our British species the
ears are of moderate size ; but in
many of the exotic Horse-shoe Bats, these organs are developed
to an extraordinary extent, and furnished, as in the common Long-
eared Bat (see Fig. 171), with very large membranous auricles.
The Splendid B.ov.S'E-sb.O'e.Bkt {RhmoloJ>/ius 7iobilis,oi Hi^'
Fig. 171. — The Long-enreil D.\t
(Phcolus aiiyitiis).
Fig. 172. — Splendid Horse-shoe Bat.
Three-toothed Horse-shoe Bat.
fosidcros vobilis, &c.) is a native of Java, called Kebblek by the
Javanese. (See Fig. 172.) The nasal apparatus consists of a broad
membrane stretching transversely across the nose in form of a shelf;
the sides are bounded by several parallel folds, and inferiorly it con-
stitutes a semicircular envelope, which has a short, obtusely rounded
point in the middle. Colour above, pure brown ; beneath, bro\sTi,
variegated with grey. Fur remarkably long and silky, and supplied
with a most delicate down at the base, so as to be throughout very
soft to the touch. Body four inches in length. Expansion nineteen
inches and a-half.
The Three-toothed Horse-shoe B.\t fRhinolophus tridem,
Geoff.); Hipposidcros tnderis, Gray.— This is a small species
(illustrated in Fig. 173), found in great numbers in the tombs of
E.£:>'pt. where the objects of ancient idolatry are, indeed, given
"to the Bats," which find, in the recesses and chambers of temples
and pyramids, a congenial retreat.
True Bats— Genus Vesperiilio.
We next turn to the VespertilioJiida, or True Bats, already noticed
in our introductory remarks. The animals of this family feed entirely
on insects, which they capture on the wing ; and during the dusk of
the evening in summer, they may be constantly seen flying about in
pursuit of their prey. Although of small size, they are exceedingly
voracious, and must destroy immense numbers of insects. They are
found abundantly in all parts of the world ; and no fewer than fifteen
species are described as natives of Britain ; but, of these, the great
majority are very rare or local. The two commonest species are the
V\^\i\.reA(t{Vcspertiliopip!strenus):i.'aiL the Long-eared Bat {Pie-
cotus auritus : see Fig. 171, ante; also subjoined cut). The former
is our common Bat, which is known in some parts of the country as
the Flittermouse, in allusion to its Mouse-like body, and its power of
flight. It is commonly found about houses, and usually reposes in
the crevices of old walls, and similar situations. It is a small species,
and its food consists principally of Gnats and other little insects of
the same description, in pursuit of which it flies pretty rapidly. The
Pipistrelle is also partial to meat, and is known frequently to make
its way into pantries, where it has been surprised clinging to a joint
of meat, in the act of making a hearty meal. Its period of torpidity
appears to be shorter than that of any of our other species of this
family : and even during the winter it may occasionally be seen, on
fine days, in pursuit of its favourite prey.
In the following cut three British Bats are represented : a is the
common Bat f Vesper tilio pipistrellus) ; b the Great Bat {Vesper-
tilio nocfu/a) ; and c the Long-eared Bat [Plecoius auritus). The
largest of the British species, the Noctula, b, measures nearly three
inches in length, exclusive of the tail, and as much as fifteen inches
in expanse of wing. In their habits the e.xotic species closely
resemble those of Britain, and few greatly exceed our species in
size.
Geoffroy's Nycteris (Nycferis GeofroyiJ.—We have already
alluded, in our introductory remarks, to the sensibility with which
the integuments of the Bats are endowed ; this, however, is not the
only peculiarity to be noticed, for in the genus Nycteris there exists
a power of inflation to such a degree, that when the faculty is
exerted, the animal looks, according to GeoftVoy, like a little balloon
fitted with wmgs, a head, and feet. The subcutaneous tissue is the
part inflated ; and as the skin adheres to
the body at particular points only, the
connection being by means of loose
cellular membrane, spaces are left which
can be filled with air at the will of the
- . Nycteris, through the cheek-pouches,
which are perforated at the bottom so
as to communicate with those spaces.
When the Nycteris wishes to inflate its
skin, it draws in its breath, closes its
nostrils, and transmits the air through
the perforations of the check-pouches,
to the subcutaneous spaces, and the air
is prevented from returning by tlie action
of a sphincter, which closes those open-
ings, and by valves of considerable size
on the neck and back.
The characters of this genus may
le thus summed up: — a deep furrow
lown the forehead; nostrils covered by
a cartilaginous movable lid ; inter-
femoral membrane very large, compre-
hending the tail, which terminates in a
little bifid cartilage : incisors, ^ ; mo-
6
lars,
ears large, united at their
Fig. 174.— British Bats.
4—4 .
5—5"
base. Geoffroy's Nycteris is a native of
the Thebaid and Senegal. (See Fig.
I75-)
The RlAfRiTius Taphozous {Ta-
^/lOMus Ji/auritianus). — In the genus
Taphozous there are no incisor teeth
on the upper jaw. Several species are
THE FRUIT-EATING BATS.
known ; the one of which we represent the head is a native of the
Mauritius. (Fig-. i;6.)
The Leporine Noctilio {Nodilio k^on'iius). — Ccinmea very
strong; muzzle short and swollen, and divided and studded with
Skull and Teeth.
Fig. I7i.— Geoiiioy's Nycteris.
Fig. 176. — Mauritius Taphozous.
fleshy tubercles or warts ; nose simple, and losing «tself in the lips ;
ears small and lateral ; interfemoral membrane very much developed ,
tail enveloped at its base. Dental formula :-Incisors, ^ ; ca-
nines, i^ ; molars, ^-^ = 28.
Fig. 177'gives: fl,profileofhead; 5, profile of skull ; c, front view
of muzzle ; d, front view of teeth.
Fig. 177. — Leporine Noctilio.
The NodiHo le^orinus is of the size of a Rat. Fur of a uniform
reddish-vellow. This is the Vespertilio leporhuis of Gmelm ; J\oc-
tilio unicolor of Geoffroy. Localities-Brazil, Peru, and Paraguay.
The Dusky Molossus {Molossiis obsczertis). — a.sa.a short,
muzzle swollen ; ears large; earlet external ; interfemoral membrane
strai^'ht, with a square termination ; tail long, enveloped at its
baser and most frequently free at its extremity. Dental formula :—
Incisors, i- ; canines, izJ. ; molars, |^5 = 28. The geographi-
cal distribution of this form is wide : Africa Asia, and South America
^
Pig. 178.— Head, Skull, and Front Teeth of Dusky Molossus.
possess it ; but the species, which are numerous, occur principally in
the two last-mentioned localities. Fig. 178 represents the head,
skull, and front teeth of this animal.
The Molossus ohscurus {Molossus fuman'us of Spix ; Dysopes
obscurus of Temminck) is of the size of the Barbastelle of Europe.
Fur composed of hair of two colours, blackish-brown above, and ash-
brown below. Whiskers at the border of the lips. Length about
three inches three lines. Expansion nine inches. Localities, Brazil
and Guiana.
The Fruit-eating Bats— Genus Pkropus.
The Pteropida;, which have already been in part described at p. 69,
aute, are entirely confined to the warmer par's of the Eastern
Hemisphere. They are most
abundant in the islands of
the Eastern Archipelago,
whence the greater part of
the species are derived ; but
they occur also on the main-
land of Asia, in the tropi-
cal islands of the Pacific, in
Africa, and even in Aus-
tralia. They are the largest
of the Bats ; the Kalong
of Java {Pteropiis edulis.
Fig. 181) measuring no less
than five feet in extent of
wing, and nearly two in
length. They are frugivor-
ous in their habits, and thus
do great damage in gardens
and plantations ; but in con-
finement they have been
known to eat the flesh of birds, so that it is possible they may
vary their diet in a similar manner in a state of nature. They have
a disagreeable odour, described by some obser\-ers as musky ; by
others as " mildewy." Their flesh is, however, eaten by the in-
habitants of the places where they occur ; and it is probable that the
Bat which figures amongst the articles of food forbidden to the Jews,
may have belonged to this group, as at least one species [Eleuthe-
7-ura Egyptiacd) is found abundantly in Egypt and the neighbouring
countries, and is even represented with some considerable exactitude
upon some of the Egyptian monuments. Like the other Bats, they
are nocturnal animals, and pass the day suspended by the hind-feet
from the branches of trees ; but some species are known also to fly
at noonday.
The Amboyna Pteropus {Pteropus Dussumieri.) — The Rous-
Fig. 179. — Head of the Kalong Bat
(Pleropis edulis).
Fig. 180. — Amboyna Pteropus.
settes, Temate Bats or Flying Foxes, as the Pteropi are termed, are,
most of them, of large size, with Fox-like heads and a vast spread of
5—5 4—4
wing; the molars are f^ZJ. °^ 6^' ^""^ bluntly tubercular; the
tongue is short ; interfemoral membrane very little developed. _ Fig.
180 represents the Amboyna Pteropus. The present species is
a native of India and Amboyna. Its habits closely resemble
that of the Kalong, next described.
The Kalong {Pteropus Java7iicus, or Edtdis : see Figs. 181 and
182.) — This species, which measures five feet in the spread of the
wings, is a native of Java. Upper part of the neck smoky-red ; rest
of the fur dull black. In the lower parts of Java it is very common, and
lives in troops, which do not appear to visit the more elevated districts.
Numerous individuals, says Dr. Horsfield, select a large tree for
their resort, and, suspending themselves by the claws of their hind-
limbs to the naked branches, often in companies of several hun-
dreds, afford to a stranger a very singular spectacle. A species of
THE FRUIT-EATING BATS.
n
Ficus, resembling- the Ficus religiosa of India, which is often found
near the villaafes of the natives, aflfords them a very favourite retreat,
and the extended branches of one of these are sometimes covered
with them. They pass the greater portion of the day in sleep,
hanging motionless : ranged in succession with the head down-
wards, the membrane contracted about the body and often in close
Kalong.
contact, they have little resemblance to living beings ; and by a
person not accustomed to their economy, are readily mistaken for a
part of the tree, or for a fruit of uncommon size suspended from its
branches. In general these societies preserve a perfect silence
during the day ; but if they are disturbed, or if a contention arises
among them, they emit sharp piercing shrieks, and their awkward
attempts to extricate themselves when oppressed by the light of the
sun exhibit a ludicrous spectacle. In consequence of the sharpness
of their claws, their attachment is so strong that they cannot readily
structed of split bamboo. Without this precaution, little valuable
fruit would escape the ravages of the Kalong. There arc few
situations in the lower parts of Java in which this night-wanderer is
not constantly observed : as soon as the light of the sun has retired,
one animal is seen to follow the other at a small but irregular
distance, and this succession continues uninterrupted till darkness
obstructs the view. The flight of the Kalong is slow and steady,
pursued in a straight line, and capable of long continuance. The
chase of the Kalong forms occasionally an amusement of the
colonists and inhabitants during the moonlight nights, which in the
latitude of Java are uncommonly serene. He is watched in his
descent to the fruit-trees, and a dis-
charge of small shot readily brings
him to the ground. By this means
are frequently obtained four or five
individuals in an hour.
Pallas's Morx-ccA Bat {Har-
^yia Pallasii). — The genus Har-
pyia of Illiger (not of Cuvier) differs
in having the wings arising from
the centre of the back ; the lips
thick, and the head broad and
short ; index-finger clawed. (See Fig. 183.) '£\\e Ilar^yia Paliasii
{Cephaloies Pallasii, Geoffroy) is a native of the Moluccas. It
measures two feet in the expansion of the wings. The dental for-
4-4
Fiq;. iS^.— Pallas's Molucca Bat.
mula is thus :
-Incisors, — ; canines,
182. — Kalong in Flight.
leave their hold without the assistance of the expanded membrane :
and if suddenly killed in the natural attitude during the day, they
continue suspended after death. It is necessary, therefore, to
oblige them to take wing by alarming them, if it be desired to
obtam them during the day. Soon after sunset they gradually quit
their hold, and pursue their nocturnal flight in quest of food. They
direct their course, by an unerring instinct, to the forests, villages,
and plantations, occasioning incalculable mischief, attacking and
devouring indiscriminately every kind of fruit, from the abundant
and useful cocoa-nut which surrounds the dwelling of the meanest
peasantry, to the rare and most delicate productions which are cul-
tivated with care by princes and chiefs of distinction. By the latter,
as well as by the European colonists, various methods are employed
to protect the orchards and gardens. Delicate fruits, such as
mangoes, jambus, lansas, &c. , as they approach to maturity, are
ingeniously secured by means of a loose net or basket, skilfully con-
molars,
I- I 5-5
Another illustration of this
Bat will be found at p. 15,
a?ite. Fig. 50.
In the collection of the
Zoological Society, Regent's
Park, London, is a specimen
of the Indian Fruit Bat [Ptc-
ropus medius), and one of the
Collared Fruit Bat (Cyiw)iyc-
ieris collaris.) The Fruit Bats,
or " Flying Foxes " as they are
often called, constitute a well-
marked section of the Bats be-
longing to the warmer parts of
theOldWorid. They are frugiv-
orous, and are accused of doing
great damage in gardens and
plantations, which they visit at
night in immense flocks, in order
to regale themselves on the ripe
fruits. The pair of the Collared
Fruit-Bats have bred more than
once in the Gardens. The young
Bat is carried suspended head
downwards, in a curious way on
its mother's breast. This is the
first instance of an animal of
this group having produced
young in captivity.
In regard to the fossil re-
mains of Bats, Mr. Morris in
his " Catalogue of British Fos-
sils " names two species, viz.,
the Vespertilio noctula which
was found in a cave of the Men-
dip Hills, and another species found in the Lower ^ocene, at Kyson,
SutTolk. Another is the Vespertilio parisiensis of the Tertiary
(Eocene) period.
In the British Museum there are numerous specimens of the Bat-
Tribe among which the following may be named :^Lyre-nosed Broad
winged Bat {Mcgadernia lyra), Java ; Cordate Bat {Megadcrrna
sj>asma), Singapore ; African Leaf 'BdX {Laz'iado frotis), W. Africa;
the Scotophilus ■murimiis, Europe ; Captain Grey's Bat {Scoto-
fhilus grcifn). Port Essington ; Large Eared Bat {Myniis muri-
miis), St. Gothard ; Vespertilio cliinensis, China ; Vespertilio
siibulatiis , Canada ; Large-Eared Thick-lipped Bat [Molossus pero-
tis), Brazils and Bolivia ; Egyptian Rhinopome {P/ii/iopoma micro-
■phylla), Egj'pt ; Javelin Phyllostome {Phyllostoma hastatuni).
Brazils ; Daubenton's Bat ( Vespertilio duiibentoiiii), Sweden ;
Hairy-armed Bat (Scotophilus leisleri), England ; Masked Horse-
shoe Bat {Hipposidcros larvatus), Java, &c., Szc.
74
INSECTIVORA, OR MOLES, SHREWS, AND HEDGEHOGS.
CHAPTER Viri.
MAMMALIA.— ORDER, INSECTIVORA— THE SHREWS, MOLES, Etc.
S a connecting link between the preceding
and foUowing'orders, the INSECTIVORA, or
Insect-eating Mammalia, may next be
conveniently described.
In regard to their general character,
Mr. Dallas remarks, that while they are
nearly allied with the Cartiivora, or flesh-
eating animals, they arc readily distin-
, guished from them by the structure of the
ii>fr teeth. These rarely exhibit that distinct
division into three sets which prevails in
the Carnivora ; and it is sometimes difficult to deter-
mine exactly what name should be given to the par-
ticular teeth. There are usually eight single-rooted
teeth in the front of each jaw, of which the hindmost
on each side must be regarded as the canine, although
it is often smaller than the others, especially the two
middle ones. Behind this comes a tooth with two
roots, which is frequently more or less compressed, and
presents a certain amount of resemblance to the larger
pre-molars of the Carm'vora ; and this is followed, on
each side, by two large broad molars, the crown of each
of which usually forms four sharp points, with deep
hollows between them, so that the points of the teeth in one jaw inter-
lock with those of the other. These large molars are often succeeded,
quite at the back of the mouth, by a smaller tooth of the same kind,
which, however, only presents two points. By this structure of the
molars, these animals are enabled readily to crush the hard skins of
the insects that constitute their principal food. The following cut
represents the dentition of a species of Shrew taken in the Mauritius,
and magnified six times.
'k?
Fig. 184.— Teeth of Shrew.
The skull in the Insech'vora is slighter and more elongated than
in the Carnivora ; the bones of the face and jaws being usually pro-
duced so as to form a muzzle of greater or less length ; the jaws are
generally inferior in strength to those of the Carnivorous Mammals.
The form of the body, its clothing, and the development of the tail,
vary as much as in the preceding order ; but the legs are always
short, so that the belly of the animal is but little raised above the
gt-ound ; the feet are plantigrade, and usually furnished with five
toes, of which the innermost is never opposable. (See Fig. 185 )
The animals usually run upon the ground, sometimes dig beneath
Fig. 185.— Feet of Shrews.
its surface, and also ascend trees. An important distinction between
them and the Carnivora, is furnished by their possession of complete
clavicles, which are always wanting or rudimentary in the latter. The
mamma; are generally numerous, and always situated on the belly.
(See further remarks on these peculiarities, by Prof. Owen, at a sub-
sequent page, under the head of Car?iivora.)
iThe following cut represents the under surface of the hinder feet of —
a, the Common Shrew; i,theWater
Shrew ; and c, the Oared Shrew.
In the development of the brain
and the organs of the senses,
Mr. Dallas remarks, that they
closely resemble the Rode?itia,
or gnawing animals ; and this
similarity is also frequently re-
cognisable in their external form ;
so close is it, in fact, that many
members of the present order .
are popularly confounded with the
Rodeniia ; and the same mistake has often been made by the older
naturalists. In the same way the Iiisectivora exhibit a close re-
semblance to many of the Marsupials (Kangaroos, &c.) ; whilst, on
the other hand, their relationship to the Cliiroptera and Carnivora
cannot be doubted. Their food consists, not only of insects and their
larvae, as might be supposed from the name given to the order, but
also of worms and mollusca ; and some of the larger species even
devour the smaller vertebrate animals. They are generally slow in
their movements, and nocturnal in their habits, and many of them
pass the winter in a state of torpidity.
The animals composing this order may be divided into two families.
The first of these is that of the Talpidcs, or Moles, in which the
whole structure evidently points to the strictly subterranean habits of
the animals. The body in the Moles is short and thick, and sup-
ported upon short and strong legs ; the head is produced into a long
muzzle ; the eyes are either so small as to be detected with difficulty,
or completely concealed beneath the skin ; and the external ears are
entirely deficient. The internal ear is very perfect, and the olfactory
organs are highly developed ; so that those senses which must be
most valuable to animals confined to a subterranean existence, are
possessed by the Moles in the greatest perfection ; whilst the sense
of sight, which is comparatively useless to a creature that passes the
greater part of its time in utter darkness, is almost entirely sup-
pressed. The tail is usually short, or quite rudimentary.
For the excavation of the galleries which these animals make in
pursuit of insects and wurms, and in which they almost constantly
reside, their anterior limbs, although short, are exceedingly powerful,
and so arranged as to
form most efficient in-
struments for digging.
Thus, in the common
Mole {Ta!j>a Eiiropaa,
Fig. 186), the only Bri-
tish species of the family,
the bones of the arm arc
very short and strong,
and the limb is termi-
nated by a broad, flat,
shovel-like hand, armed
with long and strong
claws, furnished with a curved prolongation of one of the carpal
bones (called \\\^ falciform bone), which gives additional strength
to the hand, and is so placed that its palm is naturally turned
directly backwards. By the agency of these digging hands, the
Mole burrows with great rapidity ; and the galleries which it forms
are of a very complicated nature. In the genus Chrysocldoris, of
which several species inhabit South Africa, the anterior feet have
only three toes, and so differs from the type ; but, in the majority, the
structure is much the same as^ in our common Mole.
This will be fully described at a following page, as it may serve as
a general illustration of the family, found in most parts of Europe, and
is well known for its curious cylindrical form, and the blacknc'ss of
Its velvet-like coat. Its eyelids are open, and it has been proved by
experiment to have the power of sight, although it is a popular
belief that the Mole is quite blind ; this, indeed, is the case with
another species, inhabiting the south of Europe {T. c<^ca), which is
supposed to be the Mole referred to by those ancient naturalists from
Fig. 186.— The Mole {Taipa Enropxa).
THE COMMON SHREW.
75
whose statements the charge of bHndness has been apphed to our
species.
Of the exotic species, those of the genus Chrysochloris, already
referred to on account of the structure of their anterior limbs, are
further distinguished by the peculiar metallic lustre of their coats,
whii h has given rise to the name of Golden Mole (C ai/rca), applied
to the best known species. Tlie Sca/oJ>s aquatiais, a native of
Canada and the United States, is commonly known as the Shrew-
Mole, from the resemblance of its dentition to that of the Shrews,
which form the types of the following family. In the genus Coiidy-
lura, the species of which are also inhabitants of North America,
the nose is surrounded by a number of small movable cartilaginous
filaments, which radiate somewhat in the form of a star, and are
doubtless employed as organs of touch. In their general habits, all
these animals resemble our common Mole.
In the family of the Sorkida;, or Shrews, which includes the
greater part of the order, the feet are all formed for progression ;
that is to say, the anterior members are never converted into organs
appropriated for digging. The eyes are always perfect, and readily
distinguishable ; and the external ears, though small, are always
present. In other respects, the different animals composing this
group exhibit a remarkable variety of character ; the dentition pre-
sents considerable differences even in so closely allied species ; the
length of the legs and tail, and the clothing of the body, are also
very variable. They all, however, agree in living either on the sur-
face of the ground, or upon trees, and never in a complicated system
of burrows, such as that of the Moles ; their jaws are always more
or less elongated, and the nose is usually prolonged into a movable
snout. The Soricidcc are found in all parts of the world ; they are
of small size, and their nourishment consists principally of insects,
although some species also feed on vegetable matters.
In the typical Shrews, forming the genus Sorcx and its allies, the
form of the body presents a close resemblance to that of the Mice or
Rats, whence the name of Shrew-Mice is frequently applied to our
English species. Their legs are nearly of equal length, and termi-
nate in five toes, which are armed with small claws, and usually
free, though not unfrequently united by a swimming membrane.
The nose is more or less produced, and the tail is elongated, usually
tapering, covered with scales, like that of the Mice, and with a
greater or less number of bristles. The skin is clothed with a short
fur. Some of these are amongst the most diminutive of the Alam-
malia, and the largest of them are about the size of a Rat. They
are generally furnished with peculiar glands, secreting a fluid of a
disagreeable odour, which prevents Cats and Dogs from eating
them ; although they will not unfrequently kill them — probably mis-
taking them for Mice. They live for the most part upon insects,
worms, and small Mollusca ; but the larger species also prey upon
the smaller Vericbrafa. >
Our British species all belong to the typical genus Sorex. This
genus may be regarded as the type of a sub-family to which the
name of Soricincs may be given. Species of this group are found in
various parts of both hemispheres, but principally in Europe and
Africa. Amongst these we shall only notice the Desmans {My gale),
sometimes called Musk Rats, of which two species are found in
Europe — one in the Pyrenees (J/. Pyreiiaicd), and the other in
Russia (J/, moscliafa). These animals are the largest in the group ;
they are remarkable for having the nose produced into a short pro-
boscis, and their feet palmated and naked, or scaly. They always
inhabit the neighbourhood of water, in which they swim with great
facility, and feed not only on insects and Mollusca, but also on
small iish and Frogs. They are also remarkable for the strong odour
of musk which they exhale.
The MacroscclidincB are small animals, nearly allied to the true
Shrews, but differing from them by having the hind-legs much elon-
gated, so that they are enabled to spring in the same way as the
Jerboas amongst the Rodcntia. Their noses are long, and often
produced into a trunk ; their eyes and ears are larger than in the
true Shrews ; and their tails are long, and usually covered with hair.
These small animals are peculiar to Africa, and are most numerous
in its southern parts. One species, however, is found in Algeria,
where it is known to the French colonists as the Rat a trumpe
{Macroscelidcs Rozcti). They live principally in dry rocky places,
and feed on insects and other small animals ; although it appears
that some of them also eat vegetable substances.
In the Eriiiaceiiia;, or Fledgehogs, which are the largest members
of the family, the body is short, thick, and stout ; the nose is less
pointed than in the other groups ; the tail is short or entirely want-
ing, and the upper surface is more or less covered with short spines,
which, when the animals roll themselves up into a ball, as they
always do when alarmed, present an almost insuperable obstacle to
any predaceous animal that may wish to make a meal of the Hedge-
hog's body. They are exclusively confined to the Eastern Hemi-
sphere, where they are principally found in the warmer regions ; and
are omnivorous and nocturnal animals. They sleep during the day
in holes under the roots of trees or stones, and in similar situations,
coming forth at night in search of insects, fruits, and roots. Those
which inhabit cold climates pass the winter in a state of torpidity.
Our only British species is the common Hedgehog {Erinacetts
Europaus), an animal which will be fully described hereafter.
Several other species inhabiting Asia and Africa belong to tliis
group, which also includes the Tanrecs {Ce?i/ctcs) of the island of
Madagascar, in which the tail is entirely wanting, and the spines,
which are far weaker than in our common Hedgehog, are mixed with
silky hairs.
The Tiipaincc, or Banxrings, are organised for an arboreal exist-
ence ; they resemble tlie Squirrels in their movements, and also
present a certain similarity to the Lemurs. Their legs are of nearly
equal length, but longer than in the majority of the other Soricidre,
so that the body is always raised from the surface of the ground ;
their skulls present a striking peculiarity, their orbits being com-
pletely encircled by a bony ring ; whilst in the other members of the
order, these cavities open into the temporal fossffi ; even the zygo-
matic arch is incomplete in many cases. The Banxrings are rather
elegant little animals, furnished with long tails, which are generally
well covered with hair ; but in the Ptiloccrciis Lowii, a native of
Sumatra, the tail is naked and scaly, except towards the extremity,
where it bears two series of longish hairs, arranged something like
the barbs of a feather. Most of the species of this group are found
in the larger islands of the Eastern Archipelago (Java, Sumatra, and
Borneo) ; but one or two species have been brought from Pegu and
India. They live in the woods, where they climb the trees with
great agility, and feed upon insects and fruits. In eating they hold
the food between their fore-paws, in the manner of a Squirrel ; and,
unlike the majority of the animals of this order, their period of
activity is the day.
Having thus drawn attention to the most important families and
genus of the Insectivora, the following have been selected as cha-
racteristic illustrations of the order, specimens of all of which may
be seen in the British Museum.
The Common Shrew (Sorex aranetis.) — This animal is of a
reddish Mouse-colour, paler beneath ; the tail is quadrangular in
adults, rather shorter than the body, and not ciliated beneath.
Fig. 1S7. — Common Shrew.
Length of head and body, two inches seven lines; of the tail, one
inch ten lines. It is common in our island, frequenting tufted banks,
hedge-rows, thickets, gardens, farm-yards, &c., and feeding on
worms and insects. Caterpillars, &c., after which it grubs with its
long pointed snout among the close herbage, or under the soft loose
soil. It is very impatient of hunger, and extremely pugnacious, two
seldom meeting without engaging in combat ; and if two be confined
together in a box, the weaker falls a prey to the stronger, and is soon
partially devoured. Many are killed and eaten by the Mole, and in
August numbers are often found dead in the lanes and pathways
across the fields ; but to what cause their destruction is owing, at the
season in question, is not very apparent. As was the case with the
Hedgehog and some other animals, superstition and ignorance have
attributed the most baneful properties to the Shrew ; it was supposed
by our ancestors to paralyse the limbs of cattle by merely creeping
over them, afflicting them vi'ith excruciating torments, and to poison
them by its bite. Aristotle, Pliny, and Agricola also attribute poi-
sonous effects to the bite of the Shrew, which, as they assert, pro-
duces tumours and ulcerations. Agricola states that the Latins
called the animal AIiis ara7ictis, from its injecting venom into the
wound it makes, as does the Spider (yl/'fZ.'/ra) ; and he notices the
characters of the teeth, and quadrifid figure of the wound they inflict ;
adding that in warm regions the wound is generally pestiferous, but
not in cold climates : his remedial prescription is to place the body
of the Shrew cut asunder on the injured part. Among our ancestors
the remedies were to make the person or animal pass through the
arch of a bramble rooted at both ends, or to apply to the limbs of
suffering cattle the twigs or leaves of a Shrew-ash ; that is, an ash
into the trunk of which a deep hole had been bored, and a poor de-
voted Shrew plugged in alive.
The voice of the Shrew is a shrill, feeble, chirring cry, which may
be often heard when the animal is unseen : we have known persons
76
THE SHREWS AND THE DESMAN.
whose ears were unable to catch it, however attentively they have
listened, though of other tones they were perfectly susceptible. The
Shrew makes long- superficial burrows in banks and among the roots
of trees and brushwood ; the female makes a nest in her retreat of
soft herbage, with an aperture at the sides ; she breeds in the spring,
producing from five to seven young.
In the following cut are represented three British Shrews : a, the
Oared Shrew {Sorex remifer, Geoff. ; Sorex aliatiis, Sowerby) ;
b, the Water-Shrew {Sorex fodiens, Gmelin, not of Duvernoynor
The Desman {Mygale moschata). Biesamratze of the Germans;
Wychozol of the Russians. (See Fig. 189.) — The genus Mygalc,
Guv. {Myogalla, Fischer; Castor vioschatus, Linn.), presents us
with the following dental characters : — Incisors, ^ . canines,
o —
^\aV.4^\ ^_^
Fig. 188.— British Shrews.
of modern continental authors ; Sorex bicolor, Shaw) ; and c, the
Common Shrew, which we have already illustrated by Fig. 187.
The Water-Shrew is nearly black above, white beneath, the colours
being abruptly separated ; the sides of the feet and the under sur-
face of the tail are ciliated or fringed with long, stiff, white hairs.
Length of head and body, three inches and three lines ; of the tail,
two inches one line.
This elegant little animal is aquatic in its habits, frequenting
clear fresh-water ditches and brooks, in the banks of which it makes
extensive burrows ; it swims and dives with great address, the sides
being spread out, the belly flattened, and the tail extended as a
rudder. When diving, the black velvety coat of the animal appears
as if beautifully silvered, from the innumerable bubbles of air that
cover it. These are pressed out of the fur, which repels the water,
the animal being quite dry when it emerges. It has the power of
completely closing the orifices of the ears, so as to exclude the water
while beneath the surface. The food of the Water-Shrew consists of
insects, the larv£e of E^phemera, and perhaps the ova of fishes ; in
quest of these it swims and dives or grubs in the mud with its snout.
These little Water-Shrews form colonies in certain spots, making
runs or tracks along the banks leading from their subterranean
dwellings to the water ; when two meet in these, or while swimming
about, they utter their shrill, feeble, querulous cry, perhaps a token
of recognition. The Water-Shrew, though only recognised as a
native of our island within the last few years, is not uncommon in
most of our counties, and has been captured in Scotland and
Devonshire.
The Oared Shrew is closely allied to the Water-Shrew, and ap-
pears to have the same aquatic habits. The tail is quadrangular,
and compressed towards the apex, and is ciliated on the under sur-
face ; the feet are strongly ciliated ; the body is black above, greyish-
black below ; the throat is of a yellowish colour. It is of about the
size of the former. Fig. 185, a7ite, in our introductory remarks at
p. 74, ante, represents the under surface of the hinder feet of — a,
the Common Shrew ; b, the Water-Shrew ; c, the Oared Shrew.
molars, ^^ — !^ ; of the molars, the first seven on each side above,
1-1
and the first four below, are false ; between the two large incisors
below, are two minute teeth, and the
two upper incisors are flattened and
triangular. (See Fig. 190 for the teeth
of the upper jaw.) In these animals
the snout is elongated into a flexible
proboscis furrowed down the middle,
which they are incessantly turning
about ; the tail is long, thick, scaly,
and compressed at the sides ; the
eyes are very small ; external ears
wanting : the fur is full, deep, soft,
and glossy, like that of the beaver;
the feet are broad and completely
webbed ; toes five in number. Two
species are known, both aquatic in
their habits : the one is the Desman
or Musk-Rat of Russia ; the other,
a smaller species, is found in the
Pyrenees.
The Desman measures upwards of
ten inches in the length of the head
and body, that of the tail being seven
(from specimen in Paris Museum).
This beaver-like aquatic Shrew is
abundant in the lakes and rivers of
Southern Russia, feeding on worms,
aquatic insects, fish, and especially
Leeches, which it searches for in the
mud at the bottom of the water with
its long flexible snout. Its burrow is
deeply hollowed out in steep over-
hanging banks, the entrance being
below the level of the water, whence
it rises gradually, so as never to be
filled during the highest floods. The
Desman seldom comes on shore
voluntarily, but is often captured in
the nets of the fishermen ; and it is
frequently seen swimming about or
diving in pursuit of prey. It exhales
a strong musky odour, the secretion
of small glandular follicles at the
root of the tail ; and this flavour of
musk it communicates to Pikes and other fishes which prey upon
it, rendering their flesh disgusting.
Fig. 189. — Desman.
Fig. igo. — Teeth of Desman.
THE CAPE ELEPHANT-SHREIV AND THE SOLENODON.
11
The Cape Elephant-Shrew {Macroscelides typicus). — Allied
to the Shrews are some little animals peculiar to Africa, constituting-
the g-enus ilacroscelidcs of Dr. A. Smith. They are called Ele-
phant-Mice or Elephant-Shrews, from the proboscis-like form of the
Fig. 191. — Cape Elephant- Shrew.
snout ; but the scientific name bears reference to the Jerboa-like
elongation of the hinder limbs. (See Fig. 191.) The dentition is as
follows : — Incisors, ~~ ; false molars (called canines by Dr. Smith),
2-3
~ — - ; molars, P~^
4-4 5-5
croscelides : a, upper surface of the skull, natural size ; d, profile ;
c, lower jaw; d, under surface of the skull, twice the natural size ;
c, the lower jaw, twice the natural size. The nostrils are at the ape.x
of the proboscis ; the eyes are moderate ; the ears large and rounded ;
the tail rather long, and like that of a Mouse. Feet five-toed. The
Fig. 192 shows the skull and teeth of A/a-
Fig. 192.— Skull and Teeth of Cape Elephant-Shrew.
Cape Elephant-Shrew {Macroscelides typicus) is the Sorex aranciis
maxinuis of Petever. The fur is soft and long ; the general colour
is reddish-brown, clouded on the back with a darker tint, and under
surface white : the ears nearly naked ; whiskers long : length of head
and body, three inches and three-quarters ; of tail, three inches and
a quarter.
This curious animal inhabits open plains, and lives in burrows
under ground, the passage to which runs for some distance almost
perpendicularly downwards. During the day it seeks its food, and
may be seen basking in the heat of the sun, sitting erect on its
hinder legs in the full glare of the rays. When disturbed, it flies
immediately to its subterranean retreat, and with such velocity, that
it is impossible to make out its form or general appearance as it
skims along. It feeds upon insects. Several ijpccies are known,
peculiar to South Africa ; and one is a native of Algiers.
The Solenodon (.SV«wa'o«/ara^c?.^•«.f).— The genus Solenodon
Fig. 193. — Solenodon.
of Brandt ("M6m. de I'Acad. Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petcrs-
bourg," tome ii., livr. 3eme, 1833) contains, as far as yet known,
only one species, an animal peculiar to Hayti, where it is known
under the name of Agouta. (See Fig. 193.) Allied in many respects
^^^f^
Fig. 194. — Skull and Teeth of Solenodon.
78
THE SHREW-MOLE AND THE COMMON MOLE.
to the genera Sorex and JMygale : in the character of the ears, the
fur, and the tail, it resembles the Opossums {Didclpliis). Its denti-
tion approximates the most nearly to that of Mygale. In size the
Solenodon exceeds a Rat; its snout is lengthened into a slender
naked proboscis, at the tip of which are the nostrils with a furrow
between them ; the ears are moderate and rounded ; the fur is coarse
and long, and of a yellowish-red ; from the lips and checks proceed
slender whiskers of great length ; the limbs are stout ; the toes, five
on each foot, armed with large hooked claws ; the tail is long. Rat-
like, and scaly, being destitute of hairs. Dentition as follows : —
Incisors, - ; false molars, ; true molars, ? — :
6 o '6-6 '8-!
The two middle
incisors of the upper jaw are remarkable for their size and the
distance between them and the succeeding incisors ; they are com-
pressed, pointed, and perpendicular. The zygomatic arch is incom-
plete, as in the Shrews {Sorex), the Tanrecs {Ceiitc/cs), the Echi)iops,
&c. Fig. 194 represents the skull and dentition of the Solenodon :
a, skull of Solenodon (profile) ; b, seen from above ; c, seen from
below ; d, mandible or lower jaw ; e, anterior part of the inter-
maxillary bone, with the two
anterior incisor teeth ; f,
anterior surface of an an-
terior upper incisor tooth ;
g, anterior parts of the man-
dible, with the four anterior
incisor teeth ; h, the crown
of a second or middle in-
cisor tooth of the mandible,
seen on its internal surface,
and exhibiting its triangu-
lar canal. The foregoing
figures are nearly of the
natural size, z', teeth of the
upper jaw seen laterally; i, i, nat. size; 2, 2, magnified. (Brandt.)
Fig. 195, a, the fore-foot of Solenodon, upper surface; b, hind-foot,
upper surface.
Of the habits of the Solenodon little is known : its strong claws
and pointed snout, the base of which is supported by a stylet of bone,
denote it to be a burrowing animal. An imperfect skin, in the
museum of the Zoological Society, was sent by Mr. Hearne from
Hayti, who thus writes respecting it : — " The only quadruped, I
believe, found on the island on the landing of Columbus was the
Agouta, a little larger than, and somewhat resembling a Rat, with
an equally long tail and a longer snout, whose food is chiefly grain,
although the animal is carnivorous also : its hair is red. I had one
alive, intended for the Society, but it received a wound from a Cat,
of which it died."
The Shrew-Mole {Scalops canadensis); Sorex aquaticus, Linn. ;
Scalops aquaticus,Y\i,Q\iex. (See Fig. 196.) The animals of this genus
Fig. 195. — Feet of Solenodon.
Fig. 196. — Shrew-Mole.
are peculiar to North America. • Their form is Mole-like ; the eyes are
minute in the extreme, and scarcely to be discovered ; there are no ex-
ternal ears : the fur is velvety ; the fore-paws, like those of the Mole, are
adapted for burrowing ; the tail is short : the teeth are — incisors, - >
molars.
-, or, according to F. Cuvier, z^
(See Fig. 197.)
10-10 " 9
The snout is long, tapering, flexible, and with a terminal disc.
The Canada Shrew-Mole measures about seven inches and a-half
long, exclusive of a tail, which is one inch and a-half. The general
colour is brownish-black. It inhabits the banks of the Columbia
and the adjoining coasts of the Pacific.
According to Dr. Richardson, the Shrew-Mole resembles the com-
mon European Mole as much in habit as in form, forming galleries,
throwing up mounds, and feeding on worms and grubs. Dr. Godman
states that these animals are most active in the morning, at mid-day,
and in the evening, coming daily to the surface, when in their
natural state, at noon, at which time they may be taken by driving
a spade beneath them and throwing them on the ground ; but they
are not easily taken at any other part of the day. They burrow in a
variety of soils, but in wet seasons retire to the high grounds. An
individual kept in confinement by Mr. T. Peale, fed largely on fresh
meat, cooked or raw ; drank freely, Was lively and playful, and would
follow the hand of its feeder by scent ; it would then burrow for a
Fig. 197.— Teeth of Shrew-Mole.
short distance in loose earth, and after driving a circle, return for
more food. It employed its flexible snout in a singular manner
whilst it was eating, doubling it down, like a proboscis, upon its
food, so as to direct and force it into the mouth. An allied
species [Scalops Tovmsendii) is a native of California, and another
{Scalops Pentisylvaiiiciis, Harlan) is found in Pennsylvania.
In our introductory remarks at p. 74, ante, we have given a
general description of the Talpidce, or Mole family. The common
Mole, and others of the species, Talpa, &c., we shall now more
fully remark on and illustrate.
The Common Mole {Talpa ^//ro/iz?;?).— Mouldwarp and
Mouldiwarp ; Want in Dorsetshire and Devonshire; Wand, Old
Danish ; Vond, Norwegian ; Maulwerf, German ; Mol, Dutch ;
Fig. 19S.— Mole.
Muldvarp, modern Danish ; Mulvard and Surk, Swedish ; La Taupe,
French; Talpa, Latin and modern Italian; Topo, Spanish; Tou-
peiro, Portuguese ; Gwadd and Twrch daear, ancient British. (See
Fig. 198, and Fig. 186, p. 74, ante.)
We need not say that the Mole is a miner, living an almost
exclusively subterranean life, ever pursuing ita picy through the soil.
THE COMMON MOLE
79
and working out long galleries in tlie chase. In accordance with its
destined habits is the whole of its structural development. The body
is cylindrical and compact ; the snout prolonsjcd and pointed ; the
limbs very short ; the anterior pair present a thick, contracted arm,
terminating in broad solid paws, with five fingers scarcely divided,
and armed with strong flat nails. The tournure of thesp scrapers
(for such they are) gives them an obliquely outward position, and
facilitates their use as scooping instruments, by which the soil is not
only dug up, but thrown backwards at each stroke, and that with
great energy. The hinder limbs are small, and the feet feeble in
comparison with the anterior scrapers ; while the body tapers to them
from the chest and shoulders, so the hinder quarters offer no impedi-
ment to the animal's progress through its narrow galleries. The fur,
moreover, is such as best befits a subterranean dweller — it is
extremely close, fine, short, and smooth, and resembles the nap of
black velvet. There is no external conch to the organs of hearing,
the sense of which is acute in the extreme ; a simple auditory opening,
capable of being closed or dilated at pleasure, leads to the internal
apparatus, which is effectually defended from the intrusion of
particles of earth or sand. At a cursory glance the Mole appears to
be destitute of eyes ; they are, however, not wanting, though very
small, and buried in the fur. (See introductory remarks at p. 74,
anteS A limited power of vision is sufficient for this dweller in the
dark ; the Mole, however, can see better than might be imagined.
By a peculiar muscular contrivance it is capable of bringing forward,
or of drawing in, the eye; and this, when withdrawn, is enveloped
in and defended by the close fur ; so that, as is the case with the ear,
no particles of earth can injure it. We have said that the sense of
hearing is exquisite ; and to it the Mole trusts for warning on the
approach of danger ; but the sense of smell is equally delicate ; and
by this it is guided in its search for food. It bores its long sharp
nose in the earth as it traverses its galleries, and immediately detects
worms and the larva; of insects, which constitute its chief food. Nor
is the feeling of this part at a low ratio ; it is, on the contrary, very
tapers to the hind-quarters, which are supported by limbs as slender
as they are short.
The neck-bones, nevertheless, are not wanting ; they even exist in
the same. number as in the Giraffe; the vertebral formula of the
Fig. 199. — Slveleton of Mole.
acute and susceptible, and aids the sense of smell in the procuring of
food. The pointed snout is, indeed, a finger-like organ of prehen-
sion, as well as a boring instrument. The general skin of the body
is strong and tough, and not easily torn or lacerated.
The osseous and muscular development of the Mole exhibits a
perfect correspondence with its external characters and the perfec-
tion of its senses. The great develop-
ment of the skeleton (Fig. igg) is
anteriorly — namely, in the bones of the
shoulders, arms, and chest. The skull
(Fig. 200) is depressed above, elon-
gated, and pointed ; and the snout,
continued beyond the maxillary and
nasal bones, is supported by a little
additional bone, produced by the ossifi-
cation of the cartilage. Its boring
faculties are rendered still more effec-
tive by the ossified condition of the
ligament of the neck, which passes
from the back of the skull, down the
cervical vertebra;, and which in other
animals is elastic. The teeth are small,
exhibiting a decidedly insectivorous character, the molars being
crowned with sharp-pointed tubercles or eminences. (See Fig.
201.)
Professor Owen remarks that the Mole is hardly less fitted for the
actions of an ordinary land-quadruped than the Sloth ; but the one
is as admirably constructed for subterraneous as the other for arboreal
life. The fore-limbs are as remarkably short, broad, and massive in
the Mole, as they are long and slender in the Sloth ; yet the same
osseous elements, similarly disposed, occur in the skeleton of each.
The head of the Mole is long and cone-shaped ; its broad base joins
on the trunk without any outward appearance of a neck. The fore-
part of the trunk, to which the principal muscular masses working
the fore-hmbs are attached, is the thickest, and thence the body
Fig. 200.— Skull of Mole.
Fig. 201. — Teeth of Mole.
Mole being — 7 cervical, 13 dorsal, 6 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 10 caudal.
The spine of the second vertebra or dentata is large, and extended
back over the third vertebra : the neural arches of this and the
succeeding neck-vertebrffi form thin simple arches without spines :
the entire vertebra have been de-
scribed as mere rings of bone ;
but the transverse processes of the
fourth, fifth, and sixth cervicals
are produced forwards and back-
wards, and overlap each other :
in the seventh vertebra those pro-
cesses are reduced to tubercular
diapophyses which are not perfo-
rated : the bodies of the vertebrae
are depressed and quadrate. The
part answering to the nuchal liga-
ment in the Giraffe, is bony in the
Mole.
The first sternal bono, or manu-
brium, is of unusual length, being
much produced forwards, and its
under surface downwards in the
shape of a deep keel for extending the origin of the pectoral muscles.
Seven pairs of ribs directly join the sternum, which consists of four
bones, in addition to the manubrium and an ossified ensiform ap-
pendage. The neural spines, which are almost obsolete in the first
eight dorsals, rapidly gain length in the rest, and are antroverted in
the last two dorsal vertebra;. The diapophyses, being developed in
the posterior dorsals, determine the nature of the longer homologous
processes in the lumbar vertebrae.
The lumbar spines are low, but of considerable antero-posterior
extent : the diapophyses are bent forward in the last four vertebra ;
a small, detached, wedge-shaped hypapoph3J6is is fixed into the
lower interspace of the bodies of the lumbar vertebra.
The scapula is very long and narrow, but thick, and almost three-
sided : the common rib-shaped is resumed in this cranial pleura-
pophysis, as may be seen in the Bird and Tortoise. The clavicle,
on the other hand, instead of the usual long and slender figure, pre-
sents the form of a cube, being very short and broad, articulated
firmly to the anterioriy projecting breast-bone, and more loosely with
the acromion and head of the humerus.
This bone would be classified amongst the "flat" bones. It_ is
almost as broad as it is long, especially at its proximal end, which
presents two articular surfaces — one for the scapula, the other for
the clavicle : the expanse of the bone beyond these surfaces relates
to the formation of an adequate extent of attachment for the deltoid,
pectoral, and other great burrowing mnscles. All the other bones
of the fore-limb are as extremely modified for fossorial actions. The
olecranon expands transversely at its extremity, and the back part
of the ulna is produced into a strong ridge of bone.
The shaft of the radius is divided by a wide interosseous space
from the ulna, and the head of the radius is produced into a hook-
shaped process like a second " olecranon." The carpal scries con-
sists of five bones in each row— the scaphoid bcmg divided in the
first, and a sesamoid being added to the second row ; moreover,
there is a large supplementary sickle-shaped bone, extending from
the radius to the metacarpal of the pollex, giving increased breadth
8o
THE COMMON MOLE.
and a convex margin to the radial side of the very powerful hand,
and chiefly completing its adaptation to the act of rapidly displacing
the soil. The phalanges of the fingers are short and very strong :
the last are bifid at their ends, for a firm attachment of the strong
claws. Little more of the hand than these claws, and the digging
or scraping edge, projects beyond the sheath of skin enveloping the
other joints, and connecting the hand with the trunk.
The common position of the arm-bone is, with its distal end, most
raised. The fore-arm, with the elbow raised, is in the state between
pronation and supination, the radial side of the hand being down-
wards, and the palm directed outwards. The whole limb, in its
position and structure, is unequalled in the vertebrate series as a
fossorial instrument, and only paralleled by the corresponding limb
in the Mole-Cricket {Gryllofalj)d) amongst the insect tribes.
No impediment is offered by the hinder parts of the body or limbs
when the thickest part of the animated wedge has worked its way
through the soil. The pelvis is remarkably narrow. The ossa in-
nominatahave coalesced with the sacrum, but not with each other,
the pubic arch remaining open. The bodies of the sacral vertebrae
are blended together, and are carinate below ; their neural spines
have coalesced to form a high ridge. The acetabula point almost
directly outwards. The head of the femur has no pit for a round
ligament. A fabella is preser\'ed behind the outer condyle. A
hamular process is sent off from the head of the tibia and fibula ; the
lower moieties of the shafts of these bones are blended together.
The toes are five in number on the hind-feet as in the fore, but are
much more feebly developed. They serve to throw back the loose
earth detached by the spade-shaped hands.
The reader should compare this description of the skeleton of the
Mole with those of Man, Fig. i, p. 2, and of the Camel, Fig. 14,
p. 5, a7ite, where the names of each corresponding bone are given,
so as to become acquainted with some of the peculiar features of the
comparative anatomy of the Matiunaiia.
It would appear that the subterranean labours of the Mole are
e.xerted in the accomplishment of very different objects. Each Mole
may be said to have its own district or manor, its hunting-ground,
and its lodges ; and this ground is traversed by high-road tunnels,
through which it travels from one part to another, all branching off
from a central fortress — its ordinary residence, which is, however,
not only distinct, but often remote from the chamber in which the
nest is made and the young reared. We will begin by describing
the fortress or ordinary domicile (Fig. 202). — This fortress is con-
Fig. 202. — Habitation and Hunting-ground of the Mole.
structed under a hillock of considerable size (not one of those ordi-
narily thrown up every night, indicating its hunting excursions), and
raised in some secure place, where a high bank, the roots of a tree,
or the base of a wall, afford protection. The earth forming this
mound is well compacted together, and made solid by the labours of
the architect ; and within this firm-set mound is a complex arrange-
ment of galleries and passages ot communication. First, a circular
gallery occupies the upper portion of the mound, and this communi-
cates by means of five descending passages with another gallery at
the base of the mound, enclosing a larger area. These passages
are nearly at equal distances. Within the area of this lower gallery
is a chamber, not immediately communicating with it, but with the
upper gallery, by three abruptly descending tunnels. This chamber
is the dormitory of the Mole. From the basal gallery opens a high-
road tunnel, which is carried out in a direct line to the extent of the
manor over which the individual presides, and from the bottom of
the central chamber a passage descends, and then sweeping upwards
joins this main road at a little distance from the hillock ; so that the
Mole can enter the high-road either from its dormitory or from the
basal gallery. Besides the high-road, eight or nine other tunnels
are carried out from the basal gallery ; they are of greater or less
extent, and wind round more or less irregularly, opening into the
high-road at various distances from the hillock : these irregular
tunnels the Mole is continually extending in quest of prey ; throwing
up the soil above the turf, through holes which it makes for the pur-
pose, and which form the ordinary Mole-hills which we often see
crowded thickly together. The high or main road exceeds in
diameter the body of the Mole, and is solid and well-trodden, with
smooth sides ; its depth varies according to the quality of the soil,
instinct directing the little excavator in his work. Ordinarily it is
five or six inches below the surface, but when carried under a stream-
let or pathway it is often a foot and a-half beneath. It sometimes
happens that the Mole will drive two or more additional high-roads
in order to the extension of its operations ; and one high-road occa-
sionally serves several Moles, which, however, never trespass on
each other's preserves. They often meet in these roads, which will
not admit of two passing at the same time ; one therefore must
retreat ; but when two males thus come into collision they frequently
attack each other, the weaker falling a victim in the combat. The
alleys opening from the sides of the high-road are generally inclined
downwards with a gradual slope, and then at the termination of
these the Mole excavates branch alleys, upheaving Mole-hills as it
works onwards in pursuit of prey. This, however, is not invariably
the case, but rather where prey is abundant in rich soils : where the
soil is barren, the Mole is constantly driving fresh alleys ; these in
winter are carried deep down to where the worms have pierced their
way, beyond the line to which the frost penetrates ; for, be it ob-
served, the Mole does not hibernate, but is as active during winter
as in spring or summer, though the results of his operations are less
manifest. In soft rich soils, where the worms are among the roots
of the turf, the Mole, as may be often noticed, drives very superficial
runs in pursuit of them ; these runs are to be seen where a thin layer
of richly manured soil overlays a stratum of gravel : in fact, the
depth of these alleys is always determined by the quality of the soil
and the consequent situation of the worms. With respect to the
nest of the female, it is generally constructed at a distance from the
fortress, where, at some convenient part, three or four passages
intersect each other : the point of convergence is enlarged and
rendered commodious, and fitted to receive a bed made of dry
herbage, fibrous roots, &c. The chamber is generally beneath a
large hillock, but not always ; and the surrounding soil is usually
such as to afford abundant food to the female with little trouble on
her part. The Mole breeds in the spring, mostly in April, and
brings forth four or five young at a birth. These are supposed to
remain under the mother's care till about half-grown, when they
commence an independent existence.
Such is the constitution of the Mole that a short fast proves fatal.
It would appear that all its animal appetites are in excess ; its
hunger is voracity amounting to rage, under the influence of which
it fastens on its prey with intense eagerness. Earthworms are its
favourite food, and these it skins Vi'ith great address, squeezing out
the earthy contents of the body before swallowing it. It is not,
however, exclusively upon earthworms and the larv£e of insects that
the Mole feeds ; during the months of June and July it is in the
habit of leaving its runs under the turf, and of wandering during the
night (and occasionally even during the day) on the surface in quest
of prey, such as Birds, Mice, Frogs, Lizards, Snails, &c. ; but it
refuses to touch the Toad, in consequence no doubt of the acrid
exudation from that reptile's skin. During these nocturnal excur-
sions it often falls a prey to the Owl ; and we have seen it in the day-
time caught and killed by Dogs.
The voracity of the Mole, and its perpetually recurring repasts
upon animal food, render water not only a welcome refreshment, but
necessary to its existence. A run, sometimes used by many indi-
viduals, always leads to a ditch, stream, or pond, if such be within a
moderate distance. If these natural supplies be not at hand, the
Mole sinks little wells, in the shape of perpendicular shafts, which
become filled with the rain, and retain the water ; and they have
sometimes been found brimful. Scarcity of water, or a drought, as
well as a scarcity of worms, often obliges the Mole to shift its
quarters, and locate upon other grounds. In its migration it will
cross brooks or rivers, swimming admirably ; and when spring or
autumn floods inundate the fields, it easily saves itself by these
means. It is, moreover, affirmed that in this peril the male and
female brave the waters together, and expose themselves to the
utmost danger in order to save their young, in which office of
parental devotion they mutually assist and protect each other.
The disposition of this animal is fierce and combative. If several
Moles be kept in a box of earth, and not supplied with an abundance
of food, they attack each other, and the w'eaker falls a prey to the
stronger ; when the Mole seizes, it holds like a Bull-dog, with a
tenacious gripe, and is not easily disengaged. , M. Geoffrey St.
Hilaire describes the manner in which the Mole approaches and
seizes a bird : it exerts several stratagems to get within reach of its
victim, employing the utmost address and caution ; but when this is
accomplished, it suddenly changes its plan, and makes an instan-
taneous and impetuous attack ; fastens on the hapless bird, tears
open the abdomen, thrusts its snout among the viscera, and revels in
THE CHRYSOCHLORE AND THE STAR-NOSED MOLE.
8i
its sanguinary repast. After satiating its ravenous appetite, it sinks
into a profound repose : in the winter it slumbers in its fortress ; but
in the summer, beneath some ordinary Mole-hill in one of its alleys.
This sleep endures for about four hours, or perhaps longer, in the
middle of the day, when it awakes with a renovated appetite. Its
busiest time is in the evening, during the night, and early in the
The following cut represents Moles in their native haunts, and on
a burrow, with hillock. (See Fig. 203.)
The Cape Chrysochlore {Chrysochloris G7/c;mj).— The
Mole IS represented m Africa by the Chrysochlore, but the fore-paws
are only armed with three nails, of which the outermost is long,
thick arched, and pointed ; there is no tail. This singular animal
is loss than a Mole, and appears to
be entirely destitute of eyes. Its
velvclty fur has a metallic lustre,
changing from dark-green to bronze
or copper in different lights. This
species is a native of Southern Africa,
where it lives like the Mole in burrows,
and feeds on worms and insects. It
is the Taupe doree of the French.
The subjoined cuts represent the
back and belly of the Chrysochlore.
(See Figs. 204 and 205.) There arc
several other varieties.
The Thick-tailed Condylure,
OR Star-nosed Mole {Condylar a
7nacroura). — The Condylures, or
Star-nosed Moles, are confined to
North America ; they closely resem-
ble the common Mole in their feet,
general aspect, and habits, but the
tail is longer, and the disc at the
end of the snout is encircled by little
movable cartilaginous processes like
the rays of a star. The eyes are
extremely minute ; external ears are
wanting ; fur deep, thick, and fine.
The teeth consist of — incisors, i ;
canines, -
(See
203.
-British Moles in their native haunts.
morning. It might be supposed, from the figure of the Mole, that
its motions were very slow and deliberate ; it trips along, however,
at a fair pace, and traverses its underground runs and galleries with
great rapidity.
The Mole does not exist in the extreme north of Scotland, in
Zetland, or the Orkney Islands, nor has it been seen in any part of
Ireland. Varieties of this animal often occur: we have examined
specimens of a Mouse-colour, of a white, cream-white, and pale
yellowish orange.
J.^.
Fig. 204. — Cape Chrysochlore.
Fig. 205. — Cipe Chrysochlore,
; molars, .
i-i 7-7
Fig. 206, teeth of C. cristata.')
We have no minute details respect-
ing the manners and instincts of the
Chrysochlores, of which three species
are distinguished : they are burrowing animals, feeding upon worms
and the larvje of insects, &c. The thick-tailed Condylure was dis-
covered by Mr. David Douglas on the banks of the Columbia river.
The colour of the fur above is deep lustrous brown, paler on the
Fig. 206. — Teeth of Star-nosed Mole.
Fig. 207. — Star-noseJ Mole.
under parts. The tail is contracted at its root, whence it gradually
enlarges, and then tapers to a fine point. Length of head and body,
four inches and a-half ; of the tail, two inches and a-half. (See Fig. 207.)
Insectivora— Genus Erinaceus — Hedgehogs.
The only British species of this genus is the COMMON HEDGEHOG
(Erittaccus Euro/xvus). Riccio of the Italians ; Erizo of the
M
82
THE HEDGEHOG.
Spanish; Ourizo of the Portuguese; Herisson of the French ; Igel
of the Germans ; Eegelvarken of the Dutch ; Pin-suin of theDanes ;
Draenog and Dracn y coed of the ancient British ; Urchin, Pro-
vincial English ; 'Ex'i'oe (spiny animal) of the Greeks. — A group
of these animals is represented in Fig. 208 It is superfluous to
enter into an elaborate description of this spine-covered animal ; all
are well acquainted with its external characters, and all know that it
has the power of rolling itself up into a ball, presenting an array of
Fig. 20S. — Hedgehogs.
serried spines formidable to its antagonist. A peculiar muscular
expansion beneath the skin enables the Hedgehog thus completely
to enshroud itself in its panoply, as in a hood, the margin of which
is closed by means of a circular muscle, the head and limbs being
retracted within. While the animal is thus enveloped in its armed
skin, the spines are stiffly set by the action of the muscular ex-
pansion, and radiate from the ball ; and such is the strength and
elasticity of this covering, that a Hedgehog may roll down a steep
place or precipitous bank without the slightest injury. Mr. Bell
assures us that he has repeatedly seen a domesticated Hedgehog in
his possession run towards the precipitous wall of an area, and, with-
out hesitation or a moment's pause for preparation, throw itself off,
contracting, at the same instant, into a ball, in which condition it
reached the ground from a height of twelve or fourteen feet ; when,
after a few moments, it would unfold itself and run off unhurt. The
Hedgehog is nocturnal in its habits : it frequents woods, copses, old
gardens, orchards, and thick hedgerows, where it remains rolled
up in its retreat during the day, coming forth on the approach of
twilight, and continuing on the alert till morning. Its motions are
quick and irregular, and its pace a sort of heavy paddling, the body
being close to the ground, and the feet plantigrade. Its food con-
sists of insects, Slugs, Frogs, Toads, Mice, and even Snakes ; to which
it adds eggs, young nestlings, and various kinds of vegetables, as
the roots of grass and plantain, and ripe orchard-fruits which fall
from the trees. White notices the manner in which it bores with its
snout, to get at the root of the plantain, which it eats, leaving the
tuft of leaves untouched. In the first volume of the "Zoological
Journal" is the narrative, from the pen of Mr. Broderip, of an ex-
periment made by Professor Buckland, relative to the destruction
of Snakes by the Hedgehog, from which it would appear that the
cunning quadruped makes a sudden attack on the reptile, and giving
it a hard bite, instantly rolls itself up for safety, then cautiously un-
folds, and inflicts another wound, repeating its attacks till the Snake
is " scotched," its back-bone being broken in several places ; it next
passes the body of the Snake gradually through its jaws, cracking
the bones at short intervals ; which done, it proceeds to eat its victim
as one would eat a radish, beginning with the tip of the tail, and
slowly proceeding upwards. We have frequently seen Hedgehogs
eat Frogs, rapidly crunching their bones with an audible noise. The
Hedgehog may be easily domesticated, and becomes familiar, feed-
ing on soaked bread, vegetables, and meat ; it is useful in kitchens.
which it effectually clears of Crickets, Cockroaches, Beetles, &c. ; and
as it keeps quiet in its nest or retreat all day, produces itself no incon-
venience. Superstitious ignorance, as in the case of the poor little
Shrew, has led to the cruel persecution of the Hedgehog, because,
forsooth, it was (and in some places still is) believed to drain dry the
udders of the Cows during the night, to the surprise of the milkmaid
and the indignation of the farmer. To the Slow-worm and the Fem-
Owl {Ca^ritnulgits) the same mischievous habits have been at-
tributed, the physical impossibility of
their committmg such a theft being
overlooked or not appreciated. With
respect to the Hedgehog, this accusa-
tion, as Mr. Bell observes, is about as
well founded as that by Pliny, and ex-
aggerated by Sperling, who asserts that
it ascends trees, knocks off the apples
and pears (.ffilian says figs), and throw-
ing itself down upon them so that they
may stick to its spines, trots oS with
the prize.
The Hedgehog hibernates, passing
the winter in a state of complete tor-
pidity. It makes its retreat in banks
under the hollow roots of trees, in holes
or other sheltered and convenient places,
constructing a sort of nest or bed of
grasses, dried leaves, and moss ; with
these it covers itself deeply and closely,
and when discovered hibernating, re-
sembles a ball or roundish mass of herb-
age, which it seems to have attached to
its spines by repeatedly rolling itself
round amidst the heap it had stored up.
The female breeds early in the sum-
mer, forming an artful nest, roofed so
as to throw oft" the rain ; within, it is
well lined with leaves and moss. The
young, from two to four in number, are
blind at their birth, about two inches
long, perfectly white, and naked, though
the rudiments of the prickles are per-
ceptible. These soon develop them-
selves, and harden even before the eyes
are opened ; but it is not till a later period
that the young are able to draw down
the skin over the muzzle, and fold them-
selves Into a complete ball. The mother is devoted to her offspring,
and unremitting in her duties. Formerly the flesh of the Hedgehog
was eaten in our island, and is so still on some parts of the continent.
An intimate friend of the writer had one
dressed and served up for dinner, and
assured us that it was excellent ; we must,
however, remember the old adage, " De
gustibus," &c. : few, we think, would
willingly partake of such "small deer."
The Romans made use of the spiny skin
of the Hedgehog in hackling hemp for the
weaving of cloth.
The Hedgehog is found in most parts of Europe ; its length, when
full grown, is about g-J- inches. Fig. 209 represents the skull. The
dentition is as follows : — Incisors, - the two middle the longest ;
6
false molars, ^^ ; molars with acute tubercles, 3^3 . small tuber-
i-i 3-3
culous molars, — ~—
INSECTIVORA— Genus Cenieies—Tn^ Tenrecs.
Closely allied to the genus Erinacetis is the genus Cenfefes, 111.
[Centenes, Desm. ; Setiger, Geoff.), which comprehends certain
Hedgehog-like animals, confined, as far as we know, to the Mauri-
tius and Madagascar. They are covered with spines, but these
spines are feebler than those of the Hedgehog ; nor do the animals
enjoy so completely the power of rolling themselves up into a ball.
6 4
6 4
molars, "d^l^. (See Fig. 210). The muzzle is long
I— I 6-6
and pointed ; the tail wanting. These animals hibernate during
the dry season, when their natural food, insects and worms, fail, and
revive on the return of the rainy season. In their habits they are
nocturnal.
The Tenrec, or Tanrec {Ccntetcs ecaudafiis, Cuv. ; Erina-
ceus ecaudatus, Linn.: see Fig. 211). This species exceeds our
Fig. 209.— Skull of
Hedgehog.
They differ, moreover, in their dentition, the incisors being .
canines, -'" ^ ■ — '--" ~
THE TENRECS—THE BULAU, OR TIKUS.
83
Hed"-eho<' in size, and is covered above with long flexible spines,
except on°the top of the head ; the under parts are clad with yellowish
bristly hairs, a few black being- intermixed.
The Tenrec is a native of Madagascar, but has been naturalised
in the Mauritius. Of its habits we have but imperfect details. On
June 14th, 1831, a letter respecting these animals, addressed to the
Fig. 210. — Teeth of Tenrec.
Zoological Society, and dated Port Louis, December 15th, 1830,
was read at the scientific meeting. It referred to previous unsuc-
cessful attempts on the part of the Society's valuable correspondent
to transport from the Mauritius to England living Gouramies and
Tenrecs, and promised a repetition of the experiment. Mr. Telfair
states that they live on boiled rice, but will probably not exist long
upon that alone, as their natural food is chiefly composed of worms,
insects. Lizards, and the eggs of Snails. In the Mauritius they sleep
through the greater part of the winter, from April to November, and
are only to be found when summer heat is felt, which being generally
ushered in by an electric state of the atmosphere, the negroes {with
Fig. 211. — Tenrec.
whom they are a favourite food) say they are awakened by the peals
of thunder which precede the summer storms or " pluies d'orage."
Even in summer they are not often seen beyond the holes in which
they burrow, except at night. Their favourite haunts are among the
old roots of clumps of bamboos. They have a very overpowering
smell of musk at all times, which is increased to an extraordinary
degree when they are disturbed or frightened ; yet their flesh is
considered so savoury by the negroes, that they are unwilling to sell
those which they catch, and would not exchange it for any other
food, except perhaps for the " Outrite," which is the Catfish hung
up in the sun until it acquires a most fetid smell, tainting the atmo-
sphere to a great distance ; in this state it is a chief ingredient in
their favourite ragout.
The Striped Tenrec {Centctes scinispinosus). — This species is
of small size : the head is very conical ; the muzzle elongated and
Fig. 212. — Striped Tenrec.
pointed ; the body is clothed with a mixture of spines and bristles,
and is banded longitudinally yellow and black. Native country,
Madagascar. (See Fig. 212.)
The Spiny Tenrec, or Tendrac {Centetes s^inosus); Ericulus
7iigrescens ? of Isidore Geoffroy. — Incisors, ^ : molars, '-^-.
4 . 1-1
The Tendrac of Buffoon is more like a Hedgehog in appearance
than are the two previous species. It is covered above with close,
short, stiff spines, and with bristle-like hairs on the under parts.
The spines are of a deep mahogany colour, whitish at the root and
point. Under parts yellowish-white. Native country, Madagascar,
where it is said to make a burrow in the neighbourhood of fresh or
Fig. 213. — Spiny Tenrec.
salt water ; its habits resemble those of the rest of its race, and it is
acceptable to the negroes as food. (See Fig. 213.) An animal
allied to the Tendrac, and called Sokinar by the natives, is found in
Madagascar.
The Gymnure {Gymm/ra Rafflesii). The Bulau or Tikus. Of
the genus Gynmura (Horsfield and Vigors.) — It is a native of
Sumatra, and its introduction to science is due to the late Sir T.
Stamford Raffles, who first described it under the title of Viverra
Gymnura. Cuvier observes that it appears t5 approach Cladobates
Fig. 214. — Gymnure.
{Tupaia) in its teeth, and the Shrews in its muzzle and scaly tail.
The toes are five in number on each foot ; the eyes are small ; the
whiskers long ; the fur consists of a short, dense, woolly under-coat,
and long, coarse, thinly-set hairs. The body, legs, first half of the
84
THE BANXRING.
tail, and a stripe above the eyes are black ; the head, neck, and end
of the tail are white ; the muzzle is elonjrated. The dentition as
follows : — Incisors, - ; canines, ; molars,
6-6
It exhales a
I — I
6 i-i ' ' 6-6
strong musky smell. Specimens are preserved in the Museum of the
Zoological Society and the British Museum. (See Fig. 214.)
insectivora-
The Banxring,
-Genus Tuj>aia — The Banxring.
OR Bangsring {Tiipaia yavajiica). — The
genus Tupaia, RafHes {Cladobafes, F. Cuvier ; Sorexglis, Diard ;
Glisjiorex, Desmarest ; Hyogale, Temminck), contains several
Fig. 215. — Banxring.
species, mostly natives of Sumatra and Java, where they inhabit the
forests. (See Fig. 215.) In their dentition there is some resem-
blance to that of the Hedgehog. The formula stands as follows : —
Incisors, - ; canines,
6
Fig. 216 represents the
molars, 3 — ~.
i-i 6-6
teeth : a, those of the upper jaw ; b, those of the lower. The head is
oblong and depressed ; the snout long and attenuated ; the nostrils
lateral ; the eyes very large
Fig. 216. — Teeth of Banxring.
and rather prominent ; the
body long, slender, and
covered with close fur and
soft hairs ; the tail is longer
than the body, and com-
pressed ; the feet planti-
grade and pentadactyle ;
the toes compressed and
furnished with hooked
claws ; the thumb is dis-
tinct, and movable in a
direction opposite to the
others. Fig. 217 repre-
sents the head of the
Tupaia Tana of Sumatra :
a, in profile ; and b, as
seen from above. Fig. 218 represents the head of the Banxring
(Tupaia Javanica) : and Fig 219; a, the fore-foot; b, the hind-
foot ; in both the thumb is seen distinct, especially in the hind-foot.
The Tupaias, instead of being strictly terrestrial, lead, to a certain
extent, the life of Squirrels, having all their sprightliness and
activity, and much ot the general appearance of those animals.
They are, in fact, semi-arboreal Insectivora ; and were it not for their
long head and pointed snout, could scarcely be distinguished, at a
distance, from some of the Sciuri, or Squirrels. Their fine soft fur
is of a dark red ; and on the tail, the hair, which is long and bushy, is
distichous, or arranged laterally, especially if viewed on the under
surface. Sir T. Stamford RafHes states that they are decidedly
diurnal, their large bright eyes being suited to daylight, and that
they live principally on fruits, and especially that of the Kayogadis.
The Banxring or Bangsring of Java is lively and active. Dr. Hors-
field, who met with it during his researches in Java, states that in
traversing the province of Blambangan, in 1806, he discovered it in
the extensive forests which almost entirely cover the eastern
extremity of the island ; and he thinks that its range, though it may
not be confined exclusively to that province, is extremely limited.
From the scanty information afforded by the natives, it would seem
that the Banxring lives on trees, and "feeds on fruits and nuts ; "
but Dr. Horsfield obsen'ed that this account must be received with
due limitation, and he refers to the system of dentition as indicating
that the Banxring is more adapted to animal than vegetable food.
Length, from extremity of nose to the root of the tail, six inches five
lines ; of tail, six inches five lines.
The fur of the Banxring is close, silky, and delicate, witli a few
longer, more rigid, and darker-coloured hairs dispersed throughout
Fig. 217. — Head of Tupaia Tana.
it. The upper parts are brown, slightly diversified with grey of
different shades ; the lower parts dirty white, with a slight tint of
greyish : the tail agrees with the upper parts ; and the scapular line,
which is nearly an inch long, agrees with the neck.
The Ferruginous Tupaia is a a native of Sumatra, and does not
Fig. 218. — Head of Banxring.
appear to differ essentially in its habits from the Java species. Sir
Stamford RafBes states that a tame Tupaia ferriiginea was suffered
to go about at perfect liberty, ranged in freedom over the whole
house, and never failed to present himself on the breakfast and
dinner table, where he partook of fruit and milk. Dr. Horsfield
also quotes an extract from the
" Proceedings of the Asiatic
Society," where it is stated that
a living Tupaia fcrruginea
was brought to Bengal by a
medical gentleman ; it ran about
the house tame, but would not
allow itself to be caught for close
inspection. Though at liberty
to run out of doors whenever it
liked, it showed no disposition
to leave its quarters, and evinced
some attachment to the family ;
for whenever strangers entered
the house it showed disquietude
and made a chattering noise. It
gave no trouble in feeding, for
it was always on the search after
insects, and its favourite food
Grasshoppers, and Cockroaches.
Specimens of the Tupaias, of various species, are preserved in the
Museum of the Zoological Society, and in the British Museum.
Fig. 219. — Feet of Banxring.
seemed to be Flies, Crickets,
THE CARNIVORA, OR FLESH-EATING MAMMALIA.
85
CHAPTER IX.
MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CARNIVORA— FLESH-EATERS.
Dogs, Lions, Tigers, Hv^nas, Etc.
J^X\
m
^t
!r>Cv
jV
V
fe^:^
ERIOUS difBculty frequently arises in
the attempt to exactly classify animals,
and place them in their relative posi-
tion. In perusing the previous chapters,
the reader must have noticed that each
order almost insensibly becomes connected with
another, either of superior or inferior character.
In the Qitadriimatia, for example, we have a
gradual progression downwards, from the Man-
like to the Dog-like and Bird-like, extending from
the Gorilla down to the Flying Lemur. This
again resembles the Bats : and thus, throughout
the science of Natural History, the utmost care has
to be taken to define the characters of an animal so
that it may be properly associated with its fellows.
The order Carnivora, which is the subject of this
' and following chapters, amply illustrates the difficulty
above referred to. Strictly, the term means Flesh-
eating animals ; but under this designation we might
include nearly all the Qitadruniaiia and other animals
described in the preceding chapters. The young Gorilla,
for example, described at p. 26, ante, enjoyed a steak
and potatoes on his arrival at the Aquarium in West-
minster, in 1877. Yet the other and more leading cha-
racteristics of that animal remove him to a much higher
class. He belongs to the Fuur-hatidcd animals ; while
the Carnivora proper are Four-footed, or Quadrupeds.
To avoid, as far as possible, the difficulties here alluded
to, we shall throw the responsibility of defining the Carnivora on two
of our most eminent modern British naturalists — Professor Owen and
Mr. W. S. Dallas. In reference to the skeleton of the Carnivora,
Professor Owen remarks, that the Lion may be regarded as the type
of a quadruped. The well-adjusted proportions of the head, the
trunk, the fore-limbs, and tail, concur with their structure to form an
animal swift in course, agile in leaps and bounds, terrible iri the
overpowering force of the blows infiicted by the fore-limbs. The
strong, sharp, much curved, retractile talons terminating the broad
powerful feet, enable the Carnivore to seize the prey it has overtaken,
and to rend the body it has struck down. The jaws have a pro-
portional strength, and are armed with fangs fitted to pierce, lace-
rate, and kill.
The carnivorous character of the skull, as exemplified by the
sagittal and occipital crests, by the strength and expanse of the
zygomatic arches, by the breadth, depth, and shortness of the jaws,
by the height of the coronoid processes, and by the depth and extent
of the fossa; of the lower jaw for the attachment of the biting muscles,
reaches its maximum in the Lion. The triangular occipital region
is remarkable for the depth and boldness of the sculpturing' of its
outer surface, indicative of the powerful muscles working the whole
skull upon the neck and trunk. The conjoined paroccipitals and
mastoids form a broad and thick capsular
support for the back part of the acoustic
bulla. The pterj'goid processes are imper-
forate. A well-marked groove extends on
each side of the bony palate from the pos-
terior to the anterior palatine foramma.
The premaxillaries are comparatively short,
and one-half of the lateral border of the
nasals directly articulates with the max-
illaries. The antorbital foramina are largely
indicative of the size of the sensitive
nerve supplying the well-developed whiskers.
Within the cranium we find that ossification
has extended into the membrane dividing
the cerebrum from the cerebellum. This
bony tentorium extends above the petrosal
to the ridge overhanging the Gasserian
fossa ; the petrosal is short, its apex is
neither notched nor perforated ; the cere-
bellar pit is very shallow. The sella turcica
is deep, and well defined by both the an-
terior and posterior clinoids. The rhinence-
phalic fossa is relatively larger in the Lion
than in most Carnivora, and is defined by
a well-marked angle of the inner table of the skull from the pros-
encephalic compartment. The olfactory chamber extends back-
wards both above and below the rhinencephalic fossa ; the upper
part of the chamber is divided into two sinuses on each side.
The superior turbinals extend into the anterior sinus, and below into
the presphenoidal sinus. All the bones of the skeleton are remark-
able for their whiteness and compact structure.
The vertebral formula of the Lion (Fig. 220) is— 7 cervical, 13
dorsal, 7 lumbar, 3 sacral, and 23 caudal. The last cervical vertebra
Fig. 220.— Skeleton of the Lion {Fclis !eo).
has the transverse processes imperforate, being formed only by
diapophyses. The eleventh dorsal is that toward which the spines
of the other trunk-vertebra; converge, and indicates the centre of
motion of the trunk in this bounding quadruped. Eight pairs ot
ribs directly join the sternum, which consists of eight bones. the
clavicles are reduced to clavicular bones, 58, suspended in the flesh
The supraspinal fossa of the scapula is less deep than the infraspinal
one, and its border is almost uniformly convex ; the acromion is
bifid, the recurved point being little larger than the extremity or
anterior point. The humerus, 53- is perforated above the inner con-
dyle, but not between the condyles. The radius, 55, and "'na, 54,
are so articulated as to permit a free rotation of the fore-paw 1 lie
scaphoid and lunar bones are connate. Besides these, the bones of
the carpus are the cuneiforme ; the pisiforme ; the trapezium, wh.ch
gives an articulation to the ulna side of the base of the short meta-
carpus of the pollex ; the trapezoides ; the magnum, which s he
least of the carpal bones; the unciforme, which supports, as usual,
he metacarpaU of the fourth and tifth digits; and the pistforme.
86
THE CHARACTERS OF THE CARNIVORA.
which projects far backwards, like a small calcaneum : there is also
a supplementary ossicle wedged in the interspace between the pro-
minent end of the carpal of the pollex. The pollex is retained
on the fore-foot, and, like the other toes, is terminated by a large,
compressed, retractile, ungual phalanx, forming a deep sheath,
for the firm attachment of the large curved and sharp-pointed
claws.
The pelvis, 62, 63, 64, the femur, 65, the tibia, 66, and fibula,^67,
offer no remarkable modifications of structure ; the patella, 66', is
well ossified, and there is a fabella, 67', behind each condyle of the
femur. The tarsal bones are the astragalus ; the scaphoides ; the
calcaneum ; the cuboides, which, like the unciforme in the carpus,
supports the two outer digits ; the cuneiforme externum, which, like
the magnum, supports the middle digit ; the cuneiforme medium,
which like the trapezoides, supports the second digit; and the
cuneiforme internum, which supports the rudiment of the metatarsal
of the first or innermost digit.
The last or ungual phalanx, in both fore and hind feet, has a bony
sheath at its base for the firmer implantation of the claw ; and its
joint is at the back part of the proximal end of the phalanx, whereby
it can be drawn upwards upon the second phalanx, when the claw
becomes concealed in the fold of integument forming the interspace
of the digits.
This state of retraction is constantly maintained, except when
overcome by an extending force, by means of elastic ligaments. The
principal one arises from the outer side and distal e.xtremity of the
second phalanx, and is inserted into the superior angle of the last
phalanx ; a second arises from the outer side and proximal end of
the second phalanx, and passes obliquely to be inserted at the inner
side of the base of the last phalanx. A third, which arises from the
inner side and proximal e.xtremity of the second phalanx, is inserted
at the same point as the preceding. The tendon of the flexor pro-
fundus perforans is the antagonist of the elastic ligaments. By the
action of that muscle, the last phalanx is drawn forwards and down-
wards, and the claw exposed. In order to produce the full effect of
drawing out the claw, a corresponding action of the extensor rnuscle
is necessary, to support and fix the second phalanx ; by its ultimate
insertion in the terminal phalanx, it serves also to restrain and
regulate the actions of the flexor muscle. As the phalanges of the
hind-foot are retracted in a different direction to those of the fore-
foot, i. e., directly upon, and not by the side of the second phalanx,
the elastic ligaments are differently disposed, but perform the same
main office.
It seems scarcely necessary to allude to the final intention of these
beautiful structures, which are, with some slight modifications, com-
mon to the genus Felis. The claws being thus retracted within
folds of the integument, are preserved constantly sharp, and ready
for their destined functions, not being blunted and worn away in the
ordinary progressive motions of the animal ; while at the same time,
the sole of the foot, being padded, such soft parts only are brought
in contact with the ground as conduce to the noiseless tread of the
stealthy feline tribe. This highly-developed unguiculate structure
with the dental system and concomitant modifications of the skull,
completes the predatory character of the typical Carnivora.
It will be seen, by the preceding remarks of Prof. Owen, that a great
distinction subsists between the Carnivora and other animals,
especially as shown in the last paragraph. It will be instructive for
the student to compare the form of skeleton of the Lion, given on the
previous page, with those of Man and the Gorilla, given at p. 2, and
of the Camel at p. 5, each of these illustrations being typical of the
families or orders of these animals. It will be noticed that special
adaptation to the circumstances of their existence is evidenced ; and
that on this fact their exact classification in the scale of existence
depends. Mr. W. S. Dallas makes the following remarks on the
Car?iivora.
In the Pi?!?!?'J)cdia (Seals, &c.) we have examples of animals
adapted for a predaceous existence exclusively to the water. Those
constituting the Carnivora are almost exclusively terrestrial or
arboreal in their habits ; and although some, such as the Otters,
prey upon fishes, their feet are still adapted for walking, and they
are not reduced to the same ungainly mode of progression as the
Seals. The Carnivora, therefore, are true Quadrupeds.
The teeth of the Carnivora are somewhat^ariable in form ; but
generally, as in the Pitinipedia, the molars show, by their com-
pressed form, and sharp cutting edges, that they are intended for
the division of flesh. All three kinds of teeth are always present.
The incisors are small, six in number, and placed in a transverse row
across the front of the mouth ; the canines are always of a large size,
conical, curved, and acute, especially in the most decidedly carni-
vorous species, where they are so long that there is usually a gap
between the incisors and canines in the upper jaw, for the reception
of the lower canine. Behind the canines each jaw bears several false
molars, the foremost of which are usually conical, and inserted
by a simple root. The hinder ones gradually approach the form of
the true molar, which is more or less compressed, sharp, and notched
at the edge ; this is commonly known as the flesh-tooth. Behind it
there are often one or two small tubercular molars. In the Cats and
the most bloodthirsty species in general, the false molars are com-
pressed and sharp, and the total number of molars is often reduced
to three, which are all inserted by two or more roots, much com-
pressed, and furnished with very sharp jagged edges, fitting against
one another like the blades of a pair of scissors, an arrangement
admirably adapted for cutting through the juicy fibres of the flesh of
their victims. In proportion as the animals are intended for a
mixed diet, the molar teeth become broader, and more tuber-
culate in their appearance ; this may be seen even in the common
Dog. To give effect to these sharp cutting-teeth, the lower jaw in
the typical Carnivora is articulated to the skull by a regular hinge-
joint, and the transverse position of the condyle is distinctly percep-
tible even in the less rapacious species, although, to a certain extent,
modified. The ascending ramus of the lower jaw, which gives
attachment to the muscles by which the jaws are closed, is always
very large, especially in the typical species.
The skull and face are short and compact ; the former is usually
marked with very strong ridges, for the attachment of the muscles of
the lower jaw, and the zygomatic arches are very wide, to allow of
their passage. The orbits are incomplete. The brain and organs
of sense are always well developed : the nose especially, in many
species, exhibits a greater degree of perfection than in any other
animal. The eyes are usually large and full, and the pupils possess
a great power of contraction and dilatation to adapt the creatures
for their general nocturnal mode of existence. Nearly all the
species possess a distinct external ear. The mouth is surrounded
with soft lips, from which long whiskers project on each side : these
are supplied with nerves, and evidently constitute delicate tactile
organs. The tongue is always long, thin, and free, and the animals
drink by the well-known process of lapping. The mammas, which
are always placed on the belly, are usually numerous, and many
of the animals are very prolific. The young are always born
blind.
The form of the body, the development of the tail, the length of
the legs, and the structure of the feet, vary greatly in the different
families of this order. The toes are distinctly divided, and armed
with claws ; they are usually five in number on the anterior, and
four on the posterior feet, and none of them are ever opposable.
The principal peculiarities in the construction of the feet have
reference to the mode in which they are applied to the ground ; and
as this is in direct connection with the habits of the animals, and
always corresponds with other important characters, the differences
observed in the structure of the extremities are of great value in the
discrimination of the families, and have even been employed in the
primary division of the order into groups. The most predaceous
species are possessed of extraordinary activity ; their bodies are
light and muscular; their legs are long, and their short toes alone
are applied to the ground ; they walk, as we should say, on
tip-toe, and they are accordingly called Digitigrada. Those
species which are intended for a more or less vegetable diet, are
heavier, and endowed with inferior agility ; their toes are longer,
and they apply the whole foot, including the metatarsus and tarsus,
to the ground in walking ; such are denominated Platitigrada.
These two groups, however, shade off almost insensibly into one
another ; and some naturalists have proposed the formation of an
intermediate group, containing those Cartiivora in which a portion
of the sole is applied to the ground, under the name of Semi-planti-
grada.
The distribution of the Carnivora throughout the world has been
already dealt with at page 15, et seq. So far as we at present know,
Asia has 60 genera of the order, out of 288 Mammalia. In Africa,
out of 300 known Mainmalia, there are 66 genera of Carnivora, of
which 52 are peculiar to that country. In Australia there are but
10 or 12 genera, consisting of the Wild Dog, &c. In North America,
the Bears, Wolves, Dogs, Foxes, (Src, are characteristic ; and in
Central America the Jaguar and Puma are met with.
The Carnivora consist of several families. The first of the above-
named groups, the Digitigrada, includes the most typical members
of the order. The first family is that of the Canida, or Dogs, in
which the head is more or less conical, and pointed in front, from
the jaws being somewhat produced ; and the legs are of equal
length — the anterior furnished with five, and the posterior with four
toes, all armed with non-retractile claws. The dentition is compli-
cated. There are three false molars on each side in the upper, and
four in the lower jaw ; these gradually increase in size posteriorly,
and approach the true molar in form. The latter is very large, com-
pressed, and cutting, and is followed, in both jaws, by two small
6-6
tubercular teeth ; the total number of molars is thus,
7-7
The
tongue is soft, and destitute of horny spines. Of this family, our
domestic Dog {Canis familiaris) is an excellent example.
The second family is that of the Fclidcs, or Cats, the most typical
forms of the order, in which the predaceous disposition, and the
means of gratifying it, are developed in the highest degree. In
these animals the head is short, and almost rounded in its form ; for
although the zygomatic arches and ridges are greatly developed,
CHARACTERS OF THE CARNIVORA.
87
the muscles for moving- the jaws are so exceedingly large, as to fill
up all the cavities, and produce a smooth, plump surface. The
I- I
I-
iaws are short, and the dentition is — Incisors, - . canines,
J ; g 1
pre-molars, i^. molars, ^~^. The canines are long, sharp,
2— 2 ' I— I
compressed, and cutting ; the prc-molars are furnished with two
roots, compressed, pointed, and serrated ; the flesh-teeth, or true
molars, are very large, sharp-edged, and terminated by two or three
points ; and behind the flesh-tooth, in the upper jaw, there is a small
tubercular tooth, which is wanting in the lower jaw. In addition to
this formidable apparatus of cutting-teeth, the tongue in these
animals is covered with small recurved prickles, wilh which the
Cats are enabled to lick the last particles of flesh from the bones of
their prey.
In the form of their bodies, the Cats are all light, and excessively
muscular, so that their activity is most astonishing. Their legs are
usually of moderate length, but exceedingly powerful ; and the toes
are armed with long, curved, and acute claws, which are preserved
from being blunted by a peculiar arrangement of the phalanges.
For this purpose, the last or claw-joint of each toe is drawn back, by
ligaments attached to the penultimate joint, until it assumes a per-
pendicular position, when the claw which it supports is complelely
retracted within a sort of sheath, and is entirely concealed by the
fur. This is effected by the elasticity of the ligaments, and without
any exertion on the part of the animal. But when a Cat is about to
strike its prey, the claw-joint is pulled down by the flexor muscles,
and the formidable talons are then protruded, ready to be buried in
the flesh of the victim. The lower surface of the foot is furnished
with thick ball-like pads of the epidermis, upon which the animal
walks, and these are the cause of the peculiarly noiseless tread which
is characteristic of all the members of this family. They always take
their prey by springing suddenly upon it from some concealed
station ; and if they miss their aim in the first attack, rarely follow
it up. They are all, accordingly, cowardly, sneaking animals, and
never willingly face their enemy unless brought to bay or wounded,
trusting always to their power of surprising their victims by the aid
of their stealthy and noiseless movements. They are nocturnal and
solitary in their habits, or, at most, live in families ; and are dis-
tributed in all parts of the world, with the exception of Australia, but
principally in the warmer regions, where alone the larger species are
met with.
Unquestionably the most celebrated species of this family is the
Lion, which has, in all ages, been regarded as the personification of
courage and magnanimity. For his reputation he has, however,
been mainly indebted, like many other impostors, to his noble
appearance, which is greatly owing to his possession of a large mane
of long hairs. In his habits he is as genuine a Cat as the Tiger,
with whose bloodthirsty and cruel disposition the supposed good
qualities of the Lion have been so frequently contrasted. Zoologists
have described several species of Lions, forming the genus Leo : they
are distinguished from the other Cats by their tufted tails, and by
the uniform colour of their skin. The best known species is the
African Lion {Leo Africatius), which enjoys a wide distribution,
extending all over the continent of Africa, and into the southern
parts of Asia. It is a magnificent species, generally furnished with
a long flowing mane in the male ; the other supposed species differ
principally in the development of this appendage ; and in one, the
Maneless Indian Lion (Z. Goojraffefisis), the mane is quite absent.
It must be confessed, that the specific distinctness of these different
forms of Lions is very doubtful. The Lion lives principally in dry
desert tracts of country covered with brushwood, amongst which he
lies during the day, and prowls about at night in pursuit of the large
herbivorous animals, generally watching for them at the places where
they come to drink. In stormy nights, the South African Lion is said
to be particularly active, as the panic produced amongst his victims
by the strife of the elements, renders less caution necessary in
approaching them.
In the typical genus Felts, the tail is elongated, but destitute of a
tuft, and the skin is almost always marked with stripes or spots.
These animals are mostly inhabitants of the forests, where many of
them climb trees, not only in pursuit of birds and other arboreal
creatures, but also for the purpose of springing down from the
branches upon animals that may pass beneath them. The finest
species of this group is the Tiger {Feh's ti'gris), which equals the
Lion in size, but exceeds him in activity. His appearance, from the
absence of the mane, is not so noble as that of the Lion ; but the
bright tawny colour of his skin, with its clear stripes of black, render
him one of the most beautiful of quadrupeds. The skins are highly
prized for making rugs, &c.
Next in order are the HycBnida, or Hyaenas, which form a remark-
able group, peculiar to the warmer regions of the Old World, and
evidently unite the two preceding families with the following one.
In the general form of the body they are somewhat like the Dogs ;
whilst, in their dentition, they rather approach the Cats ; and they
resemble the Vivern'dce in the possession of a pouch under the anus.
The teeth are : — Incisors,
canmes,
i — i ; pre-molars, -3—2
i-i 3-3
molars, ; the hindermost molar in the upper jaw being tuber-
cular, like that of the Cats. The hind-legs are much bent, so that
the hind-quarters of the Hyaenas are always lower than the shoulders ;
the feet are all furnished with four toes, armed with strong claws,
w^hich, like those of the Dogs, are not retractile. The tongue, as in
the Cats, is roughened with prickles.
With the Hyaenas we quit the series of true Di'gitigrade Car-
7i!Vora. In the two next families the animals apply a portion of the
sole to the ground, but the heel is always raised ; these form the sec-
tion of the Semi-;plantigrada. The first family of this group is that
of the Viverrida;, or Civets, which are evidently very nearly allied to
the Hyaenas. The teeth in this family are : — Incisors, -r ; canines,
5
^~' . pre-molars, 2ll3 ; molars, ^— •'. The canines are large and
I-I' ^ 4-4 2-2
sharp ; the false molars conical and pointed ; the flesh-tooth is large
and sharp, and furnished with an inner process ; and behind it are
two tubercular molars in the upper, and one in the lower jaw. The
tongue, as in the two preceding families, is prickly. The body is
elongated, and supported upon short legs, which have either four or
five toes on all the feet, furnished with semi-retractile claws ; the
muzzle is produced and sharp ; the tail very long and tapering ; the
hair coarse ; and in the neighbourhood of the anus there is a
glandular pouch, which secretes a strongly odorous matter. This
substance, well known as civet, was formerly in great repute both as
a medicine and as a perfume, as indeed it still is in many of the
countries inhabited by these animals ; and even here we find the
Civet Cat, as it is called, still holding its traditional post as the sign
of perfumers' shops.
With the exception of one species, the Bassaris astiifa, a native
of Mexico, the Civets are all inhabitants of the warmer parts of the
Eastern Hemisphere. They are nocturnal in their habits, and the
pupil contracts into a linear form when exposed to the light. In
their disposition they are generally savage and bloodthirsty, and
they make great havoc amongst the smaller animals, particularly
birds, of which, and of their eggs, they are remarkably fond.
The Mustelida, or Weasels, forming the next family, approach
the Cats in the bloodthirstiness of their dispositions, although their
size confines their devastations to the smaller animals. Their
bodies are of a more elongated form, and supported upon shorter
legs than those of the Viverrida; and from these circumstances
their movements have usually a peculiar gliding character, which
renders the appellation of Fer/«//or;«w— sometimes applied to them
—peculiarly appropriate.
In the short, somewhat rounded head, and in the form of the molar
teeth, they resemble the Cats ; but in the number and arrangement
of the teeth they do not coincide with the Felidce. The teeth are
—incisors, - ; canines, ^—-^, slender and cur\'ed ; pre-molars, - — -
'6 i-i i~i
or ^~^ • molars, i^, of which the flesh-tooth is broad and sharp,
3-3 2-2
and the hinder one tubercular. The feet are all furnished with five
toes, armed with sharp claws. Their hair is exceedingly soft and
beautiful ; and the skins of several species are amongst the most
highly-prized furs. They are endowed with great agility, and
readily capture small quadrupeds and birds : in pursuit of the latter
many of the species climb trees, creeping about upon the branches
with the greatest ease. They are celebrated for their love of blood,
and are generally charged with destroying great numbers of animals
for the sake of drinking this fluid : it is certain that they often kill,
indiscriminately, all the animals they come near; but it appears
that the brain is the part to which they first direct their attention.
They usually seize their victims by the back of the head, and the
canine teeth not unfrequently penetrate directly into the brain.
They often commit sad ravages in poultrj'-yards and hen-roosts, to
which they readily obtain access, as the slender form of their bodies
enables them to push through almost any crevice.
The Plantigrade section of the Car/iivora, in which the whole
sole of the foot is applied to the ground in walking, contains three
families— the Badgers {Melida), which, although plantigrade, are
evidently nearly allied to the Weasels ; the Bears {Ursidcz) : and the
Kinkajous [Cercoleptidcs).
The animals forming the family of the Melidcp, or Badgers, have
been placed by some zoologists amongst the Weasels ; by others
with the Bears, and also partly in each family ; so that their inter-
mediate position is tolerably evident. In their dentition they closely
resemble the animals of the preceding family, the pre-molars being
compressed and cutting ; but the true molar, or flesh-tooth, is
usually furnished with a large blunt tubercle on the inside. Behma
this there is a tubercular molar in each jaw. The pre-molars vary in
number as follows : — -
or
3-3
3-3 3-3
3_r_3
4-4
The body is more or
88
THE CANIDuS, OR DOG FAMILY.
less elongated, and supported upon short legs : the toes are five on
each foot.
The family of the UrsidcB, or Bears, differs from all the preceding
famiHes in the nature of the molar teeth, which, although com-
pressed in form, are furnished with tubercular crowns, indicating
that the animals are adapted, at all events, for a partially vegetable
diet. The number of teeth of this description is usually two or
three on each side in each jaw ; the total number of molars and pre-
molars is either five or si.x ; but some of the latter frequently fall out
with age. The Bears are generally large, heavy animals, and
strictly plantigrade in their walk, which is awkward and shuffling in
its nature ; the anterior limbs are, however, possessed of great
mobility, and even the most bulky of these animals manifest great
dexterity in climbing. Their feet are armed with long curved claws,
with which they dig in search of roots and other articles of food.
Their bodies are usually covered with long shaggy hair, and the tail
in the typical Bears is remarkably short ; whilst in some of the other
anirrials referred to in this family it is of considerable length. The
ears are small, and the nose is more or less produced and movable —
in some species forming a sort of proboscis.
The last family of the Carnivorous Mammalia is that of the Cerco-
leptida, or Kinkajous, a group of small animals inhabiting the
tropical parts of America, which exhibit some resemblance to the
Bears in their dentition, but differ from them in their general
characters. Their canine teeth are short and blunt ; behind these
are two small pointed pre-molars, which are followed by three
tuberculated molars. The feet are as truly plantigrade as in the
preceding family ; but the toes, which are always five in number, are
more distinctly separated, and capable of a greater amount of
independent motion. They are small, short-legged animals,
covered with a woolly fur, and furnished with a very long prehensile
tail.
In their form and general habits, the Kinkajous present no small
resemblance to the Lemurs ; and, like them, they are of a gentle
and playful disposition in captivity. They are nocturnal in their
habits, and appear to be almost omnivorous, feeding indifferently
upon small birds and Mammalia, bird's eggs, insects, and fruits, in
pursuit of which they climb trees with great activity. Like the
Squirrels they use the fore-paw in place of hands, to convey their
nourishment to their mouths. They are said to be exceedingly fond
of honey, and to plunder the nests of the wild Bees with great
boldness. The Ceixoleptes caudivolvuliis is the best known
species ; it is often tamed as a pet, and is commonly seen in our
menageries.
Having thus given a general glance of the order Carntvora, and
its principal families, we shall describe each of the latter in detail,
as regards genus, species, &c., in the order adopted in the fore-
going introductory remarks.
Carnivora— Family Cantdcs—'DoGs. Sec.
Of all the lower animals the Dog has been the greatest favourite
of mankind ; in fact, he may be called the quadruped friend of the
human race. In the extreme north he is a necessity for the Esqui-
maux. In our own and European countries generally, he is equally
a necessity, but to a much more varied extent. In intelligence,
obedience, and, if we may so say, moral qualities, he exceeds all
other animals. It has been remarked that the domestication of the
Dog is undoubtedly the greatest triumph of which man can boast
over the brute creation : in all his faculties, both of body and mind,
he has become more completely subservient to his master than any
other animal ; and without his assistance, it seems pretty certain
that the dominion of man over many of the common domestic
animals would never have been so complete as it now is. All the
strength, courage, and intelligence which the Dog possesses are
willingly put forth in the service of his master. To use the words of
Professor Bell — " It is in the Dog alone that we find those qualities
which fit him for that more intimate association with his conqueror,
by which he becomes his friend and companion, whilst still his
faithful, and humble, and laborious servant. It is impossible to
reflect, without the most kind and grateful emotions, on the un-
wearied perseverance, the unflinching courage, the unchanging
faithfulness, the affectionate and discriminating attachment which
characterises his relation to mankind."
The Can/diz, or Dog family, includes the Dog, the Wolf, the
Jackal, the Fox, and the Lycaon ; in other words, all those animals
which Linna:us assigns to his genus Cam's, and which, though
agreeing in dentition, and in the digitigrade structure of the feet,
may nevertheless with propriety be divided into subgeneric groups.
In all, the muzzle is elongated ; the bony palate terminates in a line
with the hinder margin of the posterior molars, in this respect
differing from that of other Car/u'vora ; and there are two true
molars on each side both of the upper and lower jaw. The genus
Megalotis, in the form of the lower jaw, in the dentition, and in
the prolongation of _the bony palate, offers an exception to the
general rule.
Dental formula : — Incisors, - :
' 6'
canmcs.
I — I ,
I
I —1
molars — false,
^— ^, camassieres, ^^ — ', true, ? — ? = 42. The true molars below
4—4 1—1 2—2
are small, the last being even minute, as is the first false molar, and
often dropping out early. Fig. 221 illustrates the dentition of the Dog.
Fig, 221. — Teeth of Dog,
Fore-feet with five toes ; hind-feet with four toes, and sometimes a
fifth on the tarsus ; claws not retractile.
In regard to the skeleton, dentition, &c., of the Carnivora,
remarks have been made at page 85, ante. In regard to the Dog
specially, we shall here draw attention more minutely to those
matters, so as to present most varieties of size, form, and disposi-
Fig. 223. — Mastiff.
THE CANID^, OR DOG FAMILY.
89
tion, from the high-bred Greyhound or gigantic Mastiff, to the puny
cur or ill-formed mongrel.
Turning first to the skulls, we may observe that Figs. 222 and 223
represent the skull of the Mastiff (Doguc de forte race) in two views ;
and, it may be added, that though the head is larger, by a third or
more, than those of the Shepherd's Dog and Spaniel, the cranial
Fig. 224.
Fig. 225. — Spaniel.
capacity is by no means so great. Figs. 224 and 225 show the
skull of the Spaniel (Barbet) in two views ; Figs. 226 and 227, the
skull of the Danish Dog (Matin) in two views ; Fig. 228, the skull
of the half wild Australian Dingo, may be contrasted with Fig. 229,
the skull of the intelligent Shepherd's Dog.
It is with a feeling of something like hesitation that we enter
upon the history of the Dog, respecting whose origin few naturalists
have an opinion in common, and which has given rise to many con-
jectures.
It was the opinion of Pallas that the Dog is a factitious animal ;
F,-. 226.
Fig. 227.— Matin, a Danish Dog.
that is, not descended from any single original wild stock, but from
a mixture of nearly allied primitive species, whose hybrid offsprings
have possessed prolific powers ; and he observes that those domes-
ticated animals which either do not intermix with other species, or
which produce with others an unprolific progeny, are very' little
changed, however completely and anciently they have been under
the dominion of man. When, indeed, we look at the great differ-
ences in instincts, form, and size which the domestic Dog exhibits,
we find it difficult to believe, interbreed as they may together, that
all are the lineal descendants of one common origin. Yet is this
opinion the most generally entertained. Mr. Boll even goes a step
farther, and refers the domestic Dog to the Wolf as its prima;val
parent ; some, indeed, have referred it to the Jackal.
" In order," says Mr. Bell, " to come to any rational conclusion on
this head, it will be necessary to ascertain to what tj'pe the animal
approaches most nearly, after having for many successive genera-
tions existed in a wild state, removed from the influence of domes-
tication and of association with mankind. Now we find that there
Fig. 228. — Dingo, or Australian Dog.
are several different instances of Dogs in such a state of wildness
as to have lost that common character of domestication, variety of
colour and marking. Of these, two very remarkable ones are the
Dhale of India and the Dingo of Australia. There is, besides, a
half-reclaimed race amongst the Indians of North America, and
another also partially tamed in South America, which deserve
attention ; and it is found that these races in different degrees, and
in a greater degree as they are more wild, exhibit the lank and
gaunt form, the lengthened limbs, the long and slender muzzle, and
the great comparative strength which characterise the Wolf ; and
that the tail of the Australian Dog, which may be considered as the
most remote from a state of domestication, assumes the slightly
Fig. 229. — Shepherd's Dog.
bushy form of that animal. We have here, then, a considerable
approximation to a well-known animal of the same genus, which,
though doubtless descended from domesticated ancestors, have
gradually assumed the wild condition ; and it is worthy of special
remark, that the anatomy of the Wolf, and its osteology in particular,
does not differ from that of the Dogs m general, more than the
different kinds of Dogs do from each othei;. The cranium is abso-
lutely similar, and so are all, or nearly all, the other essential parts ;
and to strengthen still further the probability of their identity, the
Dog and Wolf will readily breed together, and their progeny is
fertile. The obliquity of the position of the eyes of the Wolf is one
of the characters in which it differs from the Dogs ; and although it
is very desirable not to rest too much upon the effects of habit on
structure, it is not perhaps straining the point to attribute the for-
ward direction of the eyes in the Dogs to the constant habit, for
many successive generations, of looking towards their master and
obeying his voice." Mr. Bell adds, as another corroborative cir-
cumstance, the fact that the period of gestation in the Dog and the
Wolf is the same — sixty-three days ; while in the Jackal it is fifty-nine
days.
To illustrate the view thus expressed by Mr. Bell, the following
cut is introduced, showing the head of a hybrid between the Dog
and the Wolf. (See next page.)
The opinion of so eminent and judicious a naturalist is certainly
entitled to great weight ; but while we admit that Mr. Bell has made
a strong case, we cannot but observe that several points are defective.
In the first place, it is assumed that all wild Dogs are the descend-
ants of a domestic race ; but though respecting some few this may
be true, yet it by no means follows that the assertion applies to all ;
we may instance the Biiansu, or wild Dog of Nepal, described by Mr.
90
WILD DOGS.
Hodgson under the title of Cam's ^riinccvus. This animal, which
he believes to be the origin of the domestic Dog, and not its descend-
ant, ranges from the Sutlege to the Burhampootra, and seems to
extend, with some immaterial differences, into the Vindyia, the
Ghauts, the Nilgiris, the Casiah Hills, and the chain passing
brokenly from Mirzapore through South Bahar and Orissa to the
Coromandel Coast. " Of this race, although so wild as rarely to be
seen, Mr. Hodgson has succeeded in obtaining many individuals.
He is consequently enabled to describe not only the form and
colours, but the manners also, which he does in great detail. Some
of those he obtained produced young in captivity, having been preg-
nant when taken. The Biiansii, he observes, preys by night as well
as by day, and hunts in packs of from six to ten individuals, main-
Fig. 230.— Hybrid, between Dog and Wolf.
taining the chase rather by its powers of smell than by the eye, and
generally overcoming its quarry by force and perseverance. In
hunting it barks like a Hound, but its bark is peculiar, and equally
unlike that of the cultivated breeds of Dogs and the strains of the
Jackal and the Fox. Adults in captivity made no approach towards
domestication ; but a young one which Mr. Hodgson obtained when
it was not more than a month old, became sensible to caresses, dis-
tinguished the Dogs of its own kennel from others, as well as its
keepers from strangers ; and, on the whole, its conduct manifested to
the full as much intelligence as any of his sporting Dogs of the same
age." ("Zool. Proceeds.," 1833, p. in.)
_ In the same number of the "Proceeds." is the notice of a commu-
nication from W. A. Wooler, Esq., giving an account of a Wild Dog
from the Mahablishwar Hills, in the Presidency of Bombay, and
called there Dhale. The habits of this Dog in a state of nature
accord with those of the Buansu of Nepal, and with which animal it
is most probably identical.
Colonel Sykes proves, we think, that the Wild Dog of the Dukhun,
called by the Mahrattas Kolsun, is the same as the Buansu of Nepal,
the skulls and external characters precisely. agreeing. (" Zool. Pro-
ceeds.," 1833, p. I33-)
Colonel Sykes observes, that this Dog differs from any wild
species hitherto described. Its head is compressed and elongated ;
its nose not very sharp ; the eyes are oblique, the pupils round, the
irides light brown. The expression of the countenance is that of a
coarse, ill-natured Persian Greyhound, without any resemblance to
the Jackal, the Fox, or the Wolf; and in consequence, essentially
distinct from the Cants
Quao, or Sumafrensis, of
General Hardwicke. The
ears are long, erect, and
somewhat rounded at the
top ; the limbs are remark-
ably large and strong in
relation to the bulk of the
animal, which is intermedi-
ate in size between the Wolf
and Jackal ; it hunts in
packs ; and in the stomach
of one killed was found a
portion of the Nylghau
Antelope. ("Zool. Pro-
ceeds.," 1831, p. 100.)
Here then we have a
genuine Wild Dog, called,
in the different mountain
districts it inhabits, Buansu,
Dhale, and Kolsun, of a
sandy-red or rufous colour,
and destitute of the last
small molar of the lower
jaw. Colonel Baber, in a
note subjoined to Colonel
Sykes's description in the
" Trans. Asiat. Soc," states
that it was often seen by
him on the western coast,
and in the Balaghat district,
where it is numerous. "As
often," he adds, "as I have
met with them, they have
invariably been in packs of
from thirty to perhaps sixty.
They must be very formid-
able, as all animals are very
much afraid of them. Fre-
quently remains of Hogs
and Deer have been brought
to me, which had been taken
overnight by these Wild
Dogs. The natives assert
that they kill Tigers and
Chetahs ; and there is no
doubt of the fact. It is
quite correct that they are
found in the Nilgiris,
though only in the western
parts. I myself was fol-
lowed, while travelling
between the Paitera river
and Naddibatt, a distance
of eight or nine miles, by a
pack of them ; and had I
not repeatedly fired off my
pistols, they would certainly
have carried away three or
four Terriers and Spanish
Dogs that were following me at the time. Two or three times
I succeeded in getting young ones, but I did not keep them longer
than three or four weeks, they were so very wild as well as shy. It
was only at night that they would eat, and then most voraciously."
With respect to the Catiis Quao of General Hardwicke, it is a red
Wolfish-looking Dog in the Ramghur Hills ; the Ca?iis Sumatrensis
is a Wild Dog of the same general characters found in Sumatra, but
with ears less acutely pointed.
From every account of Wild Dogs, it would appear that their
colour is always sandy-yellow or red, a colour occasionally seen in
animals of the domestic breeds. We do not, however, while we
contend that these Wild Dogs are genuine, pretend to assert that
any of them are the originals of any one of our domestic breeds ; all
we wish is to prove that there are genuine Wild Dogs, which fact
■-» tf*. ■ ' <?■•?■-■ .tl
BULL-DOG, AND MASTIFF.
WILD DOGS— THE DINGO, OR A USTRALIAN DOG.
91
being established, the necessity of looking to the Wolf as the origin
of the Dog falls to the ground, for these Wild Dogs are not Wolves.
Again, we have yet to learn, and experiment only can decide, that
there is that pliability, that susceptibility of modification in the
physical and moral nature of the Wolf, which will permit of its con-
version into the Mastiff, the Setter, the Greyhound, and the Spaniel.
In the next place, though the Wolf and Dog will breed together,
their progeny, if fertile, as Buffon seems to prove, is so in a low
degree only, the mixed race gradually failing, and becoming ex-
tinct ; but granting the contrary, nothing is proved, because, what-
ever naturalists may say, there is reason to believe that closely allied
species (there are degrees of affinity) will interbreed and produce a
permanently mingled stock.
Moreover, we have yet to be shown a race of true Wolves, the
descendants of Dogs which have returned
to their natural condition, and reassumed
their genuine characters. If the Wild Dogs
which we have described, and which we
regard as genuine, be really the descend-
ants of a domestic stock, even then, seeing
that they have resumed their original cha-
racters (as evidenced by their uniformity of
size, figure, colour, and instincts), the argu-
ment that the Wolf is the prima2val type of
the Dog is at once nullified ; for, as we
have said, these rufous Wild Dogs are
distinct from the Wolf. While we thus
venture to question the theory entertained
by Mr. Bell and other eminent naturalists,
we are not prepared to point out the origin
or origins of the domestic Dog ; and we
venture to say that the subject will always
remain a Gordian knot, which science will
never unravel. Buffon has eloquently ob-
served, that " those species which man has
greatly cultivated, whether belonging to
the animal or vegetable world, are, beyond
all, those which are the most altered ; and
as the alteration is sometimes to such a
degree that we cannot recognise in them
anything of their primitive form (such being
the case with wheat, which has no re-
semblance to the plant from which it is
supposed to have derived its origin), it is
not impossible that, among the numerous
varieties of the Dog which we see in the
present day, there is not one which bears
a resemblance to the original type, or
rather, to the first animal of the species."
If we pass from Dogs confessedly wild
to those which are half-wild, only semi-
domesticated, the Dingo, or Australian
Dog, is one of the most remarkable and
best known. Of the origin of this Dog,
and of the circumstances connected with its
introduction into Australia, we are totally
ignorant. We know that wild packs exist
there in the remoter districts, the scourge
of the country, preying on the native Kan-
garoo, and makmg havoc among the flocks
and herds of the European settlers. So
Wolf-like are these Dogs in general form
(though they are specifically distinct from
the Wolf), that the first navigators who
touched at New Holland scarcely recog-
nised them as Dogs. Dampier, in the
account of his voyage, performed in 1699,
states that his men saw two or three beasts
like hungry Wolves, and the similarity is
to a certain degree very striking. The
domestic breed (if domestic it can be called),
in all respects resembles those which are
completely emancipated.
The Dingo, called Warragal by the na-
tives, is about as large as a Harrier ; its
body is firmly built, its limbs muscular:
its head is broad between the ears, and its muzzle is acute ; the
neck is thick and powerful ; the ears are short, pointed, and erect ;
its tail, which is rather long, is somewhat bushy and pendulous, or
at most raised only horizontally. The general colour is sandy-red ;
the eyes are rather small and oblique, and have a sinister expres-
sion. It is not found in Van Diemcn's Land.
The agility and muscular powers of the Dingo arc extraordinary,
and its cunning and ferocity are as much so. It never barks, but
howls loudly; as far as we have observed, it never evinces pleasure
by wagging the tail. A Dingo bred in this country came, some few
years since, under our personal observation ; it was about six weeks
old when removed from the mother. On putting the young animal
into a room, it immediately skulked into the darkest corner, and
there crouching, eyed us with looks of great distrust and aversion •
as soon as left to itself, it commenced the most melancholy howling,
which ceased on any person's entrance. This for some days was its
constant practice ; and when placed in a kennel, the greater part of
the day was thus employed. It grew up strong and healthy, and
gradually became reconciled to those from whom it was accustomed
to receive food, but was shy towards others, retreating into its
kennel at their approach. It never barked, nor, like other Dogs,
gave notice of the approach of strangers, and therefore as a guard
was perfectly useless. A great part of the day was spent in howling,
and that so loudly as to be heard at the distance of more than half
a mile. When the moon rose brightly, it would sit and utter for
Fig. 231. — Dogs.
a, the Esquimaux Dog ; /', the Dingo, or Australian Dog ; c, Indian Wild Dog ; d, the Scotch
Greyhound ; e, the English Greyhound ; f, the African Hound.
hours its wild lamentations, not a little to the annoyance of the
neighbourhood. With all its shyness, it was at the same time
savage, but would never make an open attack ; several times it
snapped at persons who happened to be walking within its reach,
but only when their backs were turned, and it immediately retreated
again into its kennel. So great was its strength, that though en-
cumbered by a heavy chain, it leaped a wall of considerable height,
and was not secured without difficulty. Fig. 231, *, and Fig. 232,
represent the Dingo. . , .
We have seen a small Dog from the Niger, where it is domesti-
cated, very nearly resembling in form the Dingo, but on a much
92
AUSTRALIAN, AFRICAN, AND ESQUIMAUX DOGS.
more diminutive and lighter scale, and with a longer muzzle in pro-
portion ; its general colour was reddish. It neither barked nor
wagged its tail, at least when first obtained ; but if we mistake not,
it subsequently learned the latter, if not both, of these canine accom-
plishments.
Among the wild races of Dogs, or rather of Dogs become wild, to
which Buffon alludes, are those of South America and the West
Indian Islands, confessedly sprung from a European stock abandoned
by the early settlers in the vast pfains, and which have given origin
Fig. 232. — Australian Dog, or Dingo.
to an unreclaimed race. Azara states that these Dogs are called
Yagoua (a name given also to the Jaguar) in Paraguay, where they
are very common, inhabiting caves. They formerly abounded in
Hayti, Cuba, and all the Caribbean islands, but are now extirpated
thence. Mr. Darwin alludes to Wild Dogs in Banda Oriental as at-
tacking Sheep. According to Oexmelin these Dogs resemble the
Greyhound; but others more accurately describe them as having
the head flat and elongated, the muzzle sharp, the body slender, the
general aspect wild and savage. They are strong and active, and
hunt their prey in packs.
It would appear, however, that the Europeans on their arrival
found native Dogs both in the Caribbean Islands and in Peru.
"Those belonging to the savages of the Antilles," says Buffon,
" had the head and ears very long, and resembled a Fox in appear-
ance." (See " Hist. Gen. des Antilles," par le P. du Tertre, Paris,
1667.) He also adds that the Indians of Peru had a large and a
smaller kind of Dog, which they name Alco, and that those of the
Isthmus were ugly, with rough long hair and erect ears.
With respect to the Alco of Peru and Mexico, we know nothing
more about it than what Dampier and Fernandez mention. The
latter describes two breeds— viz., the Fat Alco, or Michuacaneus,
called by the. natives Ytzcuinte Porzotli, and the Broad-footed Alco,
or Techichi. Both were small, some of the latter race not much
exceeding a Guinea-pig in size. The head was small, the back
arched, the body thick, the ears pendulous, and the tail short. An
individual, probably of this race, was brought to this country from
the neighbourhood of Mexico, by Mr. Bullock ; it was white, varie-
gated with black and reddish-yellow. This specimen was procured
in the mountains of Durango, where it bore the name of Acolotte.
It died in a few days, and its stuffed skin formed part of the collec-
tion exhibited in Piccadilly, being placed under a glass with a huge
Fig. 233. — African Blood-hounds.
Bull- Frog, which equalled it in size. Dogs resembling the Alco were
seen as early as 1492, in several of the West Indian Islands, by
Columbus, and were also found in Martinique and Guadaloupc, in
little Turkish or Barbary Dogs without hair ; adding that they were
eaten by the inhabitants. All trace of them is now lost.
The probability is that these Alco Dogs were not indigenes of the
soil either in the islands or on the continent of Peru, but were
brought by some of the tribes by whom South America was popu-
lated. The breed might have been introduced by that strange
Fig. 234.— African Hound.
people (of Malay descent ?) who founded the Peruvian and Mexican
empires. In the South Sea Islands, Dogs of a similar race exist,
which are fed on vegetable food, and eaten, as were the Alco Dogs
in South America.
Wild Dogs exist in Congo, Guinea, and other parts of Africa,
Fig. 235. — Esquimaux Dog.
hunting in packs, and dwelling in caves and burrows. Clapperton
met with them in the country be\ond Timbuctoo. In the island of
Teneriffe, a large Wolfish breed of Dogs is domesticated and valued
for the chase.
Fig. 233 presents the portraits of a leash of fine Hounds from
Fig. 236. — Dog of Mackenzie River.
Africa, by Major Denhara, who had employed them in hunting the
Gazelle, in the chase of which their exquisite scent and extraordi-
nary speed were displayed to great advantage : they would frequently
1635, by French navigators, who describe them as resembling the | quit the line of scent for the purpose of taking a direct, instead of a
THE ESQUIMAUX DOG.
03
circuitous course (sportsmen call this cutting- off a double), and re-
cover the scent again with wonderful facility. These beautiful
Hounds were consigned to the Tower menagerie, where, shut up in
a close den, they evidently felt miserable. Instead of exerting their
energies in pursuit of the Antelope on the plains of Africa, here they
were prisoners, with no means of escape, and with no room or oppor-
tunity for the exercise of their powers and instincts. These Hounds,
however, were not of the wild breed ; in symmetry and action they
were perfect models, and in temper were gentle, excepting that con-
finement rendered the female irritable. Other representations of the
African Hound are given in Fig. 234, and also in Fig. 231, y, p. 91,
ante.
To the group of Dogs which, in their aspect and physiognomy,
retain a marked air of wildness, as indicated by the sharpness of the
muzzle, the erect or semi-erect position of the ears, and the oblique
direction of the eye, giving an air of
cunning and distrust to the counte-
nance, is to be referred the Esquimaux
Dog, Fig. 231, a (see p. 91, ante),
and Fig. 235. In general aspect, the
Esquimaux t)og{Ca}ns/amil!ar!S,\a.T.
borealis) so closely resembles the Wolf
of its native regions, that when seen at
a little distance, it is not easy to dis-
tinguish between them ; so much so,
indeed, that Sir Edward Parry's party,
during their second voyage, forbore to
fire upon a pack of thirteen Wolves,
which had closely followed some Esqui-
maux, lest they should commit an irre-
parable injury upon these poor people
by destroying their faithfi-' and power-
ful allies.
Those visiting the museum of the
Zoological Society, and looking at a
fine specimen of the Esquimaux Dog,
which is placed near a Grey Wolf from
the high northern parts of America,
might suppose, unless informed to the
contrary, that the two animals were of
the same species. In both the fur is
deep and thick, both have the same
erect ears, the same breadth of skull
between them, and the same or nearly
the same sharpness of muzzle. In
addition we may state that, in its native
wilds at least, the voice of the Dog is
not a bark, but along melancholy howl.
In the Dog, however, the tail is more
bushy than in the Wolf, and is carried
in a graceful curve over the back, while
in the Wolf it hangs down between
the legs. It is further to be remarked
that the antipathy of the Esquimaux
Dog to the Wolf is inveterate ; these
animals not only regard the Wolf as
an enemy, but fear it ; and though they
attack the Bear with undaunted energy,
they never, unless impelled by neces-
sity, venture to assault the Wolf.
Often, indeed, they fall a sacrifice to
this beast of prey, and are carried off
even in sight of their owners.
To the Esquimaux their Dogs are of
the greatest importance ; to these faith-
ful slaves they look for assistance in
the chase of the Seal, the Bear, and the
Reindeer ; for carrying burdens, and
for drawing them on sledges over the
trackless snows of their dreary plains.
In summer, a single Dog carries a
weight of thirty pounds in attending
his master in the pursuit of game ; and
in winter, sis or seven Dogs, yoked to
a heavy sledge, with five or six persons, or a load of eight or ten
hundredweight, will perform a journey of forty or fifty miles a
day. On good roads they will travel this distance at the rate of
eight miles an hour for several hours together ; but on untrodden
snow, twenty-five or thirty miles would be" a fair day's journey. The
same number of Dogs well fed, with a weight of only five or six
hundred pounds, that of the sledge included, are almost unmanage-
able, and on a smooth road will go at the rate of ten miles an hour.
While thus travelling, should they scent a Reindeer even a quarter
of a mile distant, they gallop off furiously in the direction of the
scent, and soon bring the game within the reach of the arrow of
the hunter. So acute, indeed, is their sense of smell, that they will
discover a Seal-hole by it entirely, at a very great distance.
The average height of the Esquimaux Dog is i foot 10 inches ;
generally the colour is white with something of a yellow tinge, but
some are brindled, some black and white, and some black.
If the Esquimaux Dog resembles the Grey Wolf of North America
equally does the Hare Indian's or Mackenzie River Dog resemble
the Fox. This Dog {Cam's familiaris, var. lagapus) is character-
ised by a narrow, elongated, and pointed muzzle, by erect sharp
cars, and by a bushy tail, not carried erect, but only slightly curved
upwards, and by the general slenderness of the form. (Fig. 236.)
The hair is fine and silky, thickening in winter, when it becomes
white, or nearly so ; but in summer it is marked by patches of
greyish-black or slate-grey, intermingled with shades of brown. So
nearly does this Dog resemble the Arctic Fox of the regions where
it is found (namely, the banks of the Mackenzie River and of the
Great Bear Lake, traversed by the Arctic circle), that they have been
Fig. 237.— Dogs.
a, the Water Spaniel ; h, the Fox-hound ; c, the Pointer ; n', the Lurcher ; e, the Newfoundland Dog ;
f, the Shepherd's Dog; g, the English Hound j h, the Blood-hound.
considered merely as varieties of each other, one being of the wild,
the other of the domesticated race. The Hare Indian's Dog is
never known to bark in its native country ; and the beautiful pair
brought to England by Sir John Franklin and Dr. Richardson, never
acquired this canine language ; but one born in the Zoological
Gardens (the pair in quest'ion having been presented to the Society)
readily learned it, and made his voice sound as loudly as any Euro-
pean Dog of his size and age.
This variety is of great value to the natives of tlie bleak and dreary
realms where the Moose and the Reindeer are objects of the chase.
Though it has not strength fitting it for ])ulling down such game,
yet its broad feet and light make enable it to run over the snow
without sinking if the slightest crust be formed on it, and thus easily
94
TERRIERS, THE SHEPHERD'S DOG, AND GREYHOUND.
to overtake the Moose or Reindeer, and keep them at bay until the
hunters conic up. In the Fox the pupil is oblong, in the Dog cir-
cular ; but independently of this, it is, to say the least, highly
improbable that this intelligent Dog is specifically identical with the
Arctic Fox : but if for argument we grant that it is, as some contend,
and also that the Esquimaux Dog is identical with the Wolf, other
Don-s also being reclaimed Wolves, we are involved in a dilemma ;
for we must then admit that the W' olf and Fox will breed together
and produce a fertile offspring, which those who contend for the
Wolfish origin of the Dog by no means will allow to be possible.
The Pomeranian or Wolf-dog (chien-loup), and the Siberian Dog,
the Lapland Dog, and the Iceland Dog, of Buffon, appear to be
closely related to the Esquimaux Dog. Bufton regards them as
varieties of the Shepherd's Dog, which he considers to be that which
of all is nearest to the primitive type, since, as he observes, m all
inhabited countries, whether men be partially savage or civilised.
Dogs resembling this more than any other are spread ; and he at-
Fig. 23S. — Rat-catclier and Terriers.
tributes its preservation to its utility, and its being abandoned to
the peasantry charged with the care of flocks. If, however, great
ceiebral development and intelligence are to be received as tests of
cultivation, we should be inclined to regard the Shepherd's Dog as
one of the most remote from the original wild type, sharp and pointed
as are its nose and ears. (Fig. 237,/.) The forehead rises, the top
of the head is arched and broad between the ears, and the hair is
long and sometimes matted. This Dog is of middle size, but light,
active, and strong.
Of the sagacity and faithfulness of the Shepherd's Dog many
interesting narratives are current ; it knows its master's flocks, it w-ill
single out a Sheep under his direction, keep it separate, or disen-
gage it again from the rest of the flock, should it regain or mingle
with them ; it will keep two flocks apart, and should they coalesce,
re-divide them. It will watch and defend them from strange Dogs
or Foxes, and will drive them to any place required. It is, in fact,
the shepherd's friend and assistant ; it watches every look and
every sign, is quick in apprehension, prompt in obedience, and
pleased with its master's praise : and well does he who tends his
flocks on the wide pasture-lands or mountain district of our island
appreciate the services and fidelity of his attached ally.
Closely allied to the Shepherd's Dog is the Cur, or Drover's Dog ;
it is generally larger than the former, with shorter hair, and stands
taller on the limbs. The tail is mostly cut short ; but Bewick says
that many are whelped with short tails, which seem as if they had
been cut, and these are called in the North "Self-tailed Dogs."
Though this writer thinks the Drover's Dog to be a true or perma-
nent breed, it seems to us that it is a cross between the Shepherd's
Dog and some other race, perhaps the Terrier. These Dogs bite
severely, and always attack the heels of cattle, and, as they are
prompt, courageous, and intelligent, a fierce Bull is easily driven by
them.
Supposing the Shepherd's Dog to be the representative of a small
section of the domestic canine
race, the next to which we may
turn is that of the Terriers. Two
breeds of this spirited and well-
known Dog are common : one
called the Scotch Terrier, with
rough wiry hair, short legs,
and a long body ; the other,
called the English Terrier,
sleek, w'ith longer legs and a
more elegant form ; its ordi-
nary colour is black with tan-
ned limbs, and a tanned spot
over each eye. In both the
muzzle is moderately long and
sharp, and the ears erect ; the
eye is quick, and the power of
smell acute : for unearthing
Fox or Badger, for worrying
Rats, and for courage and
determination, these Dogs are
celebrated ; and they make ex-
cellent house-guards. Who is
not familiar with the pepper-
and-mustard breeds, as de-
picted by the graphic pencil
of Sir Walter Scott ? (See
Figs. 238 and 239.)
Fig. 238 represents very
spiritedly three of these Dogs
engaged in the occupation of
Rat-catching, and evidently
entering into the sport with
the utmost ardour, encouraged
by their professional director,
who holds in his hand their
assistant, the Ferret, whiclr
they have learned to regard as
their ally.
The Lurcher (Fig. 237, d)
appears to be a mixed breed
between the Rough Terrier or
Shepherd's Dog and the Grey-
hound. Bewick informs us
that it is shorter than the
latter, with stronger limbs, and
is covered with a rough coat of
hair, commonly of a pale yel-
low colour. As this Dog pos-
sesses the advantage of a fine
scent, it is often employed
in killing Hares and Rabbits
in the night-time. It steals
silently and cautiously upon
them while they are feeding, and then suddenly darts forward and
seizes them.
The Greyhound (Fig. 231, d, at page 91, afife, and Fig. 240, the
Scotch Greyhound; Fig. 231, e, at page 91, ante, the English) is
the example of a distinct group : Buffon regards the French Matin
and the great Danish Dog as the main stocks of the Greyhound
race ; but this is not clear. In Scotland and Ireland there existed,
in very ancient times, a noble breed of Greyhounds used for the
chase of the Wolf and the Deer, and which appears to us to be the
pure source of our present breed ; it is quite as probable that the
INIatin is a modification of the ancient Greyhound of Europe, repre-
sented by the Irish Greyhound or Wolf-Dog, as that it is the source
of that fine breed. Few, we believe, of the old Irish Greyhound
exist. In Scotland, the old Deerhound may still be met with, and
though it exceeds the common Greyhound in size and strength, it is
said to be below its ancient standard. With the extirpation of the
GREYHOUNDS, SPAmELS, AND ST. BERNARD bOGS.
Wolf the necessity of keeping up the race to the highest perfection
ceased. The hair is wiry, the chest is remarkable for volume, and
the limbs are long and muscular. A similar breed existed and still
continues to exist in Albania, and was celebrated by the ancients
for its prowess. In England the Greyhound was larger and
stronger formerly than at present, and employed in chasing the
Stag. Queen Elizabeth was gratified one day after dinner by seeing,
from a turret, sixteen Deer pulled
down by Greyhounds upon the
lawn at Cowdrey Park in Sus-
sex. The Italian Greyhound is
well known as an elegant attend-
ant of the parlour.
In Arabia, Persia, and other
parts of the East, a breed of
Greyhounds has existed time im-
memorial ; these Dogs strongly
resemble light coursing Dogs
represented in Egyptian paint-
ings, and are probably descended
from them ; of the same type are
the semi-wild, unowned Street
Dogs of Egypt, Syria, and
South-western Asia. From the
antiquity of the Greyhound breed,
we might be induced to suppose
that in it may be seen the near-
est approach to the primitive
source, or one of the primitive
sources of the reclaimed race,
and perhaps the Arabian
Greyhound, or the Lurcher-like
Street Dogs of Egypt, retain
some characters in common
with the primitive stock. (See
Fig. 241.) Care and attention
have elevated the British Grey-
hound far above the ancient
Egyptian coursing Dog, or that
of Arabia (represented by Fig.
242}, of which the form of the
head is Wolfish, the tail fringed
with long, hair, and the ears, as
seen in the paintings of the
ancient Egyptians, erect and
very acute. Fig. 243 is a sketch
of the Turkman Watch-Dog for guarding Sheep. It is described
as a large, rugged, fierce animal, equalling the Wolf in stature,
shaped like the Irish Greyhound, and with equally powerful jaws.
The ears are erect, the tail rather hairy, the general colour deep
yellowish-red. This race is of great antiquity, and doubtless still
retains much of its pristine aspect, which is so Wolf-like, that,
according to Colonel Hamilton Smith,
" a friend being present in Asia Minor
at a Wolf-hunt, allowed one (a Wolf)
to pass out of a brake, because he mis-
took him for one of the Turkman Dogs."
Of the races with pendent ears and
a moderately lengthened muzzle, we may
first advert to the Spaniels, among which
we include the pure Setter, and the
rough Water-Dog. These Dogs are re-
markable for intelligence, docility, and
their affectionate disposition. The fur
is long and silky, sometimes curled or
crisped ; the ears are large and pendent,
and the expression of the countenance
is spirited, yet gentle and pleasing.
All possess excellent scent, especially
the Setter, formerly so valued by the
sportsman.
The Water-Spaniel is extremely use-
ful to persons engaged in the pursuit
of Water-Fowl ; it swims well, is very
hardy, and is an excellent Retriever.
(Fig. 237, a.) The French Poodle may
be referred to the Spaniels : it appears
to be very nearly allied to the rough
Water-Dog figured by Bewick, the
"Grand Barbet" of Buflfon, and of
which there is a smaller variety termed
"Le Petit Barbet." (See Fig. 244.)
The rough Water-Dog is a most in-
telligent animal ; it is robustly made,
and covered universally with deep curly
hair ; it exceeds tlie Water-Spaniel in
size and strength, but has the same
95
aquatic habits and docility. It is much used as a Retriever by the
shooters of Water- Fowl.
We are inclined to consider the Italian Wolf-Dog (used in the
Abruzzi by the shepherds to defend their flocks), the Newfoundland
and Labrador Dog, and the Alpine Dog, as the representatives of a
distinct group; the latter Dog, indeed, approximates to the
Mastifi's. We have seen several noble specimens of the Alpine or
Encrlish and Scotch Terriers,
St. Bernard breed : their size is equal to that of the largest Mastiff;
the muzzle is deep, the ears are pendulous, the fur is rather long
and wiry, the eye is full and very expressive, and the form of the
body and limbs indicates great strength. Their sense of smell is
very acute, and aids them in the work of mercy to which the worthy
monks of the Great St. Bernard have applied them. To the honour
Fig. 240.— Scotch Greyhound.
96
ST. BERNARD AND NEWFOUNDLAND DOGS.
of those excellent men be it spoken, that while others have trained
the Dog to the combat, to the chase of the runaway slave, and to
the pursuit of game, they have availed themselves of the power,
intelligence, and courage of the Dog, in rescuing the unhappy
traveller from the horrors of death amidst the snows of the moun-
tains.
One of these noble Dogs was decorated with a medal in com-
Fig. 241. — Street Dogs of the East.
memoration of his having saved the lives of twenty-two persons, who
but for his sagacity must have perished. He was lost in 1816, in
an attempt to convey a poor traveller to his anxious family. The
man was a Piedmontese courier, who arrived at St. Bernard in a
very stormy season, labouring to make his way to the little village
of St. Pierre, in the valley beneath the mountain, where his wife and
children dwelt ; it was in vain that the monks attempted to check
his resolution to reach his family. They at last gave him two
guides, each of whom was accompanied by a Dog, of which one was
Fig. 242. — Arabian Greyhound.
the remarkable creature whose services had been so valuable to
mankind. Descending from the convent they were in an instant
overwhelmed by two avalanches, and the same common destruction
awaited the family of the poor courier, who were toiling up the
mountain to obtain some news of their expected friend ; they all
perished.
The Wolf-Dog of the Abruzzi is pure white, somewhat more
lightly formed than the Newfoundland Dog, but strong and
muscular. The hair is long and flowing. ,(Fig. 245.)
The Labrador and Newfoundland Dogs are often confounded
together. The Labrador Dog exceeds in size the Newfoundland
animal, and is often of extraordinary dimensions. A fine specimen,
measured some time since, gave us the following particulars : —
Fig. 243. — Turkman Watch-Dog.
Total length, including the tail, 6 feet 3 inches ; height at the
shoulder, 2 feet 6 inches ; length of head from occiput to point of
nose, II inches; circumference of chest, 3 feet i inch. In Labrador
these powerful and intelligent Dogs are used for drawing sledges
loaded with wood, and are of great service to the settlers. (Fig. 237,
e, at page 93, a?ite.)
The Newfoundland Dog is of less stature, but more compactly
built, and is muscular and sagacious. These animals are also used
for drawing sledges and little carriages laden with wood, fish, and
other commodities, and are very valuable in their native country.
Fig. 244. — French Poodle.
Both the Labrador and Newfoundland breeds are admirable Water-
Dogs, and make excellent Retrievers. Their fidelity and attach-
ment to their masters are well known, and all are familiar with
instances in which human beings about to perish in the water have
owed their life to the courage and e.xertions of these devoted
creatures.
Our next group contains the Hounijs, including the Pointer.
Several varieties of Hounds now exist in our island, and of these the
Beagle, the Harrier, and the Fox-hound are familiar to all our
readers. No country equals England in the swiftness, spirit, and
endurance of its Hounds, and in no country is so much attention
paid to the different breeds, especially the Harrier and Fox-hound.
The Beagle (Fig. 246) was formerly a great favourite, but is now
little used. It is of small stature, but of exquisite scent, and its
tones, when heard in full cry, are musical It has not, however, the
strength or fieetness of the Harrier, and still less so of the Fox-
hound, and hence it does not engage the attention of the sportsmen
of the modern school, who, unlike Sir Roger de Coverley, are im-
petuous in the field, preferring a hard run to a tame and quiet
pursuit. The Beagle w-as only employed in hunting the Hare, as is
the Harrier; but the Fo.x-hound is trained both for the Deer and
ENGLISH AND OTHER HOUNDS.
97
the Fox. The strength and powers of scent of the Fox-hound are
very great, and many astonishing instances of the energy and en-
durance of these animals are on record.
Formerly two noble varieties of the Hound were common in
England, which are now seldom seen. We allude to the old
English Hound and the Blood-hound.
Of the old English Hound, which is described by Whittakcr, in his
" History of Manchester," as the original breed of our island, we
some years since saw a fine specimen in Lancashire. It was tall
and robust, with a chest of extraordinary depth and breadth, with
pendulous lips, and deeply-set eyes ; the ears were large and long,
and hung very low; the nose was broad, and the nostrils large and
moist. The voice was deep, full, and sonorous. The general
colour was black, passing into tan or sandy-red about the muzzle
and along the inside of the limbs. Shakspcare's description of the
Hounds of Theseus, in the " Midsummer Night's Dream," is true
to the letter as referring to this breed, with which he was, no
doubt, well acquainted : —
"My hounds are bred out of the Spavt.in kind,
So flew'd, so sanded ; and their lieads are hung
With ears that sweep away the morning dew ;
Crook-knee'd and dew-lapped like Thessalian bulls ;
Slow in pursuit, but match'd in mouth like bells,
Each under each."
Besides the old English or Southern Hound, was the old English
Stag-hound, or Talbot (Fig. 237, g, page 93, ante), a powerful
Dog, but of lighter form, and more fleet, than the former : from this
breed has descended the still
lighter and swifter Fox-hound of
the present day.
Among the Hounds of the
"olden time" w-as the Blood-
hound, so celebrated for its ex-
quisite sense and unwearied
perseverance, qualities which
were taken advantage of, by
training it not only to the chase
of game, but to the pursuit of
man. A true Blood-hound (and
the pure blood is rare) stands
about eight-and-twenty inches
in height, muscular, compact,
and strong ; the forehead is
broad, and the face narrow
towards the muzzle ; the nos-
trils are wide and well de-
veloped ; the ears are large,
pendulous, and broad at the
base ; the aspect is serene and
sagacious ; the tail is long, with
an upward curve when in pursuit,
at which time the Hound opens
with a voice deep and sonorous,
that may be heard down the
wind for a very long distance.
(Fig. 247, and also 237, h, at
page 93, a}ite.)
The colour of the true breed
is stated to be almost invariably
a reddish tan, darkening gradu-
ally towards the upper parts till
it becomes mixed with the black
on their back ; the lower parts,
limbs, and tail being of a lighter
shade, and the muzzle tawny :
Pennant adds, " a black spot
over each eye;" but the Blood-
hounds in the possession of
Thomas Astle, Esq. (and they
were said to have been of the
original blood), had not these
marksj - Some — but such instances were not common — had a little
white about them, such as a star in the face, &c. The better
opinion is, that the original stock was a mixture of the deep-
mouthed Southern Hound and the powerful old English Stag-hound.
Our ancestors soon discovered the infallibility of the Blood-hound
in tracing any animal, living or dead, to its resting-place. To train
it, the young Dog, accompanied by a staunch old Hound, was led
to the spot whence a Deer or other animal had been taken on for a
mile or two ; the Hounds were then laid on and encouraged, and
after hunting this "drag" successfully, were rewarded with a
portion of the venison which composed it. The next step was to
take the young Dog, with his seasoned tutor, to a spot whence a
man, whose shoes had been rubbed with the blood of a Deer,- had
started on a circuit of two or three miles : during his progress the
man was instructed to renew the blood from time to tmie, to keep
the scent well alive. His circuit was gradually enlarged at each
succeeding lesson ; and the young Hound, thus entered and trained,
became, at last, fully equal to hunt by itself, either for the purpose
of woodcraft, war, or " following gear," as the pursuit after the
property plundered in a border foray was termed.
Laid on the track of a marauder, it kept up a steady, perseverinjj
chase, and was not baffled without difficulty. Sir Walter Scott states
that the breed of Blood-hounds was kept up by the Huccleuch family,
on their Border estates, till within the i8th century. In former a"-es
these Dogs, or, as the Scotch called thum, " Sleuth-hounds," w'crc
kept in great numbers on the Borders ; and fugitive kings as well as
moss-troopers were obliged to study how to evade them. Bruce was
repeatedly tracked by these Dogs, and on one occasion only escaped
by wading for a considerable distance up a brook, and climbing a
tree which overhung the w^ater. " A sure way of stopping the Dog
was to spill blood upon the track, which destroyed the discriminatin;'-
fineness of the scent. A captive was sometimes sacrificed on such
occasions. Henry the Minstrel tells a romantic story of Wallace,
founded on this circumstance. The hero's little band had been
joined by an Irishman named Fawdon, or Fadzean, a dark, savage,
and suspicious character. After a sharp skirmish at Black-Erne
Side, Wallace was forced to retreat with only sixteen followers. The
English pursued with a border Blood-hound. In the retreat, Fawdon,
tired, or affecting to be so, would go no farther ; Wallace having in
vain argued with him, in hasty anger struck off his head, and con-
tinued to retreat. When the English came up, their Hound stayed
upon the dead body." (Notes to the " Lay of the Last Minstrel.")
In 1876, a murder was committed at Wigan, in Lancashire, which,
Fig. 245. — Italian Wolf-Dogs.
for a long time, remained a mystery. But at last a Blood-hound
was put on the scent, and, being taken to a barber's shop, instantly
sprung up the chimney, and brought down the skull and other bones
of the victim, a little girl, who had been murdered by the proprietor
of the shop, and who stood witness of this singular discovery of his
crime.
To the present group has generally been referred the Cuban Blood-
hound, as it is termed— a Dog of Spanish descent, sagacious and
savage, and which was employed by the Spaniards with atrocious
barbarity in their conquest of America ; and more recently (179S) m
Jamaica against the Maroons, who had revolted, and were waging a
bloody and successful war against the government forces, but which
the very terror these Dogs inspired at once happily brought to
a close.
These Dogs, used in Cuba in the pursuit of murderers and felons,
98
THE POINTER, BULL-DOG, AND MASTIFF.
have a fine scent and great power : specimens once existed in the
Gardens of the Zool. Soc. (Fig. 248.)
Their colour is tawny, with black about the muzzle ; the ears are
comparatively small ; the muzzle is shorter and more pointed than
in the ordinary Hound, and they are shorter on the limbs ; in some
./^^
Fig. 246. — Beagle.
points they approach the Mastiff or Ban-dog, especially in the form
of the head, which approaches that of the Bull-dog ; indeed, by
many, and with reason, they are regarded more as a variety of the
Mastiff than the Hound ; and for ourselves, we hesitate not to regard
them as such; The.y make excellent Watch-Dogs, and attack both
the Bull and the Bear with determined resolution. Their height at
the shoulder is about two feet.
We have hitherto said nothing of the Pointer (Fig. 237, c, p. 93,
ante). The present Pointer is derived from a heavy Dog, possess-
ing the sense of smell in the highest perfection, known as the Old
Spanish Pointer, and decidedly related
to the Hound. This Dog is now sel-
dom seen : like the Talbot, the source,
as we presume, of the light, active, but
vigorous Fox-hound, the old Spanish
Pointer has merged into the intelligent,
vigorous Dog so much prized by the
sportsman for its excellent qualifica-
tions. In some breeds of Pointers there
is, we believe, a cross of the Fox-
hound, which improves their strength
and energy.
We now enter upon a group of Dogs
distinguished by the shortness of the
muzzle and the breadth of the head,
this latter character resulting, not from
a corresponding development of the
brain, but from the magnitude of the
temporal muscles, which are attached
to a bony ridge passing down the
median line of the skull. The expres-
-iion of the eyes is lowering and feroci-
ous ; the jaws are very strong, the lips
pendulous ; the general form is thick-
set and robust ; the limbs are mus-
cular.
This group comprehends the Bull-
dog, the Mastiff, and their allies. In
sagacity and intelligence, the Dogs of
the present section are not to be cora-
ared to the Newfoundland Dog, the
Spaniel, or the Shepherd's Dog ; they
surpass all, however, in determined
courage and prowess in combat. In
early times the English Mastiff was
celebrated for its strength and resolu-
tion, characteristics which did not fail
to attract the attention of the Romans
when this island formed a part of their
widely-spread empire. To a people in
whom a partiality for scenes of blood-
shed and slaughter, and for the san-
guinary games of the amphitheatre,
was a ruling passion. Dogs so fitted
to gratify their taste were peculiarly
acceptable ; and accordingly we find
that they were bred and reared by
officers specially appointed, who se-
lected such as were distinguished for
combative qualities, and sent them to
Rome for the service of the amphi-
theatres, where they were matched in
fight with various beasts of prey. Dr.
Caius, a naturalist of the time of Elizabeth, states that three were
reckoned a match for a Bear, and four for a Lion.
Stowe, in his "Annals," gives us the account of an engagement
between three Mastiffs and a Lion, which took place in the presence
of James I. " One of the Dogs," says Stowe, " being put into the
Fig. 247. — English Blood-hound.
Fig. 248. — Cuban Blood-hound.
THE BULL-DOG, MASTIFF, AND BAN-DOG.
99
den was soon disabled by the Lion, which took it by the head and
neck and dragged it about. Another Dog was then let loose, and
served in the same manner ; but the third, being put in, seized the
Lion by the lip, and held him for a considerable time ; till, being
severely torn by his claws, the Dog was obliged to quit its hold, and
the Lion, greatly exhausted in the conflict, refused to renew the
Fig. .->49.— The Bull-dog, a; the Mastiff, b; and Ban-dog,
engagement ; but, taking a sudden leap over the Dogs, fled into the
interior part of his den. Two of the Dogs soon died of their
wounds ; the last survived." The Mastiff is by far the most sagaci-
ous of the present section, and, of all other Dogs, makes the best
guardian of property. It is attached to its master, but towards
strangers is fierce and suspicious. Its bark is deep and sonorous.
Though the Mastiff has by no means the keen sense of smell
which the Hound possesses, it seems to be (at least such is our
opinion, and that not hastily formed) either an offset from that
branch, or a cognate branch from the same root. The Mastiff,
however, has a finer scent than persons are generally aware of, and
its hearing is very acute. A Dog of this breed, chained to his kennel.
origin. It must be remembered that particular instincts and quali-
ties are acquired, and that the excellences of the Hound are the
result of long-continued and judicious culture. We do not say that
the Mastiff can be converted inlo the Hound, but merely that two
branches from the same root may be so cultured as to assume, to a
given point, diverse characteristics.
° ^ ' The huge Thibet Watch- Dog (Fig.
251) belongs to the present section.
This Xio%{Canis familiariSy^ax. Mo-
lossus tliibctaiius) is kept by the na-
tives of the Thibet range of hills as
a guardian of their flocks and their
villages: It is very fierce, and its bark
is loud and terrific. The colour is gene-
rally black.
The Ban-dog (Fig. 249, c, ante) is a
term given to any of the fierce animals
of the present section, which are, in
ordinary cases, kept chained or secured
in kennels. Bewick, however, applies it
to a Dog, of which he gives an excellent
figure, and which he states to differ
from the Mastiff in being lighter, more
active and vigilant, but not so powerful
or so large ;"its muzzle, besides, is not
so heavy, and it possesses in some
degree the scent of the Hound. Its hair
is described as being rather rough, and
generally of a yellowish-grey streaked
with shades of black or brown. It is
ferocious and full of energy. Bewick
says that this Dog is seldom to be seen
at the present day ; we have, however,
had occasion to notice varieties of the
Mastiff so closely agreeing with Be-
wick's figure and description, as to con-
vince us that he took both of them from
nature.
Of all the Dogs of this section, none
surpass, in obstinacy or ferocity, the Bull-
dog. (See Fig. 249,0, (7«A'.) This animal
is smaller than the Mastiff, but more
compactly formed ; the chest is broad
and deep ; the loins narrow ; the tail
slender and arched up ; the limbs short
and robust ; the head is broad and
thick ; the muzzle short and deep ; the
jaws strong, the lower jaw often ad-
vancing, so that the inferior incisor teeth overshoot the upper ; the
ears are short and semi-erect, the nostrils distended, the eyes
scowling, and the whole expression calculated to inspire terror.
This Dog is distinguished by tenacity of tooth and indomitable reso-
lution, in all its habits and propensities it is essentially gladiatorial :
Fig. 250.— Mastiff.
and never suffered to wander about the premises, nor treated as a
friend and companion, affords but a poor example of what the animal
really is. Confinement spoils its temper, and cramps the develop-
ment of its noble qualities. (See Fig. 249, b, and 250.)
We have said that the Mastiff is allied to the Hound: the Cuban
Mastiff, to which we have already alluded, is, indeed, often termed
a Blood-hound. The pendulous ear, not so large in the Mastiff as
in the Hound, the thick hanging lips, the broad moist nose, the
brindled markings, and the general figure, attest the affinity. The
Mastiff is larger and stronger than the Hound, and useless for the
chase ; this latter circumstance, however, is no proof of diversity of
^.^
,■ .'\^.^
Fig. 251.— Thibet Watch-Dog.
it is a fighting Dog, and nothing else ; its intelligence is very
limited ; and though Dogs of this breed are attached to their
masters, they exhibit, in the demonstration of their feelings, unless
when incited to combat, a perfect contrast to the Newfoundland
Dog or Spaniel. These latter delight to accompany their master in
his walks, and scour the fields and lanes in the exuberance of
delight: the Bull-dog skulks at its master's heels, and regards with
a suspicious glance everything and everybody t^"^' P^^^" Jtyj "°^'
indeed, is it safe to approach the animal, for it often attacks with-
out the slightest provocation. A cross between the Bull-dog and
the Terrier is celebrated for spirit and determination.
REMARKS ON THE VARIOUS BREEDS OF DOGS.
It has been usual to consider the Pug-dog as a degenerate variety
of the Bull-dog, but we doubt the correctness of this theory. It has
indeed somewhat the aspect of the Bull-dog, on a miniature scale ;
but the similarity is more in superficial appearance than reality.
The Pug is a little, round-headed, short-nosed Dog, with a preter-
natural abbreviation of the muzzle, and with a tightly twisted tad.
Like the Giilaroo Trout, it is a specimen of hereditary malformation.
Not so the Bull-dog, in which the bones of the skull and the temporal
muscles are finely developed, and in which the muzzle and head are
in perfect harmony.
The Pug-dog is snarling and ill-tempered, but cowardly, and by
no means remarkable for intelligence. Formerly it was in great
esteem as a pet, but is now little valued, and not often kept.
In taking a review of the various breeds of the domestic Dog, we
cannot fail to observe that they are endowed respectively with quali-
fications or habits certainly not innate, but the result of education,
at least originally; which education, continued through a series of
generations, has produced permanent effects. For example, no Dog
in a state of nature would point with his nose at a Partridge, and
then stand like a statue, motionless, for the Dog would gam nothing
by such a proceeding. Man, however, has availed himself of the
docility and delicacy of scent peculiar to a certain breed, and has
taught the Dog his lesson, and the lesson thus learned has become
second nature. A young Pointer takes to its work as if by intuition,
and scarcely requires discipline. Hence, therefore, must we conclude
that education not only effects impressions on the sensorium, but
transmissible impressions, whence arise the predispositions of certain
races. Education, in fact, modifies organisation : not that it makes
a Dog otherwise than a Dog, but it supersedes, to a certain point,
instin^ct, or makes acquired propensities instinctive, hereditary, and
therefore characteristics of the race. The effect of this change of
nature is not to render the Dog more independent, nor to give it any
advantage over its fellows, but to rivet more firmly the links of sub-
jection to man.
It is not to the Pointer alone that these observations apply ; all
our domestic Dogs have their own acquired propensities, which, be-
coming second nature, make them, in one way or another, valuable
servants. No one, we presume, will suppose that the instinctive pro-
pensities implanted by nature in the Shepherd's Dog, make it, not a
destroyer, but a preserver of Sheep. On the contrary, this Dog, like
every other, is carnivorous, and nature intends it to destroy and
devour. But education has supplanted instinct to a certain point,
and implanted a disposition which has become an hereditary
characteristic, and hence a Shepherd's Dog of the true breed takes to
its duties naturally. But a Shepherd's Dog could not, delicate as its
sense of smell is, be brought to take the place of the Pointer in the
field, even though it were subjected to training frorn the earliest age ;
nor, on the other hand, could a Pointer be substituted with equal
adv'anta'^e in the place of a Shepherd's Dog as the assistant of the
drover. ^Each is civilised, but in a different style, and education has
impressed upon each a different bent of mind, a different class of
propensities.
Every attempt to arrange the various breeds of Dogs under differ-
o o
^ C"^'S^ A 'h i
o
pig. 252. — Roman House-Dog.
O O
little beyond. They had Watch-Dogs, Hounds, a Greyhound breed,
and probably a breed of Spaniels, the Cam's Tuscits, also described
as Proles de sanguine Ibcro. "Fig. 252 is a copy of a Dog repre-
sented on a mosaic pavement at Pompeii, fastened by a chain, with
the caution "Cave canem " ("Beware the Dog") written at its
feet : the small sharp ears and elongated muzzle give it a wild
aspect : it appears to be a strongly-made, vigorous animal ; but if
it represent the Dogue de forte race of the Romans, we cannot
wonder at their sending to Britain for our old indigenous Mastiff.
In Egypt the Dog was a favourite, and carefully bred ; and, as the
paintings of that people prove, there were several breeds. It would
appear, indeed, that some kinds were regarded with religious vene-
ent heads will necessarily be defective, from our want of information
respecting the races of antiquity ; an accurate knowledge of which
would throw considerable light on our modem varieties. We know
indeed that the Greeks and Romans had valuable Dogs for hunting
various wild animals, and paid great attention to them, but we know
Fig. 253. — Dogs, from Egyptian Paintings.
ration, and embalmed after death. Mummies of them are slill
found. We have seen the remains of a red short-haired Dog thus
preserved. Figs. 253 and 254 are outlines of Dogs from Egyptian
paintings. Fig. 253, a, two Hounds, or a Hound and Greyhound
in couples. The style of colouring on the foremost Dog, regarded
as a Hound, reminds us of the Hounds of modern days ; b is
evidently a pet domestic Dog, with sharp ears and a curled tail ;
c, a Hound ; d, a short-legged Dog, not unlike our Turnspit, with
sharp ears, and which ap-
pears to have been a favour-
ite. They had also a Watch-
Dog, of the "forte race,"
excepting that its tail is
more curled ; it has a strik-
ing resemblance to the Ro-
man House-Dog (Fig. 252) :
also a Hunting Dog, as it
would seem, being found fre-
quently in attendance on
chasseurs. Fig. 254 is a
huntsman with an Antelope
and a brace of coupled
Hounds. The modern Grey-
hound of Arabia (illustrated
at p. 96, Fig. 242) so closely
resembles the delineations
of the ancient Greyhound,
that we cannot doubt their
affinity. The Egyptians m
the chase used the bow and
spear, and intercepted the
game as it fled before the
Hounds, discharging their arrows whenever it came within range.
When a fierce Antelope, as the Lcucoryx, was brought to bay, the
hunter gallantly used his spear, as the Boar-hunter of the middle ages
in Europe. On the level plains of Egypt the chasseur often followed
in his chariot, urging his Horses to the full speed, and endeavouring
to meet the game, or place himself in the direction the Dogs were
forcing it to take, with his bow and arrows ready. It was, perhaps,
the partiality evinced by the Egyptians to the Dog, that led the
Israelites to regard it with abhorrence, as an unclean animal ; in
which feeling they have been followed by the Mohammedans. Be
Fig. 254. — From an Egyptian Painting.
PARIAH DOGS— THE WOLF.
this as it may, Palestine " is the country in which this animal has
the longest been refused that entire domestication with man which
he has enjoyed in most other lands ; in other words, the treatment
of the Dog has almost always, in Palestine, been such as it has only
in other countries been subject to since the propagation of the
Moslem faith. And since the ideas concerning Dogs have been
much the same with the ancient Jews and modern Moslems, there
is no doubt that the existing practices of the latter illustrate the
ancient practices of the former. Among both we trace the despised,
but not maltreated Dog of the streets, and among both we dis-
cover that, with every predisposition to do without them, certain
breeds of Dogs have forced their services upon man, from the indis-
pensable nature of their help in hunting and in guarding the flocks."
The Street Dogs, called Pariah Dogs in India, have excited the
attention of all travellers in India, Turkey, and the whole of the
Levant. They roam the streets of towns, cities, and villages, owned
by no one, but, for their services in clearing away carrion and offal,
universally tolerated. We find allusions to them in the earliest
records of antiquity. Homer pictures them in conjunction with
Vultures, as feeding upon the slain : —
" Whose limbs unburied on the naked shore,
Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore."
Pope's Traiisl.
In the Scriptures there are abundant allusions, as for example,
Exodus .xxii. 31 ; i Kings xxi. 19 and 23 ; 2 Kings ix. 35, and else-
where. The passages of most force, " In the place where the dogs
licked the blood of Naboth, shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine;"
and, "The dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel," bring to
mind the picture of a scene painted in modern days by a poet, who
had travelled in Greece and Turkey, and well knew the habits of the
masterless Dogs that "wander up and down for meat, and grudge
if they be not satisfied."
Pariah Dogs herd together in troops, and keep to their respective
districts ; they display all the qualities and propensities of their race,
and if they are fierce aud ravenous, it is because they
are left to their own resources, since to become at once
domestic they require only to be owned and noticed.
Colonel Sykes, speaking of the Pariah Dog of Dukhun,
observes that it is there very numerous, and not in-
dividual property, but breeds in the towns and villages
unmolested. He remarks that the Turnspit Dog-, long-
backed, with short crooked legs, is frequently found
among the Pariahs. There is also a petted minute
variety of the Pariah Dog, usually of a white colour,
with long silky hair, corresponding to a common Lap-
Dog of Europe ; this is taught to carry flambeaux and
lanterns. The last variety noticed is the Dog with
hair so short as to appear naked, like the Barbary or
Egyptian Dog. It is known to Europeans by the name
of the Polygar Dog. Of the Domesticated Dogs,
Colonel Sykes states, that the first in size and strength
is the Brinjaree Dog, which somewhat resembles the
Persian Greyhound, but is much more powerful.
It may here be expected that we should enter into
some details illustratmg the intelligence and fidelity of
this animal, which seems expressly made for man,
which instinctively clings to him, and which watches
his every look and gesture. But who from his own
experience cannot bear testimony to the good qualities
of the Dog ! It has been somewhere said, and with
truth, that man is the god of the Dog, for to man he
looks up with reverence and affection, and the praise
of his master is his richest rew-ard. Is this instinctive
attachment of the Dog to man an acquired feeling, or
is it an original impulse implanted in its nature, by the
All-wise Creator, for man's benefit, so that in the
primitive condition of society he might have a friend
and assistant, all-important in the chase, and in the extirpation of
wild beasts, which ere he can settle in the land and found a
colony, he must drive to a distance or destroy ?
Numerous works have been published in which the peculiar
characteristics of the Dog in relation to man have been illustrated.
Perhaps one of the most interesting of these is Jesse's " Anecdotes
of Dogs," the perusal of which we strongly recommend to our
readers. Craven's "Young Sportsman" also supplies many in-
teresting facts.
AVe have alluded to the great similarity, notwithstanding their
mutual hostility, which exists between the Esquimaux Dog and the
Wolf, and we have introduced a representation (see ante, p. 92, Fig
235) of the former animal, in order the better to compare it with the
Wolf, and to show how closely it resembles a mixed breed between
the Dog and the AVolf, of which we have given a large-size illustra-
tion, showing the head of a hybrid breed, at p. 90, ante. Fig. 255
represents the two specimens of the mixed breed ; Figs. 256, 2S7,
the Wolf. We have already denied the correctness of the inference,
that because the Wolf and the Jackal respectively breed with the
101
Dog, they are therefore, as Hunter affirmed, all of one species : no
one, we thmk, will now regard the Wolf and the Tackal as identical •
nor is there any more ground for believing that the Dog is either the
one or the other, than for assuming that the Wolf and the Jackal
are one. •'
Figs. 258 and 259 show the skull of the European Wolf, in two
Fig. 255.— Mixed Breed of Dog and Wolf.
views : it differs in various minor details from the skull of the Canada
Wolf, of which Figs. 260 and 261 are two similar views.
Figs. 262 and 263 represent the skull of the Jackal, in two views ;
it differs from those both of the European and American Wolf.
These skulls may be compared with those of the various breeds of
Dogs, already given in this chapter. In Fig. 264 is an illustration of
Fig. 256.— Syrian Wolf.
the head of a Wolf, for the purpose of affording a comparison between
it and that of the nearest of the Dogs.
The Wol'E— Cam's Ln^us.
As the natural ally of the Dog, and for reasons already assigned at
p. 89, ante, we next describe the WOLF. A robust but gaunt frame,
a skulking or irresolute gait, ferocity mingled with cunning and
cowardice, and a wild yet sinister expression of the physiognomy,
characterise this beast of prey. Spread throughout Europe and
various parts of Asia, it is more particularly in mountain and forest
districts that the Wolf prevails, where the population is scanty, and
collected into small towns or villages, with a wide country around,
destitute of human dwellings. In the Pyrenees, the Carpathian
Mountains, in Poland, Hungary, some parts of Austria, France, Italy,
and Spain ; in Norway, Sweden, and Russia, the Wolf is yet com-
mon ; as well as in western Asia, and the border territories included in
Europe. Formerly this animal was abundant in the British Islands,
and the plague and terror of the country. Verstcgan, in his " Resti •
103
THE WOLF.
tution of Decayed Intellig'ence in Antiquities, concerning- the most
Noble and Renowned English Nation," 1605, obsen-es that January
was called Wolf-monat by the Anglo-Saxons, " because people were
wont in that moneth to be more in danger to be devoured of Wolves
than in any season els of the yeare, for that through tlie extremity of
cold and snow those ravenous creatures could not find other beasts
sufficient to feed upon." The universal fear which the Wolf, where
numerous, would naturally inspire, was formerly heightened by
superstition, and fiends or malignant beings were imagined as
having power to assume the form and power of this dreaded animal.
Lycanthropos of the Greeks, the Were-Wolf of the Anglo-Saxons,
and the Loup-garou of the French, had reference to some such pre-
ternatural monster, whose name was associated with all that is
horrible and mysterious. Conspicuous then, and dreaded for its
power and ferocity, we can scarcely wonder that the Wolf should
have had its name assumed, or given to men of distinction, by our
barbarous but warlike forefathers, among whom such appellations as
Ethehvolf, Eadwolf, Berthwolf, and many more, were common.
Fig. 25S.
Skull of European Wolf.
It must not be supposed, however, that our Saxon ancestors
tamely suffered the Wolf to ravage the country. The attempt at
extirpatmg this animal commenced in the loth century, under the
reign of Edgar, and appears to have succeeded in the inh century
during the reign of Edward I., as no historical mention is made of
any royal edict, subsequently to that period, to promote their
destruction. The last record of their existence in any formidable
numbers was in 1281. It is said by Mr. Topham, in his notes to
Somerville's " Chace," that it was in the wolds of Yorkshire where
a price was last set upon a Wolf's head. In Scotland and Ireland
the Wolf remained for a considerable period longer. In i???
according to Hollinshed, these animals were destructfve to the flocks
in Scotland, and in Ireland they were exterminated only at the
beginning of the last century.
In almost every department of France infested by the Wolf there is
a society called Society de Louveterie, the object of which is to keep
that animal down ; and premiums, varying in the amount accordinc^
to the sex and age of the animals killed, are likewise paid. The
means hitherto employed, however, have been inadequate to effect
the purpose.
Desmarest says that the Wolf is solitary and nocturnal, but that in
winter it unites in troops, which attack Horses and men. The sense
of smell is very aucte, but its speed is not very great, and it wearies
out its victim by dint of untiring perseverance. When in full chase
Fig. 260.
Fig. 261. — Skull of Canadian Wolf.
of its prey, it gallops along, pertinaciously following the track of the
fugitive. The description of a troop of Wolves in pursuit is admir-
ably described by Lord Byron in his poem of Mazeppa.
From the numerous allusions to the Wolf in the Scriptures, it is
evident that it must have been well known formerly in Syria — and
indeed also in Egypt, for we find it figured on ancient sculptures,
together with the Hyaena and Greyhound. At present, however,
this animal is seldom met with in Syria, although it still exists in
that region, but keeps itself concealed.
So habitually cautious and suspicious is the Wolf, that it is difficult
to take it in traps ; and for the same reason, an3'thing like the appear-
ance of artifice deters it from an attack. It has been supposed the
Fis:. 262.
Fig. 263.— Skull of Jackal.
Wolf never carries his tail elevated ; but this is not altogether correct ;
we have often watched the Wolves in the Zoological Gardens gallop
round the enclosure with the tail raised up as it is when the animals
are in chase of prey; and also, as Dr. Richardson states from ob-
servation, when they gambol with each other.
When pursued the Wolf rushes along:, with his muzzle almost to
the ground, his eyes like glowing fire, the hair of his neck and
shoulders erect, and his tail lowered and drawn close ; when out of
danger, he slackens his pace, raises his head, sniffs about, and
VARIETIES OF WOLVES.
103
whisks liis tail around, as if exulting in his escape ; but if brought
to bay by Hounds, he defends himself to the last, and often kills
and maims some of his antagonists before he falls overpowered by
numbers. (Fig. 265.) The Kirghese Tartars employ a large Hawk
in the chase, which fastens upon the animal's head, and tears its
eyes.
Fierce as the Wolf is, like the Hyaena it can be tamed and even
domesticated, but they require to be taken very young. M. F.
Cuvier gives a very interesting
account of a tame Wolf, which
showed all the affection that the
most gentle Dog could evince
towards its master. When full-
grown, he was presented by his
owner to the menagerie at Paris.
For many weeks he was quite
disconsolate at the separation
from his master, who had been
obliged to travel ; he would
scarcely take any food, and was
indifferent to his keepers. At
length he became attached to
those about him, and he seemed
to have forgotten his old affec-
tions.. His master returned after an absence of eighteen months;
the Wolf heard his voice amidst the crowd in the gardens of the
menagerie, and, being set at liberty, displayed the most violent
joy. Again was he separated from his friend ; and again was his
grief as extreme as on the first occasion. After three years' absence,
his master once more returned. It was evening, and the Wolf's den
was shut up from any e.\ternal observations ; yet the instant the
man's voice was heard, the faithful animal set up the most anxious
fight often with great desperation, the combat ending with the death
of the weaker. It is said that Wolves wounded by the gun-shot
of hunters or travellers are torn in pieces and devoured by their
fellows.
The average height of the Wolf at the shoulders is about 2 feet
Fig. 264. — Head of Wolf,
^i^
Fig. 265. — Wolf-hunt, after Snyders.
cries; and the door of his cage being open, he rushed towards his
friend, leaped upon his shoulders, licked his face, and threatened
to bite his keepers when they attempted to separate them. When
the man left him, he fell sick, and refused all food; and from the
time of his recovery, which was long very doubtful, it was always
dangerous for a stranger to approach him. He appeared as if he
scorned any new friendships.
Other instances of domestication are on record ; and, indeed,
from our own personal experience, we hesitate not to state that the
Wolf may be completely reclaimed— more so than the Australian
Dingo.
The power of the Wolf, especially in the muscles of the head,
neck, and shoulders, is immense; and his bite is terribly severe,
generally cutting out the flesh with a snap. Among themselves they
Fig. 266.— Dusky or Clouaed Wolf.
inches ; the female rears her young in some cave or gloomy recess,
and produces from five to nine young at a birth. These are born
with the eyes closed, as in the Dog. In the defence of her offspring
the female is furious, and greatly to be dreaded. The voice of the
W^olf is a prolonged howl, re-
sounding dismally through the
stilly darkness of the night.
On the southern side of the
Pyrenees there exists a variety
perhaps of the Wolf, termed,
from its colour, the Black Wolf
{Cam's Lycaon, Linn.), the
Loup noir of Buffon. These
animals are asserted to be
more ferocious than the ordi-
nary grey Wolf, but perhaps
without any foundation.
The common Wolf of North
America differs in some re-
spects from its European rela-
tive, and is, perhaps, a distinct
species. It wants the gaunt
appearance, the comparatively
long jaw and tapering nose,
the high ears, long legs, slen-
der loins, and narrow feet of
the European Wolf. Its frame
also is more compact, the fur
finer and thicker, the muzzle
more obtuse, the head larger
and rounder, and the forehead
broader and more arched : the
limbs are shorter, and the tail
more Fox-like and bushy.
Dr. Richardson, in his
" Fa^na Boreali-Americana,"
enumerates several varieties of
this North American Wolf,
depending on colour — viz., the
grey, the white, the pied, the
dusky or clouded, and the
black. Black Wolves abound
on the Missouri ; and, accord-
ing to the Indians, black and
grey Wolves occur in the same
litter. The dusky or cloivded Wolf was regarded by Say as a distinct
species, and named by him Cants niibiliis. (Fig. 266.)
The American Wolf agrees in its general habits with the Wolf of
our continent, though it appears to be less formidable as far as man
is concerned. Indeed, Captain Lyons, in his obser^'ations on the
Wolves of Melville Peninsula, states that both English and Esqui-
maux were accustomed to pass them without any weapon, or even a
stick ; " the animals, however, exhibited no symptoms of fear, but
rather a kind of tacit agreement not to be the beginners of a
quarrel, even though they might have been certain of proving
victorious."
These Wolves hunt in packs, and when pressed for food their
audacity is astonishing. 'J'luy will seize the Esquimaux Dogs
before their masters' faces, and carry them oft"; for, though bold in
104
THE JACKAL— THE FOX.
attacking- the Bear, this breed of Dogs, as previously noticed, fears
the Wolf, and makes but a slight resistance. They have been
known not only to steal provisions from under a man's head in the
night, but even to come into a traveller's bivouac and carry off some
of his Dogs.
The American Wolf is extremely cunning, and in attacking
Moose or Wapiti Deer, animals which exceed it in speed, it has
recourse to a singular stratagem. Several combine, and arrange
themselves in the form of a semicircle, and thus advance
upon their prey, so as cither to hem it in, or drive it over a
precipice. Captain Franklin often found the remains of
Deer which had been thus dashed down steep cliffs and
devoured ; and he states that this is a frequent expedient
when the plains are bounded by precipitous cliffs.
" \Vhilst the Deer are quietly grazing, the Wolves assem-
ble in great numbers, and, forming a crescent, creep slowly
towards the herd, so as not to alarm them much at first ;
but when they perceive that they have fairly hemmed in
the unsuspecting creatures, and cut off their retreat across
the plain, they move more quickly, and with hideous yells
terrify their prey, and urge them to flight by the only open
way, which is towards the precipice, appearing to know
that when the herd is once at full speed, it is easily driven
over the cliff, the rearmost urging on those that are
before. The Wolves then descend at leisure, and feed on
the mangled carcasses."
Of the American Wolves we may notice the Prairie Wolf
[Cant's latrans. Say), which inhabits the plains of the
Missouri and Saskatchewan, as well as those of the Co-
lumbia. It is smaller and fleeter than the common Wolf,
associates in large troops, and dwells in burrows on the
plains remote from the forests. In Mexico is found a
distinct species of Wolf [Cam's Mc.n'canus, Desm.) ; and
a species termed the Red Wolf [Canis jubatus, Desm.)
inhabits the Pampas of La Plata. The Antarctic Wolf
[Cam's A7itarcticus, Desm.) is a native of the Falkland
Isles, and seems to be an intermediate link between the
Wolves and Foxes. It feeds principally upon a species of Goose
[Auser !c!icoJ>fcrits), goes in packs, which wander about by day,
but more commonly in the evening, and dwell in holes which they
burrow. This species is about fifteen inches in height at the
shoulder; the tail is short, and white at the tip ; the limbs are short,
but the contour of the head is Wolf-like. It is termed by Pennant
the Antarctic Fox.
Colonel Sykes has described a Wolf from Dukhun, under the title
of Canis pallipes, which he states to be numerous in the open stony
plains of that region, but not to be met with in the woods of the
Ghauts.
Mr. Hodgson notices the common European Wolf as occurring in
the lower region of the Nepal Mountains.
The Jaciovl — Canis aureus:
Of the animals known by the name of Jackals, one species [Canis
anf/ius) is a native of Senegal; another, the Cape Jackal, the
black-backed [Canis 7nesomclas) is a native of the Cape of Good
Hope ; and a third, the Common Jackal [Canis aureus), is spread
under surface ; the tail is slightly tipped with black. (See Fig.
267.)_
I his animal is most probably the Shual of the Scriptures. It is
the Chical of the Turks ; Sciagal, Sciuagal, Sciachal, or Shacal of
the Persians.
The Jackal dwells in troops, which lie concealed in holes and
burrows during the day, but conic forth at night to hunt for food,
giving chase to Sheep or Antelopes and other animals, like the
«=?r;!STr~--'^
Fig. 267. — ^Jackal.
from the north of Africa, through Syria, Persia, and the greater
part of India. Colonel Sykes states it to be numerous in Dukhun,
where it is called Kholah by the Mahrattas. It is somewhat larger
than a Fox, but its tail is shorter in proportion, reaching only to the
hock ; its head is short, with a pointed muzzle : the general colour
above is grey, abruptly divided from a paler tint spread over the
Fig. 268. — ^Jackals in troops.
Wolf, stealing Fox-like into Fowl-roosts, and attacking any animal
they are capable of overcoming. They do not, however, confine
themselves to living prey, carrion and offal of every description being
greedily devoured. Nor are roots and fruits less acceptable ; in the
vineyard, indeed, they make great havoc, and their fondness for
grapes is notorious. The "shriek" of the Jackal is terrific.
Those travellers who have heard them, describe the nocturnal yells
of these animals as extremely piercing and dissonant ; now close,
now at a distance, troop answering troop from different points,
themselves unseen, while their fearful chorus breaks the stillness of
the hours of darkness. Their cries thus heard amidst the ruins of
cities of ancient date, might seem " to listening Fancy's ear " like
the wail of legions of spirits over the departed glories of other days.
Mouldering ruins, fallen temples, crumbling tombs, and craggy
rocks are the abodes of the Jackal.
Sly and suspicious in its disposition, this animal, when taken
young, is nevertheless easily tamed, and loses that unpleasant
odour which renders the wild animal almost unbearable. We have
seen in the Zoological Gardens a hybrid between the Jackal and
Dog.
The preceding cut is an illustration of a troop of Jackals in flight.
(Fig. 268.)
Foxes.— The Common 'Pos.— Canis vu!J)es, &c.
The Common Fox [Canis vul_pes, Linn. ; Vuljies vulgaris,
Brisson. Volpe, of the Italians ; Rapasa, Spanish ; Rapoza,
Portuguese ; Fuchs, German ; Vos, Dutch ; Raff, Swedish ; Rev,
Danish ; Tod, Scottish provincialism ; Llwynog, and female
Lhvynoges, of the Welsh), the representative of the sub-genus
Vulpcs, characterised by a linear pupil and a long bushy tail, is
too well known to need a minute description. This wily animal is
common in our island, andin most parts of Europe, extending into
Northern Asia, and is everywhere celebrated for its cunning and
rapacity. As its linear pupil intimates, the Fox is crepuscular or
nocturnal in its habits, but is occasionally seen abroad during the
day. In general, however, it is as the dusk of the evening advances
that the Fox steals from its burrow, with noiseless steps, to prowl
about for prey. His senses of smell and hearing are extremely keen,
and he listens, and snuffs the breeze, attentive to every sound,
appreciating every odour. His eyes gleam, as he creeps along in a
crouching attitude, intent upon his prey. His movements are all
stealthy : he surprises the Rabbit gambolling near its burrow ; the
Hare in her form ; the poultry on the perch. He slaughters all he
can, reser\'ing the overplus for a future exigency, and for that
purpose buries it in the earth. In times of scarcity Field-Mice,
Frogs, Weasels, and even insects are devoured. On the continent
the Fox visits the vineyards, being as partial to the ripe grapes as is
he Jackal. (See Fig. 269.)
The Fox is solitary m its habits, and dwells alone in a burrow,
VARIETIES OF THE FOX.
»0S
which he has either made or usurped, and which is generally in some
secluded situation, not readily to be discovered, and in the nciijh-
tjourhood of a Rabbit-warren, preserves of game, or farms Xho
female breeds in April, and on her alone
devolves the entire care of the cubs.
She produces three or four at a birth, in -_ _, _
<a deep burrow, where she has prepared _ -ry
a bed of dried leaves, grass, and moss.
The young are very playful, and remain
about four months with their parent,
who is watchful and resolute to the ex-
treme in their defence. The following
cut illustrates the young Fo.x (Fig. 270).
Kven when taken at an early age, the
Fo.x is not easily tamed, never loses its
innate suspiciousness, and never be-
comes truly domestic ; adults are feroci-
ous when placed in confinement, and
soon die. Though slightly made, the
Fo.x is very vigorous, and bites with
great severity. Its power of endurance
and its speed have in our country re-
commended it to all lovers of the chase,
for whose gratification the breed is pre-
served, where possible. Foxes have
been known to run before the Hounds
fifty miles at a stretch : when hard
pressed, the animal neither loses his
courage nor self-possession ; he puts in
practice every expedient which cunning
dictates, to baffle the Hounds or conceal
liim from their search ; and if all fail, he
dies defending himself to the last, with-
out uttering a cry. It is probable that,
but for the taste for Fox-hunting, and
its consequent protection, it would, like
the Wolf, have long ago become extinct
in this country.
The voice of the Fox is a sort of yelp,
which, however, it only occasionally
exerts, and never when in quest of prey.
It is said by Bewick, and we have often
heard it affirmed, that the Fox breeds
with the Dog ; and have seen sharp-
nosed Dogs called Fox-dogs, and were
at the same time assured that they were
a cross between the two animals ; but it
has always so happened that the asser-
tion could not be substantiated.
In Italy there exists an allied species
of Fox [Cam's {^julpes) melanogaster),
closely allied to tlie common species.
To Dr. Riippel we are indebted for a
knowledge of the Vulpes fa}nelicus, the
Vulpes variegatus, and the Vulpes
pallidtis, natives of Nubia and the
adjacent territories.
The Egyptian Fox {Cant's Nilo-
ticits). — In Egypt and Syria there is a
species of Fox, called Tahaleb by the
Copts, Sabora by the Arabs ; it is the
Canis ^gyptiac2is of Sonnini ; the
Ca?iis Niloticus of Geoffrey.
It is the size of our common Fox, but
the ears are wider apart and longer, and
it stands somewhat higher on the limbs.
Foxes apparently of this species are
very abundant in the stony country
about Bethlehem, and are also numerous
near the convent of St. John in the
desert, especially about the vintage time,
and are then very destructive in the vine-
yards, which must be strictly watched in
order to prevent their incursions. These
animals live in burrows, and have the
general habits of the common European
Fox, to which they are nearly related.
(See Fig. 271.)
The Caama {Canis Caama).—Oi the
African Foxes, which are numerous, is
the Caama of the Cape of Good Hope
{Cam's {vzilpes) Caama), one of the
smallest of its race. A few individuals
of this species are to be met with within
the limits of the colony, but its favourite
residence seems to be more to the north-
ward ; though there it is becoming less
and less numorous, owing to the skins being much in request
among the natives as a covering for the cold season. So important
are these skins considered, that many of the Bechuanas arc solely
Fig. 270.— Young Foxes.
io6
VARIETIES OF THE FOX.
employed in hunting the animal down with Dogs, or laying snares in
the places to which they are known to resort. In common with
other Foxes this is a great enemy to birds which lay their eggs upon
the ground ; and its movements in particular are closely watched by
the Ostrich during the laying season. (See Fig. 272.)
When the Caama has surmounted all obstacles in procuring eggs,
Fig. 271. — Egyptian Fox.
he has to encounter the diflBculty of getting at their contents ; but
even for this difficulty his cunning finds an expedient — that, namely,
of pushing them forcibly along the ground, until they come in con-
tact with some substance hard enough to break them, when the
contents are speedily disposed of. The natives, from having observed
the anxiety of the Ostrich to keep this animal from robbing her nest,
avail themselves of this solicitude to lure the bird to its destruction ;
for, seeing that it runs to the nest the instant a Fox appears, they
fasten a Dog near it, and conceal themselves close by, and the
Fig. 272. — Caama.
Ostrich, on approaching to drive away the supposed Fox, is fre-
quently shot by the concealed hunter.
Of the Asiatic Foxes we may notice the small Indian insectivorous
'Fox {Cam's Be!?ga/ei!S!s),ioundm Bengal, and also in -the Nepal
hills ; the Fox of the Dukhun, called Kokree by the Mahrattas
[Cam's Kukrce, Sykes) ; and the hill Fox of the Himala3-an Moun-
tains {Cam's Himalaiciis), remarkable for the beauty of its fur. It
is not uncommon in Doon and in Kumaon.
The American Red Fox {Canis fulvns,vs.x, decussatus).—\i
has been the opmion of many naturalists, and even of Cuvier, that
the European Fox extends over the northern portion of the American
contment: we consider, however, the Red Fox {Cam's {vu/*es)
fulvus) of that portion of the globe to be a distinct species. It
differs from its European congener in the same points and de"-rees
as does the Wolf of the one country from that of the other. "^The
American Fox is, in fact, to be distinguished by the breadth of its feet,
and their consequent capacity for progression on the snow, and by
the quantity of long hair clothing the back part of the cheeks, which,
in conjunction with the shorter ears and nose, gives the head a more
compact appearance. The Red Fox has a much finer brush than the
European, and is altogether a larger animal. The fur of the body is
full, long, soft, and of a bright rufous brown ; the skin is therefore
valued as an article of trade, and several thousand are annually
imported into England from the fur countries, where the animal is
very abundant, especially in the wooded parts. It is not, however,
confined to the colder latitudes ; its range, in fact, extends through-
out the whole of the United States. In habits and manners the Red
Fig. 273. — American Red Fox.
Fox agrees with our common Reynard, but possesses neither the
same wind nor the same vigour and power of endurance.
" It runs," says Dr. Richardson, " for about a hundred yards with
great swiftness, but its strength is exhausted in the first burst, and
it is soon overtaken by a Wolf or a mounted huntsman." Foxes of
various gradations of colour, termed Cross Foxes, are common in
the fur countries of North America. These are considered by
Dr. Richardson and most naturalists to be varieties of the Red Fox ;
and such is the opinion of the native hunters, than whom none are
more likely to possess accurate knowledge on such points. Fig. 273
represents the ordinary Cross Fox, distinguished by a grey fur
mingled with black, which latter colour prevails over the shoulders.
A rarer and more valuable variety is the Black or Silver Fox {Ca?iis
fulvus, var. a>-geiitatus'). Dr. Richardson states that seldom more
than four or five of this variety are taken in a season at one post,
though the hunters no sooner find out the haunts of one than they
use every art to catch it, because its fur fetches six times the price of
any other fur produced in North America. This Fox is sometimes
found of a rich deep glossy black, the tip of the tail alone being
white: in general, however, it is silvered over (" sable silvered "),
the end of each of the long hairs of the fur being white, producing a
beautiful appearance. Specimens of this animal may be seen at the
British Museum.
The Virginian Fox ( ViiIJ>es 'Virginiamis) appears to be a distinct
species, and so most certainly is the Kit, or Tricoloured Fox ( F".
cinereo-argentatus), of which the skins are common in the shops of
furriers. This animal is of small size, and is numerous on the plains
extending from the Saskatchewan to the Missouri, and on those of
Columbia. It prefers the open country, at a distance from wooded
districts, where it dwells in deep burrows of its own excavation, and
is e.xtremely vigilant and fleet. Dr. Richardson suggests that it may
be regarded as the American representative of the Corsac Fox of the
deserts of Tartary, being similar to that species in habits and
manners, and frequenting localities of the like character.
The Arctic Fox {Canis [znclpes] Z^^b/zcj-).— Terreanee-arioo of
the Esquimaux of Melville Peninsula ; Terieniak of the Greenlanders ;
Wappeeskeeshew-makkeeshew of the Cree Indians ; Peszi of tlie
Russians.
In the high northern latitudes of the globe, the Arctic Fox is the
sole representative of its race. Its range extends through Siberia,
along the borders of the Arctic Ocean, through the bleak regions of
the Esquimaux, and the dreary realms of Greenland.
" These Foxes," says Dr. Richardson, " inhabit the most northern
lands hitherto discovered." In North America their southern limit
appears to be about latitude 50°. They are numerous on the shores
of Hudson's Bay, north of Churchill, and exist also in Behring's
Straits. They breed on the sea-coast, and chiefly within the Arctic
circle, forming burrows in sandy spots, not solitary, like the Red
Fox, but in little villages, twenty or thirty burrows being constructed
adjoining to each other. We saw one of these villages at Point
Tumagain, in lat. 68J degrees. Towards the middle of winter
they retire southwards, evidently in search of food ; keeping as much
as possible on the coast, and going much farther to the south in the
districts where the coast-line is in the direction of their march.
Captain Parry relates, that the Arctic Foxes, which were previously
numerous, began to retire from Melville Peninsula in November, and
that by January few remained. Towards the centre of the continent,
THE ARCTIC FOX— THE FENNEC.
107
65°, they were seen only in the winter, and then not in numbers,
are very scarce in lat. 61°, and in lat. 53° two only were seen in
inlat.
They are. _-j , ._ ■, . ■ t-
forty years! " Hcarne says that when taken young the Arctic i-ox
may be domesticated in some degree, but he never saw one that was
fond of being caressed." Though not destitute of intelligence, the
Arctic Fox, unlike the Common Fox, is unsuspicious and destitute of
Fig. 274. — The Arctic Fox abroad.
caution : it has been known to stand by while the hunter was pre-
paring a trap, and on his retiring to run headlong into it. Captain
Lyon received fifteen from a single trap in four hours. The voice of
this species is a kind of yelp, and when a man approaches their
breeding-places, they put their heads out of their burrows and bark
at him, allowing him to come within range of shot. They appear to
have the power of decoying other animals within their reach by
imitating their voices.
" While tenting," says Captain Lyon, "we observed a Fox prowl-
ing on a hill-side, and heard him for several hours afterwards in
different places imitating the voice of a brent-goose." Eggs, young
birds, blubber, and carrion of any kind constitute the food of this
Fox — especially different species of Lemmings, which are greedily
devoured. In general form the Arctic Fox resembles the European
Fig. 275. — Arctic Fox at home.
Species, but is considerably smaller ; and owing to the great quantity
of white woolly fur with which it is covered, is somewhat like a little
Shock-dog. The brush is large and full, affording an admirable
covering for the nose and feet, to which it acts as a muff when the
animal sleeps. Although the head is not so pointed as in our
English species, yet it has that air of slyness which is so character-
istic of all Foxes. The eyes are clear and bright, and of a hazel
colour. (See Figs. 274 and 275.)
Captain Lyon remarks that tlie muzzle of the female is shorter
than that of the male, and has less of cunning and more of mildness
in its expression. The ears are short, and thickly covered with hair,
and their edges appear as if they had been cropped. The cheeks
are ornamented by a projecting ruff, which extends from behind the
ears quite round the lower part of the face, to which it gives an
agreeable appearance. The legs are rather long than otherwise,
and show great strength of muscle. The feet, which are large, are
armed with strong claws. " When the animal is standing still, the
hind-legs are so placed as to give the idea of weakness in the loins,
which is certainly not the case, as few animals can make more
powerful leaps. The general weight is about eight pounds, although
some were found to be as low as seven, and a few as high as nine
pounds and a-half when in good case."
The Arctic Fox is cleanly, and free from any unpleasant smell : it
is habitually watchful, and when asleep, opens its eyes at the
slightest noise near it. Day is its season of rest : during the night
its activity is extreme, and it gambols or hunts for food till daybreak.
While in pursuit of its prey it is mute, but in captivity, or when irri-
tated, it utters a short sharp bark. When first taken its rage is
ungovernable, nor is it ever thoroughly reconciled to confinement.
Those which Captain Lyon had were observed to hide their food,
like the Dog, under lumps of snow ; snow also was their substitute
for water, and they would roll in it with evident satisfaction. " When
the snow was slightly scattered on the decks, they did not lick it up,
as Dogs are accustomed to do, but by repeatedly pressing with their
nose, collected small lumps at its extremity, and then drew it up into
the mouth with the assistance of the tongue." Though a few Arctic
Foxes remain white during the summer, it is only in the winter that
the majority assume this pure snowy livery, accompanied by an in-
crease in the fulness and thickness of the fur, which deeply covers
even the soles of the feet. In summer the fur is thinner, and of a
dusky brownish ash or leaden tint ; and the callous pads of the toes
become partially visible. Some very interesting particulars of these
Foxes, and also of the Esquimaux Dogs, described in p. 93, ante,
may be found in the works of Ross, Parry, and other Arctic naviga-
tors, as also in the reports of the Arctic Expedition under Captain
Nares, in i875-'76.
The Fennec {Megalotis Feiinccus). — CatiisZerda, Zimmermann ;
Megalotis Ccrdo, llliger ; Fennicus Ccrdo, Lacepede ; Viverra
aurifa, Blumenbach ; Fennec of the Arabs^ Bruce. (Sec Fig. 276.)
Fig. 276. — Fennec.
For our first knowledge of this elegant little animal we are in-
debted to the celebrated Abyssinian traveller Bruce, who discovered
it in Nubia. So little, however, was its true character understood,
that in the third volume of the Supplement to Buffon's work it is
termed "animal anonyme," and even M. Geoffrey for some time re-
garded it as identical with the Senegal Galago ; in fact, the French
naturalists were disposed to sink the Fennec as a new species of
Ca«/j altogether. Colonel Denham, however, recognised the animal
in the interior of North Africa, and accurately figured it in the Zoo-
logical Appendix to his Travels : he also brought a specimen to this
country, and thus established the truth ^of Bruce's description.
Riippell re-discovered it in Nubia, where Bruce had first seen it.
Whoever examines the skeleton of the Fennec will not hesitate for a
moment as to the place in nature which the animal occupies. The
skull, the teeth, the feet, declare it at once to belong to the Canine
group. The Fennec frequents tlie sandy desert tracts of Nubia, and
other districts of Northern Africa, dwelling in burrows of its own
excavation. It is said to live much on the fruit of the date, and to
climb trees in order to obtain its food : this fact, if true, is very re-
markable, being a marked departure from the habits and manners
of the rest of the present family. Bruce, indeed, says. that it builds
its nest in trees, and docs not burrow in the earth; but this state-
ment is contradicted by M. Riippell. The individual which Bruce
had in his possession while at Algiers, was fond of dates or any
sweet fruit, and was also partial to eggs. He would eat bread when
hungry, especially if sweetened with honey or sugar. The sight of
a bird aroused him to eager watchfulness as long as it was present,
and a Cat was his aversion. He would endeavour to hide from the
latter, and never showed a disposition to resist or defend himself.
The animal was disposed to sleep by day, but as night came on
became restless to excess. It was never heard to utter any
sound.
The Fennec is small and slightly made, with slender limbs. The
length of the head and body is about thirteen inches ; that of the tail.
io8
THE CAPE HUNTING-DOG.
eight ; the head is narrow, the muzzle pointed ; the pupil of the eye
large and black, the iris deep blue ; whiskers long and thick. The
ears are extremely large, as long as the head, broad at the base,
erect and pointed. The fur of the body is rather short, but full and
silky. The colour is uniform pale fawn or cream colour, passing
into white beneath ; the inside of the ear is fringed with long white
hairs ; the whiskers are white. In the districts of Benni Rlezzab
and Werglah, where the date grows, the Fennecs are hunted for
their skins, for which, according to Bruce, there is a market at
Mecca, whence they are exported to India.
In the sub-genus Megalotis, Cuvicr associates with the Fennec a
species from South Africa, the Canis Megalotis of De Lalande
{Megalotis Laiaadii, H. Smith). This animal is somewhat less
than the common Fox, but comparatively higher on the limbs ; its
general colour is yellowish-grey, but the feet and tail, together
with a stripe down the spine, are black : the ears are large and
spreading.
The Cape Hunting-Dog {Lycaon tricolor, Brookes). Lycaoii
fictus ; Canis ;pictiis, Desmarest ; Hyeena I'enatica, Burchell. —
This daring and ferocious animal, one of the pests of Southern
Africa, is a complete Dog in the form of the skull and the charac-
ters of the teeth ; it has, however, as in the Hyaenas, only four toes
on the anterior feet, and the same on the feet behind. In iigure it
is tall, lightly built, but muscular and well proportioned ; the limbs
are long, the cars large and erect, the jaws powerful, and the teeth
strong. Its aspect is wild and fierce, and its disposition treacher-
ous. The fur is close and of a sandy yellow, irregularly clouded and
Fig. 277. — Cape Hunting-Dog.
blotched with black and a little white. The tail is somewhat
bushy and of moderate length. The colour is subject to variation.
(Sec Fig. 277.)
Wild, fleet, and savage, this species hunts in packs mostly during
the night, but frequently in the day ; and so fleet is it that few
animals can escape. It often commits extensive ravages on the
flocks and herds of the farmer, though it seldom attacks horned
cattle openly, but steals on them while asleep, and bites off their
tails, even at the root, with one snap — a feat which the wide gape
and vast power of its jaws enable it to do with ease. Mr. Burchell,
on his return from Africa, brought a living individual to England,
which retained during life all its native ferocity. A specimen in the
Tower, many years ago, arrived in company with a young Cape
Lion, both occupying the same den, till the Lion became too strong
and rough in his play, when the Hunting-Dog was associated with
a Striped Hyana, and two of the spotted species, with which it
agreed tolerably well.
It is generally the opinion of naturalists, that this species, for
which the celebrated anatomist, the late Joshua Brookes, Esq.,
founded the genus Lycaon, is an intermediate link in the chain of
the Carnivora, uniting the canine group to the Hyxnas ; indeed, in
some points of general aspect, and in the number of the toes, the
approximation of this Dog to the latter animals is so marked, that
Mr. Burchell regarded it as a Hya;na, and as such Temminck de-
scribed it under the title of Hytsna J>icta, though he afterwards
assigned it to the genus Canis. The name of Hyaena-Dog has also
been conferred upon it ; but as Mr. Swainson gives this title to the
Aard-Wolf {Protcles), we drop it altogether for the sake of avoiding
confusion or misapprehension.
In size, the Cape Hunting-Dog (Wilde Honden of the Dutch
colonists) is as large as a Pointer or Hound, but higher on the
limbs in proportion to the bulk of the body. We are not aware that
any serious attempts have been made to domesticate it.
In concluding our remarks on the Dog family, we venture to quote
a beautiful poem by Wordsworth, on the fidelity of the Dog to man.
"A barking sound the shepherd hears,
A cry as of a dog or fox ;
lie halts, and searches with his eyes
Among the scattered rocks :
And now at distance can discern
A stirring in a brake of fern ;
From which immediately leaps out
A dog, and yelping runs about.
The dog is not of mountain breed ;
Its motions, too, are wild and shy ;
With something, as the shepherd thinks,
Unusual in its cry :
Nor is there any one in sight
All round, in hollow or in height ;
Nor shout nor whistle strikes his ear :
What is the creature doing here ?
It was a cove, a huge recess,
That keeps till June December's snow;
A lofty precipice in front,
A silent tarn below.
Far in the bosom of Ilelvellyn,
Remote from public road or dwelling,
Pathway, or cultivated land.
From trace of human foot or hand.
There sometimes does a leaping fish
.Send through the tarn a lonely cheer ;
The crags repeat the raven's croak
In symphony austere.
Thither the rainbow comes, the cloud ;
And mists that spread the flying shroud,
And sunbeams ; and the sounding blast
That, if it could, would hurry past.
But that enormous barrier binds it fast.
Not knowing what to think, awhile
The shepherd stood ; then makes his way
Towards the dog, o'er rocks and stones.
As quickly as he may ;
Nor far had gone before he found
A human skeleton on the ground.
Sad sight ! the shepherd with a sigh
Looks round to learn the history.
From those abrupt and perilous rocks
The man had fallen, that place of fear !
At length upon the shepherd's mind
It breaks, and all his clear:
He instantly recall'd the name,
And who he was and whence he came ;
Remember'd, too, the very day
On which the traveller pass'd this way.
Eut hear a wonder now, for sake
Of which this mournful tale I tell !
A lasting monument of words
This wonder merits well.
The dog, which still was hovering nigh,
Repeating the same timid cry.
This dog had been through three months' space
A dweller in that savage place.
Yes, proof was plain that since the day
On which the traveller thus had died
The dog had w'atched about the spot.
Or by his master's side.
How nourished here through such long time
He knows, who gave that love sublime.
And gave that strength of feeling, great
Above all human estimate."
Having described the chief members of the Dog family, or CanidcB,
we pass on to consider the second family of the Carnivora — viz.,
the Felidcs, embracing Lions, Tigers, Cats, Hyaenas, &c.
1
THE FELID^, INCLUDING LIONS, CATS, ETC.
T09
CHAPTER X.
MAMMALIA.-ORDF.R. CARNIVORA— THE FELIDiE, INCLUDING LIONS, CATS, Etc.
i^
X ,-; ■:, "
m
ffS*
HATEVER object may have
been intended in the creation
of the Fclidcv, it must be ad-
mitted that their organisation among the
Mammalia is of the highest type. In this
family are included the Lions, the Tiger,
the Leopard, the Lynx, the Cat, and many
others. It scarcely admits of any subdi-
vision, and in it are comprehended the most
sanguinary, the most formidable, and the most
typical of the order Ca?-mz<o?-a. That is to say,
in these animals the organs of destruction ex-
hibit the highest degree of development. Among
quadrupeds they are what the Eagles and Fal-
cons are among Birds.
Essentially carnivorous, still, unlike the Dog
which relishes carrion, they reject putrescent
flesh, and consequently arc more expressly endowed
and fitted for the work of w'holesale slaughter.
Their instincts and powers are, in fact, in admirable
accordance. Their frame is vigorous, but agile —
their limbs are short, the joints well knit, but supple,
and every motion is easy, free, and graceful. They
leap and bound with astonishing velocity. Their foot-
fall is silent, the feet being provided with elastic pads ;
namely, a large basal ball or cushion, and one under
each toe. (See Fig. 278.)
In the form of their bodies the Cats are all light, and
excessively muscular, so that their activity is most
astonishing. Their legs are usually of moderate length,
but exceedingly powerful, and the toes (as will be here-
after illustrated) are armed with long, curved, and
acute claws, which are preserved from being blunted
by a peculiar arrangement of the phalanges. They
always take their prey by springing suddenly upon it
from some concealed station ; and
if they miss their aim in the first
attack, rarely follow it up. They
are all, accordingly, cowardly,
sneaking animals, and never wil-
lingly face their enemy unless
brought to bay or wounded, trust-
ing always to their power of sur-
prising their victims by the aid of
their stealthy and noiseless move-
ments. They are nocturnal and
solitary in their habits, or, at most, live in families ; and are dis-
tributed in all parts of the world, with the exception of Australia,
but principally in the warmer regions, where alone the larger species
are met W'ith.
The dentition of the Fclidce is very characteristic. The incisors
are very small, six above and six below. The canines are of enor-
mous size and strength ; the false molars are sharp and compressed ;
above, there are two on each side — the first small, the second long
and conical. This is followed by the laniary molar {carnassiere),
which is bicuspid with an inner blunt tubercle ; behind the laniary is
a very minute tuberculous molar ; but this is wanting in the lower
jaW: and the laniary is bicuspid.
Fig. 278.
Dental formula.— See Figures 279, 280, 281.)
Incisors,-- ; canines, i^li; molars, tli = ^o.
Professor Owen, in treating on the dentilion
of the Fclidcs, assigns it as follows : — Inci-
sors, ll^ ; canines, i^Hi ; pre-molars, 3~3 .
3-3 i-i 2-2
molars, ~ = 30.
l-l
The shortness of the muzzle, and the boldness
of the occipital ridge, give an appearance to the
skulls of the Fclidiz as if they were drawn out
backwards ; the forehead has no sudden rise,
but is continued from the nasal bones to the
occiput, in a gradual arch. The union of the
interparietal and occipital ridges forms a beet-
ling promontory (to which is attached the liga-
mentum nucha;), overhanging the occipital bone,
which has a perpendicular, and even inwardly
inclined, direction ; so that the back of the skull appears abruptly
truncate. The orbits are large, of a somewhat oval form, and
obliquely situated. The outer ring is incomplete, excepting, as far
as we ourselves have examined, in one species, the Felts pla7i!ceps
of Sumatra, in which, as in the Ichneumons, it is a fair circular
'■s^;-.:^
ring ; indeed, the skull of this species we considered as approaching
in its contour to that of some of the VivcrrcB. The tympanic bulla,
enclosing the internal organs of hearing, is largely developed. In
the Fclis ;plajiiceps it is of peculiar magnitude.
The bold ridges, and the strength and form of the zygomatic
arches, indicate the immense volume ai^d stress of the muscles
Fig. 2S1,
destined to act upon the lower jaw. The articulating condyles are
not raised above the straight horizontal line carried along the sides
of the lower jaw; they are cylindrical, and firmly locked in the
transversely elongated glenoid cavities, the margins of which are so
elevated before and behind as to render any but a simple hinge-like
motion impossible. The scissor-like action of the lowcr-jaw is in
no
THE SKELETON AND LIMBS OF THE FELID^.
accordance with the trenchant character of the molar teeth, the
mutual action of which, on each other, resembles that of the blades
of a pair of shears. (See Figs. 282, 283, and 284.)
Professor Owen, in describing the brain of the Felid^, remarks
that the advance of intelligence from the lower animals is remark-
ably illustrated in this family. In the Lion, the cerebrum attains
enormous dimensions, so that
the other elements of the ence-
phalon are hidden in its folds.
At pages 3 and 4, ante, will be
found some remarks on this
subject.
The skulls of the Felidce ex-
hibit a general sameness of
contour ; the principal differ-
ence being that of size, ac-
cording to the species. The
Ocelot has, perhaps, the most
rounded skull, while that of
the Felis ^laniceps is flattened
between the orbits, and nar-
row. Those of tlie Lion and
Tiger are very similar, and not
easy to be discriminated from
each other. There is greater
straightness in the longitudinal
outline of the upper surface in
that of the Lion ; greater flat-
ness of the space between the
orbits ; and the infra-orbital
foramina are larger and often
double. The following cha-
racter, first noticed by Pro-
fessor Owen, appears to be an unfailing criterion. In the Tiger,
the nasal processes of the maxillary bones never extend upwards
as far as the union of the nasal bones with the frontal, failing by the
third of an inch ; while in the Lion, the nasal processes of the
maxillary bones always attain the line of union between the nasal
and frontal bones, and sometimes even pass beyond it.
Fig. 2S2.
Fig. 2S3.
In the limbs of the Felidawa behold the finest display of muscular
development which can be conceived. The dissected arm of a Lion
or Tiger is a subject worthy the study of an artist. Hence to dash
down their prey is an easy task. It has been said that the Bengal
Tiger has been known to fracture the skull of a man with one stroke
of its heavy paw. We may easily conceive the force of the muscles
destined to act on the claws or talons to which we have already
alluded. There are five toes on the anterior, and four on the poste-
Fig. 2S4.
rior extremities ; and these armed with the formidable weapons in
question. By a beautiful structural conformation of the bones,
ligaments, and muscular parts, they are always preserved without
effort from coming in contact with the ground, and are retracted
within a sheath, so as to be kept sharp and ready for service, as
already explained.
This irivoluntary retraction, counteracted only by the action of
muscles, is effected by two elastic ligaments, so contrived as to roll
back the ultimate phalanx which the claw encases, and bring it down
by the outer side of the penultimate phalanx, which is flattened off
to remove every obstruction. From this position the talon can be
thrown forward in a moment, the action of the double elastic spring
Fig. 2S5.
being counteracted by that of the flexor muscles. In the act of
striking with great violence, the flexor muscles strongly contract,
brace up the tendon, and throw out the talon, which, when the act
is over, returns to its sheath. An analogous arrangement exists in the
claws of the Sloth. Its hooks, as they may be termed, are governed
by an elastic ligament, but its tendency, contrary to what we see in
the Cat tribe, is to press
them towards the palm, in
order to enable the animal
to cling without fatigue to
the branches from which
it suspends itself. In Fig.
285, which is a toe from
the left foot of a young
Lion, represented in a state
of extension, a points to
the two elastic ligaments ;
b the tendon of the exten-
sor muscle ; c a slip of in-
elastic tendon ; d the ten-
don of the flexor muscle,
which passes over the
upper extremity of the last
phalanx at e, as over a
pulley, and thus assists
the powerful action of that
muscle.
In Fig. 286, a toe from
the hind-foot, the two elas-
tic ligaments {a) converge
to be inserted into the
upper angle of the last phalanx, and draw it backwards upon,
instead of by the side of, the penultimate phalanx, c is a slip of
the lateral inelastic tendon, and d the tendon of the flexor profundus,
which is strongly strapped down by
an annular ligament, e.
Figs. 287 and 2S8 are also illus-
trative of the mechanism described.
Fig. 288, a and b, the extremities
of the two bones of the fore-arm ; c c,
the carpal or wrist bones; dd, the
metacarpal bones; ee, the first row
of phalangal bones ; ff, the second
row of phalangal bones; g g-, the
last row encased with the claws.
Fig. 287, a, second phalanx of a
toe ; b, the last phalangal bone ; c, an elastic ligament.
The general skeleton of the Fclidcs, as exemplified by that of the
Lion, is illustrated by Fig. 289.
Fig;. 2S6.
Fig. 2S7.
Fig. 2SS.
ORGAA^S OP THE FELID^—THE LION.
Ill
The back and loins arc long ; the vcrtcbrre of the neck are remark-
ably large and solid, the first or atlas having its lateral processes
flat and expanded ; the spinous processes of the dorsal vertebra; arc
long, with the exception of the last two or three ; the transverse pro-
cesses of the lumbar vertebra; are large ; the spinous processes are
broad, but rather short, and inclined gently forwards, but become,
apparatus is accordingly developed. We have already noticed the
magnitude of the tympanic bulla.
.SV«c//.— This sense is also in great perfection, and the olfactory
apparatus is complicated, and abundantly supplied with nerves. The
Fclidcc are, however, less distinguished for the sense of smell than
the canine race.
Fig. 2S9.
as they advance to those of the dorsal vertebras, more upright; while,
on the other hand, those of the dorsal in descending lose their
obliquity; the chest is deep; the scapula is broad, with a high
strong spine ; the clavicle is small, and merely imbedded in the
muscles of the shoulder; the humerus is short and stout; it is
remarkable for a high ridge or crest, which rises above the outer
condyle of its lower articulation. Above the inner condyle there is
an orifice for the passage of the artery, which docs not run round
the bone, but, as it were, pierces it in a direct course onwards.
This orifice is found, not only in all the FeUdcs, but in some of the
American Monkeys, in the Seals, the Badgers, the Coatis, the
Racoons, the Mustete, the Civets, the Ichneumons, and others ; but
not in the Dog, the Hyjena, or the Bear.
Professor Owen, in describing the skeleton of the FelidcB as typi-
fied by the Lion, says that there are 13 dorsal, 7 lumbar, 3 sacral,
and 23 — 25 caudal vertebra. The spine of the axis is very high,
long, and broad, posteriorly. The anterior dorsal spines are lofty
and strong for the origin of muscles implanted in the ridged and
pitted back part of the skull, whereby the head can be raised, together
with the prey which the jaws have seized. A Lion thus draws along
the carcass of the Buffalo, and can, with ease, raise and bear off the
body of a man.
With respect to the perfection of the senses in the Felidce, a few
words may be necessary.
Sight. — The sense of sight is very acute, and adapted not only for
diurnal, but also for nocturnal vision. The eyes are
placed obliquely, and glare in the dark, owing to the
brilliancy of the tapetura lucidum, a concave mirror at
the bottom of the eye.
This glare is visible even during the day, especially
when the animals are enraged, for the pupil dilates under excite-
ment. In the smaller Cats the pupil is vertically linear when con-
tracted ; but in the larger, as the Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Cheetah,
Jaguar, &c., it is circular.
Hearing.— Th& sense of hearing is exquisite, and the auditory
Fig. 291.
Tasie. — The sense of taste is not very refined. The tongue is
rough. The roughness of the tongue of the common Cat is familiar
to every one, as well as the action of Lions and Tigers in licking the
bones of their prey in order to scrape off the adherent particles of
flesh. This is effected by numerous horny papilte, differently
arranged in different species, but always with the points directed
backwards. Fig. 290 shows these papilla; on the Lion's tongue ;
and Fig. 291, a magnified view of them on a small portion.
Feeling. — The long bristles called whiskers, on each side of a Cat's
mouth, are familiar to all : these are important organs of touch.
They are attached to a bed of close glands under the skin, and each
is connected with a nerve. Hence they communicate to the animal
an impression from the slightest touch. If we imagine a Lion or
Tiger stealing through a jungle during the darkness of night, we
shall be able to account for the use of these whiskers. They indicate
to him, through the nicest feeling, any obstacle which may present
itself in his progress ; they prevent him from rustling the leaves or
boughs, and alarming his prey ; and they thus, in conjunction with
the soft springy pads of his feet, which render his steps noiseless,
enable him to steal upon his unsuspecting victim, and make his fatal
bound. We have already noticed an analogous provision existing in
the Bat tribe, at page 69, atite.
The Lion— /I'/w Leo.
This animal, the most noble and courageous of the Carnivora
(see Fig. 292) ; the Kimv {Leon) of the Greeks (Aenira {Lccctia^,
Lioness) ; Leo of the Latins {Lea xaALecana, Lioness) ; Leone oiWw^
Italians {Lco?iessa, Lioness) ; Leon, Spanish ; Lio7i, French {Lionttc,
Fig. 292. — The Lion.
Lioness ; Linceau, cub) ; Lowe, German {Likvinn, Lioness) ; Fcfis
Leo, Linn., is the subject of great variation in regard to size, colour,
and expression ; so that it is difficult to determine whether the Lion
of Asia really differs more from the Lion of South Africa, than
the Lion of South Africa from that of Ashantee, Barbary, or Nubia,
or that individuals of any of these races differ from each other.
But the Guzerat Lion, presented by the Nawab of Joonagurh, in
Kattywar, through Sir Erskine Perry and Colonel J.icob, which lived
in the menagerie of the Zoological Society of London from 1854 to
113
VARIETIES OF LIONS.
erev so silvpruTs VA ^-^ry irom a deep-red chesnut-brown to
S^iont^Tsf n'L'u'trATica "xhfcL'j'^ belief that a race of
equally. In the Nubian Tirmi; ,f °'°"'' °^ ^Iie mane varies
Cape Lions blaclf. b^^t"^;,"' ;" '' ' ^^""^ '^ ^'-^ ^"'™us, and in the
and the Cape countries The foH 'v ?' f""^ ""'' ''"""'^ '" ^ubia
saS n th'e"sre°d Recrrd,' "o"'^ -^^'her fro^m numerous pas-
Pafthia prodded l^tmldrXfbre^i'P'Atp^LVt'tL^Lr"'^ ^""^
fined to the nucrior wilds of Africa, to som^oTthe di ict °of Ar^a
wm
Wi^
0\\V/'
^e^eS *^?^: ^oi^f rc^::^ tz^ -^f T-^-- °^^
theCam'elswl#chctried%K™o?S "^ ^'^^^
attacked by them in the district of fh^e pLnfans aL C^.'?" ■''""
their march from Aconthus to ThprmW,S j Z, Crestonai, on
Saloniki): he adds also that these^nifl''"''^" Thessalonia, now
mountains betw.een the ri 4s NestusTT^^^^^^^^^ numerous in the
Which flows through Ac.r:^i^'T:sl^^-^^J^^^^-
Tig. 293.— Head and Mane of an African Lion.
■\ \
The Cape Lion presents two varieties, one yellowish, the other
THE MANE LESS LION.
I '3
The
brown, the mane of the latter often deepening- almost to black,
dark Lion is said to be the most ferocious. (Fig-. 296.)
Of the Asiatic breeds, the Bengal Lion has the mane magnificently
developed, the colourof the fur of a dark ycUowish-br&wn. (Fig. 297.)
It attains to a very large size. The Persian or Arabian Lion is said
to be characterised by the pale colour of the fur. (I'lg. 298.)
Within the last few years, a maneless, or nearly maneless, breed
has been discovered in Guzerat. Pliny alludes to a maneless Lion,
which he regarded as a hybrid, occurring in Africa. (See Fig. 294.)
It is to Captain Smee that we owe our knowledge of the maneless
Lion. On his return from Guzerat to England he brought several
skins of such Lions which he himself had shot ; some of these he
presented to the Zoological Society of London, and communicated
an interesting- paper to the " Zoological Transactions " on the sub-
ject. The maneless Lion of Guzerat differs from its Bengal, Persian,
and African relatives, not only in the absence of a full mane, but
also in being rather lower on the limbs, and in having a somewhat
among the cattle, and when attacked exhibit great boldness. The
native name for this Lion is Ontia/i Daug, or Camel-Tiger, an ap-
pellation from the resemblance in colour to the Camel.
The habits and manners of the Lion have been detailed by Gordon
Cummmg, Livingstone, Jules Gerard, and various other travellers ■
and no one can doubt its strength, its daring, and ferocity Near
the precincts ofcolonisation in Southern Africa, and elsewhere where
fire-arms are in use, it has learned by experience their fatal effects
and gained a consciousness that its powers avail but little against
such weapons of destruction.
The king of the forest is a term misapplied to this noble beast ■
forests are not its haunts, but burning desert plains and wide karroos
covered only with shrubby vegetation, or interspersed with tracts of
low brushwood. In India it frequents the jungles and the luxuriant
borders of rivers, among which it makes its lair.
During the day the Lion usually slumbers in his retreat ; as night
sets in he rouses from his lair and begins his prowl. The nocturnal
Fig. 294. — A Maneless Lion.
shorter tail, furnished at its tip with a larger brush. The colour is
pale fulvous. A male killed by Captain Smee measured, including
the tail, 8 feet 9-^ inches ; his w-eight, exclusive of the internal vis-
cera, was thirty-five stone (fourteen pounds to the stone) ; his height
3 feet 6 inches ; and the impression of his paw on the sand measured
hi\ inches across.
It is along the banks of the Sombermuttee, near Ahmedabad, ac-
cording to Captain Smee, that this variety of the Lion is found : it
occurs also on the Rhun, near Rhunpor, and iiearPuttun in Guzerat.
During the hot months they inhabit the low, brushy, wooded plains
that skirt the Bhardar and Sombermuttee rivers from Ahmedabad to
the borders of Cutch, being driven out of the large adjoining tracts
of high jungle, called Bheers, by the practice annually resorted to by
the natives, of setting fire to the grass in order to clear it, and ensure
a succession of young shoots for the cattle upon the first fall of the
rains. So numerous are they, that Captain Smee killed, in one dis-
trict, eleven in the course of a month. They make terrible havoc
tempests of rain and lightning, which in Southern Africa are of
common occurrence, are to him seasons of joy : his voice mingles
with the roar of the thunder, and adds to the confusion and terror of
the timid beasts upon which he preys, and upon which he now ad-
vances with less caution and a bolder step. In general, however, he
waits in ambush or creeps insidiously towards his victim, which, with
a bound and a roar, he dashes to the earth.
Of the strength of the Lion we have most extraordinary examples
on record. To carry off a man — and this has but too often happened
— is a feat of no difficulty to this powerful brute. Indeed, when we
find that a Cape Lion seized a Heifer in his mouth, and, though the
legs dragged upon the ground, carried her off with apparently the
same ease as a Cat does a Rat, leaping a broad dyke with her with-
out the least difficulty— that another, and a young one, too, conveyed
a Horse about a mile from the spot where he had killed it— that a
third, which had carried off a two-year-old Heifer, was followed on
the track for five hours by horsemen, who observed that throughout
Q
114
VARIETIES OF LIONS.
the whole distance the carcass of the Heifer had only once or twice
touched the ground — we luay conceive that a man would be an in-
significant burden. Sucn a powerful animal, however, we must not
expect to see in the confined dens of a menagerie : there their limbs
become cramped, their muscular system undeveloped, their bones
often distorted, and their daring and ferocity subdued.
Fig. 295. — The Earbaiy Lion.
The Indian Lion displays the same courage as its African relative.
Instead of retreating on the hunters' approach, he stands his ground,
or rushes to meet them open-mouthed on the plain. Lions are thus
easily shot ; but if they be missed or only slightly wounded, they
prove very formidable. They will spring on the heads of the largest
Elephants, and have, it is asserted, often pulled them to the earth,
riders and all.
In the defence of her cubs the Lioness is resolute in the extreme,
and is doubly savage during the time they remain under her care.
Her mate participates in her feelings. The Lioness goes with young
five months, and generally produces from two to four at a birth.
They are born blind. For several months their fur is obscurely
striped or brindled, the markings reminding us of those of the Tiger :
Fig. 296. — Cape Lions.
these stripes branch off from a blackish line running down the
middle of the back. Their voice has a Cat-like mew. Gradually
the uniform colour is assumed, and at about the end of twelve months
the mane begins to appear : this increases, and the voice deepens
into a roar. Fig. 299 gives an illustration of a Lioness and her
whelps.
The Lion attains to maturity about the fifth year : its term of life
is of considerable extent. Pompey, which died in the Tower in
1760, had been there for seventy years ; and one from the Gambia
died there at the age of sixty-three. Imagination pictures such a
one in the solitary desert : age has overtaken him, his eye is dim,
his force abated, he fails in his once fatal spring ; gaunt, and lean,
and feeble, he drags his weary limbs to the old haunt— the haunt
from which he once went forth in the pride of his strength, when his
voice scattered terror through the desert— there at length to die.
Better had he fallen by the hunter's javelin, Vi-hen "his limbs were
strong and his courage higli," than thus drain to the dregs a miser-
able existence.
Fig. 297. — Lion, with Lioness, from Eastern Asia.
It has long been a popular belief that the Lion lashes himself with
his tail to stimulate himself into a r."ge : and though such a use for
it is out of the question, a sort of claw or prickle has been detected
at the termination of that organ. Mr. Bennett detected it in the tip
of the tail of a young Barbary Lion. Blumenbach had previously
ascertained the fact of its existence in a specimen examined by him-
self in 1829. M. Deshayes announced the existence of this prickle
in a Lion and Lioness which died in the Paris menagerie. Mr. Wood
Fig. 298. — Persian Lion.
detected it only once out of numerous Lions which he purposely
examined ; he also found a similar prickle on the tip of the tail of an
Asiatic Leopard.
This prickle is, in fact, only occasionally present ; it is not con-
nected with the caudal vertebra:, but, as Mr. Wood states, appears
to be inserted into the skin like the bulb of a bristle ; but M. Des-
hayes asserts that it is of a conical shape, and adheres to the skin
by its base ; as does also Blumenbach. (See Fig. 300.) We are
much inclined to think it nothing more than an indurated and par-
tially detached cuticle; certainly it falls off with the slightest
touch.
Hybrids between the Lion and Tigress (Fig. 301) have occurred in
our countr}'. One litter was produced in 1827, in Atkin's menagerie,
and another litter subsequently, from similar parents, was produced
at Windsor. In both cases the hybrids died before arriving "at
ANECDOTES OF THE LION.
"S
maturity. Their colour was brighter than that of true Lion-cubs,
and the bands more defined and darker.
Excepting in the vast wilds of Central Africa, untrodden by the
foot of the white man, the Lion, even in the regions to which it is at
Fig. 299. — Lioness and Whelps.
present restricted, is much more rare than formerly. The ancient
Romans procured incredible multitudes for the arena : Scylla
brought 100 males at once into the combat ; Pompey gave 600, of
which more than half were males ; Caesar, 400;
nor was it until the time of the later emperors
that any difficulty in procuring them began to
be experienced.
There are few travellers in Africa who have
not been under the necessity of encountering
this formidable beast ; and many are the ex-
citing narratives which have been related, ot
the incidents of the chase — of escaping from
almost certain death — of triumph over the foe.
Dr. Livingstone's account of his adventures
with a Lion is of thrilling interest. Singular
to say, his body was certainly identified, when
lately brought to England, by Sir W. Fer-
guson recognising the crushed bone of the
arm that had been caused by the attack of a
Lion on that celebrated traveller some twenty
years previously. Sir W. Ferguson had re-set
the arm during Livingstone's temporary visit
to England shortly after the accident.
As a general rule, the Lion is ornamented
with a mane of which the female is entirely
destitute. What are considered as the true
Lions belong exclusively to the Old World,
where, in former times, they were both widely
and abundantly diffused ; but with the ad-
vancement of man into their haunts, their
range has, every year, become more and more circumscribed, until
they are now only to be found in Asia and Africa. They no longer
Fig. 300.
F'b- jOI, — Liwii-'i'Jo';'' Cubs.
I
exist in Europe, a part of which, there is no doubt, they once in-
habited ; nor are they now to be found in Egj^pt, Palestine, or Syria.
Even in India and Persia, and some districts of Arabia, they have
become comparatively rare ; while the African Lion is gradually
retiring further and further from the Cape.
thus acknowledging his incapability of
disputing the ground of his native habitat
with the superior intelligence of man.
Mr. Bennett, formeriy of the Tower Me-
nagerie, observes, that " the true country
of the Lion is Africa, in the vast and un-
trodden wilds of which, from the immense
deserts of the north to the trackless forests
of the south, he reigns supreme and un-
controlled. In the sandy deserts of Ara-
bia, in the wild districts of Persia, and the
vast jungles of Hindostan, he still main-
tains a precarious footing ; but from the
classic soil of Greece, as well as from the
whole of Asia Minor, both of which were
once exposed to his ravages, he has been
utterly dislodged and extirpated."
The general prey of the African Liou
consists of the largest quadrupedal her-
bivora, few of which have the power to
combat with it, or to escape from the
deadly effects of its terrible spring. The
Bullocks of the farmer frequently become
the victims of its power ; so that their
owner is generally possessed of a good
gun, in the use of which he is usually so
well practised, as to rarely miss his aim
when brought within range of the foe of
his herds and flocks. It appears that,
when the Lion is roused, it walks off
quietly, at first, with a sort of hesitating,
uncertain step; nnd if there be no cover
near, and not pursued, it gradually in-
creases its speed to a trot, till it has
reached a secure distance, when it bounds
away. Upon such occasions its demeanour is described as of a
careless description, as if it did not want to fight, although, if
unduly pressed, was quite ready for the combat. When pursued
closely, it turns, and couches, generally with its face to its ad-
versary, which is the moment of trial to the nerves of the sports-
man. If he be sufficiently cool and skilful in the use of his arm,
the rifle ends the fray at once ; but if, in the flutter of the un-
expected turn of the Lion, he miss a vital part, or the ball whizzes
past, leaving the animal unscathed, he often charges his foe, and,
in his excited fury, takes a terrible vengeance. Even then, how-
ever, hunters sometimes save themselves by collecting resolution
to make a stand in the face of the beast. In the "Travels of
Lichtenstein," the following thrilling incident is related: — "When
passing near the Riet river-gate, and while our oxen were grazing.
Von Wyk, colonist, stopped and said, ' It is not more than two years
since, in the very place we now stand, I ventured to take one of the
most daring shots that ever was hazarded. My wife was sitting within
the house, "near the door; the children were playing about her, and
I was without, near the house, busied in doing something to a
waggon, when suddenly, though it was mid-day, an enormous Lion
appeared, came up and laid himself quietly down in the shade, upon
the very threshold of the door. My wife, either frozen with fear, or
aware of the danger attending any attempt to flee, remained motion-
less in her place, while the children took refuge in her lap. The cry
they uttered attracted my attention, and I hastened towards the door;
but my astonishment may well be conceived when I found the entrance
to it barred in such a way. Although the animal had not seen me,
unarmed as I was, escape seemed impossible ; yet I glided gently,
scarcely knowing what I meant to do, to the side of my house, up to
the window of my chamber, where I knew my loaded gun was stand-
ing. By a most happy chance, I had set it in the corner, close by
the window, so that I could reach it with my hand ; for, as you may
perceive, the opening is too small to admit of my having got in; and,
still more fortunately, the door of the room was open, so that I could
see the whole danger of the scene. The Lion was beginning to move,
perhaps with the intention of making a spring. Tliere was no
longer any time to think ; I called softly to the mother not to be
alarmed ; and invoking the name of the Lord, fired my piece ! The
ball passed directly over the hair of my boy's head, and lodged in
the forehead of the Lion, immediately over his eyes, which shot
forth, as it were, sparks of fire, and stretched him on the ground
so that he never stirred more. My relief may be easily imagined.
Size for size, the Lion is among the strongest of all animals. The
diminutive Mole, perhaps, surpasses it in the point of sheer strength ;
but, comparatively, its activity immeasurably outreaches that crea-
ture. Besides, the physical power ol the Mole is concentrated in its
fore-quarters, the hind parts being feeble; whereas the power oi the
n6
QUALITIES OF THE LION— THE TIGER.
Lion is distributed over its whole frame, giving to its movements an
unrivalled easiness of grace in all its motions. This is a rare quality
in an animal of such dimensions. In this respect, the 0.x, the Hip-
popotamus, Rhinoceros, or even the Horse, cannot approach it.
" There are several Hebrew words which are used for the Lion ; but
the one which signifies the animal in its adult state, is derived from
an Arabic word signifying strength ; and, therefore, the Lion is
called the sfrong one, as the Bat is called the night-flier. No
epithet could be better deserved, for the Lion seems to be a very
incarnation of strength ; and, even when dead, gives as vivid an
idea of concentrated power as when it is living. And when the skin
is stripped from the body, the tremendous muscular development
never fails to create a sensation of awe. The muscles of the limbs,
themselves so hard as to blunt the keen-edged knives employed by
a dissecter, are enveloped in their glittering sheaths, playing upon
each other like well-oiled machinery, and terminating in tendons,
seemingly strong as steel, and nearly as impervious to the knife.
Not until the skin is removed can any one form a conception of the
enormously powerful muscles of the neck, which enable the Lion to
lift the weighty prey which it kills, and to convey it to a place of
security." (See remarks at p. 85, ante.)
In reference to the roar of the Lion, Gordon Gumming tells us,
that it is one of the most striking things connected with the king of
beasts. It is grand in the extreme. " It consists, occasionally, of
a low, deep moaning, repeated five or six times, ending in faintly
audible sighs. He will often startle the forest with loud, deep-toned,
solemn roars, repeated five or six times in quick succession, each
increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his voice dies
away in five or six low muffled sounds, very much resembling distant
thunder. As a general rule, Lions roar during the night, their sigh-
ing moans comriiencing as the shades of evening envelop the forest,
and continumg at intervals throughout the night. In distant and
secluded regions, however, I have constantly heard them roaring
loudly as late as nine or ten o'clock on a bright sunny morning. In
hazy and rainy weather, they are to be heard at every hour in the
day, but their roar is subdued."
It would appear that there is hardly any other animal so invisible
as the Lion is in the dark. Almost every hunter has remarked this,
informing us of the Lion's approach at night, striking terror into
both Dogs and cattle as he draws so near as to enable his breathing
to be heard, and yet his form quite invisible. " Sometimes, when he
has crept near an encampment, or close to acattle inclosure, he does
not proceed any further, lest he should venture within the radius
illumined by the rays of the fire. So he crouches closely to the
ground, and, in the semi-darkness, looks like a large stone, or a
little hillock, that any one might pass close to it without perceiving
its real nature. This gives the opportunity for which the Lion
has been watching, and in a moment he strikes down the careless
straggler, and carries off his prey to the den. Sometimes, when very
much excited, he accompanies the charge with a roar; but, as a
general fact, he secures his prey in silence."
In reference to the dwelling-place of the Lion, we find that this is
generally chosen in the very depths of the forest, where, doubtless,
he feels security from both the annoyance and the attack of other
animals. " No Fox knows every hedge-row, ditch, drain, and covert,
better than the Lion knows the whole country round his den. Each
Lion seems to have his peculiar district, in which only himself and
his family will be found. These animals seem to parcel out the
neighbourhood among themselves by a tacit law like that which the
Dogs of Eastern countries have imposed upon themselves, and
which forbids them to go out of the district in which they were born.
During the night he traverses his dominions ; and, as a rule, he
retires to his den as soon as the sun is fairly above the horizon.
Sometimes he will lie in wait for prey in the broadest daylight ; but
his ordinary habits are nocturnal; and, in the day-time, he is
usually asleep in his secret dwelling-place."
In the Scriptures, the Lion is frequently mentioned in a manner
that shows how narrowly his characteristics had been watched, and
how well they were known. Many passages refer to his roar ; and
Mr. Wood, in his " Bible Animals," observes — " It is remarkable
that the Hebrew language contains several words by which the
different kinds of roar are described. One word, for example, repre-
sents the low, deep, thunder-like roar of the Lion seeking its prey.
This is the word which is used in Amos iii. 4, ' Will a lion roar in
the forest when he hath no prey?' and in this passage the word
which is translated as Lion, signifies the animal when full-grown
and in the prime of life; Another word is used to signify the sudden
exulting cry of the Lion as it leaps upon its victim. A third is used
for the angry grunt with which a Lion resents any endeavour to
deprive it of its prey — a sound with which we are all familiar, on a
minature scale, when we hear a Gat growling over a Mouse which
she has just caught. The fourth term signifies the peculiar roar
uttered by the young Lion, after it has ceased to be a cub, and before
it has attained maturity. This last term is employed in Jeremiah li.
38, ' They shall roar together like lions ; they shall yell as lions'
whelps;' in which passage two distinct words are used, one signi-
fying the roar of the Lion when searching after prey, and the other
the cry of the young Lions." The great strength of the animal is a
frequent subject of allusion. In the series of prophecies uttered by
Jacob on his death-bed, " the power of the princely tribe of Judah is
predicted under the metaphor of a Lion ; the beginning of its power
as a Lion's whelp ; the fulness of its strength as an adult Lion ; and
its matured establishment in power as the old Lion that couches
himself, and none dares to disturb him. Solomon, in the Proverbs,
speaks of him as ' the strongest among beasts, and that turneth not
away from any.' " Yet will he quit the haunts of the Gorilla, and is
even chary of combating the Rhinoceros. In the same book, Solo-
mon again alludes to its courage in the passage, " The wicked fleeth
when no man pursueth ; but the righteous are bold as a lion." In
the second book of Samuel, too, the courage of Benaiah, one of the
mighty three of David's army, is especially applauded, because he
fought and killed a Lion single-handed, and because he conquered
"two lion-like men of Moab." David, their leader, had likewise
distinguished himself, when nothing more than a herdsman, by
slaying a Lion that had attacked his herd. In the same book, brave
men are frequently described as having the hearts of Lions.
The Tiger.
The Royal Tiger, Tiypig {Tigris) of the Greeks ; Tigris of the
Latins; Tigre Royal, Buffon's Nat. Hist.; Felis Tigris, Linn.;
Tigris 7-egalis, as it is often called to distinguish it from the smaller
Tiger-Gats, is far more limited in its range than the Lion. It is ex-
clusively Asiatic. Hindostan may be considered as its head-quarters,
but it is common in the larger islands, as Sumatra, where it is a
fearful scourge. It is said to occur in the south of China, and also
in the deserts which separate China from Siberia, and as far as the
banks of the Obi. It is found in Tonquin and Siam. The ancients
regarded India and Hyrcania as nurseries of the Tiger. Hyrcania
was a province of the ancient Persian empire, at the south-eastern
corner of the Caspian Sea ; but its boundaries are not very determi-
nate. Whether the Tiger still inhabits this district is not very clear ;
there is no reason, however, to doubt the concurrent testimonies of
the ancient writers. (See Fig. 302.)
Fig. 302. — The Royal Tiger.
The Tiger is equal in size to the Lion, but of a more elongated
form, and pre-eminently graceful. The head also is shorter and
more rounded. Occasionally individuals occur exceeding any Lion
we have contemplated in menageries ; but the average height is
from 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet. The general tint of the fur is
of a fine yellow or reddish-yellow, ornamented by a series of trans-
verse black bands or stripes, which occupy the sides of the head,
neck, and body, and are continued on the tail in the form of rings :
the under parts of the body and inner parts of the limbs are almost
white. Individuals are sometimes exhibited of a very pale colour,
with the stripes very obscure ; and Du Halde says that the Chinese
Tiger {Lon-chii, or Lazi-haii) varies in colour, some being white,
striped with black and grey.
The ancients make frequent mention of the Tiger, with which it
cannot be doubted that Aristotle was well acquainted, though he
talks of a breed in India between this animal and the Dog, meaning
perhaps the Cheetah, which is used for the chase. Pliny describes
the " tremendous velocity " of the Tiger, and the devoted attach-
ment of the Tigress to her young. Oppian speaks of swift Tigers,
the offspring of the Zephyr ; and of its swiftness, Mr. Bell, the
traveller, and Pere Gerbillon, were witnesses in China, the chase of
this animal being a favourite diversion with the great Cam-Hi, the
Chinese monarch. It appears that Augustus was the first who ex-
THE TIGER, LEOPARD, PANTHER, AND OUNCE.
i'7
hibited a Tiger at Rome, which was tame, and kept in a cage.
Claudius afterwards exhibited four ; and Cuvler suggests that it was
in commemoration of this rare spectacle that the mosaic, discovered
some years since at Rome, was made, representing four Royal
Tio-ers in the act of devouring their prey.. As, however, India and
its'^products became better 'known to the Romans, the Tiger was
rendered more familiar to them, but was never exhibited in great
numbers. Ten were in the possession of Gordian III.
Fig. 303.' — Tiger-hunling. — Tiger seizing an Elcj
Active, powerful, and ferocious, the Tiger is more to be dreaded
than the Lion, because it is more insidious in its attack, and also
prowls abroad by day as well as by night. In some districts of
India and in Sumatra its ravages are frightful. In Sumatra the
infatuated natives seldom
attempt their destruction,
having a notion that they
are animated by the souls
of their ancestors. Tiger-
hunting is one of the favour-
ite field-sports of the East ;
and as the chase is not
unattended with danger, it
is productive of proportion-
ate excitement. Though
horsemen as well as persons
on foot attend on these
occasions, it is more for the
sake of "being in at the
death," than of taking a decided part, for the Horse will seldom
stand steadily when near this dreaded beast. It is to the armed
riders on Elephants that the dangerous work of rousing up the Tiger
from the jungle covert is left, and of firing at him as he bounds
along. The Tiger's first object is to escape under the covert of the
long grass or jungle ; but, when wounded or hard pressed, he will
tUrn with great fury, and by springing on the Elephant's head or
shoulder, endeavour to reach his antagonists. . (See Fig. 303.) The
agitation of the Elephants, which often lose all obedience to control
at such a moment, together with the rapidity of the attack, render
this a critical juncture, and fatal accidents have often embittered
the conclusion of the contest. Instances are on record in which men
have been carried off by
Tigers while travelling in
company with others. In
some parts of India, the enor-
mous destruction of men and
domestic animals has le 1 to
prize-money being given for
killing Tigers, &c. Upwards
of ^'20,000 annually is thus
distributed.
Tigers are destroyed by vari-
ous devices — pitfalls, traps,
the spear, and gun. The plan
of the box-trap and looking-
glass for taking Tigers, Leo-
pards, &c. — a device to be
found in ancient sculpture,
according to Montfaucon — is
said to be practised by the
Chinese at the present day.
Fig. 304 refers to this kind
of trap.
Those who have represented
the Tiger as untameable have
no ground for the assertion.
It is as capable of being
tamed, and of attachment to
its keeper, as any other ani-
mal of its kind. Yet with the
Tiger, the Lion, and others of
the race, caution should be
used. Their natural disposi-
tion is ever ready to break out,
and the mildest will, however
tame they be, often show
"the wild trick of their an-
cestors."
Neither the Tiger nor the
Lion are capable of climbing
trees, as are most of the
lighterof the feline race : their
prey is therefore exclusively
confined to Antelopes, Deer,
Oxen, Horses, and the like;
while Monkeys, and even
Birds, are among the prey of
the Leopard, the Panther, and
the smaller Felidce.
The Leopard, Panther,
AND Ounce.
The Leopard {Felis I.co-
;pa rdiis ; L eopa rdus i'ariiis\
the Panther {Felis Pardus),
arid the Ounce of Buffon
{Felis Uacia ; Uncia irbis), have been by many naturalists con-
founded together, and even with the Jaguar of the American conti-
nent. With respect to the Leopard and Panther, there are great
difficulties in coming to a determination whether they are distinct
species or not. In both we observe rosettes, or spots arranged in
Head.
Fig. 304. — Leopard-catching
C^^^.
Fig. 305. — The I-.copard.
ii8
THE LEOPARD, PANTHER, AND OUNCE.
rose-form, on a fine yellow ground; but in tlie
arrangement of these rosettes there is the g:
Major H. Smith defines the Leopard as differing
in being of a paler yellowish colour, of rather
smaller size, and with the dots rose-formed, con-
sisting of several dots partially united into a
circular figure in some instances, and into a
quadrangular, triangular, or other less determi-
nate form, in others ; having also isolated black
spots, especially about the outside of the limbs.
(See Fig. 305.)
In the Panther the open spots have the central
space darker than the general colour of the
sides. The subject is still open for investigation.
Both these beautiful creatures are widely
spread in the Old World, being natives of Africa,
India, and the Indian Islands, as Ceylon, Su-
matra, &c., etc. In Java a black variety {Felis
melas) is not uncommon, and such are occa-
sionally seen in our menageries : they are deeper
than the general tint, and show in certain lights
only. (Fig. 306.) A black cub, it is said, occa-
sionally occurs in the same nest with others of
the ordinary colours.
Nothing can exceed the grace and activity of
these animals: they bound with astonishing ease,
climb trees, and swim ; and the flexibility of the
body enables them to creep along the ground
with the cautious silence of a Snake on their
unsuspecting prey. In India the Leopard is
called by the natives the Tree Tiger, from its
genemlly taking refuge, when pursued, in a tree,
and also from being often seen among the
branches : so quick and active is the animal in
this situation, that it is not easy to take a fair
aim at him.
Antelopes, Deer, small quadrupeds, and
Monkeys, are its prey. It seldom attacks a
man voluntarily, but if provoked becomes a
formidable assailant.
size and minor I The'Leopard is taken in pitfalls and traps. In some old writers
eatest variation. there are accounts of the Leopard being taken in a trap by means of
from the Panther \ a mirror, which, when the animal jumps against it, brings the door
Fig. 307. — The Senegal Leopard.
Fig. 30S. — Syrian Leopards.
down upon it. This story may have received some sanction from the
disposition of the domestic Cat, when young, to survey her figure in
a looking-glass. (See Fig. 304, ante.)
The Leopard and Panther are easily tamed, and become gentle
and affectionate, purring when pleased, and rubbing their sides
against the bars of their cage, or against their keeper like a Cat.
When at play they bound around their enclosure with the agility of
a Squirrel, and so quick that the eye can scarcely follow their move-
ments. From such an exhibition we may easily form some idea of
their agile movements in a state of nature.
In Loudon's " Magazine of Natural History," is an account, by
Mrs. Bowditch, of a tame Leopard which she had in her possession.
She won the affections of the creature by presenting him with laven-
der-water on a tray-card. The animal revelled in the delicious
essence almost to ecstacy. We know the fondness of the common
Cat for mint, valerian, and other aromatic herbs, on which they de-
light to roll. The Leopard stands about two feet in height : its
figure is slim and graceful, but vigorous, and its proportions ad-
mirable. The two preceding cuts represent the Senegal and Syrian
Leopard respectively. (Figs. 307 and 308.)
The Ounce [Once, Buffon), Fe/i's Uncia. — Whatever maybe the
specific distinction between the Leopard and Panther, no one can
Fig. 309. — Ounce.
hesitate as to the Ounce, figured by Buffon, and after him by Bewick
("Quadrupeds"). Till recently, however, it was confounded with
one or both of the above animals, but is most decidedly a different
species. Our figure (309) is taken from a specimen in the British
Museum. The fur is full and long, indicating most probably a
mountain residence rather than the sultry plains. The general
THE RIMAU-DAHAK^, TIGER-CAT, SERVAL, AKW CHEETAIT.
»i9
colour is grey or whitish-Errey, tinsfed with yellow, lighter on the
breast and'under parts, the head is marked on the top with black
spots, a large one being behind the ears. The body and sides of the
limbs' are variegated with irregular wavy marks, forming rounded or
rather oval figures, but not definitely nor so orderly arranged as in
the Leopard. The tail, which is very long, is almost bushy, espe-
cially at its termination, the hair being very full.
The Rimau-D.\han
(Ncofelis macrncclis ; Fclis tnacroccUs, Temm.)— This beautiful
species is a native of Sumatra, where it was discovered by Sir Stam-
ford RafHes, who brought a young specimen alive to England, where
it died soon after its an-ival. A larger and older individual was
lost in the "Fame." Respecting these individuals, Sir S. Raifles
remarks that they were, while in confinement, remarkable for good-
Fig. 310. — Rimau-Dahan.
temper and playfulness ; no domestic kitten could be more so : they
courted the notice of persons, throwing themselves on their backs,
and delighting to be fondled (See Fig. 310.)
With a small Dog that was on board, the Rimau-Dahan used to
play and gambol, at the same time acting with great gentleness.
He never seemed to look on men or children as prey, but as com-
panions ; and the natives assert that when wild they live principally
on poultry, birds, and the smaller kinds of Deer. They are not
found in numbers, and may be considered as rather rare even in
Sumatra : they e.xist in the interior of Bencoolen, on the banks of the
Bencoolen river, and frequent the vicinity of villages, not being
dreaded, except for their propensity to destroy poultry. The natives
assert that they sleep and often lie in wait for their prey in trees, and
from this circumstance they derive the name of Dahan, which signi-
fies the fork formed by the branch of a tree, across which they are
said to rest and occasionally stretch themselves. The Rimau-Dahan
is, when adult, larger than the Leopard, and is remarkable for the
thickness and strength of its limbs and paws, but the contour of its
body is very graceful. The head is small, and the physiognomy less
expressive of ferocity than that of the Tiger or Leopard. The tail is
extremely long, and thickly covered with fine full fur, as indeed is the
body also. The general ground-colour is brownish-grey, on which
are dispersed streaks and marbled markings of black of an irregular
form, and more or less angular. Two longitudinal bands pass along
the spine ; a band stretches from each ear down the side of the neck,
and two obliquely traverse each side of the face. The large marbled
markings have an abrupt edge behind, and the black has the appear-
ance of velvet.
The Nepaul Tiger-Cat.
(Felts fardochroa; Felis Ncpalensis). — This is a slender species,
measuring about i foot 10 inches in the length of the head and body,
that of the tail being loj inches. Its distinguishing characters arc
its lengthened contour and the slenderness and proportional length
of the tail. The ground is tawny-grey, passing into white on the
throat and under parts ; longitudinal marks of a deep black run
down the back, and broad irregular dashes of the same colour orna-
ment the sides, flanks, and outer surface of the limbs ; the under
parts are marked with oval spots, the thighs externally with rounded
spots ; the tail above, excepting at the extremity, spotted ; the cheeks
streaked with two black lines, and a transverse lunar mark passes
round the angle of the mouth, while a narrow band is continued
across the throat. (See Fig. 311.) An individual of this species
was formerly living in the Gardens ot the Zoological Society, London.
It was extremely savage and wild : it generally sat up like a
domestic Cat, and never paced its den as do most of the feline
animals. It is stated to have come originally from Nepaul, whence
it was sent to Calcutta, and thence brought to England.
The Serval— A'//j Serval.
The Serval is a native of Southern Africa, and is not uncommon in
menageries ; specimens are living in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society of London. It is frequently very tame and playful, gambol-
Fig. 311.— Nepaul TigerCat.
ling like a kitten, and enduring captivity without sullenness or a
display of ferocity. The disposition of the feline race greatly
depends on the treatment they experience ; so that, while some arc
savage and distrustful, others of the same species are familiar.
Some species, however, are more easily reclaimed than others, and
of these we may count the Serval.
The Serval stands about eighteen inches in height at the shoulders :
the length of the head and body is thirty-four inches, that of the tail
ten inches.
The upper parts are of a clear j'ellowish-white with black spots ;
the lower parts are white, spotted more distantly with black.
Symmetrical lines adorn the head and neck, directed towards the
Fig. 312. — Serval.
shoulders. The back of the ears is black at the base, then barred
transversely with white, and tipped with yellow : on the inside ol the
fore-limbs are two black bars. Tail ringed with black. .
The general form is slender, and the limbs are thin ; the head is
long, compressed, and viverrine in its character ; the ears are large
and broad, and their bases nearly meet each other on the top ot the
head, giving a singular expression to the physiognomy. In some
specimens the markings are more decided than in others.
The QssmKYL—Cyyiaihirusjubatus; Felis julata.
This elegant animal, the Cheetah, or Hunting Leopard, is spread
extensively throughout Africa and India. Mr. Bennett observes that
Chardin, Hornier, Tavemier, and others of the older travellers, had
related that in several parts of Asia it was customary to make use 01
a large spotted Cat in the pursuit of game, and that this animal was
called Youze in Persia, and Cheetah in India ; but the statements of
these writers were so imperfect, that it was next t°,^""P°^="^'^„ °
recognise the particular species intended. We ""^^v /""yf/w^ nf
with certainty that the animal thus employed >s the /i;//^ ^^ A-rica
naturalists, which inhabits the greater part both of Asia and Africa
It is common in India and Sumatra, as well as in Persia arid s well
known both in Senegal and at the Cape of Good Hope but the n-
genuitv of the savage natives of the latter countries has n"'- !^" '^^
Ss we know, been exerted in rendering us services available in the
THE CHEETAH AND THE WILD CAT.
chase in the manner so successfully practised by the more refined
and civilised inhabitants of Persia and Hindostan. {See Fig. 313.)
The Cheetah differs in one or two points from the more typical of
its race. The Felidcc in general possess a broad rounded paw,
armed with sharp-hooked and completely retractile claws, which are
protruded at pleasure ; but in the Cheetah the foot is long and
narrow, and more like that of a Dog ; while the claws, from the
laxity of the spring-ligaments, are very partially retracted, and are
consequently worn and blunted at the points. As large in the body
as the Leopard, the Cheetah is superior to that animal m height, and
differs from it also in general figure. In the first place, the limbs,
unadapted for climbing, are long, slender, and tapering ; and the
body, which is deficient in breadth, reminds one in some degree of
that of the Greyhound. In consequence of these differences, Wagler
separated it into a distinct genus, under the title of Cyiiailurits, in
allusion to its intermediate station between the canine and feline
races. The African Cheetah has been by some regarded as a
distinct species from that of India, under the supposition that the
thin mane which covers the back of the neck was characteristic only
of the African animal. Under this impression, the term jubafa
(maned) was restricted to the African, and the term venatica (hunt-
ing) given to the Indian, Cheetah. This is, however, altogether
erroneous. In India the wild animal has a rough coat in which the
mane is marked ; but domesticated animals from the same part of
the country are destitute of a mane, and have a smooth coat. The
general colour of the Cheetah is fawn-yellow, covered with round
black spots ; a distinct black stripe passes from the inner angle of
the eye to the angle of the mouth. The tip of the nose is black.
The profile of the forehead and face is convex ; the eye is peculiarly
large, fine, and expressive ; the pupils are circular ; the tail is long,
and curled up at its extremity, which is white ; the fur is not sleek,
but rather crisp. The skin of the Cheetah is an article of some ira-
dream of employing the Cheetah as a means of procuring food ; they
know not its value in the chase. In Persia and India it has, hov/-
ever, been employed from an early period. In the " Field-Sports of
India," the mode of coursing with the Cheetah is thus described : —
"They (the Cheetahs) are led out in chains, with blinds over their
eyes, and sometimes carried out in carts ; and when Antelopes, or
Deer, are seen on a plain, should any of them be separated from the
rest, the Cheetah's head is brought to face it, the blinds are removed,
and the chain is taken off. He immediately crouches (see Fig. 314),
and creeps along with his belly almost touching the ground, until he
gets within a short distance of the Deer, who, although seeing him
approach, appears so fascinated that he seldom attempts to run
away. The Cheetah then makes a few surprising springs, and seizes
the Deer by the neck. If many Deer are near each other, they often
escape by flight, their number, perhaps, giving them confidence."
We may add to this that the Cheetah takes advantage of every
means of making its attack, and that, when unsuccessful in its effort,
it returns sullenly to its keeper, who replaces the hood, and reserves
him for another opportunity. When, however, he has grappled with
the .quarry and fixed himself upon its throat, drinking the life-blood
warm, his nature breaks out in all its violence, so that it requires
some management to separate him from his victim. Partly awed by
the keeper's voice, partly enticed by pieces of meat, and a ladleful
of the blood, he is induced to relinquish the prize, and submit to be
again hooded. In all this we are reminded of the art of falconry.
In captivity the Cheetah is familiar, gentle, and playful ; and
becomes greatly attached to those who feed or notice it. The
general disposition of these beautiful creatures is, indeed, frank and
Fig. 314. — The Cheetah hunting.
portance in trade at Senegal, but is neglected at the Cape of Good
Hope : this animal, called Luipard by the Dutch colonists, is mdeed
rare in that district, but the skin is occasionally seen worn by KafBr
chiefs, by way of distinction. In Africa, the rude natives never
Fig. 315.— Wild Cat.
confiding ; and consequently there is little trouble in rendering them
perfectly domestic. Their voice of pleasure is 3. pur ; of uneasiness
or hunger, a short reiterated mew.
The Wild Chrz—Fclis Catus.
This Cat is the Chat Sativage of the French, Gafo ISIontes of the
Spaniards, Wilde Katze and Baumritter of the Germans, Vild
Kat of the Danes, Cathgoed
of the ancient Britons, and Ca-
tus Sylvestris of Klein. This
species, which yet exists in the
mountainous and wooded dis-
tricts of the British islands, is
spread through a great part of
Europe and Asia. It is com-
mon in the forest tracts of Ger-
many, Russia, Hungary, the
north of Asia, and Nepaul. It
is larger, and has fuller fur, in
the colder latitudes.
In Britain it was formerly very
abundant, and was one of the
beasts of chase, as we learn from
King Richard II. 's charter to
the abbot of Peterborough, giv-
ing him permission to hunt the
Hare, Fox, and Wild Cat. The
fur in those days does not seem
to have been of much value, for
it is ordained in Bishop Cor-
boyl's canons, A.D. 1127, that no
abbess or nun should use more costly apparel than such as is made
of Lamb's or Cat's skins. The Wild Cat is still found in the hilly
parts of the north of England, and more plentifully in Scotland and
some parts of Ireland. (See Fig. 315.)
THE WILD AND THE EGYPTIAN' CATS~THE JAGUAR.
121
Its general form is robust ; the tail is bushy, and fuller at the
termination. The g-encral colour is grey, undulated with transverse
blackish stripes ; a black streak runs down the back ; the tail is
annulated ; the soles of the feet to the heel are black ; two black
stripes pass from the eyes over and behind the cars. The fur is
deep. Length of head and body, i foot lo inches; of the tail, ii
inches. Temminck gives the total average length as three feet.
Hares, Leverets, Rabbits, and Birds are its prey. It is bold and
savage, and defends its young with great obstinacy. Formerly
naturalists regarded this Cat as the origin of the Domestic Cat ; but
of late years this opinion has been questioned. In the first place, a
Cat in a domestic condition was one of the animals reverenced by
the ancient Egyptians, and mummies of it are found in the pits of
Thebes. Now this Cat was not the common Wild Cat, but a
distinct species. In the second place, the Domestic Cat is not
noticed as being one of the domestic animals of the ancient Britons
by any of the Latin writers ; nor, indeed, do we hear of it in our
island till the tenth century, when we find its value fi.\ed at a high
rate, and laws enacted to regulate its preservation. The Welsh
statutes of Howel Dha (who died A.D. 948), are, in fact, proofs of its
importance ; and such laws would hardly have been laid down had
not the animal been regarded in the light of a new and important
acquisition. If it were, indeed, the offspring of the Wild Cat, which
then abounded in the forests of our island, the opportunities of pro-
curing young broods would have been so abundant, that all regula-
tions respecting it would have been superfluous ; and still less would
the then considerable sum of a penny as the price of a kitten before
it could see, two-pence until it caught a Mouse, and after that four-
pence, have been established. There are, besides, other regula-
tions, all tending to prove the high value affixed to the Domestic Cat
at that period. In the third place, the Wild Cat is much larger
than our domesticated Cat ; and this is contrary to the general rule,
domesticated animals being larger than their wild relatives. It may
be observed that the tail of the Wild Cat is rather short, full, and
cylindrical ; while in the Domestic Cat it is long and taper.
Besides, the Wild Cat stands higher on the limbs, and is of a more
Lynx-like figure. Dr. Fleming considers it probable that the
domestic kind is originally from Asia ; but Ruppel and Temminck
Fig. 316. — Wild Cat seizing its prey.
consider it as decidedly the descendant of the tame Egyptian Cat
[Fe/i's iiiaiiiculata) — next to be described — found now wild in Upper
ligvpt and Nubia. It is easy to perceive how from Egypt the
Domestic Cat would pass into Greece and Italy, and so into the
western provinces of the Roman empire. It is most probable, then,
that Temminck and Ruppel are correct ; but still, has not the
Domestic Cat in Europe subsequently intermingled with the Wild
Cat, and produced a mixed, though fertile, breed ? We are inclined
to think so. Cats of the domestic kind often assume wild habits,
and live in warrens, preserves, and woods : we must distinguish
between these and the true Wild Cat. (See Fig. 316.)
The Egyptian Cat
{Felt's maiiiciilata). — This Cat was discovered in Nubia by Ruppel,
west of the Nile, near Ambukol, in a rocky district overrun with
^rnh^h V nf 1 ' °^ ^^^ ,"" °\ * moderate Domestic Cat, and is
probably of the same stock as that of the Domestic Cat which the
Egyptians honoured. Ruppel considers it a descendant of that
breed ; but it may be, and probably is, from the wild original race.
and IS indigenous in Nubia. It agrees exactly with the preserved
mummies of Cats which the Egyptians embalmed. The following is
a detailed description of this species : —
The woolly or ground hair is in general of a dirty ochreous, darker
on the back and posterior parts, and becoming gradually lighter on
the anterior and lateral parts ; longer hair of a swarthy dirty white
so that the appearance of the animal is greyish-yellow. Skin of the
edges of the lips and of the nose bare and black. Beard and bristles
of the eyebrows shining white, brown at the roots ; edges of eyelids
black; iris glaring yellow. From the inner corner near the eye
there is a dark-brown streak running in the direction of the nose,
and there is a white streak as far up as the arch of the eyebrows ;
between these two streaks is another greyish one extending on the
forehead by the side of the ears and under the eyes. Outside of the
ears grey, inside white and without tufts of hair. Eight slender,
black, undulating lines arise on the forehead, run along the occiput,
and are lost in the upper part of the neck. Cheeks, throat, and an-
terior part of the neck shining white. Two ochreous-yellow lines
spring, the one from the outer corner of the eye, the other from the
middle of the cheek, and meet both together under the ear, and two
rings of the same colour encircle the white neck ; below the rings
there are spots of ochreous-yellow. Chest and belly dirty white,
with similar spots or semicircular lines. A dark streak along the
back becomes lighter as it rises over the shoulders, and darker on
the cross. This streak is gradually lost on the upper part of the
tail, the lower surface of which is white-yellow. The tail is almost
of an equal thickness, rather slender, and with two dark rings at its
point. The extremities, which have less hair in proportion on the
outer side, are of the general colour, with, besides, five or six blackish
semicircular bands on the fore-legs, and six distinct dark cross
streaks on the hind-legs. The inner sides are lighter in colour, with
Egyptian Cat.
two black spots or streaks on the upper parts of the fore-legs, and
the hind extremities show the cross streaks winding around the
thighs towards the inside. Foot, soles, hJnd parts of ankles, and
wrists shining black. Length, 2 feet 5 inches, the tail being about
nine ; height at the shoulder about g.V inches. This description was
taken from an aged female. (See Fig. 317.)
The Jaguar.
{Felis onqa ; Leofardus onqa). — The Jaguar is the Leopard or
Panther of the American forests, and in power and daring almost
approaches to the Tiger of the Indian jungles. We have already
stated that specimens of this savage beast have been confounded
with the Leopard ; but the Jaguar, besides differing in other points,
always displays a bold streak or two of black, extending across the
chest, from shoulder to shoulder, which is a distinctive character.
(See Fig. 318.) The rosettes on the body are very large, open, and
somewhat angular, with a central spot or two of black in each ; a
central chain of black dashes extends along the spine. The Jaguar,
though varying in size, generally exceeds the Leopard ; and its form
is more robust and less agile and graceful. The limbs are short, but
immensely thick and muscular ; the head larger, and of a squarer
contour, and the tail of less comparative length. Of all the Ameri-
can Felida, the Jaguar is the most formidable. It prefers the
marshy and wooded districts of the warmer latitudes, and haunts the
vast forests along the larger rivers. It swims and climbs with equal
122
THE JAGUAR AND PUMA.
ease, and preys on the larger domestic quadrupeds, on Peccaries,
Capybaras, and Monkeys, as well as on fish and Tortoises. Son-
nini saw the scratches left by the claws of the Jaguar on the smooth
bark of a tree some forty feet high, without branches ; he traced the
marks of several slips made by the climber ; but the animal had at
last reached the top. Humboldt heard the Jaguar's yell from the
tops of the trees, followed by the sharp, shrill, long whistle of tlie
terrified Monkeys, as they seemed to fiee. It takes birds in their
Fig. 31S.— Jaguar.
nests, and fish in the shallows ; and, in some districts, the havoc it
makes among Horses, Cattle, and Sheep is terrible. So great are
the numbers of these laeasts in the Spanish colonies, that, according
to Humboldt, four thousand were annually killed ; and two thousand
skins were exported every year from Buenos Ayres only. The empty
shells of Turtles were pointed out to Humboldt as having been
cleared of their contents by the Jaguar, which watches them as they
come to the sandy beaches to lay their eggs, pounces upon them,
and turns them on their backs : he then insinuates his paw between
the shells, and scoops out the contents as clean as with a knife. As
he turns many more than he can devour at a meal, the Indians often
profit by his dexterous cunning. The eggs of the Turtle are often
ducT up by him out of the sand, and devoured ; and young Turtles,
on "their road to the water, or in shallows, are also destroyed.
In his "Aspects of Nature," Humboldt, describing the nocturnal
life of animals in primeval forests, makes the following remarks in
respect to the Jaguar : —
"A striking evidence of the impenetrability of particular parts of
the forest is afforded by a trait, related by an Indian, of the habits of
the large American Tiger, or Panther-like Jaguar. While in the
Llanos of Varinas and the Meta, and in the Pampas of Buenos Ayres,
the introduction of European cattle. Horses, and Mules has enabled
the beasts of prey to find an abundant subsistence, — so that since
the first discovery of America their numbers have increased exceed-
ingly in those extended grassy steppes ; their congeners in the dense
forests around the sources of the Orinoco lead a very different and
far less easy life. In a bivouac near the junction of the Cassiquiare
with the Orinoco, we had the misfortune of losing a large Dog to
which we were much attached, as the most faithful and affectionate
companion of our wanderings. Being still uncertain whether he had
actually been killed by the Jaguars, a faint hope of recoveriug him
induced us, in returning from the mission of Esmeralda, through the
swarms of musquitoes by which it is infested, to spend another night
at the spot where we had so long sought him in vain. We heard the
cries of the Jaguar, probably the very individual which we suspected
of the deed, extremely near to us ; and as the clouded sky made
astronomical observations impossible, we passed part of the night in
making our interpreter repeat to us the accounts given by our native
boat's crew of the Tigers of the country. The black Jaguar was,
they said, not unfrequently found there ; it is the largest and most
bloodthirsty variety, with the black spots scarcely distinguishable
on its deep brown skin. It lives at the foot of the mountains of
Mara"uaca and Unturan. One of the Indians of the Durimund tribe
then related to us that Jaguars are often led, by their love of wan-
dering and by their rapacity, to lose themselves in such impenetrable
partsof the forest that they can no longer hunt along the ground,
and live instead in the trees, where they are the terror of the families
of Monkeys and the Kinkajou {Cercolepies caiidivolvulus )."
It is not often that the Jaguar voluntarily attacks man. When
hard pressed, however, he makes a resolute defence. The Indians
often despatch him with their poisoned arrows, and sometimes boldly
attack him with lances. On the plains the lasso is used with gfreat
effect.
There is a black variety of the Jaguar, le jaguar noir of' the
French, and probably ihe jaqttarete of Marcgrave. This seems to
have been the animal noticed by Lieut. Maw, R.N. ("Journal of a
Passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic :"i829), at Para, as a black
On^a. It had been procured up the rivers, and was a formidable
beast, with limbs as thick as (Lieut. Maw says thicker than) those of
a Bengal Tiger
The Puma
{Fell's co7icolor, Linn.) — This large feline animal is often called
the American Lion, chiefly, as it would appear, from its uniformity
of colour, which, combined with its ferocity, led the early travellers
to give it that appellation. Thus John de Laet (1633) says that
Lions are found in Peru, though they be few and not so ferocious as
they are in Africa, and that they are called, in the native tongue,
;piii)ia. In "The Perfect Description of Virginia " (a tract, 1649),
''Lyons, Beares, Leopards, and Elkes" are enumerated. Hernandez
describes it (165 1) as the pi/;na sen leo Ainerica>ius, and contends,
rightly enough, that it is not a Lion. By Piso the animal is noticed
as the ciiguaciiara. Marcgrave terms it the cicgiiacitraiia of the
Brazilians ; D'Azara, the gotiazouara of Paraguay. Hence the
French name, often used by British writers, coiigiiar. Charlevoi.x
describes it under the erroneous names of carcajou and qitincajou.
The Anglo-Americans term it "Panther," and under this name
Lawson Catesby and others describe it.
In its general contour, the Puma is elegantly formed ; but the limbs
are very thick, while the head is comparatively small, particularly in
the female. The general colour is silvery-fawn above, fading into
white beneath and on the inside of the limbs ; the cars on the
outside, particularly at their base, the sides of the muzzle and the
?^$3^
Fig. 319. — Puma.
end of the tail, which is destitute of a tuft, black. Length, from nose
to root of tail, about four feet ; of the tail, upwards of two feet. The
young are marked with three chains of blackish-brown streaks along
the back, and the sides, shoulders, and neck have clouded spots of
the same colour. As the animal advances in age, these markings
fade, and ultimately disappear. (See Fig. 319.)
The Puma is extensively spread throughout North and South Ame-
rica ; it is not only more scarce than formerly, but its range is more con-
tracted ; and, as civilisation advances, will be still further reduced.
This beautiful animal is savage and ferocious, but easily tamed, and
soon becomes very familiar. The elder Mr. Kean had one in his pos-
session, which was perfectly domesticated ; and w-e have seen others
very gentle, though playful and animated. Lawson, who, in his "His-
tory of Carolina," well describes the Puma, is therefore in error when
he states that, "when taken young, it is never to be reclaimed from its
wild nature." This writer says, " T\\e ^panther (Puma) climbs trees
with the greatest agility imaginable, is very strong-limbed, catching
a piece of meat from any animal he strikes at ; his tail is exceeding
long ; his eyes look very fierce and lively, are large, and of a greyish
colour ; his prey is swine's-flesh. Deer, or anything he can take. He
halloos like a man in the woods when killed, which is by making him
take to a tree, as the least cur will presently do ; then the huntsmen
shoot him ; if they do not kill him outright he is a dangerous enemy
when wounded, especially to the Dogs that approach him. This
beast is the greatest enemy to the planter of any vermin in Carolina.
His flesh looks as well as any shamble's meat whatsoever : a
THE OCELOT AND THE CHATI.
1^3
great many people eat him as choice food, but I never tasted of a
Panther, so cannot commend the meat by my own experience. His
skin is a warm covering for the Indians in winter, though not
esteemed among the choice furs. This skin dressed makes fine
women's shoes or men's gloves."
The Puma is indeed a very destructive animal : not only the
Peccary and the Capybara fall a prey to his destructive habits, but
Sheep, Hogs, and Cattle are among his victims ; of the former he has
been known to kill fifty in a
single night. It is not often
tliat the Puma attacks man,
though when wounded he
becomes a dangerous foe.
Sir F. Head, in his "Journey
across the Pampas," gives the
following interesting narra-
tive, in proof of the fear of
man which this animal, in
common with others, enter-
tains. The person who re-
lated it to Sir Francis was
himself the actor in the scene.
" He was trying to shoot
some wild Ducks, and, in order
to approach them unperceived,
he put the corner of his
poncho (which is a sort of
long narrow blanket) over his
head, and, crawling along the
ground upon his hands and
knees, the poncho not only
covered his body, but trailed
along the ground behind him.
As he was'thus creeping by a
large bush of reeds, he heard
a loud sudden noise, between
a bark and a roar : he felt
something heavy strike his
feet, and, instantly jumping
up, he saw, to his astonish-
ment, a large Lion actually
standing on his poncho ; and,
perhaps, the animal was
equally astonished to find
himself in the immediate pre-
sence of so athletic a man.
The man told me he was un-
willing to fire, as his gun was
loaded with very small shot ;
and he therefore remained
motionless, the Lion standing
on his poncho for many
seconds : at last the creature
turned his head, and, walk-
ing very slowly away about ten yards, he stopped and turned again :
the man still maintained his ground, upon which the Lion tacitly
acknowledged his supremacy, and walked off."
Audubon, in his " Ornithological Biography," gives a spirited
account of the chase of the Puma, or Cougar as he terms it, which
was hunted with Dogs, and men armed with rifles : it was driven by
their united exertions from tree to tree, and perished, fighting with
the Dogs, having received several balls, one of which produced a
mortal wound. On the Pampas the Puma is hunted with Dogs,
and, while it is engaged in the conflict, surrounded by them, the
dexterous Gaucho strikes him senseless with his bolas, or throws his
lasso over him, and, galloping off, drags him along the ground
till almost lifeless, when the Dogs rush upon him and tear him to
pieces.
The Ocelot
{Fell's panla lis). — This elegantly-marked species of Tiger-Cat is a
native of Mexico, Paraguay, and probably of Peru. It measures
nearly three feet in the length of the head and body ; the tail is about I
a foot long, and the medium height is about eighteen inches. The
ground-colour of the fur is grey, slightly tinged with fawn ; upon
this are disposed longitudinal bands, of which the margins are per-
fectly black, the central parts being of a deeper fawn than the
general ground. These ribands of black, enclosing a deep fawn,
become deep black lines and spots on the neck and head, and on
the outer aspect of the limbs. From the top of the head towards
the shoulders there pass several diverging black bands, and on the top
of the back the line is quite continuous. The tail is spotted upon a
ground like that of the body. The term Ocelot is a corruption of
the Mexican names Tlacoozelotl, or Tlalocelotl, as given by Her-
nandez, who terms it Cadts pa7-dus JSIcxicatizis. (See Fig. 320.)
The Ocelot is often exhibited in menageries, and is generally good-
tempered and playful : we have seen several which might be said to
have been perfectly domesticated. Bewick states that " nothinir
can soften the natural ferocity of its disposition, nor calm the rest-
lessness of Its motions. One of these animals, shown at Newcastle
in 1788 although extremely old, exhibited great marks of ferocity
It was kept closely confined, and would not admit of bein."- caressed
by Its keeper." Harsh usage and close confinement have often
spoiled the temper of animals, and the fault is always laid to their
disposition, and not to mismanagement. Mr. Bennett informs us
Fig. 320. — Ocelot with its prey.
that a specimen which was kept in the Tower menagerie was ex-
tremely familiar, and had much of the character and manners of the
common Cat. Its food consisted principally of Rabbits and Birds ;
the latter it plucked with great dexterity, and always commenced its
meal with the head, of which it seemed particularly fond ; but it did
not eat with the ravenous avidity which characterises nearly all the
animals of this tribe.
Of the manners of the Ocelot in a state of nature little is known.
It inhabits the deep forests, and preys upivi all small quadrupeds and
birds ; climbing the trees in quest of the latter, and lying in wait for
them concealed among the foliage. It is said to take INIonkeys by a
very subtle mode of proceeding. When it perceives a troop of these
active creatures, it immediately stretches itself out, as if dead, on
the limb of some tree ; urged by curiosity they hasten to examine
the supposed-" mortal remains" of their enemy: the foremost pays
dearly for his curiosity.
The Ch-Iti.
(Fdis vn'h'sj.—lhs Chati is regarded by Desmarest as the Chibi-
guazu of Azara. It is a native of Paraguay and other parts of South
America, and is much smaller than the Ocelot. Azara describes it
as averaging 3 feet 6 inches in total length. The following is
Fred. Cuvier's description of a female living in the menagerie of
Paris :—" About a third larger than the domestic Cat: length, ex-
clusive of tail, ratlier more than two feet ; tail, eleven inches ; height
to middle of back, about i foot 2 inches. Ground-colour of fur
on the upper parts, pale-yellow ; on the lower, pure white ; at the
roots, dull grey, and very thick and close. Body covered with
irregular dark patches : those upon the back entirely black, and
disposed longitudinally in four rows ; those upon the sides surrounded
with black, with the centres of a clear fawn, arranged in neariy five
rows. Spots upon the lower part of the body, where the ground-
colour of the iur is white, lull, and arranged in two lines composed
124
THE PAMPAS CAT— THE LYNXES.
of six or seven patches on encVi side. Limbs covered with nearly
round spots of smaller dimensions : on the fore-leg-s, near the body,
two transverse bands. On the throat a sort of half collar, and
on the under-jaw two crescent-shaped spots. Behind each ear two
bands about two inches long, terminating opposite the ear. Fore-
head bordered by two lines, between which are numerous spots,
and, at their origin, a blackish mark from which the whiskers
spring. Outside of the ear, black, with a white spot upon the small
lobe. Base of the tail spotted with small blotches, which towards
the end run into half-rings, which are broadest on the upper surface.
Pupil round."
This animal was extremely gentle and familiar; so much so,
indeed, that if persons to whom it was attached passed its cage or
did not approach it, it would express its discontent or solicit their
attention by a short cry ; and when caressed it manifested great
delight. (See Fig. 321.)
Fig. 321.— Chati.
According to Azara, the Chibi-guazu is so common, that his
friend Noseda captured eighteen individuals in two years, within
two leagues of his pueblo. Yet it would appear that few are ac-
quainted with the animal, neither the huntsman nor his Dogs being
able to penetrate its haunts. By day it remains concealed in the
most impenetrable and secluded places, only coming abroad after
dark, especially when the night is stormy. The Chibi-guazu then
daringly enters court-yards and destroys the poultry or carries them
away. When the night is moonlit they do not venture near in-
habited spots, and are besides so wary, that it is hopeless to lie in
wait for them with a gun. Men and Dogs are most cautiously
avoided. Each pair is supposed to have their ovv-n exclusive range
of territory, for a male and female, and no more, are always caught
in the same place. Those which Noseda caught soon became
reconciled to captivity, and had much of the habits of a Cat : nearly
the whole of the day they passed in sleep, rolled up in ball-like form ;
twilight and night were passed in pacing to and fro close to the
sides of their den. They never quarrelled unless they were much
irritated, and then they struck at each other with their fore-paws ;
when they crossed or interrupted each other's movements in travers-
ing the den, they spit and gesticulated like a common Cat. They
were fed upon various kinds of flesh. Rats, Fowls, Ducks, young
Dogs, &c. Cat's flesh gave them the mange, under which they
soon sank : Snakes, Vipers, and Toads, occasioned violent and con-
tinued vomiting, under which they wasted away and died. Dogs
equalhng themselves in size they would not attack : fowls were their
favourite food ; these they caught by the head and neck and
instantly killed, stripping their feathers before beginning to eat
them. In the night their eyes shone like those of a domestic Cat,
which in their manners, in their mode of licking the fur and cleaning
themselves, they entirely resembled. Azara concludes by stating,
that a young one which Noseda caught became so thoroughly
domesticated, that it slept on the skirts of his clerical gown and
went about loose. No animal could be more tractable ; but the
neighbours, among whose poultry it made havoc, killed it.
The Pampas Cat
{Felis Pajeros).—'T\\\i species is also called Jungle-Cat, and by the
Spanish colonists, Gato Pajero.
The fur of this animal is very long, some of the hairs of the back
being upwards of three inches, and those of the hinder part of the
back four and a-half or nearly five inches long. General colour
pale yellow-grey. Numerous irregular yellow or sometimes brown
stripes run obliquely from the back along the sides of the body. On
each side of the face,. two stripes of a yellowish or cinnamon colour
commence near the eye, and extend backwards and downwards over
the cheeks, on the hinder part of which they join and form a single
line, which encircles the lower part of the throat. Tip of the muzzle
and chin white ; a spot in front of the eye, and a line beneath the
eye, of the same colour; belly, inner side and hinder part of fore-
legs, white also ; an irregular black lino running across the lower
part of the chest, and extending over the base of the fore-legs
externally : above this line two other transverse dark markings
more or less defined on the chest. On the fore-legs three broad
black bands, two of which encircle the leg : on the posterior legs
about five black bands externally, and some irregular dark spots
internally. Feet yellowish, and under-side of tarsus of a slightly
deeper hue. On the belly numerous large irregular black spots.
Ears moderate, with long white hairs internally ; externally, of the
same colour as the head, except at the apex, where the hairs are
black, and form a slight tuft. Tail short, somewhat bushy, and
devoid of dark rings or spots ; the hairs are, in fact, coloured as
those of the back. On the upper part of the body each hair is
brown at the base, then yellow, and at the apex black. On the
hinder part of the back the hairs are almost black at the base, and
on the sides of the body each hair is grey at the base ; there is then
a considerable space of yellowish-white colour : towards the apex
they are white, and at the apex black. The greater number of the
hairs of the moustaches white. Length, from nose to root of tail,
twenty-six inches ; of tail, fur included, eleven inches. Height of
body at shoulders, thirteen inches. Size about equal to that of the
common Wild Cat of Europe ; but the Pampas Cat is stouter, its
head smaller, and its tail shorter. (See Fig. 322.)
Fig. 322. — Pampas Cat.
This Cat was known to Azara, but till recently European natural-
ists were but little acquainted with it. Fischer, in his "Synopsis
Mammalium," put it among those species that are not well deter-
mined. Azara says that the natives call this animal gato pajero,
because it lives on the plains, concealing itself in jungles without
entering the woods or thickets. Whether this species exists in
Paraguay, Azara states, was a point he could not determine, but that
it might perhaps have been formerly seen there before the country
became well peopled. He caught four in the Pampas of Buenos
Ayres, between 35" and 36° S. lat., and three others on the Rio
Negro. They are found, he adds, on both sides of La Plata. Its
food consists principally of Apereas, or wild Guinea-pigs.
According to Mr. Darwin (" Zoology of the Beagle"), this Cat in-
habits Santa Cruz, Patagonia, and Bahia Blanca.
"This animal," observes Mr. Darwin, "takes its name from
paja, the Spanish word for ' straw,' from its habits of frequenting
reeds. It is common over the whole of the great plains which com-
pose the eastern side of the southern part of America. From the
accounts I received I have reason to believe that it is found near the
Straits of Magellan, which would give it a range of nearly 1,400 miles
in a north and south line," for Azara states that it is to be found as
high north as 30° S. lat. One of Mr. Darwin's specimens was
obtained at 50° S. at Santa Cruz : it was met with in a valley where
a few thickets were growmg. When disturbed it did not run away,
but drew itself up and hissed. The other specimen which Mr.
Darwin brought to England was killed at Bahia Blanca.
The "Lx^yi-Ei.— a sub-family of the Felidm.
The L5mxes form a sub-division of the Cat, or Feh'dcs, and are
distinguished from ordinary Cats by the shortness of their tails, and
the possession of pencils of hairs at the tips of the ears. They are
smaller than the typical Cats. They chiefly feed on birds and small
animals. They are found in the northern parts of Asia and
America, and their fur is a valuable article of commerce. The
general colour varies from grey to a reddish tint. They are also
distinguished by the shortness of the tail, and the proportionate
elevation of the body at the haunches.
The Lynx is one of those animals respecting which many absurd
fables have been popularly current, but which are now in no danger
of being revived. Pliny (lib. vii., 25) classes the Lynx amongst the
monstrous productions of Ethiopia, in the existence of which he
seems to have implicitly believed. The Lynx is often alluded to by
the ancient poets ; but from many expressions we easily perceive
that they had no very precise ideas about the animal : the Lynx of
's
CARACAL AND LYNX,
THE CARACAL, BOOTED ZV.VX, AND CHAUS.
I2S
poetrj' was sometimes a Leopard or Panther. Virgil calls the
Lynxes of Bacchus varicc, and in another place alludes to the skin
ot tlie spotted Lynx {maculosa: lyiia's).
The representations of Lynxes on antique gems and sculptures
are as unsatisfactory and vague as the allusions in classic poetry.
Still, however, the Lynx described by Aristotle, ^lian, and Oppian
was, it must be confessed, not one of these doubtlul creatures, but a
definite species, and, as we think, the Caracal.
The Caracal
[Fch's Caracal; Caracal Mfla?!ofis). — This animal derives its
modern name from the Turkish, caj-a, black, and ki/lash, ear. Its
Persian name has the same meaning, snjah-gush or sia-giisch
{si'a, black, giisch, ear). It is widely distributed, being found in
Persia, India, Barbary, Nubia, Egypt, and the whole of Africa to
Caffraria, Turkey, and Arabia. The general colour of the body is
of a pale reddish-brown, with a vinous tinge ; the lower parts are
paler. Two spots of pure white are near each eye, one on the inner
side of and above the eye, the other beneath its outer angle. The
edges of the upper lip, the chin, and lower lip are white, as are the
insides of the limbs. The whiskers rise from a series of black lines.
The ears are long and tapering, and are surmounted by a pencil
of long black hairs ; their colour externally is black. The tail
reaches only to the heel or hock-joint. Temminck gives the
measurements as follows : — Length, 2 feet lO inches, of which the
tail measures lo. Average height about 14 inches. We have our-
selves seen much larger individuals. Tlie eyes of the Caracal have
a marked nocturnal character, and are large, bright, and scowling
in their expression. The limbs are extremely muscular, and its
whole contour denotes great activity. The Caracal feeds on small
quadrupeds and birds, the latter of which it pursues even to the
tops of the trees. It is said to follow the Lion and other large
beasts of prey for the purpose of feeding on what they leave. The
Caracal leaps upon its victim and holds it with remarkable tenacity,
as was noticed by jElian. Oppian also alludes to its mode of
springing upon Hares, Deer, &c. According to Temminck, these
animals are in the habit of hunting in packs, like Wild Dogs, and
of running-down their prey ; most probably they creep towards it
like the Cheetah, and spring suddenly upon it. Pennant, quoting
Thevenot, states that they are often brought up tame, and used in
the chase of lesser quadrupeds and the larger sort of birds, as
Cranes, Pelicans, Peacocks, &c., and that when they seize their
prey they hold it fast with their mouth and lie motionless on it. He
also adds, on the authority of Hyde, that the Arabians, who call it
Anak-cl-ard, affirm that it hunts like the Panther, jumps up at
Cranes as they fly, and covers its steps when hunting. (See Fig.
323-)
In captivity the Caracal is very irritable, often displaying great
ferocity. Of its fierceness and strength Dr. Charleton gives evidence.
suspicious mood, repelling every attempt towards familiarity by a
snarl. When thus irritated the ears arc drawn down close to the
head, the eyes glare with an expression of malignant fury, and the
teeth are displayed, while, at the same time, they utter a deep hiss-
ing not unhkc that of a Cat, and very ditl'crcnt from the growl of the
Lion or Tiger. In a state of nature they .avoid the face of man, and
though of comparatively small size, arc dangerous enemies when
hard-pressed or wounded.
The Booted Lynx
{Fclis cal!gala).—1\\\?.\% a small species, with the tail much longer
in proportion than in the Caracal. The total length is about three
feet, of which the tail measures thirteen inches. The ears are large,
red within, and tipped with a pencil of brown hairs; the sole and
posterior part of the foot, or leg as it is usually called, are of a deep
black. The upper parts of the body arc of a deep bluish-grey, in some
specimens fulvous, clouded with grey and sprinkled with black hairs ;
the lower parts, throat, and breast arc reddish ; the thighs are
F'S- 323.— Caracals.
for he relates that he saw one fall on a Hound, which it killed and
tore to pieces in a moment, although the Dog defended itself to the
utmost.' It w'ould appear, from our repeated personal observations,
that few animals of the feline race are more impatient of confinement.
Excepting in the instance of very young examples, we never knew
one that would suffer the approach of strangers without exhibitino-
tokens of savage anger. Apparently annoyed by the light, they re'^
tire to a corner of their den, and there crouch in sullen and
Fig. 324. — Booted Lynx.
marked with indistinct bands of rather bright brown, and two bands
cross the cheeks. The tail is black at the tip, with three or four in-
complete rings above it, separated from each other by whitish intervals.
The female has generally the tints more yellow ; the young have well-
defined dark bands on their sides. This species inhabits the south
of India, and Africa from Egypt and Barbary to the Cape of Good
Hope. Birds and small quadrupeds are its prey. It makes havoc
among the flocks of wild Guinea-
fowls in Africa, nor does it refuse
the remains of large quadrupeds
on which the Lion or Panther have
feasted. Cuvier applied the term
Lynx des Marai's to this species
as well as to the Chaus, but at
the same time with a remark that
some consider the two animals to
be distinct. (See Fig. 324.)
^ The Chacs
{Felis Chaus, Giiklcnst). — The
Chaus, according to Colonel Sykcs,
is called 7)iota ralTii iiiatij'ur, or
larger Wild Cat, by the Mahrattas.
This species has been cleared up
by Riippell from the confusion in
which it had become involved.
He describes it as well covered
with fur, the under-coat of which
is woolly and soft, but the long
hairs are not thickly set. .The
colour of the wooll)' hair is a dirty
palish ochre-yellow, darker on the
back, lighter beneath ; the long
hairs are of the same tint at the
base, have >a dark-brown middle
ring, and are tipped with greyish-yellow, whitish, or saffron, so that
the appearance produced is a mixed colouring of greyish-yellow and
dirty-white. Many of the hairs on the sides are tipped with black,
and, where these are numerous, dusky lines or dashes are produced.
The saffron-tipped hairs prevail on the back, and form a yellow
stripe from the shoulders to the tail ; the nose is black ; above and
below the eye is a large white spot ; a black streak runs from the
inner corner of the eye to the nose. The edges of the lips arc
126
THE EUROPEAN AND CANADA LYNXES.
black, and encircled by a white ring. Cheeks and whiskers white,
a few black bristles being interspersed among the latter : back of
the ears grey-brown, with black pencils. Externally the limbs are
barred with four or five transverse black bands. The tail is one-
fourth as long as the body, and annulated towards the termination,
which is black and abrupt. (See Fig. 325.)
The Chaus inhabits the north of Africa along the course of the
Nile, and perhaps more remote districts. It is found in the morasses
^^^"i^m^^^
Fig. 325. — Chaus.
and bushy lowlands that border the Caspian Sea, and along the
banks of its tributary rivers. It is said to be common in Persia ; it
is also an inhabitant of the Deccan. Everywhere it appears to give
preference to marshes and boggy wastes, where brushwood affords
it shelter. It lives upon birds, small quadrupeds, and even fishes :
it seldom climbs trees, and is not easily tamed.
The European Lynx
{Felis Lynx, Temminck, not Linn, and Nilsson ; F. virgata,
Nilsson). — This is the ordinary Lynx of Europe, extending from
Scandinavia to Naples and the Pyrenees. GUldenstadt states it to
exist on the Caucasus, where it is a great pest. Besides this Lynx,
Europe possesses the following : —
The Arctic Lynx {Felis borealis, Temminck, not Thunberg ;
F. Lynx, Linn, and Nilsson). It inhabits the north of Scandinavia,
and probably Siberia and the forest of Ural.
The Great Lynx {Fe/is cervaria, Linn. ; F. borcalis, Thunberg,
not Temminck; Siberian Lynx of furriers; Kat-lo of Swedes). It
inhabits Norway, Asiatic Russia, and also the Caucasus, according
to M. Menestries, who says the Persians call it Vaarchach.
The Pardine Lynx [Felis -pardina, Temminck). This is the
Portuguese Lynx of furriers. It is a well-marked species, inhabiting
the mountain regions of Spain, Portugal, and other southern districts.
Colonel Sykes obtained skins in Andalusia, where it is called gato
clavo. It inhabits the Sierra Morena.
Fig. 325. — European Lynx.
The European or Red Lynx, represented in Fig. 326, is of a dull
reddish-grey, or rufous tint, with dark rusty-brown spots of an oblong
form on the sides, and rounder and smaller spots on the limbs ; the
under-parts are whitish mottled with black. In winter the fur is
much longer than in summer, and also fuller; and assumes a hoary
tinge, the long hairs becoming tipped with greyish-white ; the ears
are pencilled ; the tail is short, and tipped with black. The length
of the head and body is nearly three feet ; of the tail, six or seven
inches. The European Lynx feeds upon small quadrupeds and
birds, and climbs trees easily. Hares, Squirrels, Rabbits, and also
Sheep, fall victims to it. When attacked by a Dog it lies down on
its back and defends itself with its claws. Those we have seen in
captivity were very playful. Its fur is valuable in commerce ;_ the
colder the climate and season of the year, the finer and fuller it is.
" The limits of the Lynx," observes Cuvier, " in the ancient con-
tinent are not perfectly ascertained. We know, indeed, that it is
common in the forests of the north of Europe and Asia. MM.
Blumenbach, Bechstein, and Tiedemann cite instances of their
having been killed even in Germany ; but they are becoming more
and more scarce. M. Schintz says that it is not uncommon in the
mountains of Switzerland. M. Delabre cites an instance of one killed
in Auvergne, in 1788."
The Canada Lynx
[Felis, or Lynacs Canadensis, Geoff.). — There is some question
about this species, which we believe to be entirely identical with the
F. borcalis of Temminck ; and, consequently, that the title Cana-
detisis is a mere synonym. The range of this Boreal Lynx is not
limited, therefore, to the Old World only, but is also extended to the
northern parts of America. It is found north of the great lakes, and
eastward of the Rocky Mountains : it is rare on the sea-coast, does
not frequent the barren grounds, but is not uncommon in the wooded
districts of the interior. It is found on the Mackenzie River as far
north as 66^ Specimens in the Museum of the Zoological Society
of London were procured by Douglas in California. Dr. Richard-
son states, that the early French writers on Canada, who ascribed
to this species the habit of dropping from the trees on the backs of
Deer, and destroying them by tearing their throat and drinking
their blood, gave it the name of Loup Cervier. The French Cana-
dians now term it, indifferently, Le Chat or Le Peeshoo. With
respect to its attacking Deer in the way said, the statement is
erroneous; and if really practised by any ferocious animal, is most
probably so by the Puma. The same habit has been attributed to
the Wolverene or Glutton, from a mistake of Charlevoix in applying
to this Lynx the name of Carcajou, which is proper to the Wolverene
only. The following is Dr. Richardson's description : —
" The head is round, the nose obtuse, and the face has much of
the form of that of the domestic Cat, but the facial line is more
convex between the eyes. The ears are erect, triangular, and tipped
by an upright slender tuft of coarse black hairs : they are placed
about their own breadth apart, and on their posterior surface they
have a dark mark beneath the tip, which is continued near both
margins downwards towards their bases. On the body and extremi-
ties the fur is hoary, most of the hairs being tipped with white ; on
the crown of the head, and for a broad space down the middle of the
back, there is a considerable mixture of blackish-brown, and on the
sides and legs, of pale wood-brown. In some specimens these
colours produce an indistinct mottling, but in general there are no
defined markings. A rufous tinge is also occasionally present
about the nape of the neck, and on the posterior parts of the thigh.
The tail is coloured like the back, except the tip, which is black.
The fur is close and fine on the back longer and paler on the belly.
When blown aside it shows on the middle of the back a dark liver-
brow-n colour from the roots to near the tip, but on the sides it is, for
the greatest part of its length, of a pale yellowish-brown, being
merely a little darker near the roots. The legs are thick, the toes
THE HY^NA FAMILY.
'27
very thick and furr)', and arc armed with very sharp, awl-shaped,
white claws, shorter than the fur. There are four toes on each foot,
tliose on the hind-foot being- rather the largest ; but both feet have
much spread. Length, 3 feet I inch." (See Fig. 327.)
This Boreal, or Canadian Lynx, is by no means courageous : it
never ventures to attack large quadrupeds, but preys chieliy on the
American Hare, for the capture of which it is well provided. "Its
larc'e paws, slender loins, and long but thick hind-legs, with large
butlocks, scarcely relieved by a short thick tail, give it an awkward,
clumsy appearance. It makes a poor light when it is surprised by a
I hunter in a tree ; for though it spits like a Cat, and sets its hair up,
it is easily destroyed by a blow on the back with a slender stick ;
and it never attacks a man. Its gait is by bounds straightforward,
with the back a little arched, and lighting on all the feet at once.
It swims well, and will cross the arm of a lake two miles wide, but
is not swift on land. It breeds once a year, and has two young at a
time." Its flesh is eaten by the natives, and is white and tender,
but destitute of flavour, and closely resembles that of the American
Hare. The skin of this species is an important article in commetce.
Besides this Lynx there are others in America.
CHAPTER XI.
CARNIVORA.-
7^-
-FAMILY, IIY/ENID/'E— THE HYENAS; THE VIVERRID.E, OR CIVETS; AND THE
MUSTELID/E, OR WEASELS.
have already, at p. 87, ante, described
the special characteristics of the Hytuiiiilis
in their relation to the Cats, and other
carnivorous animals. We also gave
the formula of their dentition, which is
illustrated by the following cut (Fig.
1328), which shows the dentition of the
Hyaena : a, teeth of the upper jaw in two
views ; b, those of the lower in two views ;
r, the teeth of both jaws together. Fig. 329
represents the skull of the Spotted Hyaena in
profile ; Fig. 330, the skull of the same animal viewed
from above ; Fig. 331, the skull of the Striped Hya:na in
profile. The skull of the Hyrena is remarkable for its
solidity : the muzzle is short ; the zygomatic arch of vast
strength and thickness ; and the sides of the cranium
are compressed, and sweep up to a high longitudinal
ridge, which projects far back from the occiput, afford-
ing space for an immense mass of the temporal muscles,
w'hich, with those of the neck, are greatly developed.
According to Cuvier, the vertebra; of the neck are some-
times found to be anchylosed, or soldered together, in
consequence of the violent and continual strain to which
they are subject ; and hence probably arose the belief that these
vertebra in the Hyaena were one solid piece.
In the port and figure of the Hyaena there is something very re-
markable. The neck, chest, and shoulders are amazingly robust,
but the hind-quarters are low, from the crouching posture of the
hind-legs, which may be termed knock-kneed, the heel-joints ap-
proaching each other. The movements of these limbs are of a
dragging character, influencing the pace of the animal, which,
though rapid, is a sort of awkward shuffle. The toes are four on
each foot, furnished with blunt, stout, unretractile claws. The ears
are large and erect ; a full mane runs down the spine ; there is a
deep glandular subcaudal pouch ; the pupil is somewhat oblong ;
the tongue rough ; the habits are nocturnal.
The Hyaenas were not separated by Linnsus from the genus
Cam's, but_subsequent naturalists have placed them in various groups
according "to their views of affinity. We have placed them in a
separate family.
The Striped Hy.ena
{Hyana vulgaris, Desm.^ Hycsna striata, Zimmerman ; H.
orientalis, Tiedem. ; H. Attfiqiiorum, Temn. ; Canis Hyayia
Linn. — This species is a native of Asia, and of northern and central
Africa. It is found in the Caucasian and Altaic mountains, in
Asiatic Turkey, in Syria, Turkey, Persia, India ; and in Barbary,
Arabia, Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, Saudan, Senegambia, &c. Figs.
332 and 333 represent this animal.
We may here premise, that much of what relates to the Striped
Hyaena, so extensively spread, applies equally to the other species,
which appear to be confined exclusively to South Africa. They are
all destined to fill up an important station in the economy of nature.
It is their part, with Vultures and other foul-feeding creatures, to
cleanse the earth of putrescent animal matters, and especially of the
decaying carcasses of the larger beasts, whose remains, if not speedily
removed, would infect the atmosphere with pestilential effluvia.
They are Nature's scavengers, aud assiduously do they labour in their
vocation : they clear the battle-field of the victims of barbarous
warfare, gorging on the bodies of the slain ; they disinter the dead
Irom the lightly-covered grave ; they ransack towns and villages in
search of offal ; they prowl about fields, and around the enclosures
of human dwellings. The carrion which chance throws in their way
furnishes a luxurious meal, nor are the strongest bones unacceptable
— such is the power of their jaws, that they crunch the thigh-bone
of an Ox, for the sake of the marrow it encloses.
Carrion and dead bodies, however, are not their only food • they
-^,V
Fig. 328. — Teeth of Hyxna.
prey upon Horses, Sheep, and Cattle, often committing extensive
depredations ; nor are human beings safe from their murderous
assaults. They seldom, indeed, attack man openly, and usually
avoid a contest with him ; but when driven to self-defence, they turn
furiously upon their assailant, and combat with determined obstinacy.
On the contrary, the sleeping man, woman, or child, which they
chance to discover in their nightly prowl, almost certainly falls a
victim. Their haunts by day are dens and caves, gloomy rocks, and the
ruins of towns and sepulchral monuments of antiquity; there the
"fell Hya;na" rears her brood, As darkness sets in, these fierce
beasts emerge from their lair, and menacing, with teeth displayed
and glaring eyes, warn the intruder to a timely retreat.
In some districts the Striped Hya;na is fearfully numerous.
128
THE HYJENA FAMILY.
Bruce records that in Abyssinia they were the scourge of the country,
" both in the city and the field, and appeared to surpass the Sheep
in number. From evening- till dawn -of day the town of Gondar was
full of them ; here they sought the different pieces of slaughtered
carcasses which were exposed in the streets without burial.' Many
a time in the night, when kept late in the palace, on going across
Fig- 329.— Skull of Spotteil Ilyrcna.
the square from the king's house, I have been apprehensive lest they
should bite me in the leg. They grunted in great numbers around
me, although I was surrounded by several armed men, who seldom
passed a night without wounding or slaughtering some of them.
One night I went out of my tent, and returning immediately, I
perceived two blue eyes glaring at me in the dark ; I called my
servant to bring a light, and we
found a Hya;na standing near
the head of the bed, with two or
three large bunches of candles
in his mouth, by keeping which,
he seemed to wish at that time
no other prey. I was not afraid
of him, but with a pike struck
as near the heart as I could.
It was not until I had done this
that he showed any signs of
fierceness ; but upon feeling his
wound he dropped the candles,
and endeavoured to run upon the
shaft of the spear to arrive at me ;
so that I was obliged to draw a
pistol from my girdle and shoot
him, and nearly at the same
time my servant cleft his skull
with a battle-a.xe. In a word,
the Hyaenas were the plague of
our lives, the terror of our mid-
night walks, and the destruc-
tion of our Mules and Asses,
which are their favourite food."
Major Denham gives a similar
account. At Kauka, he says,
the Hya:nas are "everywhere in
legions, and grew now so extremely ravenous, that a good large
village where I sometimes procured a draught of sour milk on
my Duck-shooting excursions, had been attacked the night before
my last visit, and tlie town absolutely carried by storm, notwith-
Fig. 330. — Skull of Spotted Hyjena
Fig. 331. — Skull of Striped Hyaena.
standing defences of nearly six feet high of branches of the prickly
trilloh, and two Donkeys, whose flesh these animals are particu-
larly fond of, carried off in spite of the efforts of the people."
Few animals have been the subject of mort; false and superstitious
opinions, both in ancient and modern times, than the Hyasna.
Among the writers of antiquity, however, Aristotle accurately de-
scribes it, and even explains the popular error current in his day, as
it has been since, respecting the bi-sexual character of the animal ;
an error in which Pliny seems to acquiesce, though he alludes to
Aristotle's contradiction of it ; but it is evident he knew nothing
'„v,x-'
r^ife^^iff)^.
Fig. 332. — Striped Ilycena,
himself of the true history of the animal ; for, as Cuvier has observed,
the Romans were not really acquainted with the animal till at a
comparatively late period. Gordian III. is the first, and apparently
the only one, of the emperors who imported it ; he had ten, which
were exhibited in the games of Philip, in the year of Rome 1000, or
A.D. 247. It is not, in fact, until within the last few years, com-
paratively speaking, that the moderns have recognised the true
Hyaena. Belon, who wrote in 1553-4-5, &c., mistook the Civet for
it, which animal, indeed, resembles the Hyaena in having scent-
pouches, a mane, and a transversely barred or waved style of
colouring ; yet, at the same time that he fell into this error, he was
in possession of a good figure of the true Hyaina ; but, without sus-
pecting the real fact, he gives this under the title of Sea-Wolf, and
describes it as an animal from the coasts of England. From the
time of Belon to that of Buft'on, no naturalist figured the Hyffina
from nature ; and it is only within the last few years that its real
character has been understood.
The Hyaena has been represented as ferociously untameable :
nothing can be more untrue ; it is easily domesticated. Bishop
Fig. 333.— SU-ipcd Hy.-cna.
Heber saw one in India that followed its master and fawned on him
like a Dog. Barrow, speaking of the South African Spotted Hyaena,
states that in the district of Schneuberg it is domesticated and used
like a Hound for the chase. Colonel Sykes kept a young Hyaena
tame in India, and brought the animal over to England ; he pre-
sented it (then full-grown, yet gentle as a Dog) to the Zoological
Society. " In India," says Colonel Sykes, " it was allowed to run
about my house, and on board it was released from its cage two or
three times a day, to play with the sailors and gambol with the
Dogs. It early recognised my person and voice, would obey when
called, and in general was as playful and good-humoured as a
puppy. My visits to it in the Gardens have been rare and at long
intervals, nor have I ever carried it food. I anticipated, therefore,
that it would outgrow its early affection, and that I should be to it
as any other stranger ; but it has always greeted me, not only as an
old acquaintance, but as an old friend ; and, if I am to judge from its
agitation and peculiar cries, the animal's recognition is that of affec-
tion. On Sunday last it was asleep when I approached. On calling
it by its name, it looked up, distinguished me in the crowd, started
THE HY^NA FAMILY.
129
on its legs, and on my applying- my hand to its mouth to smell to, it
threw itself down against the bars, rubbed its head, nock, and
back against my hand, and then started on its legs, and bounded
about its cage uttering short cries. On ceasing to speak to it
and moving away, it looked wistfully after me, nor resumed its mo-
tions till I addressed it again. Its manifestations of joy were so
unequivocal as to e.xcite the surprise of a great number of by-
standers." 4
The Spotted Hy^na
[Hyana crocufd). Tiger- Wolf of the colonists at the Cape ; Hycstia
Cafiensis, Desm. ; H. inacttlata, Thunberg.
This species is the nuisance and even terror of South Africa,
W'here it is well known to tlie farmers, who too often experience the
effects of its destructive habits ; for it not only devours the carrion
which chance throws in its way, but it invades the farmers' pens or
folds during the night, and often succeeds in killing or mutilating
Fig. 334. — Spotted Ilysena.
such of the larger kinds of live stock as have not been secured before
dusk. Sickly animals, as we are assured, are less liable to suffer
from the voracity of this creature than those which are in full health :
the latter, by their rapid flight, inspiring the enemy with a courage
of which by nature he is destitute ; whereas the sickly face him, and
thus intimidate him. So anxious is he for the flight of animals as a
preliminary to his attack, that he uses all the grimace and threaten-
ing he can command to induce them to run, and never dares to
attack them unless they do so. The Spotted Hya;na never moves
abroad during the day ; night is his season of activity, and towards
nightfall his bowlings are regularly heard, announcing to the various
animals that their foe is on his prowl. These dismal sounds appal
the timid ; and, as they are heard on every side around, confuse the
affrighted fugitive, who often runs into the danger from which he
seeks to escape. Formerly, Hya;nas were in the habit of paying
nightly visits to the streets of Cape Town ; and even now occasionally
approach the town, and their bowlings are often heard from the
Table Mountain. In the Caffre country they are numerous and
daring, approaching the villages, and attempting, either by force or
Fig. 335. — Spotted IlyEena.
stratagem, to pass the wattles by which the bouses are defended.
If so far successful, they next attempt to enter the houses, and not
unfrequently succeed in carrying off a young child of the family.
_ Mr. Steedman, in his " Wanderings and Adventures in the Inte-
rior of Southern Africa," gives most appalling accounts of the
rapacity of the Spotted Hyaena. He states that Mr. Shepstone, in
a letter from Mamboland, relates that the nightly attacks of Wolves,
as the Hyainas are generally called, have been very destructive'
amongst the children and youth ; for within a few months, not fewer
than forty instances came to his knowledge wherein that beast had
made a most dreadful havoc. " To show clearly," says that gentle-
man, " the preference of the Wolf (Spotted Hyaena) for human
flesh, it will be necessary to notice that, when the Mambookies build
their houses, w-hich arc in form like Beehives, and tolerably large,
often eighteen or twenty feet in diameter, the floor is raised at the
higher or back part of the house, until within three or four feet of the
front, where it suddenly terminates, leaving an area from thence to
the wall, in which every night the calves arc tied to protect them
from the storms or wild beasts. Now it would be natural to
suppose, that, should the Wolf enter, he would seize the first object
for his prey, especially as the natives always lay with the fire at
their feet ; but, notwithstanding this, the constant practice of this
animal has been, in every instance, to pass by the calves in the
area, and even by the fire, and take the children from under the
mother's kaross, and this in such a gentle and cautious manner,
that the poor parent has been unconscious of her loss until the cries
of her little innocent have reached her from without when a close
prisoner in the jaws of the monster." Mr. Shepstone then particu-
larises two instances within his own knowledge, one of a boy about
ten years of age, and the other of a little girl about eight, who had
been carried off by this species, and wretchedly mangled, but
recovered by the attention of Mr. Shepstone and his friends.
Various methods are employed for the destruction of this ferocious
beast, as snares, pit-falls, traps, spring-guns, &c. ; but so cunning
and suspicious is the animal, that he mostly avoids them.
The general colour of this species is yellowish-brown, with
numerous spots, more or less distinct, of a deeper tint; the mane
down the neck and back is less full and long than in the Striped
Hyaena, and the hair generally is shorter. (See Figs. 334 and 335.)
The Villose Hv.ena
{Hymna villosa. Smith). Straand-Wolf of the Dutch colonists of the
Cape. — For our knowledge of this species, which resembles in some
respects the Striped Hyaena, we are indebted to Dr. A. Smith, who
figured and described it in the fifteenth volume of the " Linnasan
Transactions." The Villose Hyaena is a native of South Africa,
Fig. 336. — Villose Hyxiia.
but is by no means so common as the spotted species, and is found
chiefly along the sea-coast, but has been observed in the neighbour-
hood of Nieuveld Mountains, a considerable distance in the interior
of the country. The Villose Hysena, or Straand-Wolf, devours
carrion, and such dead animal substances (Whales for instance) as
the sea casts up ; but when pressed by hunger its habits seem to
resemble those of the other species, for it then commits serious
depredations on the flocks and herds of the colonists, who hold its
incursions in great dread. Mr. Steedman, who states this, says that
he saw a very fine specimen, which had been shot by a farmer
residing in the vicinity of Blauwbcrg, and was informed that it had
destroyed three large calves belonging to the farmer. He adds,
that it is said to be a remarkably cunning animal, retiring to a con-
siderable distance from the scene of its depredations to elude pur-
suit, and concealing itself during the day-time in the mountains, or
in the thick bush which extends in large patches throughout the
sandy district in which it is usually found.
The Villose Hyaena stands about 2 feet 4 inches in height at the
shoulder, and measures 4 feet 4 inches from the nose to the root of
the tail. The hair of the body is long and coarse. Its general
colour is dusky-grey, variegated with indefinite clouds or oblique
bands of black, the latter prevailing on the limbs. (See Fig. 336.}
The fossil bones of extinct species oi'Ryvs:X\3.—'Ci\^ Hyena spelaus,
or Cave Hyaena — prove the abundance of these animals at one period
in our portion of the globe. In the Cave of Kirkdale these relics
were found in vast numbers, exceeding those of any other carnivorous
animal. They have been discovered also in other places in our
island. On the continent they occur in the Cavern of Gaylenreuth,
S
130
THE EARTH-WOLF-THE CIVET FAMILY.
and in most of those where the fossil bones of Bears are met with,
to which we have already alluded.
The Proteles.
(Proteles crisiafa). Aard Wolf (Eartlu-Wolf) of the Dutch colo-
nists of the Cape ; Prutcles Lalaiidii, Isidore, Geoffrey ; Viverra
Hyccrto'idcs, Desmarest ; Civette Hycno'ide of F. Cuvier.
The genus Proteles, which appears to link the Hya;nas to the Civets,
contains, as far as known, only one species, which is a native of
South Africa. In general contour and manners this singular animal
much resembles the former animals, but is of inferior size : the
hinder quarters are low and trailing ; the shoulders thick and mus-
cular; while a full coarse mane runs along the side. In dentition it
is very remarkable. The molars are ^~^ much separated from each
.•5-3
other. Of those above, the three first are false, and the fourth
is small and tuberculous, with three points. The three molars below
have each the character of false molars. Incisors and canines as
usual.
On their fore-feet there are five toes, but the thumb is short,
rudimentary, and high on the carpus, as in the Dog; the hinder feet
have four toes. The claws are strong, large, blunt, and well adapted
for scratching. There are no decided scent-pouches, as in the
Civets, but a furrow in their stead. The form of the head more re-
sembles that of the Civets than the Hyjenas, being somewhat elon-
gated, and having the muzzle conical and pointed. The ears arc
long, erect, acute, and thinly covered with hair ; the whiskers arc
strong ; the tail is short and bushy, with coarse hair. The body is
covered with woolly fur, intermixed with long coarse hairs. The
general colour is of a yellowish-grey, radiated with distinct trans-
verse stripes of dusky-black, the mane being waved with black,
which is also the colour of the feet and extreme half of the tail. The
young are much darker, both in general colour and their markings,
Fig. 337. — Proteles, or Aard Wolf.
than adults. Length of an adult female specimen in the museum of
the Zool. Soc, 2 feet 6 inches, exclusive of the tail, which is
eleven inches. The male is somewhat larger. (See Fig. 337.)
The Aard Wolf, or Proteles, is nocturnal in its habits, and con-
structs a deep burrow, at the bottom of which it lies concealed
during the day-time. This subterranean chamber, to which there
are three or four different entrances, is usually occupied by several
individuals, so that the animal appears to be partially greo-arious
Notwithstanding the trailing contour of its hind-quarters, ''it runs
with considerable quickness : when irritated, it erects its mane, like
the Hyajna. Its food consists of carrion and small animals', not
excluding Ants, which were found by Sparrman in the stomach of
one he killed.
The Viverrid^, or Civets.
At p. 87, we have stated that with the Hycsm'dce we close the
digitrade group of the Cartiivora. The Vwerridcs, or Civets, and
the AIiistelidcB, or Weasels, are properly semi-plantigrade ; that is,
they apply a portion of the sole to the ground, but the heel is always
raised ; whereas, in the remaining families, as the Bears, &c., those
animals are truly plantigrade, and apply the whole sole to the ground
when walking. The dentition, and other special characters of the
Viverridic and MustelidcB, have already been described at p. 87.
We shall therefore proceed to describe the various species.
The Civet
(Viverra Civetta),—Vcvc restricted genus Viverra, as established
by modern naturalists, contains only a limited number of species,
characterised by the possession of a large double sacculus, secretint^
an unctuous substance of a strong musky odour; by the claws bein^-
half retractile ; and the pupil of the eye circular during the day.
The dentition, similar to that of the Ichneumons (Fig. 338), is as
follows : — Incisors, ~ ; canines, ; molars, - — - = 40.
6 1 — I —
The body is long and compressed laterally ; the fur is somewhat
harsh, full; and a mane, as in the Proteles, runs along the spine.
The head is stout, wide, and rounded ; the tail is shorter than the
body. The eyes gleam in the dark with great brilliancy.
Fig. 338. — Teeth of Ichneumon.
Of nocturnal habits, wild and savage, the animals of this genus
arfi decidedly carnivorous, preying upon birds, reptiles, and small
Ma/i27?ia/ia, which they take by surprise ; and taken young they are
easily tamed, but adults can never be reconciled to captivity.
The Civet is peculiar to North Africa, and is especially common in
Abyssinia, frequenting hilly, uncultivated districts and arid situations.
It gives its name to the musky perfume for which all the species are
equally remarkable. In figure the Civet is robust, but the body is
compressed laterally ; in size it equals a Dog of middle stature,
being about twenty-six inches in length, exclusive of the tail, which
is thirteen or fourteen inches. Buffon states that, in his time,
numbers were kept in Holland for the commercial advantage of
^'g- 339.— Civet.
obtaining their odorous secretion ; but we are not aware that such
IS now the case. In North Africa, however, the practice is in vogue.
The colour of the Civet is dark grey, thickly banded with black ; a
white stripe runs along the sides of the neck, bounded by a black line
above, the throat and sides of the muzzle being black. A thick
inane of coarse black hair runs along the neck and back, and con-
tinues over the tail, which is consequently somewhat bushy. Figs.
339 and 340 represent two varieties of the Civet.
In India the Civet is represented by the Zibet ( Viverra Zibetha,
Linn. ; Viverra undulata. Gray), and in Java by the Tangalung
THE CIVETS AXD GEXETS.
(the Tangalunga Padi of the natives). This is the Spotted Civet,
Vivcrra Tangahujga, of Gray, and the V. Zihetha of F. Cuvier,
Dr. Horsfield, and SirT. Raffles, who confounded it with the former,
from which it is distinct. It is the Viverra Hardwickii of Lesson.
The Genet
{Genetia vulgaris). — The Genets are distinguished by a slim and
graceful contour ; the neck is long ; the head is narrow, and termi-
nates in a pointed muzzle ; the limbs are short ; the ears broad,
Fig. 340. — Civets.
short, and rounded ; the tail lengthened ; the pupils of the eyes
linear and vertical ; the musk-pouches are inconsiderable or reduced
to a mere depression.
In their manners, as well as in several anatomical peculiarities,
the Genets approximate closely to the Cats. Like those animals they
hiss when approached or irritated ; spring upon their prey, taking it
by surprise ; strike and lacerate with their talons, which are com-
pletely retractile ; and climb trees with ease and rapidity. In the
markings and character of the fur also we see a marked approach to
the Cats. (See Fig. 341.)
The common Genet is found throughout Africa, and occurs in the
south of France and other portions of Europe adjacent to the Medi-
Fig. 341.— Genet,
terranean. It is said to haunt the borders of streams and rivers,
especially near their source. This beautiful but fierce animal is
easily domesticated, and is kept tame in Constantinople, where it is
in repute as a destroyer of Rats and Mice. Its odour is not very
powerful, nor at all disagreeable.
The general colour is greyish-yellow, with black lines down the
back, and spotted on the sides with the same ; on the cheeks, above
the eyes, and on each side of the muzzle, there is a streak of white •
the tail is alternately banded with black and white. '
The Rasse Genet
{Genetta Rasse). Viverra Rasse, Horsfield ; Vivcrra Gunda,
Hamilton, MSS.— This species, which is a native of Java, appears to
be different from the Genetia Itidica. According to Dr. Horsfield,
It frequents forests of moderate elevation, where 'it preys upon small
birds and animals of every description, and possesses the santruinary
appetite of the animals of this family in a high degree. In confinement
it will devour a mi.xed diet, and is fed on eggs, fish, flesh, and rice.
The natives afiirm that salt is a poison to it. Its odoriferous secre-
tion is termed dcdes by the Javanese, And jidei by the Malays, and
is held in high esteem. (See Fig. 342.)
The Delundung
(Priofiodon gracilis).-^Th\s beautiful and singular species, a
native of J.ava, was regarded by Dr. Horsfield as so intimately re-
lated to the Cats, that he terms it J'ciis, and assigns it a sectional
Fig. 342. — Rasse Genet.
place in that group. We consider it to be the most nearly allied
to the Genets, though destitute of scent-glands, and differing
somewhat in the dentition, which is as follows : — Incisors, — ;
6
canines, ^-1 ; molars, ^^?. Of the molars above, the first is
i-i 6-6
bicuspid, the second tricuspid, as is the third; the fourth, or car-
nassiere, has an elongated cutting edge ; the fifth is tubercular.
This jagged form of the teeth has suggested the name of Prionodon,
from Trpiuii', " a saw," and ociovg, " a tooth." (See Fig. 343 ; a,
{/{t^^'^W^'^p'^
F'S- 343- — Head, Teeth, .ind Feet of Delundung.
an external view of the teeth of both jaws ; d, an internal view of the
same ; c, front view of the teeth.) The Delundung was discovered in
1806, by Dr. Horsfield, during his researches in the district of
Blambangan, at the eastern extremity of Java, where it is very rare,
and still more so in other parts of the island : it inhabits the e.xten-
sive forests with which the district is almost entirely covered. Of its
habits no details were collected. (See Fig. 344.)
'32
THE CIVET FAMILY.
This animal is extremely slender and elongated, with a tapering;
head and sharp muzzle, a long thick tail, and slender delicate
limbs. The eyes are sprightly, the iridcs brown, the pupils circular.
The claws are minute and sharp, and perfectly retractile. The fur is
silky at the base and soft to the touch. The whiskers are very long.
The ground-colour is of a delicate yellowish-white; four broad
transverse bands of rich blackish-brown traverse the back at equal
intervals; an interrupted stripe, originating behind the eye and
between the ears, passes along the side, and terminates in large
spots on the thigh ; the shoulder is similarly spotted ; and the tail
is ringed at regular but increasing intervals. The tout-ensemble
brings' to mind the cloudings on a rich piece of tortoiseshell. Fig.
343 presents a front view of the head : d, the fore-foot covered with
fur ; e, the hind-foot with the fur removed.
The Cryptoprocta
{CrypfoJ>rocta ferox). — This remarkable and rare animal is a
decided link between the Viverrine and the Feline groups, approach-
ing very nearly to the latter in external characters, and still more so
in internal anatomy.
The body is slender, but the limbs are robust and muscular ; the
head is narrow ; the eyes rather small ; the ears unusually large and
Fig. 345. — Ciyptoprocta.
rounded ; the toes five on each foot ; the tail long. General colour
a light brownish-red.
The individual on which Mr. Bennett founded his description was
immature, having not then lost its milk-teeth ; it was thirteen inches
and a-half in the length of the head and body, that of the tail being
eleven inches and a-half.
Of the habits of the Cryptoprocta ferox nothing definitely is
known. The specimen in question was sent to the Zool. Soc. by
Mr. Telfair, President of the Mauritius Natural History Society,
who states that he received it alive from the interior and southern
part of Madagascar, and that he had not seen in the Mauritius any
of the Madagascar people that were acquainted with it. Hence it
■would seem to be rare. He remarks, " It was the most savage
creature of its size I ever met with ; its motions, power, and activity
were those of a Tiger, and it had the same appetite for blood and
the destruction of animal life. Its muscular force was very great,
and the muscles of the limbs were remarkably full and thick."
The Suricate
{Ryzoinaf etradactyla, III.). — Regarding the Proteles as leading to
the Hyrenas, and the Cryptoprocta to the Cats, another line of the
Viverridce appears to conduct us to the Ferrets, through the Ich-
neumons. But before we notice these, two remarkable genera claim
our attention, each containing a species, which in form and habits
appears to e.xhibit a certain degree of afSnity to the Racoons,
having, like those animals, a long, pointed, movable nose ; feet
almost entirely plantigrade ; eyes obliquely set ; the body strongly
Fig. 346. — Teeth of Suricate.
built, and the habit of sitting up on the haunches, while the fore-
paws are employed in holding food. While, however, the approach
of these species to the Racoons is discernible, their alliance to the
Ichneumons cannot be mistaken. We first select the Suricate. A
nose remarkably long, sharp, and flexible ; quick, lively, oblique eyes,
with circular pupils ; and close ears, give a peculiar expression to
the physiognomy of the animal. The toes on each foot are four,
those of the anterior limbs being armed with large hooked claws,
miniature copies of those of the Sun-Bears. The dentition (Fig.
346) resembles that of the Ichneumons, except that there is one
false molar less on each side, above and below.
F'o- 347.— Suricate.
This rare animal is a native of Southern Africa, and is eminently
carnivorous in its habits. Its length is about a foot, exclusive of
the tail, which is nearly six inches. There are two scent-glands.
The general colour is yellowish-grey, waved transversely with dark
brown and rufous, the hairs, as in the Ichneumons, being ringed
with different tints ; the tail is rufous-brown, ending in black. The
fur is long and rather coarse. (See Fig. 347.)
We have had an opportunity of observing two specimens, a male
and a female, in captivity ; they were lively, inquisitive, and docile,
but betrayed great excitement when birds or other small animals
were presented before their cage, endeavouring to seize or dart upon
THE EGYPTIAN ICHNEUMON.
'33
them. They used their paws with much address, and would sit up,
peeping between the wires, or caressing each other, for they ex-
hibited great mutual attachment. The female died first ; the male
became'duU, pined, and shortly followed his companion. The notes
of their anatomy, by Professor Owen, are given in the " Zoological
Proceedings "^
for 1830-31.
The Mangue
{Crossarchus oisairus).—The. Mangue, the only known representa-
tive of the genus Crossarchus, is a native of Sierra Leone and other
parts of Western Africa. It resembles the Suricate in the form of
the head and nose, in dentition, and general structure, internal as
well as external. It has, however, five toes on each foot, and is
fairly plantigrade. Its general colour is deep chocolate-brown,
grizzled with yellowish-white, each hair being ringed with this
colour. The individual which we have observed in captivity
resembled the Suricate in its habits, and was very intelligent. With
respect to its manners in a state of nature we have no particular
Fig. 349-— Egyptian Ichneumons feeding on the eggs of the Crocodile.
details. In the " Zool. Proceeds." for 1834 will be found our ac-
count of the internal anatomy of this animal, compared with that of
the Suricate and the Viverrida in general. (See Fig. 348.)
The Egyptian Ichneumon
{Her;pesics Pharao7iis, Desm., Ichneumon).— V^Wh. long agile
bodies, small glowing eyes, a pointed nose, long tail, short limbs,
and scmi-plantigradc feet, the Ichneumons, Mungoos, or Man-
goustes, as they are also called {Mangusta, Oliv. ; Ichneumon,
Geoff. ; Hcrpcsles, Illig.), in their general form, no less than in
their habits, display a certain approximation to the Ferrets, being
bold, active, and sanguinary, and unrelenting destroyers of birds,
reptiles, and small Mtiminalia, which they take by surprise, darting
rapidly upon them. Beautiful, cleanly, and easily domesticated,
they are often kept tame in the countries they naturally inhabit, for
the purpose of clearing the houses of vermin, though the poultry-yard
is not safe from their incursions. The ears are short, wide, and
rounded ; the hair long, rather coarse, and waved or grizzled, each
hair being ringed with different tints ; the scent-gland is largo ; the
feet are five-toed, the nails sharp and semi-retractile ; the pupils of
the eyes oblong: Fig. 338, p. 130, a«/i?, gives the dentition. The
Ichneumons are natives of the hotter parts of the Old World, the
species being respectively African and Indian. Night is their
season of activity ; they then prowl in quest of their prey, stealing
along with noiseless step, urged by hunger and the instinct of de-
struction. The Egyptian Ichneumon is a native of North Africa, and
was deified for its services by the ancient Egyptians. Its Coptic
name is Nems ; its Arabic, among the Moors, Serro. Snakes,
Lizards, Birds, Crocodiles newly hatched, and especially the eggs of
the Crocodile, constitute its food ; and the ancients believed that it
attacked and killed that huge reptile when fully grown. Pliny
states, that when gorged with food, and lying with the mouth open,
a little bird, called Trochilos, enters the jaws of the Crocodile to
pick the teeth, to the great satisfaction of the monster ; and he
adds, that the Ichneumon, espying him asleep, darts down his throat
and tears his inside. We need not enter into any grave refutation
of this marvellous account.
The Ichneumon is fierce and daring, and glides with sparkling
eyes towards its prey, which it follows with Snake-like progression ;
often it watches patiently for hours together in one spot, waiting the
appearance of a Mouse, Rat, or Snake from its lurking-place. We
have frequently seen the animal sit up like the Suricate while
feeding. In a state of domestication it is gentle and affectionate,
and never wanders from the
house or returns to an in-
dependent existence ; but it
makes itself familiar with
every part of the premises,
exploring every hole and
corner, inquisitively peeping
into boxes and vessels of all
kinds, and watching every
movement or operation.
The colour of the Egyp-
tian Ichneumon is brownish-
grey, each hair being ringed
with white and dark tints
of brown ; the tail tapers to-
wards the extremity, which
is tufted and black. Length
twenty-one inches, exclusive
of the tail, which is eighteen.
The annexed illustration
(Fig. 349) represents E.gj'p-
tian Ichneumons feeding on
the eggs of the Crocodile.
The Indian Ichneumon,
^ OR Mungoos
{Hcrpestcs griseus).—T\\\%
species is much less than
the Egyptian Ichneumon,
and of a beautiful freckled-
grey. It is common in India,
and frequently brought to
this country; it is easily
tamed, and is inquisitive,
active, cleanly, and docile.
Mr. Bennett, in his account
of one kept in the Tower,
says that on one occasion it
killed no fewer than a dozen
full-grown Rats, which were
turned out before it in a
room sixteen feet square, in less than a minute and a-half. In
India this animal does not fear to attack the Cobra, or Naia
tripudiafis, and usually does so with success ; the Snake, on
being brought into the presence of its seemingly contemptible
enemy, sometimes endeavouring to make its escape. The Mun-
goos, of course, often gets bitten in these encounters ; but it is said
to use a root which serves as an antidote to the poison of the
Snakes.
134
THE INDIAN ICHNEUMON, OR MUNGOOS.
Fig. 350 illustrates an attack of a Mungoos on a Cobra. A speci-
men is usually in the collection of the Zoological Society of London.
The Garangan
{Herpesfes Javaniais). — According to Dr. Horsfield, this species,
termed Garangan by the Javanese, inhabits chicHy the large teak-
forests, and its agility is greatly admired by the natives : it attacks
and kills Serpents with excessive boldness. "It is very expert in
It is very cleanly in its habits ; it is exclusively carnivorous, and
very destructive to poultry, employing great artifice in surprising
chickens : " hence the natives seldom keep it tamed, nor is it
altogether to be trusted, as it is subject to fits of excessive violence.
Its mode of encountering Serpents was related by the natives to
Dr. Horsfield, exactly as it is described by Rumphius, who informs
us that the Javanese nobles amuse themselves with these contests.
When the two enemies are opposed to each other, the Serpent
endeavours to twine round the quadruped and kill it; the latter
Fig. 350. — The Mungoos, or Mangouste, seizing a Cobra,
burrowing in the ground, which process it employs ingeniously in the
pursuit of Rats. It possesses great natural sagacity, and, from the
peculiarities of its character, it willingly seeks the protection of man.
It is easily tamed, and in its domestic state is docile, and attached to
its master, whom it follows like a Dog ; it is fond of caresses, and
frequently places itself erect on its hind-legs, regarding everything
that passes with great attention. It is of a very restless disposition,
and always carries its food to the most retired place to consume it.
rj'-'-^sS'^
Fig- 351.— Garangan.
inflates itself to turgcscence, and, as the reptile is about to inflict
the fatal wounds, contracts its body, slips through the scaly coil, and
seizes its foe by the neck. We suspect that in this story some
allowance must be made for over-colouring. (See Fig. 351.)
Steedman's Cynictis
{Cynictis Steedmanti, Ogilb.). — The genus Cynictis differs from
He?-J>esies in the number of the toes on the hind-feet being only
Fig. 352. — Steedmann's Cynictis.
THE WEASELS AND BADGERS.
«3S
four, and in the absence of a false molar on the lower jaw. The tail
is long- and bushy. The characters of the skull and dentition are
seen at Fifj. '^.^<^}i : a, the skull from above ; l>, the same in profile ;
c, the dentition of the upper jaw; d, the dentition of the lower jaw.
The Cynktis Steed niaiiii\% a native of South Africa, and appears
to resemble the Ichneumons in its general habits. It excavates
burrows, in which it dwells.
Though only introduced to
our knowledge within the last
few years, it was most pro-
bably seen by Sparrman and
Barrow, the latter of whom
describes an animal so closely
resembling the present, that
there can be no doubt as to
their identity. The general
colour is Fo.xy-red ; the tail
is bushy, tipped with white.
Length, i foot 6 inches, ex-
clusive of the tail, which is
I foot. A second specimen
of this genus, Cynictis mcla-
iiiirus, is a native of Sierra
Leone ; and several others
have been discovered in South
Africa. (See Fig. 352.)
The Common Paradoxure
[Paradoxurzis Ty^iis).—Th.&
genus Paradoxirnts appears
to be one of the links which
conduct us from the true
Vi'jerrcBio the aberrant forms
of the Ursida;. This genus
is peculiar to India and the
adjacent islands. It is cha-
racterised by a semi-planti-
grade condition of the feet,
the greater portion of the sole
being naked and callous ; the
toes, five, closely united toge-
ther by intervening webs ; claws short, sharp, and semi-retractile ; the
pupil linear ; a mere fold instead of scent-pouches ; molars -^^ ■
6 — 6 '
nearly resembling those of the Genets ; the tail frequently spirally
contorted, but not prehensile ; the fur full.
In size the Paradoxure exceeds a common Cat, its total length,
including the tail, being three feet. The general colour is greyish-
black, tinged with yellow, and indistinctly banded and spotted with
a dusky hue ; a whitish streak occupies the cheek below the eye,
and another runs above ; muzzle black. The Paradoxures are to a
great extent frugivorous, and are in the habit of climbing trees,
which they do with great facility. Dr. Horsfield, in his " Zoological
Researches," gives a description of the Java Paradoxure, or
Fig. 353.— Skull and Teeth of Cynictis.
It is most abundant near the villages situated at the confines of
large forests, and constructs a simple nest in the manner of
Squirrels, of dry leaves, grass, or small twigs, in the forks of larger
branches or in the hollow of trees. From these it sallies forth at
night to visit the sheds and hen-roosts of the natives, in search of
eggs, chickens, &c. Its rambles are also particularly directed to
gardens and plantations, where fruits of every description within its
reach, and particularly pine-apples, suffer extensively from its
depredations." The coffee plantations in some parts of the island
are greatly infested by it, and on this account it has obtained the
name of Coffee-Rat. It selects the most ripe and perfect berries,
and as the seeds pass uninjured through the alimentary viscera, it
spreads that plant extensively, and gives origin to splendid groves
in various parts of the forest, but particularly on the declivities of
hills, thus counterbalancing the injuries it commits. Its native
name is Leewak. (See Fig. 354.)
Fig. 355 represents the dentition of the Binturong {Arti/is Bin-
tui'otig, Tem. ; Ictides ater, Cuv.). — This animal, a native of Java
Fig. 354. — Paradoxure.
Musang, well worthy of notice. Its manners, he observes, are very
similar to those of the Genet. "If taken young, it becomes
patient and gentle during confinement, and receives readily animal
and vegetable food. It requires little attention, and contents itself
with the scanty remains of the meals of the natives, with fish,, eggs,
rice, potatoes, Sic, the structure of its teeth being particularly
adapted to vegetable diet. It prefers, however, the delicate and
pulpy fruits ; but when pressed by hunger attacks fowls and birds.
TcelU of Binlurong.
and Sumatra, represents in its own country the Kinkajou of the
forests of South America. It is a slow, heavy, plantig'-rade animal,
with short limbs, and a long, powerful, prehensile tail, very thick
and muscular at the base, and with which it assists itself in climb-
ing, being arboreal in its habits. One that was kept alive many
years by Major Farquhar partook both of animal and vegetable
food. It is timid and nocturnal, sleeping during the day, and
wandering about at night in quest of food. In size it exceeds a
domestic Cat, measuring 2 feet 5 inches in the length of the head
and body, the tail being upwards of 2 feet. Its fur is long and
coarse ; general colour black ; pupils of the eyes linear. Cuvier
notices the approximation of these animals to the Racoons.
The Mustelid^ or Weasels, and the Melid.e, or
Badgers.
The Musidid(B are often united, by writers on Natural History,
either with the Vivcrrida or the Mel idee, or both. They belong
to the semi-plantigrade, and, therefore, form a concluding link
between the digitrade and plantigrade groups. We have already
given, at page"?;, ante, a general description of the peculiarities
oi\\\c Micsteiidcc x^-aA. Mclida ; and shall leave to our more scien-
tific readers to distinguish between the connection of the groups
above named, preferring a popular description rather than a scien-
136
THE WEASBL FAMILY.
tific discussion as to the classification of the Weasels and Badpi-ers,
and their joint connection with the Bears, or Ursida, to which
latter we shall devote a separate chapter.
In a commercial point of view the Weasel family is by no means
unimportant. From several species the most costly furs are pro-
cured, pre-eminent for beauty : we need only mention the Sable
[Marfcs Zibelli/ia), and the Ermine {Alustchi cr/iiiiica). The true
Sable is a native of the dreary regions of Siberia, where it haunts
the gloomy pine-forests which stretch over immense tracts of
country remote from human abodes. It is into the midst of these
wilds that the Sable-hunter has to penetrate in the pursuit of his
game, and the chase is carried on in the winter, for it is then that
the fur is the finest. Great are the hunter's perils and privations.
''" /• a)'/. ^.^
Fig. 356.— British Muslelidi2 (Weasels).
He has to traverse plains and mountains covered with snow, and
swept by the keen tempests of an Arctic winter ;— to spend days and
nights in patient watching, and in the solitudes of the dismal
forest; he is exposed to overwhelming snow-storms, of which, in
our climate, we can form but an imperfect idea. He often loses his
way ; his provisions fail, and he finds himself exposed to all the
horrors of cold and famine. Who has not heard of the hardships of
the hunter of Sables in the deserts of Siberia ?
We have several British species, of which the common Weasel
{Mustela vulgaris), the Polecat [M. pidorius), and the Stoat, or
Ermine {M. erminca), are the best known. The latter is the
animal that furnishes the beautiful white fur which constitutes such
an important adjunct to all robes of state. This is the winter coat
of the animal ; in the summer it is reddish-brown above, and white
beneath, but the extremity of the tail is always black. The Ferret
{M. fitro) is a well-known albino variety of some species nearly
allied to the Polecat, supposed to have been originally a native of
Africa. It is kept in this country principally for the destruction of
vermin, which it pursues into their holes; and also to drive Rabbits
from their burrows. When employed for the latter purpose it is
usually muzzled. It is a dangerous inmate, and has more than
once been known to attack children sleeping in the cradle, and to
inflict serious injuries upon them, in the absence of the nurse or
mother
We have arranged, in the following cut (Fig. 356), a group of
British Mustelida;, typical of the family. Of these, a is the Polecat
{Mustela ^itforiics) ; b, the Stoat
(Mustela erminca) ; c, the Beech-
Marten {Marfes fagoriim) ; d, the
Ferret {Mustelafurd) ; e, the Weasel
{Rhistela vulgaris). Fig. 357 repre-
sents the Pine-Marten [Alusicla abie-
tiim) ; Fig. 358, the Beech-Marten
{Hfusfela/agorum).
The Polecat, Fitchet, or Foumart,
is very common in some parts of
our island, where the farmer and
the sportsman make common cause
against it. Poultry, young and old.
Ducks, Geese, and Turkeys fall a
prey to its sanguinary disposition :
it destroys all within its reach. Mr.
Bell instances one case in which
sixteen large Turkeys were killed by
a Polecat during the course of one
night ; and another in which ten
Ducks were similarly destroyed ; and
the perpetrator of the outrage, when
in the morning the door of the out-
house in which they were shut was
opened, marched out licking his
bloody jaws, without the slightest
alarm. Many similar instances have
come under our own personal know-
ledge. The predilection of the Pole-
cat for the brains and the blood of
poultry is well known : it seldom
touches the rest of the carcass ; and
we may here observe that Rats dis-
play the same taste for the brains of
birds. We could adduce many in-
stances, within our own knowledge,
in which birds kept in aviaries have
been destroyed by Rats, the brain of
the victims being in every case eaten
out of the skull.
It is generally in w-inter that the
Polecat haunts the farm-yard. In
summer it resorts to plantations,
woods, and preserves of game, where
it makes havoc among Leverets,
young Partridges, and Pheasants ;
nor arc the nests of birds safe from
its attacks, the eggs or callow brood
being equally acceptable. No ani-
mal is more pernicious in the Rabbit-
warren. It can follow its prey through
their subterranean galleries, which
the Fox cannot do ; besides which,
its love of slaughter seems insatiable.
It would appear that even the tenants
of the water are not safe from its
attacks. Mr. Bewick, on his own
~^'— ■ testimony, affirms that in one in-
stance eleven fine Eels were dis-
covered in the retreat of a Polecat
near a rivulet, to which its nocturnal
visits were rendered apparent by tracks in the snow, both of its feet
and of the writhing Eels. In Loudon's " Magazine " (vol. vi., p. 206),
an instance is related in which the nest of a female Polecat was
opened containing five young ones, while in a side hole w'ere packed
forty large Frogs and two Toads, barely alive, each having been
paralysed by a bite through the brain. When attacked by Dog or
man, the Polecat makes a vigorous resistance, and will defend
itself to the last. The female breeds in the spring, making a nest
of dry grass in her burrow. The young are from three to five in
number. The adult Polecat measures about I foot 4 or 5
inches in length, exclusive of the tail, which measures nearly 6
inches. The body is covered with a woolly under-coat ; and this, with
the base of the long hairs, which form an outer garment, is of a
THE FERRET, WEASEL, AND ST0A7.
U7
pale yellow ; the extremities of the long- hairs are of a deep glossy
blackish-brown ; the margins of the ears and part of the lips are
white. Though by no means so valuable as that of the Sable or
Marten, the fur of this animal (known generally by the name of
Fitch) is imported very extensively from the north of Europe, and is
abundant in the furriers' shops of our metropolis.
The Ferret is closely allied to the Polecat ; so closely, indeed,
that many naturalists regard them as the same species, the more
Fig. 357. — Pine-Marten.
especially as a mixed breed between them may be procured. We
do not, however, consider this opinion to be correct. The Polecat is
a native of temperate and northern Europe ; the Ferret, of Africa,
whence, as we are told by Strabo, it was imported into Spain for the
purpose of destroying Rabbits, with which, at one period, that
country was injuriously overrun. From Spain it has spread through
the rest of Europe, not as a wild, but as a domesticated animal.
From the earliest times it was used in the capture of Rabbits by
being turned, muzzled, into their burrows. Pliny alludes to this
practice in his eighth book. The ordinary colour of the Ferret is
yellowish-white ; but we have frequently seen specimens of a brown
colour : these, indeed, were said to be of the mixed breed between
Fig. 358.— Beech-Marten.
the Polecat and the Ferret ; and probably were so, as they were
always larger and stouter than the white. One of the brown kind,
in the possession of a relative of the writer's, was so tame as to be
allowed the liberty of the house, and it slept in his chamber — a
dangerous experiment, as instances have been known of their
attacking persons and wounding them severely. An instance in
which an infant nearly fell a sacrifice to a Ferret is related by Mr.
Jesse, in his " Gleanings," and quoted by Mr. Bell. The child had
the jugular vein and the temporal artery opened ; the face, neck, and
arms lacerated ; and the sight of one eye destroyed. The Ferret is
not only employed by the warrener, but also by the Ratcatcher, who
prefers the mixed breed.
The Ferret is very sensitive of cold, and requires to be kept snug
and warm, especially during winter, as it perishes if exposed to the
severity of the season.
The Weasel {Mtistera vulgaris) is so well known, that any
description of its form and colour is useless. Small as this animal
is, it has all the courage and ferocity of its race, and will preyupon
Leverets, Chickens, young Pigeons, and Ducklings ; its favourite
food, however, are Mice, Rats, Water-Rats, and even Moles. In the
farmer's stack-yard and granary it is of the greatest utility, and well
repays by valu.able services the occasional abstraction of a Chicken,
a Pigeon, or a few eggs. Of this, indeed, many farmers are well
aware, and encourage it for the sake of the incessant warfare it
keeps up agamst Mice and Rats, which, from their excessive num-
bers, often occasion a serious loss in grain, besides undermining the
barns and outhouses.
The \yeasel climbs trees and runs up the side of a wall with
facility, its movements being singularly graceful. When it attacks
its prey, it fixes its teeth on the back of the he.ad, and pierces the
brain, which it then devours. It is said to prefer putrid flesh to that
just killed ; but this is very doubtful, and has arisen most probably
from the circumstance of dead birds in a putrid state having been
found in its hole or near its retreat, left by their destroyer. The
\Veasel hunts by the scent, like a Dog ; and follows Mice and Moles
with the utmost perseverance, tracking them through all their runs
or winding galleries. It will even cross the water in the pursuit, if
its prey be in sight ; nor does swiftness avail, for onwards will the
Weasel travel, till its victim falls from exhaustion. The Wolverene
of North America {Gulo arctkus) pursues the Beaver and other prey
in a similar manner.
Instances are on record in which several Weasels have united in
attacking men, who with difficulty have prevented the fierce little
animal from lacerating their throats ; and certainly twelve or fifteen
Weasels would prove no mean adversaries.
The Weasel often falls a prey to Hawks, Owls, and Kites ; but
sometimes succeeds in coming off victorious. Many anecdotes are
on record of Weasels and Stoats bringing Eagles or large Hawks to
the ground ; and Mr. Bell gives an instance, assuring us of its truth,
in which a Kite that had seized a Weasel and mounted into the air,
was observed to wheel irregularly, and at length to fall to the ground
dead ; the determined little animal having torn open the skin and
large blood-vessels under its wing.
The Weasel breeds two or three times in a 3'ear, having a litter of
five at each birth. She makes her nest of dry herbage; a hole in
the bank-side, among brambles, or in an aged tree, is the usual
Fig. 359.— Teeth of Glutton.
place of her retreat ; and when molested, she defends herself and her
progeny with indomitable courage.
The Stoat [Miisfcla ermhica) is allied very closely to the Weasel,
but is considerably larger, being upwards of nine inches long,
excluding the tail. Its habits are precisely those of the Weasel ; but
it preys habitually on larger game, as Hares, Leverets, &c., not
T
r,8
THE GLUTTON.
excluding the Rat and Water-Rat. Of the latter, indeed, it destroys
great numbers, following them into their burrows. It hunts its prey
by the scent. Some idea of the extent of the depredation of this
animal may be conceived from the circumstance of two Leverets, two
Leverets' heads, two young Partridges, and a Pheasant's egg hnving
been found m the retreat of one. . In our climate the Stoat becomes
partially white during the winter, but in more northern regions this
change is complete, the tip of the tail alone remaining black. In
this state it is called the Ermine. Large importations of Ermine-fur
are made from Russia, Norway, and Siberia, to our country.
The Beech-Marten {Martesfagoriun, or M. foina) and the Pme-
Marten {Martes abictum) are both natives of our island ; but the
former, distinguished by a white breast, is said to be the most com-
mon. The Pine-Marten is distinguished by a yellow breast and
throat. It must be confessed, however, that the specific distinction
between these two animals is by no means very apparent, nor indeed
Polecat in size, and the tail is long and bushy. The ears are large
and open, and the eyes bright and lively. In general instincts they
agree with the other Miistelidce.
Distinct from both of these, we regard the American Pine-Marten,
characterised by a shorter tail and fuller fur. Its skins are annually
imported into England from North America, where it is abundant in
the high latitudes. Dr. Richardson observes, that in America
" particular races of Martens, distinguished by the fineness and
dark colour of their fur, appear to inhabit certain rocky districts.
The rocky, mountainous, but wooded region of the Nipogon, on the
north side of Lake Superior, has been long noted for its black and
valuable Martens' skins." The animal is usually taken in traps
baited with the head of a bird. It is verj' bold, and when attacked
shows its teeth, hisses like a Cat, and bites with great severity.
Another and larger species, the Pekan, or Fisher [Martes Cana-
densis), is common in the northern parts of America ranging from
Fig. 360. — Gluttons.
is it admitted by many. We have many times seen the yellow-
breasted or Pine-Marten in the fir-woods which clothe the sides of
some of the hills in Derbyshire, and especially near Buxton. It
prefers wild and unfrequented places, deep wooded glens, and the
depths of forests ; and is common throughout northern Europe. The
Beech-Marten also frequents woods, but not so exclusively as the
former, and often lurks about farm-houses and destroys^ poultry.
Both are destructive to game. They take up their retreats in hollow
trees or holes in rocks, and the female makes her nest of leaves and
moss for her brood. The agility and gracefulness of these animals
are remarkable ; they climb trees with the ease of the Squirrel, and
traverse their branches or leap from bough to bough with admirable
address and celerity- Their fur, especially that of the Pine-Marten,
is full, deep, and soft, and of a beautiful brown, and not far inferior
to that of their immediate ally the Sable. The Marten exceeds the
Pennsylvania to the Great Slave Lake, and from shore to shore
across the country. Its fur is less valuable than that of the former.
It gives preference to damp spots and humid forests bordering
water.
The Glutton, or Wolverene
{Gulo arcficus, Desm. ; Gulo luscus). — Pallas and Gmelin referred
the Glutton to the genus Ursiis ; others to the ]\IustelidcE, as Linnajus
regarded it as a Mitstela. By other naturalists it is placed under
the Melida:, or Badgers. The dentition is shown in Fig. 359. In
their general port and figure the Gluttons are intermediate between
the Polecats and the Badgers. They have no decided scent-pouch,
but a glandular fold of the skin.
Two varieties, perhaps species, of Glutton are known : one, a
native of the high northern latitudes of the Old World ; the other, of
THE GLUTTON AND GRISON.
»39
and short ;^thefcet sub plantigrade, .ith five toes, armed wah sharp
Fig. 361. — Glutton and Reindeer.
claws ; the head broad, ending in a narrow muzzle ; the ears are
short and rounded ; the tail moderate. The first writer who has
described this animal is Olaus Magnus. " Among all animals," he
says, " which are regarded as insatiably voracious, the Glutton in the
northern parts of Sweden has received an express appellation, being
called, in the language of the country, Jerff ; and in German, Viel-
frass. In the Slavonian language its name is Rossomaka, in allu-
sion to its voracity ; in Latin, however, it is only known by the
fictitious name of Gulo, from its habits of gorging (gulo a gulositate
appellatur)." — 01. Mag., " His. de Gent. Septent."
The Glutton is indeed a voracious animal, but by no means
formidable to man or the larger beasts ; though, in proportion to its
size, its strength is very great. Slow in its movements, it makes up
by perseverance and industry for this defect, and at a steady pace pur-
sues its prey for miles, hunts out weaker dying animals, and destroys
Hares, Marmots, and Birds, which it seizes unawares. (Fig. 360.)
Buffon, relying on the authority of Olaus Magnus, Isbrandt, and
others, has contributed to render current the statement (which many
later naturalists have deemed not incredible), that the Glutton has
recourse to the most subtle artifice in order to surprise its victims,
and that it lurks in the branches of trees until the Reindeer
approaches to browse beneath, when it throws itself upon the
unsuspecting animal with unerring rapidity, fi.xes its strong claws in
the skin, and proceeds to tear the neck and throat till the wretched
victim falls exhausted and dies, when the victor devours his prey at
leisure. Gmelin, in his account of his journey through Siberia, after
quoting the statement of Isbrandt, adds, " This address of the
Glutton managing to seize animals by surprise is confirmed by all
hunters." » • » "Although it feeds on all animals, living or
dead, it prefers the Reindeer. It lies in wait for large animals as
a robber on the highway, and it also surprises them as they lie
asleep." (See Fig. 361.) To the circumstance of the Glutton fixing
on the Reindeer, and also the Elk, Desraarest expressly alludes,
evidently relying on the narratives of the earlier writers. On the
contrary, Dr. Richardson, in his able history of the American
Glutton or Wolverene, affirms that no such artifice is resorted to by
that variety ; and he appears altogether to disbelieve the account.
No doubt the details have been exaggerated; still we arc not
alto'^'cthcr to throw aside the assurances of old travellers of credit ;
indeed wc think it very probable that the Glutton may steal
uDon tire Reindeer asleep, or attack enfeebled or dying Deer, or
^ young fawns, and fixing on the
great blood-vessels of the throat
(as the Weasel docs when attack-
ing the Hare), thus destroy its
victims. Gmelin, Dr. Richardson,
and Mr. Graham agree in the
fact that the Glutton is extremely
annoying to the fur-hunters, visit-
ing their traps and devouring the
animals taken in them. In Siberia
it rifles the traps of the Sable and
Corsac Fox ; and, as Mr. Graham
observes, in Northern America it
will follow "the IMartcn-hunter's
path round a line of traps extend-
ing forty, fifty, or sixty miles, and
render the whole unserviceable
merely to come at the baits, which
are generally the head of a Par-
tridge on a bit of dried venison.
They are not fond of the Martens
themselves, but never fail of tear-
ing them in pieces, or of burj-ing
them in the snow by the side of the
path, at a considerable distance
from the trap. Drifts of snow often
conceal the repositories thus made,
in which case they furnish a regale
to the hungry Fox, whose sagaci-
ous nostril guides him unerringly
to the spot. Two or three Foxes
are often seen following the Wolve-
rene for this purpose." During the
summer the Beaver is the common
prey of this animal.
The Glutton is nocturnal, cun-
ning, and determined : it fights
very resolutely, and is more than a
match for a single Dog, its strength
being very great. Its fur is in much
request, especially that of the Sibe-
rian animal, which is dark and
beautifully glossy. The length of
the Glutton, exclusive of the tail,
is about 2 feet 6 inches ; that of
the tail, including the long fur,
10 inches. The female breeds once a year, the cubs being from
two to four in number. Their fur is soft, downy, and of a pale
yellowish-white.
The Grison
[Galicfis vittata, Bell); Gulo vittatus, Desmarcst ; Vivcrra
vMata, Linn. ; Petit furet, D'Azara ; Grisonia vittata, Gray ;
Fig. 362. — Grison.
Liitra vitiafa. Trail ; Ursus Braziliensis, Thunbcrg ; Fouine de
la Gityane, Buff. " Suppl. III." The Grison is a native of the
intertropical provinces of America, Guiana, Paraguay, and Brazil.
It is remarkable for its sanguinary and fierce disposition, and the
140
THE SKUNK— THE RATELS.
disgusting odour of the secretion of its scent-glands. (See Fig. 362.)
In its figure the Grison is very elongated, the head is flat, and the
muzzle somewhat acute ; the general colour is grizzled black ; the
top of the head and neck grey, with a white semi-lunar shaped band
across the forehead, extending to the shoulders. Length of body,
I foot 6 inches ; of tail, 6i inches. A second and larger species has
been characterised by M'r. Bell, under the name of" Ga//c//> ^//«-
7na?idi. Linnaeus applied the name of Mustcla barbafa to a large
musteline animal inhabiting the woods of Brazil and Paraguay,
which Azara denominated the Grand Furet, and Pennant the Guiana
Weasel. By Desmarest it is referred to the genus Giilo, and is
termed Gulo Barbulus. This animal is the Tayra, or Galera of
Brown; but the latter animal is larger than the Grison. To the
musteline group belong the Zorilles of Africa : most writers seem to
consider the Zorille as constituting a single species {Zorilhi
Capensis). We are, however, of opinion that the Cape species is
different from that which we have seen repeatedly from the northern
coast of Africa. The Senegal Zorille is stated to differ from the Cape
animal. The Zorille is less than the Polecat, and, like that animal,
is fierce and e.xceedingly active. It dwells in burrows, which it digs
in the ground, concealing itself during the day. The colour of the
back is an irregular mixture of black and white in broken or indefinite
lines. The head, sides, and under-surface are black, with the ex-
ception of a white oval spot on the forehead, and a white mark over
each eye. To this genus is apparently rcfcrrable a species from
Madagascar, Mustela striata, Geoff. ; Putorius striatus, Cuv. ;
Galictis striata of Isidore Geoffroy.
The Skunk
{Mephitis Americana, M. putorius). — Several species of these
animals, called Mouffettes, Mephitic Weasels, Betes puantes,
Enfants du Diable, &c., are natives of America. These animals
are notorious for the intolerable odour of the secretion of their
glandular pouches, which neither man nor Dog can endure. The
head is small, the snout pointed, the body robust and covered with
long coarse hair, the tail rather long and very bushy. The general
colour of the upper surface is white, interrupted by a stripe, more or
less broad, of black along the spine ; the limbs and under-surface
are black. According to Kalm, the Skunk of North America
" brings forth its young in the hollows of trees and in burrows ; it is
not confined to the ground, but climbs trees , it is an enemy to birds ;
it destroys their eggs, and also devours their young ; and when it
can enter the poultry-roost it makes great destruction. When it is
fear to attack it, and flee when touched by a drop." (Fig. 363.)
Mr. Graham confirms this account, and says that he knew'sevcral
Indians who had lost their eyesight in consequence of inflammat
produced by this fluid having been thrown into them by the
ion
anima'.
Fig. 363. — Skunk driving away a Dog.
chased, either by men or Dogs, it runs as far as it can, or climbs a
tree ; but when it finds itself hard pressed, it ejects its fluid against
its pursuers : the odour of this is so strong as to suffocate ; if a drop
of this pestilential secretion falls in the eyes, it is at the risk of
losing sight ; and when it falls on the clothes, it communicates an
odour so powerful, that it is very difficult to got rid of it ; most Dogs
F'2' 364. -Teeth of Ratel.
which has the power of ejecting it to the distance of upwards of foui
feet. The odour produces nausea, a sense of suffocation, and not
unfrequently fainting. With all this, however, the Skunk is often
taken young and tamed, when the animal seldom gives out its pesti-
lential secretion ; its flesh, moreover, is
very frequently eaten, and is said to be
well flavoured. It appears that when
the natives kill a Skunk, they remove
the whole of the glandular sacs, in order
that no unpleasant smell or flavour may
be communicated to the flesh. In the
northern latitudes the Skunk passes its
winter in a hole, seldom stirring abroad,
and then only for a short distance. It
preys on young Hares, Rats, and Mice,
and has been observed to feed on Frogs.
The Skunk is about eighteen inches in
length, exclusive of the tail, which is
nearly as long as the body. Besides
the common Skunk {Mephitis Amcri-
cana), other species exist.
The Cape Ratel
[Ratelus Capensis, F. Cuv.) ; Mellivora
Capensis, Storr ; Viverra 7)iellivora,
and Ursus 7nellivorics , Blumenb. ;
Taxiis meliivorus, Tiedem. ; Aides
^nellivora, Thunberg ; Ratel, Sparrman ;
Honey-Weasel, Shaw. — In their denti-
tion, the Ratels closely approximate to
the true Badgers [Jilelcs), excepting
that the last molar is smaller and nar-
rower in proportion from its anterior to its
posterior edge (see Fig.364). Manynatu-
ralists place them among the Badgers.
The Cape Ratel is a thick-set clumsy
animal, with short limbs, and a partially
plantigrade walk. The claws are very
robust, the muzzle is elongated, the eyes
are small and sunk, and the external
ears nearly rudimentary ; the general aspect is Badger-like. The
Cape Ratel is a native of South Africa, and has been celebrated for
the destruction it makes among the nests of the Wild Bee, to the
honey of which it is very partial. Doubtless, however, it avails
itself of other food, and probably, like the Badger, devours flesh and
roots. In the discovery of Bees'-nests, it is said to be directed by
THE RATELS—THE BADGER.
141
the actions and voice of a bird termed the Honey-.c:uide {Indicator
Vaillantii). These insects, in South Africa, usually build their cells
in the deserted excavations of the Wild Boar or the Porcupnie, and
from these the Ratel digs out its plunder. It preys chiefly in the
evening, remaining during the greater portion of the day in its
burrow. When taken young it is easily domesticated. The hide
of the Ratel is extremely tough and loose ; and, according to Sparr-
man, if a person catches hold of it by the back part of the neck,
it is able to turn round, as it were, in its skin, and bite the arm that
molests it.
The Cape Ratel is about 2 feet 6 inches long, exclusive of the
tail, which is about 8 inches. The general colour above is grey.
iiij. j'Jj. — Cape Raid.
the under-parts black, and a white line runs on each side from the
ears to the origin of the tail, abruptly dividing these two colours.
(See Fig. 365.)
The Indian Ratel
{Rafelus Indiciis). — This species, though known to Pennant and
Shaw (who termed it Ursics Jndicus), was not then recognised as a
distinct species. Lesson was not aware of the difference — nay,
neither he nor Desmarest appears to have known of the existence of
the Indian Ratel ; and General Hardwicke, who figured it in the
"Linn. Trans.," vol. xi., makes no allusion to the Cape Ratel,
apparently overlooking their relationship. Mr. Bennett observes
that the only difference he has been able to detect between the
Asiatic and African animals, consists in the absence of the white
line dividing the two colours in the Indian species, and which are
not so abrupt. The absence of this line we consider to have been
an individual peculiarity. The Indian Ratel is a native of various
Fig. 366. — Indian Ratel.
provinces of India, on the high banks of the Ganges and the Jumna,
where it rarely comes forth from its burrow by day, but prowls at
night about the houses of the natives, enters the cemeteries, and
with extraordinary celerity works its way to the bodies recently
interred, which it greedily devours. It feeds also upon Rats, Birds,
&c. When taken young, the Indian Ratel is easily tamed and be-
comes playful. It is fond of climbing, but its actions are clumsy,
though it securely traverses the larger branches. Its voice is a deep'
hoarse, guttural bark. (See Fig. 366.)
The following description of a specimen from Madras is from the
pen of Mr. Bennett : — " As far as its manners have been developed,
it appears to be, with regard to man at least, one of the most play-
ful and good-tempered of beasts, soliciting the attention of almost
every visitor by throwing its clumsy body into a variety of antic
postures, and, when noticed, tumbling head over heels with every
symptom of delight. But towards animals it exhibits no such mild-
ness of temper ; and it is curious to observe the Cat-like eagerness
with which it watches the motions of any of the smaller among
them that happen to pass before its den, and the instinctive dread
manifested by the latter on perceiving it. Its food is of a mixed
nature, onsisting, like that of the Bears and other less carnivorous
beasts, of bread and milk in the morning, and flesh in the latter part
of the day."
Allied to the Ratels is the Teledu {Mydaus meliceps), an animal
confined to the mountain districts of Java, and which resembles the
Badger in its habits. It is well described by Dr. HorsCcld in the
" Zoological Researches."
The Badger
{Mdes vulgaris, or Meles taxus). — As already mentioned at p. S7,
ante, the Badgers, or Melidcc, have been placed by some zoologists
among the Weasels, and by others among the Bears ; yet is there
still an important line of demarcation. All the Ursida; have two
true molars ; in the true Ursine group the posterior molar is long ;
in the aberrant group, moXMi^m'^ Ailiiriis, Procyon, Nasua, and
Cercoleptes, the two molars are nearly equal in size. In the
Badger, the Ratel, &c., as in the Polecats, there is but one true
Fig. 367. — Teet^i of Badger.
molar. That of the upper jaw in the Badger is very large (see Fig.
367, the teeth of the Badger), and adapted for the mastication of
vegetable aliment.
The Badger is extensively spread through Europe and Asia ; it is
recluse and nocturnal in its habits, frequenting deep w'oods, where
it makes a deep commodious burrow, for the excavation of which
its short muscular limbs and powerful claws are well adapted. The
burrow has only one entrance, leading into different chambers, and
terminating in one of a circular form, which is comfortably lined
with grass and hay. Here the animal spends the day in repose,
moving out only at night, in search of food. It feeds upon roots,
fruits, insects, Frogs, young Rabbits, Field-Mice, &c., as well as
upon the eggs and young of Partridges and Pheasants, &c. It is
said to attack the nests of the Wild Bee, plundering the store of
honey, and also devouring the larva;, without dread of the stings
of the enraged insects, which cannot penetrate its thick tough skin.
The Badger measures about 2 feet 3 inches in the length of the
head and body, that of the tail being 7^ inches. The head is long
and pointed (see Fig. 368), the ears close, the body broad, stout,
and low, the hair trailing along the ground as the animal moves
along. The fur is full, coarse, and deep ; its general colour above
is brownish-grey, lighter on the sides and tail : the under-parts are
black, as are also the legs and icet. The head is white, with a
142
THE BADGER.
black stripe extending from the shoulder over the oar and eye almost
to the muzzle From its colour, this animal is in some parts called
the Grey; its old Anglo-Saxon name is Broc, a word still retained
in Scotland and the adjacent counties of England. It has a glan-
dular sub-caudal pouch. The Badger is by no means active or alert,
and is generally observed to be very fat, as is the case with most
Fig. 36S. — Common Badger.
animals that lead a tranquil, indolent life, and feed upon vegetable
as well as animal diet. It is nowhere very common, especially in
the more cultivated countries, where the woods are thinned, and its
solitudes invaded by the axe. (See Fig. 368.)
The female produces from three to five young in the summer,
having prepared a nest in her deep burrow for their reception.
They are nursed for five or six weeks, and then begin to shift for
themselves. When taken at an early age, the Badger maybe tamed
with little trouble, and soon becomes playful, and very attached to
its keepers. Though harmless and indisposed to enter unneces-
sarily into a combat, yet it shows, when assaulted, great spirit and
resolution, and is no mean antagonist for a Dog twice its own
weight to grapple with ; its general muscular power is great ; its
skin is loose and tough, and well protected by coarse shaggy fur.
it permanently in its place. From its prowess and bodily qualifica-
tions the Badger was formerly in much request for the brutal sport of
baiting, a favourite and exciting pastime, gratifying to those who are
indifferent to the pain they inflict, and incapable of purer pleasures.
The skin of the Badger is not without value in commerce. It
makes excellent pistol-holsters, and the hair is used for painters'
brushes, and various other purposes. The flesh, or at least the hams,
of this animal are said to be palatable, and to resemble those of the
Bear, for which a relish has been felt or affected by sportsmen epi-
cures. In China, the Badger, as " Honest John Bell," the travel-
ler, states, maybe seen in the meat-markets by dozens. In America,
a species of Badger, the Mclcs Labradorica, is widely spread ;
this species, according to some naturalists, forms the type of a
distinct family, the 2\iX!dcB.
The Indian Badger
fArctonyx collaris, F. Cuv.) ; Meles collaris ; Balloo-soor, Hindus-
tanee. — This animal was first described and figured by Bewick, in
Fig. 369. — Badgers in their Burrow.
and its bite is dreadfully severe ; indeed the jaws are endowed with
astonishing strength, and the lower one, at its joint or hinge with
the skull, "is so locked as to be inseparable, the cavity into which
the condyle is fitted being modified in such a manner as to retain
Fig. 370. — Indian Badger.
his "History of Quadrupeds" (from a living specimen kept in the
Tower about the year 1790), under the title of Sand-Bear. Bewick
at once recognised its affinity to the Badger ; but, ignorant of the
country from which it was
brought, suspected it to be the
white Badger of North America
described by Brisson ; a mis-
take w'e may readily pardon.
Not aware that any English
writer had described it, Duvau-
cel, who saw two individuals at
Barrackpore, in the menagerie
of the governor-general, con-
sidered the species as altogether
new. Fred. Cuvier regarded it
as the type of a distinct genus.
(See Fig. 370.)
The size of the Sand-Hog, for
such is the meaning of the term
balloo-soor (not Bali-saur, as
Duvaucel writes it, nor Bhalloo-
soor, which signifies Bear-Pig),
is that of a Badger ; but it stands
higher on the legs, and its snout
is elongated and truncated at the
extremity like that of a Hog.
The ears are small, covered with
hair, and surrounded by a circle
of white. The muzzle is flesh-
colour, and nearly naked ; two
black bands run on each side of
the head, and unite near the
muzzle; the larger of these bands
on each side passes round the
eye to the ear, and along the
neck and shoulder, to unite with
the black colour prevailing on
the fore-limbs. The general
colour of the body above is yel-
lowish-white, the hairs on the
back being coarse and tipped
with black. The under-surface
is very thinly clothed, and the
tail resembles that of a Hog.
The toes (five on each foot) are
united together their whole length, and armed with large strong
claws adapted for digging. Of the habits of this animal in its
natural condition little is known. The individuals, a male and
female, observed in the menagerie of the governor-general at Bar-
THE OTTER.
>43
rackpore by Duvaucel, were remarkably shy and wild. The female,
however, was less savag-e than the male, and showed a certain
degree of intelligence, which gave reason to believe that, if taken
young, this animal might be easily domesticated. They passed the
greater part of the day buried beneath the straw of their den in deep
sleep. All their movements were remarkably slow. Though they did
not altogether refuse animal food, yet they exhibited a marked pre-
dilection for bread, fruits, and other substances of a vegetable nature.
When irritated, they uttered a peculiar kind of grunting noise, and
bristled up the hair of their back ; if still further tormented, they
would raise themselves upon their hind-legs like a Bear, and ap-
peared, like that animal, to possess a power in their arms and claws
not less formidable than their teeth. This is confirmed by Mr. John-
son, in his " Sketches of Indian
Field - Sports." — "Badgers in
India," says he, "are marked
exactly like those in England ;
but they are larger and taller,
are exceedingly fierce, and wi'
attack a number of Dogs. I have
seen Dogs that would attack a
Hyrena or Wolf afraid to en-
counter them. They are scarce,
but occasionally to be met with
among the hills."
The Otter
{Ltitra vulgaris) ; Miistela Lu-
tra, Linn. — This, there can be
little doubt, is the Iwopk (Enhy-
dris) of Aristotle and the Greeks,
and the Lutra of the ancient Itali-
ans. It is the Lodra, Lodria, and
Lontra of the modern Italians ;
Nutria and Lutra of the Span-
ish ; Loutre of the French ; Otter
and Fisch Otter of the Germans ;
Otter of the Dutch ; Utter of the
Swedes ; Odder of the Danes ;
Dyfigi of the Welsh ; Balgair,
Cu-donn (Brown Dog), and Ma-
tadh of the Northern Celts ; and
Otter of the modern British.
{See Fig. 371.)
The Otters constitute an aqua-
tic group of the Musielcs ; in-
deed, many of the true Weasels
resort occasionally to the water
in quest of prey ; the Vison of
North America {Altisiela visotz),
and a near ally, the Musiela
lutrcola of northern Europe
and Asia, for example, are aqua-
tic and Otter-like in their habits ;
and appro.^imate to the Otter in
form.
The Otters are distinguished
by the peculiar breadth and flatness of the head, and the rounded
outline of the muzzle ; the lips being large and fleshy, and furnished
with strong whiskers, which are evidently the communicators of
feeling ; the ears are very small, and close to the skull ; and the
eyes, of moderate size, are provided with a nictitating membrane
as a defence to their surface. The tail, which ia most aquatic
Maminalia is an important instrument, is long,
but very stout and muscular at the base, some-
what compressed horizontally, and tapering
gradually to the extremity. In swimming and
diving it is used as a rudder, enabling the
animal to turn rapidly and abruptly, and assist-
ing it to perform its varied and graceful ma-
noeuvres while in chase of its finny prey. The
tongue is somewhat rough. The body is elon-
gated and flattened, and the limbs are short and
stout ; the toes (five on each foot) are webbed,
and spreading ; the soles are naked. On land
the progression of the Otter is plantigrade, and
by no means free or rapid : hence it trusts to
tire water for safety, makmg to it when attacked or in any danger.
The fur of these animals at once indicates their aquatic habits ; it
is close, short, and fine, consisting of a thick woolly under-coat, and
an upper layer of smooth glossy hairs. In their dentition (Fig. 373)
the Otters differ little from the Polecats, Martens, and Skunks, the
false molars being 5^^ ; carnassiere, i^li. : tuberculous, IZ—-
3-3 i-i i-i
Fig. 372 represents the skeleton of the common European Otter.
This well-known species is by no means confined to the lakes and
rivers of Europe, but abounds also on mnny parts of the coast, and
is common on the shores of Scotland and Ireland, as well as on the
rocky Hebrides and Shetland Islands, where it dwells in hollows and
caverns, going out to sea to fish, or entering the mouths of rivers,
and making sad havoc among the Salmon ; on which account, in
Antrim,_ where it hides among the basaltic masses on the cast coast,
a price is set upon its head. The Otter is nocturnal, night being
the period in which it carries on its work of slaughter ; sly and
recluse, it lurks by day in its deep burrow, the mouth of which is con-
cealed among masses of stone, the luxuriant herbage of some steep
bank which overhangs the water, or beneath the twisted roots of an
overshadowing tree.
Fig- 37I-— The Otter.
The movements of the Otter in the water are remarkably graceful,
and it swims at every depth with great velocity ; every now and
then it comes for a moment to the surface to breathe, previously ex-
pelling the air pent up in its lungs, which, rising in bubbles, mark its
sub-aquatic course. Having taken brsath afresh, it dives noise-
lessly like a shot, and gives chase to its prey, which it follows
Fig. 372.— Skeleton of European River Otter.
through every turn and maze, till at length the exhausted victim
can no longer evade the jaws of its rapacious foe. Whoever has
witnessed the feeding of those which from time to time have been
kept in the gardens of the Zoological Society, cannot fail to have
remarked the fine sweep of the body as the animal plunges into the
water, its undulating movements while exploring its prey, the swift-
ness and pertinacity of the pursuit, and then the easy turn to the
surface with the captured booty. This is generally devoured before
the chase of another fish is commenced; sometimes, however.
144
THE OTTER.
instead of treating tliem thus separately, the Otter contrives to
bring up several at a time, managing not only to seize them, but to
carry them hanging from its mouth. In eating them it commences
with the head, which it crushes in an instant between its teeth.
Eight or ten moderate-sized fish serve for a single meal ; but it is
well known that in a state of nature tli.- (Hier slaughters a much
l'''S- 373- — Teeth of Otter.
Fig. 374. — Otter-hunting.
larger number of fish than it devours : hence some idea may be
formed of the havoc occasioned by a pair of Otters in support of
themselves and_ their young. Indeed, the animal seldom devours
more of a fish tlian the head and upper portion of the body. When
fish is scarce the Otter will feed on Frogs and Water-Rats. Mr.
Bell informs us, that " when driven by a scanty supply of fish, it has
been known to resort far inland to the neighbourhood of the farm-
yard, and attack Iambs, sucking-pigs, and poultry, thus assuming
for a time the habits of its more terrestrial congeners." In winter,
when the smaller streams and ponds are frozen, the Otter wanders in
search of places in the river, the depth of which secures them
against the effects of the frost ; or travels down the smaller streams
to the large river, into which they merge, and there continues its
work of destruction.
It is during the spring and summer months, while the young of
the Otter are dependent upon the mother's care, that the destruction
she makes among the fish is most considerable ; she has not only
her own wants, but those of her offspring to provide for, and her
exertions during the silent hours of night are unremitting. The
track she leaves in the mud or the soft soil on the water's edge, as
she goes to and fro from her retreat, witnesses the extent of her
labours, and also their success : a fish preserve, if near her haunt, at
this season suffers immensely from her depredations, and is certain
to be visited night after night until none but the smaller fry remain.
The mill-dams of Trout-streams are also favourite fishing-places of
this cunning animal, and are often sadly thinned of the finest fish. Nor
is the injury done by the Otter confined to the mere destruction of
fish for food ; its presence militates against their increase, inasmuch
as they are scared by their enemy from their spawning-places, and
prevented from depositing their spawn so as to secure the vivification
of the ova, to the mortification of all "honest anglers." Izaak
Walton says, " An Otter will sometimes go five or six or ten miles a
night to catch for her young ones, or glut herself with fish :" but it
also as often happens that where the Otter finds a piece of water
replete with prey, that it there takes up its abode, and perhaps
carries on for weeks, unsuspected, its depredations. Independently,
however, of the footsteps of the Otter betraying its residence in the
vicinity, the circumstance of its always voiding its spraint, or dung,
on one spot often leads to its discovery; the undigested remains of
fish, their bones and scales, denote the nature of their devourer ; and
the alarm of an Otter in the neighbourhood is soon followed by a
search for the delinquent.
Otter-hunting was among the favourite field-sports of our ances-
tors, and is still eagerly carried on in the islands of Scotland, where
the difficulties of the chase, from the rocky, broken nature of the
shore, add to the excitement. Fig. 374 illustrates an Otter-hunt
in the Hebrides.
The Otter is intelligent, and when taken young easily tamed, and
may be taught to assist the fisher-
man by driving shoals to the
nets, or by catching Salmon.
Daniel, Bewick, Shaw, and Gold-
smith record instances in which
the Otter has been domesticated ;
as do also Mr. Bell and Mr. Mac-
gillivray. The late Bishop Heber
noticed in India, on one occa-
sion, a number of Otters tethered
by long strings to bamboo stakes
on the water's edge, and was
informed that it was customary
to keep them tame in conse-
quence of their utility in driving
the shoals of fish into the nets,
as well as of bringing out the
larger fish with their teeth.
The common European Otter
measures about 2 feet 2 inches
m the length of the head and
body, the tail being 1 foot 4
mches. Its usual weight is from
twenty to twenty-four pounds ;
but instances have been known
m which it has attained the
weight of forty pounds. Those
that frequent the sea-coast are
generally larger and darker-
coloured than the Otters of in-
land rivers or sheets of water.
The female produces from three
to five young, and is devoted to
them, nursing them with the
greatest assiduity.
A variety, spotted with white,
is sometimes seen : this is re-
garded by the Scotch peasantry
as the king of the Otters ; and
THE SEA OTTER— THE BEAR FAMILY.
liS
they hold that it bears a charmed life, and is never killed without
the sudden death of some man or other animal at the instant it ex-
pires itself. The skin is considered as a sure preservative from in-
fection, wounds, and dangers of the sea.
The Canadian Otter.
A nearly-allied species to the common Otter — namely, the Cana-
dian Otter (Z«/;'d Catzadensis), has a curious mode of amusing
itself during the winter. Several individuals of this species select a
spot on the steep bank of some river, where the current has resisted
the effects of the frost, and upon the snowy surface they slide down
in succession into the water, returning again to the top of the bank
to repeat the operation, just like boys sliding on the ice. The
water from their fur being quickly frozen on the snow, soon converts
it into a most excellent slide, on which the Otters keep up the game
with a most laudable activity. The skin of both this and the Euro-
pean Otter furnishes an excellent fur, which is much used in some
countries ; but this is greatly exceeded in beauty and value by the
fur of the great Sea Otter {Enhydra luiris), that inhabits the coasts
and islands of the North Pacific Ocean, and which is described
below.
The Sea Otter.
{Enhydris Intra; Enhydra marina, Fleming). Luira marina,
Steller; Musfela lutris, Linn.; Enhydris Stelleri, Fischer;
Kalan of the natives of Kamtschatka. — This remarkable animal, in
many respects, approaches nearer the Seals than the Otters of the
genus Lutra, and may be regarded as an intermediate link between
the two groups. The muzzle in the Sea Otter is blunt and short,
the ears are rounded, the body cylindrical, the fore-limbs are ex-
tremely short, the paws small and impacted in skin to the end of the
toes, the sole being naked and granular. The hind-legs are short,
but placed as far back as possible ; the thigh-bone is thick, with a
round head, destitute, as in the Seals, of the ligamentum teres ; the
hind-foot or paddle is of great length and breadth ; and the toes
(five in number) are regularly granulated from the inner, which is
the smallest, to the outer toe, which is the longest and stoutest :
they are all united by webs to the very tip. The claws are small.
The dentition is as follows : — Incisors, — .
4'
4-4
5-5'
second is larger; the third, orcarnassiere, is large and compressed,
with three rounded tubercles on its surface ; the last molar is still
molars.
Of the molars above, the first is very small and conical ; the
larger, flat, with a slightly elevated and rounded edge. Of the five
molars below, the three first increase gradually in size ; the fourth is
large and flat, with three small and rounded tubercles ; the last is
small and flat.
The tail is rather short; and when the hinder paddles arc stretched
out in the act of swimming, this organ will appear placed between
almost as much as it is in the Seals. (See Fig. 375.)
I'^'g- 37S-— Sea Otter.
The Sea Otter is a native of the north-west coast of America, from
California to latitude 60", and of the opposite coast of Asia, from
the Yellow Sea to the north of Kamtschatka, and the intermediate
islands. Its fur, which is of a black colour, sometimes chestnut-
brown, and occasionally even yellow, is soft, full, and beautiful,
and is an object of commerce, being procured by the Russians for
the Chinese market, where it sells for a high price.
This animal haunts sea-washed rocks, and lives mostly in the
water, where it procures its food, which consists of fish, and, as is
indicated by the characters of the teeth, which arc evidently formed
for bruising hard substances, shelled molluscs, and Crustacea. In
summer the Sea Otter often ascends the rivers to the inland lakes.
The female produces on land a single cub. The average length of
this species is three feet, exclusive of the tail, which measures about
ten inches.
CHAPTER XII.
CARNIVORA.— URSIDyE, OR THE BEARS, Etc.; AND THE CERCOLEPTID/E, OR KINKAJOUS.
HE Ursida, or Bear family, is gene-
rally found in the forests of mountainous
countries. It is distributed in almost all
parts of the world, excepting Australia, and
perhaps Africa. In Europe it is found from
the extreme north to the Pyrenees, and it
has a similar range from north to south in
Asia. In America, Bears of various species
are found throughout the northern conti-
nent, the extreme north being inhabited by
the Polar Bear.
The UrsidcB are characterised, for the most part,
by their robust figure, by their heavy gait, and
plantigrade walk, as well as by the tubercular surface
of the grinders— a form connected with diet, in great
part at least, consisting of vegetable products. The
alimentary canal is simple. Most of the species are
expert climbers : they conceal themselves in caves,
^ holes of the earth, or in hollow trees, in which the
rVj^ females produce their young. We may here re-
^ ^ mark, that under the general term Planttgrada
^^i- many genera have been associated together, which
are by no means nearly related ; and some indeed
have been placed with the Bears, only from their feet
bemg plantigrade, while in reality they belong to
another family group. We shall include in the Ursidce, the Bears.
Racoons, Coatis, &c.
The animals of the genus Ursiis, viz. , the Bears, are distinguished
by their ponderous bulk, massive limbs, and heavy gait : they are
completely plantigrade in their walk ; but their huge claws, which
are tremendous weapons, are not retractile ; they are, however, well
adapted for digging. They are completely omnivorous, devouring
flesh, vegetable roots, grain, fruits, and honey. " The Bear," says
Fig- 376.— The Bear,
146
THE BEAR FAMILY.
Aristotle, " is an omnivorous animal, and by the suppleness of its
body climbs trees, and eats the fruits, and also legumes ; it devours
honey likewise, having first broken up the hives ; as well as Crabs,
Ants, and flesh."
The dental formula of the genus Ursus is as follows : — In-
L:il ; molars. ^^ = 42 (Fig. 377.) Fig. 378
i-i -j-j
represents the skeleton of the Polar Bear. The feet are five-toed ; the
cisors, - ; canmes,
6
Fig- 377.— Teeth of Bear.
tail is short ; the limbs are robust ; the eyes are small, but quick and
animated ; and the head is large and broad across the top.
We have already stated that the Bear is found generally in the
north of both hemispheres. In respect to Africa, formerly its
presence was not so satisfactorily ascertained. Pliny not only asserts
that the Bear is not an African animal, but expresses surprise at a
statement in some records, that a hundred Numidian Bears were
brought to Rome during the consulship of M. Piso and M. Mcssala,
for the Circus, by Domitius Ahenobarbus, curule rcdile, who also
brought a hundred ^Ethiopian chasseurs (see lib. viii.) But as
Pliny elsewhere states that there are neither Boars, nor Stags, nor
Goats, nor Bears in Africa, we know how far he can be trusted.
Fig. 37S. — Skeleton o( Polar Bear.
That there are Bears in Africa, notwithstanding all that has been
said to the contrary, is now well established. Ehrenberg hunted a
Bear in Abyssinia : his words are, " Moreover, we ourselves have
seen in the mountains of Abyssinia, and therefore in Africa itself, an
animal most like to a Bear — nay, why had I not said a Bear ? — and
hunted it repeatedly, but in vain. It is called by the natives
Karrai." ■^ And he also observes that Forskal has brought tidings of
an indigenous Arabian Bear.
It is ascertained, moreover, that the Bear exists on the range of
the Atlas and the Tetuan mountains ; and in a letter to the curator
of the Zoological Society, from Edward Blyth, Esq., while on his
voyage to India, is the following interesting passage : —
" Upon questioning Mr. Crowther respecting the Bear of Mount
Atlas, which has been suspected to be the Syriaais, he knew it well,
and it proves to be a very different animal. An adult female was
inferior in size to the American Black Bear, but more robustly
formed, the face much shorter and broader, though the muzzle was
pointed, and both its toes and claws were remarkably short (for a
Bear), the latter being also particularly stout. Hair black, or rather
of a brownish-black, and shaggy, about four or five inches long ; but,
on the undcr-parts, of an orange rufous colour ; the muzzle black.
This individual was killed at the foot of the Tetuan mountains, about
twenty-five miles from that of the Atlas. It is considered a rare
species in that part ; and feeds on roots, acorns, and fruits. It does
not climb with facility ; and is stated to be very different-looking
from any other Bear."
The Brown Bear.
(Ursus arctos). Ours of the French ; Orso of the Italians ; Bar of
the Germans ; Bjorn of the Swedes.— This species, which is spread
through all the mountain districts of Europe, from the Arctic circle
to the Alps and Pyrenees, and, as it is stated, through Siberia,
Kamtschatka, and even Japan to the eastward, was formerly a tenant
of the forests and wild hills of our island ; whence, in the time of the
Romans, it was imported to the capital of the world, in order to
gratiiy the people by its combats in the Circus. If Martial may be
trusted, its ferocity was sometimes turned against the persons of
criminals, who were condemned to a horrid death.
The Bear appears to have lingered, as did the Wolf, longer in
Scotland than in England, that country affording it better conceal-
ment ; for in " The History of the Gordons," it is stated that one of
the family, so late as the year 1057, was directed by the king to carry
three Bears' heads on his banner, as a reward for his valour in slay-
ing a fierce Bear.
In later times, when a virgin queen enjoyed the sports of the Bear-
garden in Southwark, and a Bear-ward was kept in the establish-
ment of the highest nobility, Bears were imported from the continent
Fig. 379. — Bear and Dogs.
to fight with savage Dogs for "his lordshippe's pastime," no less
than for the diversion of the commonalty. Such were the recreations
of "the good old English gentleman, all in the olden time." (See
Fig. 379.)
The general habits of the Bear are well known : unsocial and
solitary, they frequent the gloomiest recesses among the mountains
glens, and caverns, and the depths of the forests : there they dig or
THE BEAR FAMILY.
M7
enlarge a cave in which to dwell, or usurp the hollow of some huge
decayed tree, or form a sort of rude den under the covert of a
maze of intertwined branches, lining their habitation with moss.
Here they pass the winter, in a state bordering on torpidity ; and it
is during this retirement, in January, that the female brings forth
her young, which are well formed, and very far from being the shape-
less mass supposed by the ancients. The cubs are from one to
three in number — mostly, however, two : at first their eyes are closed,
and they remain blind for thirty days. When the Bear retires to its
winter quarters, on the approach of the cold season, it is very fat ; but
on coming forth in the spring, is generally observed to be lean, the
fat having been absorbed for the nutriment of the system during the
animal's torpidity : but a query here exists, — Is the female, who pro-
duces her young, and has to attend to them, torpid ? and can she
suckle them without receiving any aliment herself ? This is very im-
probable ; and tends to prove that the seclusion of the animal is
neither so absolute, nor its torpidity so complete, as is generally
asserted. That Bears support themselves in their winter retirement
by sucking their paws is a vulgar error, and need not be seriously
refuted.
Unless provoked by aggression, or incited by hunger, the Brown
Bear seldom attacks man ; but when roused is most formidable, and
displays greater activity and address than might be expected from
its heavy clumsy figure. Its strength is prodigious. Mr. Nilsson,
Fig. 3S0. — Bear with dead Horse,
a Swede, states that a Bear has been seen, bearing a dead Horse in
his fore-paws, to walk on his hind-legs on a tree stretched across a
river. (Fig. 380.) The firm support afforded by the well-devoloped
sole, and the form of the hinder limbs (the thigh-bone, though shorter,
closely resembling in form that of man), enable these animals not
only to rear themselves up on their hind-feet, but even to walk erect
with considerable facility.
In the wilds of the North the Bear attains to a prodigious mag-
nitude. Mr. Lloyd killed one of the weight of 460 pounds, and they
have been found to exceed 700.
Though Bears may reside for years in the neighbourhood of cattle
without doing them any injury, yet they will sometimes visit herds
solely from the desire of prey; and instances have been known of
their climbing upon and tearing off the roofs of Cow-houses, in order
to gain admittance to the cattle confined within, which, after slaugh-
tering, they have managed to drag through the opening in the low
roof, and carry away.
In the North the Bear is hunted and taken in pit-falls and traps of
various kinds ; and in some countries there is no part of the animal
which is without value.
The courage and devotion of the female Bear in defence of her
young are proverbial. No adventure can be fraught with more dan-
ger to the hunter than an attack upon one accompanied by her cubs,
for the sake of which wounds and even death are encountered with
unflinching resolution, she uttering deep growls till the last moment.
_ The Bear climbs trees or rocks with great dexterity, and descends
in the attitude in which it ascends, availing itself cautiously of
every projection. Those who have seen the Bears in the Zoological
Gardens climb to the top of their long poles, and feadcssly balance
themselves at the top, soliciting food from the visitors, may conceive
some idea of the animal's address. It also swims well and fast,
and during the heat of summer frequently takes the water for
the sake of the bath. When captured young, the Bear is easily
domesticated, and evinces no trifling share of intelligence. The
age to which it attains is very considerable. Individuals have been
kept between forty and fifty years in captivity.
The Siberian Bear.
[Ursus collaris, or Siberiatms) approaches close in form to the
Brown Bear, with the distinction of a large whitish collar, wliich
passes over the upper part of the back and shoulders, and is com-
pleted on the breast.
Dr. Richardson describes a Brown Bear which he terms the
Barren-ground Bear {Ursus Arcios? Americanits), and which is
a native of the barren lands lying northward and eastward of the
Fig. 3S1. — Siberian Bear.
Great Slave Lake, and extending to the Arctic Sea. " It differs,"
he says, " from the American Black Bear, in its greater size, profile,
physiognomy, longer soles, and tail ; and from the Grisly Bear also
in colour and the comparative smallness of its claws. Its greatest
afiinity is with the Brown Bear of Norway; but its identity with that
species has not been established by actu'hl comparison. It frequents
the sea-coast in the autumn in considerable numbers, for the purpose
of feeding on fish." (See Fig. 381.)
The American Black Be.\r, or Musquaw,
[Urszes Americaaus).— This species, the Sass of the Chippew.i)'an
Indians, the Musquaw of the Crees, is smaller than the Brown Bear;
its muzzle is narrower, more arched and pointed, continued in a line
without interruption from the forehead ; the ears are more distant ;
and the fur, instead of being shaggy, is soft, smooth, and giossy
black. (See Fig. 382.)
" The Black Bear," says Dr. Richardson, "inhabits every wooded
district of the American continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
and from Carolina to the shores of the Arctic Sea." Everywhere,
however, its numbers have been greatly thinned, owing to the value
of the animal's skin in commerce; besides which, the tide of Euro-
pean colonisation has driven it to remoter districts, to mountain
ranges, and vast forests as yet untouched by the axe, or only recently
invaded by the settler. In some parts of Canada it is still common,
and tolerably abundant on the western coast as far as California.
It has, we believe, been seen, but very rarely, in the Blue Ridge in
Virginia.
The Black Bear feeds on berries and wild fruits ; and to these it
adds roots and eggs ; and though it does not refuse animal food, yet
148
THE BEAR FAMILY.
it does not eat it from choice, but necessity ; utterly neglecting it if
veg-etable aliment can be obtained.
This species is not very daring, and, unless forced to self-defence,
or wounded, will seldom venture to attack a man, except in the
instance of a female with cubs, the retreat of which she is solicitous
to cover.
Its speed is said not to be very great ; and it is asserted that a
man may easily escape, especially in a willow grove, or in the midst
Fig. 3S2. — American Black Bear.
of loose grass, where it stops for the purpose of reconnoitring. Dr.
Richardson, however, "saw one make off with a speed that would
have bafSed the fleetest runner ; and ascend a nearly perpendicular
cliff with a facility that a Cat might envy." In the Fur Countries
this species usually hibernates, selecting a spot under a fallen tree,
where it scratches a hollow in the earth ; here it retires at the com-
mencement of a snow-storm, and the snow soon furnishes it with a
close warm covering. Its breath makes a small opening in the
snow, and the quantity of hoar-frost which occasionally gathers
round the opening serves to betray its retreat to the hunter. In
more southern districts, where the trees are larger. Bears often
shelter themselves in the hollow trunks. It has been observed by
the Indians, that unless Bears are very fat on the approach of winter,
they do not hibernate ; and as the males are often thin and exhausted
in September, should the winter set in before they have time to re-
cover their fat, they migrate southwards in search of food. So care-
fully do the females with young conceal themselves, that Dr. Rich-
ardson's numerous inquiries among the Indians of Hudson's Bay,
ended in the discovery of only one man who had killed a pregnant
Bear.
In the northern districts of America/as in Norway and other parts
of the continent of Europe, the chase of the Bear is followed up with
the utmost ardour ; nor will it surprise us to learn that an animal
from which the Indian derives so much benefit (its flesh and every
portion being in request), and which in the hour of combat is terrible,
should be the subject of many superstitious observances, pardon
being asked for its slaughter, to which necessity impelled the
hunters, and every means taken to propitiate the offended spirit of
the dead animal.
The Black Bear is subject to varieties of colour, its fur being
sometimes of a cinnamon tint, and sometimes of a still more yellow
tone. Occasionally it is seen with a white throat-mark. Cinnamon
Bears, as well as black, have been among the specimens in the
gardens of the Zoological Society of London. Their collection of
Bears is generally very complete, and contains examples of most of
the known species.
The Si^ectacled Bear.
{Ursiis ornatiis). — The Spectacled Bear, so called from the semicir-
cular marks of buff-colour extending from the muzzle, and arching
over each eye, is a native of the Cordilleras of the Andes in Chili.
Its general fur is smooth, shining, and black : the muzzle is buff-
coloured ; the throat and chest are whitish. Of its habits nothing is
known. Specimens have been shown in the gardens of the Zoologi-
cal Society. (See Fig. 383.)
The Grisly, or Grizzly Bear.
fUrsus ferox). — Ursiis horribilis. Say ; Mesheh Musquaw of the
Cree Indians; Hohhost of the Chopunish Indians. — This formidable
species is a native of the Rocky Mountains and the district eastward
of them. To the north it has been observed as far as sixty-one de-
grees of latitude : to the south it is said to extend as far as Mexico.
Everywhere it is dreaded for its great strength and ferocity ; even the
huge Bison falls prostrate before it, and the savage conqueror " drags
the dark bulk along" (weighing a thousand pounds) to its haunt,
and digs a pit for its reception, repairing to it as hunger dictates, till
the whole is consumed.
Lewis and Clarke give the measurement of one of these Bears as
nine feet from nose to tail, but had seen them of larger dimensio s.
They attain the weight of 800 pounds. The length of the fore-foot is
nine inches, of the hind-foot twelve, without including the enormous
claws ; its breadth seven inches. The tail is short, and lost in the
shaggy hair. (See Fig. 384.)
The Grisly Bear digs with great facility, but when adult is not
capable of ascending trees — a fortunate circumstance for the hunter ;
Fig. 3S3. — Spectacled Bear.
Fig. 3S4. — Grisly Bear.
for such is the animal's tenacity of life, that it seldom falls until it
has received many balls. It would seem that though the adult Grisly
Bears cannot climb trees, that the cubs are able, if the reports of the
Indians are to be credited. The cubs, and females with young,
hibernate ; but the older males often come abroad during winter for
food. This tremendous animal is apparently more ferocious than any
other species of Bear, feeding, as it does to a great extent, on animal
food.
The Syrian Bear.
(Ursus Syn'acitsJ. — Though the Bear is distinctly alluded to in the
Scriptures (see 2 Kings ii. 23, ctseg.; also i Samuel .xvii. 34, £■/" Jf^.)
as a native of Syria, few travellers have noticed the existence of this
animal in that country. Hasselquist omits it in his catalogue of the
animals given in his "Travels in the Levant;" nor is it recorded
as a species by Desmarest, Fischer, or Lesson. It is, in fact, com-
paratively of recent years that naturalists have become aware that
such an animal still prowled about the mountains of Lebanon.
(See Fig. 385.)
Matthew Paris, however, in his " England," relates how Godfrey,
during the siege of Antioch, rescued a poor man from the attack cf
a Bear, which, turning upon the warrior, unhorsed him, having
lacerated his steed, whereupon he continued the combat on foot, and,
though he received a most dangerous wound, succeeded in burying
his sword up to the hilt in his savage adversary, and killed him
("Hist. Engl.," t. ii. p. 34, fol. Lond. 1640.) Seetzen (a German
traveller, in i8ii)was informed in Palestine that Bears existed in
the mountains ; and La Roque states, that in his time they were
tolerably abundant upon the higher Lebanon mountains, from whicli
THE BEAR FAMILY.
'49
they descended at night in search of prey, and even occasioned
apprehension to travellers.
Notwithstanding these casual notices, the animal remained in ob-
scurity till brought before the scientific world by Emprich and
Ehrenberg, who, in their " Symbola; Physical," give the figure and
description of a middle-aged female, killed near the village of Bis-
cherre, in Syria, and which they dissected. They observe, that
Mount Lebanon is crowned with two snowy summits, one called
Fig. 3S5. — Syrian Bear.
Gcbel Sanin, the other Makmel, both of which they visited, but
found Bears only upon the latter, near the village of Bischerre, to
the gardens of which they wander in winter, but in the summer
remain in the neighbourhood of the snow. The individual killed
was about 4 feet 2 inches long ; her den, which they saw, was
formed by great fragments of calcareous rock casually thrown
together. The fJesh of the animal was tasted, and found to be
sapid, but the liver was sweet and nauseous. The gall is in great
esteem ; the skins are sold, and so is the dung, under the name of
Bar-el-dub, the latter being used in medicine, and for diseases of
the e3-e, in Syria and Egypt. The Syrian Bear frequently preys on
animals, but for the most part feeds on vegetables ; and the fields of
cicer arietimcs (a kind of chick-pea), and other crops near the
snowy region, are often laid waste by it.
The Syrian Bear is of a uniform fulvous white (sometimes varie-
gated with fulvous) ; the ears are elongated ; the forehead is but
slightly arched. The fur is woolly beneath, with long, straight, or
but slightly curled hair externally ; a stiff mane, of about four inches
long, runs between the shoulders. It was evidently this species
which figured in the procession of Ptolemy Philadelphus, at Ale.\-
andria, and which is called by Athenaeus (a Greek writer of Lower
Egypt, contemporary with Commodus) a Bear of white colour and
large size (apcros ^liv Xjwk/) ynyaXi) /lia) : and which some, strange to
say, have regarded as the Polar Bear from the shores of the Arctic
Sea.
The Thibet Bear.
{Ursas Thibefanus). — This species was discovered by M. Duvancel
in the mountains of Sylhet, and about the same time by Dr. Wallich
in the Nepal range. The neck of the Thibet Bear is thick, and
the head flattened, the forehead and muzzle forming almost a
straight line ; the ears are large, the body compact, and the limbs
thick and clumsy ; but the claws are comparatively weak. The
general colour is black, but the lower lip is white ; and a large
Y-shaped mark of the same colour on the breast, sends up its branch
on each side in front of the shoulder. It is not of large stature.
Fruits and other vegetable productions appear to constitute its princi-
pal food. (Fig. 386.)
The Malayan Bear.
[UrsHS [Helarcfos) Mulayaiius). Bruang of the Malays. — This
species is found in Sumatra, and, with others of the sub-genus
Helarctos, is distinguished by the extensibility of the lips, the
length and flexibility of the tongue, the shortness and smoothness of
the fur, and the magnitude of the claws.
The Malayan Bear, or Sun Bear, is said to be a sagacious animal,
and to display great fondness for sweets. The honey of the wild
Bees of its native forests is supposed to be a favourite food ; .and,
certainly, its long slender tongue well adapts it for the reception of
this delicacy. It feeds extensively on vegetables ; and is said to be
attracted to the vicinity of man by the young shoots of the cocoa-
nut trees, to which it is very injurious ; indeed. Sir T. Stamford
RafHes found those of the deserted villages in the Passuma district
of Sumatra destroyed by it. (See Fig. 387.)
It is often kept domesticated, and is playful and familiar. Of
one which lived two years in the possession of Sir T. Stamford
RafHes, he writes :—" He was brought up in the nursery with the
children, and when admitted to my table, as was frequently the
case, gave a proof of his taste by refusing to eat any fruit but man-
^-5. --^^^''-v^y^U»^^
Fig. 386.— Thibet Bear.
Fig. 387. —Malayan Bear.
gosteens, or to drink any wine but champagne. The only time I
ever knew him to be out of humour was on an occasion when no
champagne was forthcoming. He was naturally of an affectionate
disposition, and it was never found necessary to chain or chastise
him. It was usual for this Bear, the Cat, the Dog, and a small blue
mountain bird, or Lory, of New Holland, to mess together, and eat
out of the same dish. His favourite playfellow was the Dog, whose
teasing and worrj'ing was always borne and returned with the
utmost good-humour and playfulness. As he grew up he became a
very powerful animal, and in his rambles in the garden he would lay
hold of the largest plantains, the stems of which he could scarcely
embrace, and tear them up by the roots."
The general colour of this Bear is jet black, with the muzzle of a
yellowish tint, and a semilunar white mark upon the breast. When
adult it measures about 4 feet 6 inches along the back.
The Bornean or Sun Bear.
{Ursus {Helarctos) eiiryspilus).—\Ti general form, habits, manners,
and colouring, this species closely resembles the Sumatran Bear;
but is perhaps rather less, and has a large orange-coloured patch
upon the chest ; the fur is extremely close. In captivity it is playful
and good-tempered.
The Bornean Sun Bear not only sits upon its haunches with ease—
a position it usually assumes— but can stand upright with great
facility. Its senses, especially those of sight and smell, are very
acute ; the olfactory organs indeed appear to be in continual e,\er-
cisc. By various and amusing gestures it solicits food from spccta-
ISO
THE BEAR FAMILY.
tors ; and when a morsel of cake is held at a small distance beyond
its reach, it expands its nostrils, protrudes its upper lip, and often
its tongue, while with its paws it makes every etTort to obtain the
proffered delicacy. Having gained it, and filled its mouth, it
places the remainder with singular coolness on its hinder feet, as if
to keep it from being soiled by the floor, and brings it in successive
portions to its mouth. It often places itself in an attitude of
entreaty, earnestly regarding the spectators, and stretching forth its
paws ready to receive their offering. It is fond of notice, conscious
Fig. 3SS. — Borncan Bear.
of kind treatment, and delights to be patted and rubbed ; but when
vexed or irritated, refuses all attention so long as the offending
person remains in sight. (See Fig. 3S8.)
Both this and the preceding species excel in climbing ; and they
are said to occasion mucli injury to groves of cocoa-nuts, both by
climbing up them and devouring the top shoot, thereby killing the
tree, and also by tearing down the fruit, to the milky juice of which
they are very partial.
The Sloth-Bear.
{UrsHS {Prochilus) lahiatus). — Ours paresseus and Ours jongleur
of the French ; Aswail of the Mahrattas.
This uncouth animal was first described and figured (from the life)
by Bewick, in his " History of Quadrupeds," without any name, bul
Fig. 389. — Sloth-Bear.
as an animal that had hitherto escaped the attention of naturalists.
It was then (1791) taken for a Sloth, and received from Shaw the
names of Bradypiis ursiniis, and iirsiformis ; and from Pennant
that of Ursiform'Sloth. Blainville and others restored it to the genus
' Ursus ; Illiger having previously founded the genus /'roc^z7?« for its
reception, a name which is retained in a sub-generic sense only.
The Sloth-Bear is a rough clumsy animal, with short massive
legs, and huge hooked claws ; and possessing great mobility of the
snout. It inhabits the mountainous parts of India, and was
observed by Colonel Sykes in Dukhun. {See Fig. 389.)
It dwells in caves, and its food is said to consist of fruits, honey,
and Termite Ants, for the demolishing whose houses its claws are
well adapted. It is said also frequently to descend to the plains,
and commit great havoc on the sugar-cane plantations. On these
occasions it laecomes an object of pursuit to the Indian and European
hunters.
The Sloth-Bear attains to nearly the size of the Brown Bear of
Europe ; it is robustly framed. The hair is remarkably long and
shaggy ; on the upper part of the head and neck it is sometimes
twelve inches in length, and separates into two portions, one of
which overhangs the eyes, imparting a peculiarly heavy appearance
to the animal's physiognomy ; while the other forms a thick mane
across the shoulders. The general colour is black, intermixed with
brown : a triangular mark on the breast is white. The head is
carried low ; the back arched ; the muzzle, which is of a dirty
yellowish-white, is very much elongated ; the lips are thin, flexible,
and project at all times considerably in front of the jaws ; and
possess singular mobility, being capable of protrusion in a tubular
form far beyond the muzzle, thus constituting an instrument of
suction. The tongue is long, flat, and square at the extremity.
We have seen the animal protrude his lips, while at the same time
they were kept apart for several minutes together ; and on these
occasions the interior of the mouth was distinctly visible.
A pair of these animals, which we have observed in captivity, were
at times very playful, contending with each other, in rude sport, with
great violence, struggling and endeavouring to throw each other
down, and all the while uttering a loud roaring noise : at other
times, huddled together, they passed whole hours in sleep. In
India it is often led about by mountebanks and jugglers, as is the
Brown Bear in Europe.
According to Captain Williamson (" Oriental Field-Sports "),
these animals are numerous on the boundaries of Bengal, which to
the east and west are mountainous, rocky, and overrun with low
underwood : their principal resort is under banks, in large burrows
or natural cavities ; but they do not hibernate. Their pace is
shuffling and awkward, but quick enough to overtake a man on foot.
They ascend trees with great facility.
The natives greatly dread them ; the very sight of a Bear, however
distant, disheartens them, knowing, as they do, the strength and
savage disposition of the sable shuffler. Of their ferocity, and the
dilatory torments to which they subject their victim. Captain
Williamson gives several horrible instances : observing, that they
"will chew and suck a limb till it is a perfect pulp," not biting
away the flesh like most beasts of prey.
The Polar Bear.
{Ursus, or ThaIassa7-ctos, maritimus). Ours polaire of the
French ; Wawpusk of the Cree Indians ; Nannook of the Esqui-
maux ; Nennook of the Greenlanders.
Within the regions of the Arctic circle dwells the Polar Bear, one
of the largest and most formidable of the group. Formed to endure
the most intense severity of cold, this monarch of a gloomy desolate
realm prowls in sullen majesty over wastes of snow and among ice-
glazed rocks in quest of food ; he traverses fields of ice along the
shore, clambers over rugged icebergs, or even swims out from floe to
floe, or from island to island, ravenous for his prey. He dives with
admirable address, and is capable of contending with his prey
amidst the rolling waves. The Seal forms its favourite diet, together
with marine exuvis, such as dead fishes and cetaceous animals ;
and he will attack even the Walrus himself. In summer, mountain-
berries are eagerly sought for, nor are sea-weeds or marsh-plants
rejected. Of the activity of this Bear in the water, we may form an
idea from a statement by Cartwright, that he saw a Polar Bear dive
after a Salmon, and kill his fish.
Captain Lyon gives the following account of its mode of hunting
the Seal: — "The Bear, on seeing his intended prey, gets quietly
into the water, and swims until to leeward of him, from whence, by
frequent short dives, he silently makes his approaches, and so
arranges his distance, that, at the last dive, he comes to the spot
where the Seal is lying. If the poor animal attempts to escape by
rolling into the water, he falls into the Bear's clutches ; if, on the
contrary he lies still, his destroyer makes a powerful spring, kills
him on the ice, and devours him at leisure." (See Fig. 390.) The
same author informs us, that this Bear not only swims with rapidity,
but is capable of making long springs in the water. Captain
Sabine states that he saw one about midway between the north and
south shores of Barrow's Straits, which are forty miles apart, though
there was no ice in sight to which he could resort for rest.
The pace of this Bear on shore is a kind of shuffle, but more quick
tlian might be expected ; and, when at full speed, as rapid as the
THE RACOONS.
iSi
sharp gallop of a horse. The average length of the Polar Bear
(which has been greatly exaggerated) is about six feet ; but it
occasionally attains to larger dimensions. Pallas describes an adult
female 6 feet 9 inches in length. The greatest length, from nose to
tail, recorded by Captain Phipps, is 7 feet i inch ; the weight of the
beast being 610 lbs. Captain Ross records the measurement of one
7 feet 10 inches, the weight being 1,160 lbs.; and Captain Lyon,
that one, which was unusually large, measured 8 feet 7i inches, and
weighed 1,600 lbs.
It is stated on the best authorities, that the male does not hiber-
nate, but that the female, on the approach of the severer season,
retires to some rift among the rocks or ice, or digs a lair in the frozen
snow; the falling snow drifts over the den, covering it to a great
depth, a small aperture for breathing being always open. In this
retreat, about the latter part of December, she brings forth two cubs,
and in March quits the den with them, then about as large as a
Shepherd's Dog, and prowls
abroad, lean, gaunt, and fe-
rocious ; hunger and the pre-
sence of her offspring adding
fury to her savage temper.
The male wanders about the
marshes and adjacent parts
until November ; he then goes
out to sea upon the ice in quest
of Seals, and becomes very fat
It often happens that he be
comes drifted out from the
coast on a floating field of ice ,
and in this way, says Dr
Richardson, " Polar Bears are
often carried from the coast
of Greenland to Iceland, where
they commit such ravages on
the flocks, that the inhabit
ants rise in a body to destroy
them."
Of the devotion of the female
Polar Bear to her young, and
of the danger attendant upon
the chase of these animals,
many travellers have made
mention, and recorded various
facts which came under their
own observation. These, how-
ever, are so popularly current,
that it is sufficient only to
allude to them.
This species is of a more
lengthened form than that of
the others ; the head is very
much elongated and flattened,
the ears and mouth compara-
tively small, the neck very
long and thick, and the sole of the foot very large. The fur is
silvery white, tinged with yellow ; close, short, and even on the
head, neck, and upper part of the back; long, fine, and inclined to
be woolly on the hinder parts, legs, and belly. The sole of the foot
is almost entirely covered with long hair, affording the animal a firm
footing on the ice. The claws are black, not much curved, thick, and
short. Captain Lyon's crew found none of the terrible effects (skin
peeling off, &c.), from eating the flesh, ascribed to it by some of the
earlier voyagers.
Polar Bears may be seen in the collection of the Zoological
Society's Gardens, London. The old female Bear, which was there
in 1879, had been in the Gardens since 1846 ; and the male, brought
from Spitzbergen, was presented to the Society in 1S71. The family
of Bears has had a comparatively recent addition in the shape of the
Japanese Bear, or UrsKS japonicus, a specimen of which may be
seen in the collection of the Zoological Society of London.
The Racoons— Genus Procyon.
The Racoon (Procyoti lotor). Raton of the French ; Mapach,
YUamaton, Maxile, and Cioatlamacazque of the Mexicans, accord-
ing to Hernandez.
Notwithstanding Buffon's assertion to the contrary, the Racoon
inhabits Canada as well as the warmer regions of America ; its
range being from about 50" north lat., extending through Mexico
and the United States, and thence, as it would seem, "into South
America as far as Paraguay. In size these animals equal a common
Fox, having a stout body with moderate limbs, and a plantigrade, or
rather semi-plantigrade, walk ; for though the sole is naked, it is
only when the Racoon rests that it is totally applied to the groljnd.
The toes, five in number, are armed with sharp claws ; the muzzle is
acute, the nose tapering beyond the lips, and flexible ; the eyes are
moderate, with a circular pupil; the ears are short, erect, and
rounded ; the whiskers long ; the tail moderate, and somewhat
bushy. General colour brownish -grey, the tail being tinged with a
blackish tint ; muzzle dirty white ; a black or dark-brown mark
across the eyes and check, and another between the eyes, extending
from the forehead ; under-parts pale grey.
The Racoons are nocturnal in their habits, sleeping out the day
in their holes, and prowling at night in search of food. The borders
of the sea and the margins of swamps and rivers are their favourite
localities ; and they prey upon small animals, birds, eggs, and
insects, adding roots, fruits, and sweet succulent vegetables to their
diet. Nor are Crabs, Oysters, and other " shell-fish" less acceptable,
for which they visit the shores at low water. To the partiality of the
Racoon for Oysters we can ourselves testify ; for, some years since, we
repeatedly tried one of these animals with the hard-shelled moUusk
in question, which it greedily devoured. Its first action was to crush
the hinge of the shell between its teeth : which done, it wrenched the
Fig. 390. — Polar Bears and Seal.
two valves so far asunder as to enable it to scrape out the mollusc
with its claws.
In the description of a tame Racoon by M. Blanquart des Salines,
we are informed, " It opens Oysters with wonderful skill ; it is suffi-
cient to break the hinge ; its paws complete the work. It must have
an excellent sense of touch. In this operation rarely docs it avail
itself of sight or smell ; for instance, it passes the Oyster under its
hind-paws ; then, without looking, seeks by its hands the weakest
place: it there digs in its claws, forces^apart the valves, and tears
out the fish in fragments, leaving nothing behind." This was pre-
cisely what we ourselves witnessed.
The Racoon is asserted to have the habit of dipping its food into
water before eating it, whence it has received the appellation of
lotor, or washer ; but although we have had numerous opportunities
of observing the animal in captivity, we never saw this mode of pro-
ceeding. (See Fig. 391.)
Though incapable of grasping objects with its paws, the Racoon
can hold its food between them pressed together, in doing which it
usually sits upon its haunches like a Bear, and in this attitude it very
often feeds.
Of the senses of this animal, that of smell is the most developed,
and is very acute : the eyes, though the pupil is round, are better
adapted for twilight or night than for the glare of day ; indeed, a
strong light distresses and confuses these animals exceedingly. In
its natural state, in fact, the Racoon is nocturnal; and it is most pro-
bable from the circumstance of the eyes being incapable of sustain-
ing daylight, that blindness from cataract (opacity of the lens) is so
common "in these animals in a state of captivity, when they are
liable to be roused up, and are often kept awake, during the whole or
greater part of the day.
The gait of the Racoon on the ground is oblique, and when it
moves quickly its mode of progression consists of a series of bounds,
reminding us of the Lemurs, but with nothing of their grace and
THE RACOONS— THE CO ATI S.
lig-htness. When taken young this animal is easily tamed, becomes
playful, and is fond of being noticed and caressed, but is at the same
time very capricious and easily offended ; and to some persons,
■without any apparent cause, it will show from the first marked signs
of hostility. When enraged or desirous of attackmg a person, the
Racoon advances, as we have often witnessed, with arched back and
bristly hairs, and with its chin or under-jaws close to the ground,
uttering gruff sounds of displeasure. If once injured it seldom for-
gives its enemy.
It greedily attacks poultry within its reach, and is as cunning and de-
structive as the Fox ; though, according to M. Blanquart des Salines,
it only devours their heads, which agrees with Dr. Richardson's ob-
servations. (See Fig 392.)
When roused from its diurnal indolence, the Racoon is restless,
inquisitive, and prying; it climbs with the greatest skill, in the same
manner as a Bear, ascending and descending a tree, a pole, or
branches fastened in its apartment, with the utmost address. It is
apt to become very fat, and its flesh is said to be palatable. The fur
is used in the hat manufacture, and the skins are imported in large
numbers for ladies' boas, &c.
The genus is represented by the Panda, or Wah {Aihirus ftil-
geJis). — The Panda is an inhabitant of the Himalayan range,
between Nepal and the Snowy Mountains, and was first discovered
by General Hardwicke, who published a description in the fifteenth
volume of the " Linn. Trans." Subsequently M. Duvancel sent the
skm of the animal to Paris, and a description and figure were pub-
lished by F. Cuvier, in the fifteenth number of the " Histoire des
Mammiferes," which appeared prior to the paper by General Hard-
wicke. (See Fig. 395.)
The Panda is a short-muzzled animal, covered with full soft fur,
and having a tail of moderate length, resembling a lady's boa. In
size the animal equals a Badger, and is of a robust figure. Its
limbs are stout : its feet five-toed ; but the soles, instead of being
naked, are covered with thick, close wool, of a pure white in some
specimens, of a greyish-white in others, forming a sing-ular contrast
to the deep black of the legs and under-surface. The claws are
short, sharp, and semi-retractile. Fig. 394 : a represents the an-
terior foot, left side ; b, the hinder foot, right side ; c, the sole of one
of the posterior feet, showing its woolly covering. The ears are
short, pointed, and lined and tufted with white fur. The colour of
I'ig. 391. — R.icoons feeding
Another species of the Racoon is the Crab-eating Racoon, or Agoura
{Procyon cancrivora).—The. dental formula of the genus ProcyoJt
is as follows: — Incisors, .-; canines, iHi; molars, - — 2 = 40-
6 i-i 6-6
The two true molars on each side are equal, or nearly so ; .and the
carnassiere nearly resembles the true molars, not being suited to
cutting flesh.
The Panda, or Wah.
The genus .^ /■/«;-/« has the following dental formula :— Incisors, - .
canines, 1^1^ ; molars, 5_r_5 = 36. In dentition this genus ap-
proaches that of the Racoons; but the molars have their crowns
studded with sharp tubercles, which, as in General Hardwicke's
specimen, become worn down by long usage. The molars of the
upper jaw are broad and large ; those of the lower jaw narrow. Fig.
393, represents the teeth of the Panda ; a and b are the incisors, or
"front teeth, of the upper and lower jaw.
the upper surface is beautiful fulvous red, the head being much
paler ; the muzzle is white, with a red dash beneath the eyes ; the
tail is banded red and yellow, but not very strongly ; the limbs and
under-parts are abruptly black. The fur, which is very full and
deep, consists of a woolly under-coat, with long soft hairs overlay-
ing it.
We learn from General Hardwicke that the haunts of the Panda
" are about rivers and mountain torrents." It lives much in trees,
and feeds on birds and the smaller Mammalia ; it is frequently dis-
covered by its loud cry or call, resembling the word wha, often
repeating the same ; hence is derived one of the local names by
which it is known. It is also called the Chitwa.
The Brown Coati.
The genus Nasiia embraces the Coatis, or Coati-mondis (]Vas!/a
narica, &c.), which are restricted to the warmer regions of the
American continent, and in dentition and general economy approxi-
mate to the Racoons.
These curious animals, formerly placed by Linnajus with the
THE COATIS.
^ii
Viverres cannot easily be confounded with those of any other
group. . . . , .
They may be known at once by the peculiar elongation of their
snout, which projects considerably beyond the lower jaw. This
snout is not, as in the Hog, supported by a continuation of the nasal
bone, but is a cylindrical and flexible proboscis, with a truncated
extremity, forming a sort of disc where the nostrils open, and
altogether giving a singular character to their physiognomy. They
Fig. 392. — Racoon after a Bird.
turn it about in various directions while in search of food, and root
with it in the earth in quest of worms and insects. The eyes are
small, but quick ; the ears moderate and rounded ; the body long,
deep, and compressed ; the tail long ; the limbs short and stout ;
the toes five on each foot, and armed with large powerful claws,
well adapted for digging. The fur is rather coarse, but long, full,
and close ; the tail is ringed with alternate bands of dark and pale
tints — in the Red Coati {Nasua rufa), of rufous, in the Brown Coati
[N. fusca), oi dusky hrowTt. The canine teeth arc remarkable for
their size and sharpness, especially those of the upper jaw, which
arc compressed, and have a cutting edge both before and behind.
In captivity these animals sleep much during the day, and arc
most active as the evening advances, at which time they traverse
their cage, turn their snout from side to side, and pry into every
corner. They do not, however, pass the whole of the day in sleep,
but are active for hours together, retiring to rest only at intervals.
Their temper is capricious : we have,
indeed, seen some individuals toler-
ably good-tempered ; but most are
savage, and their bite is very severe.
In drinking, the Coati laps like a
Dog ; but as its long snout would bo
in the way during this operation, it
turns it up, so as to prevent its
being submerged.
These animals arc highly gifted
with the sense of smell ; they exam-
ine everything with their long nose,
which is in almost perpetual motion.
Their temper is irritable and caprici-
ous; — they cannot be trusted even by
those with whose persons they are
the most familiar, and, conse-
quently, are not to be touched with-
out great caution. Their voice, sel-
dom exerted, is, under ordinary
circumstances, a gentle hissing ;
but when irritated or alarmed, they
utter a singularly shrill cry, some-
thing like that of a bird. They
defend themselves vigorously when
attacked by a Dog, or any animal,
and inflict desperate wounds. Like
the Racoon, they are said to be
fond of the juice of the sugar-cane,
but we know not on what authority.
Azara does not allude to this par-
tiality ; it is, however, far from being
improbable. In climbing, they de-
scend head foremost, being in this
respect unlike the Bear, which ani-
mal they far surpass in activity,
being, indeed, better climbers than
even the Cat, and exceeded among
their own tribe only by the Kinka-
jou, whose prehensile tail gives it a
great advantage.
In their native climate they tenant
the woods, living for the most part
in small troops among the trees, which they climb with great
address, and prey upon birds, which they surprise, rifling also their
nests of eggs, or unfledged young. Worms, insects, and roots form
also part of their diet.
The species presented in the cut is the Brown Coati (.A^. fused).
(See Fig. 396.) Its colours are very variable, the brown being more
or less tinged with yellow, and sometimes shaded with black ; the
under-surface is yellowish-grey ; the snout is generally black, and
several spots or marks of greyish-yellow encircle the eye. It is a
native of Brazil, Guiana, and Paraguay.
Fig. 393.— Teeth of Panda.
Fig. 394.— Feet of Panda.
154
THE KINKAJOU.
The Rufous Coati.
{N'asua rtifa). — The Rufous Coati, in habits and manners, agrees
with the Brown Coati, living- in pairs or small troops in the forests of
South America, and climbing with great facility ; but their mode of
climbing does not resemble that of the Cat or Squirrel, or of any of the
F'g- 395- —Panda.
light-limbed and sharp-clawed animals : — they do not run up a tree
and bound from branch to branch, but proceed in the same heavy
manner as on the ground ; and it is because they can apply the
palm of their paws, or the sole of their hind-feet, fairly to any object
(not, however, grasping it), that they are enabled thus to climb.
They use their feet, in fact, in the same manner as man, and their
Macauco of Pennant ; the true affinities and situation of which in
the system of Mammalia seem sadly to have puzzled naturalists.
The dental formula of the genus Ccrcolej^tes is as follows : —
Incisors, - ; canines, --~ ; molars, -5" 5 = ,5^
6 i-i 5-5
Fig. 398 represents the teeth of the Kinkajou.
Fig. 396. — Brown Coati.
mode of climbing resembles his, except that their paws do not
grasp ; in descending, they generally come down hind-quarters fore-
most, carefully availing themselves of every projection. (See Fig. 397.)
The Kinkajou.
Of the genus Cercolejtfes one species only is known, the Kinkajou
(Cercole^tes caudivolvulus), Potto, Mexican Weasel, or Yellow
Fig. 397. — Rufous Coati.
The Kinkajou is a native of Southern and Intertropical America,
where it appears to be extensively spread, and is known under
different appellations. In New Granada it is called, by the native
Indians, Gushumbi, and Manaviri
in the country of Rio Negro. In
its manners it much resembles the
Coati-mondi, just described ; but
differs from that animal not only
in the shape of the head, which is
short and compact, but also in
having a prehensile tail. Of re-
cluse and solitary habits, the Kin-
kajou lives for the most part among
the branches of trees in large woods
or forests, and is in every respect
well adapted for climbing : being,
however, decidedly nocturnal, it is
but little exposed to the observa-
tion even of those who sojourn
among the places frequented by it.
During the day it sleeps in its
retreat, rolled up like a ball, and,
if roused, appears torpid and inac-
tive. As soon, however, as the
dusk of evening sets in, it is fully
awake, and is all activity, dis-
playing the utmost restlessness
and address, climbing from branch
to branch in quest of food, and
using its prehensile tail, to assist
Itself in its manoeuvres. Few
Mammalia are more incommoded
by light than the Kinkajou : we
have seen the pupils of the eyes
contracted to a mere round point,
even when the rays of the sun
have not been very bright, while
the animal at the same time testi-
fied by its actions its aversion to
the unwelcome glare.
In size, the Kinkajou is equal
to a full-grown Cat, but its limbs
are much stouter and more mus-
cular, and its body more firmly
built. In walking, the sole of
the foot is applied fairly to the
ground, as in the case of the
Badger. Its claws are strong
and curved, the toes on each foot
being five. The ears are short and rounded. The fur is full,
but not long, and very closely set. There is no animal among
the Carnivo?-a (as far as our experience goes) in which the tongue
is endowed with more remarkable powers of extension. (See
Fig. 399.) Among ruminating animals, the Giraffe is, as we know,
capable of extending this organ to a very great length, and of
using it much in the same manner as the Elephant does the ex-
tremity of his proboscis, drawing down by it the twigs and boughs
THE KINKAJOV.
•^1%
of the trees, upon the leaves of which the creature feeds ; in
like manner can the Kinkajou thrust forth its tongue, along and
slender instrument, capable of being inserted into crevices or fis-
sures, in search of insects, reptiles, or the eggs of birds. Baron
Humboldt informs us that this animal is an extensive devastator
of the nests of the Wild Bee, whence the Spanish missionaries
Fig. 39S.— Teeth of Kinkajou.
F'g. 399.— Kinkajou.
have given it the name of "Honey-Bear," and that it uses its
lung tongue to lick up the honey from the cells of the comb. In
addition, however, to this food, birds, eggs, small animals, roots,
and fruits, constitute the diet of the Kinkajou ; and, as we have
seen, it will draw these articles towards it with its tongue, when
presented just within its reach. In drinking it laps like a Dog,
and also makes use of its fore-paws occasionally in holding food,
and even in conveying it to the mouth, as well as in seizing its
prey. In its aspect there is something of gentleness and good-
nature ; and in captivity it is e.xtremely playful, familiar, and fond
of being noticed. In its natural state, however, it is sanguinary
and resolute.
An individual of this species died, some time ago, at the gardens of
tlie Zoological Society : it had lived in the possession of the Society
about seven years, and was remarkable for gentleness and its play-
ful disposition. During the greater part of the day it was usually
asleep, rolled up in the inner partition of a box of its large cage ;
this, indeed, was invariably the case in the morning, unless pur-
posely disturbed; but in the afternoon it would often voluntarily come
out, traverse its cage, take food, and play with those to whom it was
accustomed. Clinging to the top wires of its cage with its hind-
paws and tail, it would thus suspend itself, swinging backwards
and forwards, and assuming a variety of antic positions. When
thus hanging, it could bring up its body with the greatest ease, so
as to cling with its fore-paws, as well as the hind pair, to the wires,
and in this manner it would travel up and down its cage with the
utmost address, every now and then thrusting forth its long tongue
between the wires, as if in quest of food, which, if offered outside its
cage, it would generally endeavour to draw in with this organ. It
was very fond of being stroked and gently scratched, and, when at
play with any one it knew, it would pretend to bite, seizing the hand or
fingers with its teeth, as a Dog will do when gambolling with its
master, but without hurting or intending injury. As the evening
came on, its liveliness and restlessness would increase. It was then
full of animation, traversing the space allotted to it in every direc-
tion, examining every object within its reach, rolling and tumbling
about, and swinging to and fro from the wires of the cage : nor was
its good-humour abated ; it would gambol and play with its keepers,
and exhibit in every movement the most surprising energy. In this
state of exercise it would pass the night, retiring to rest on the
dawn of the morning. The age of this individual was not ascer-
tained ; the state of its teeth, however, which were much worn
down, showed it to have attained an advanced period ; its colour
was a pale yellowish-grey, inclining to tawny — the hairs, in certain
lights, had a glossy appearance. Its dissection after death fully
confirmed the propriety of assigning
it a place among the plantigrade
Carnivora.
The Binturong {Arch'in Dintu-
rong, Temminck ; Tetides ater,
F. Cuv.) seems to take the place of
the Kinkajou in the forests of Java
and Sumatra. These animals are
prehensile-tailed and arboreal, and
resemble the Racoons in the princi-
pal details of their dentition. They
live both on animal and vegetable
food, and are particularly fond of
plantains : they also eat eggs and
birds.
Fossil ^mains of the Car-
nivora.
In the Tertiary Strata, the remains
of numerous of the Carnivora have
been found in a fossil state, more
especially in the more recent of tliose
formations ; and it is remarkable that
tropical forms of large size appear to
have been inhabitants of this island
at a period which must have been,
comparatively speaking, but little
antecedent to the commencement of
the human era.
The genus Ursus is rich in the
reliquia; of extinct species. These
occur, for the most part, in various
caverns in Germany, Hungary, and
England, along with the bones of
other Carnivora, as the Wolf, Hyaena,
Tiger, Glutton, &c., and also of her-
bivorous animals, though these are
less in number. In most of these
caves (that of Kirkdale excepted,
where the remains are principally
those of an extinct species of Hyaena),
156
THE SEALS.
the bones of the Bear tribe are the most prevalent. In the vast
cavern of Gaylenreuth this is remarkably the case, the bones being
referrable to three distinct species, which have been termed Ursus
^n'scus, U. arctdides, and U. sjyelceus. They lie for tlie most part
400. — a, iooiuui Machairoiius ; c, Megalosaurus.
confusedly in a bed of animal earth, and arc often encrusted with
stalagmite, which lines the roof and walls of the cave. Though
scattered and broken, these bones exhibit no tokens of having
been rolled. Professor Goldfuss states that, with regard to the cave
of Gaylenreuth, if we assume 1,000 buried individuals of the various
species found there, the proportion will be as follows : — Hycsua
spelaa, 25 ; Canis s;pelcctes, 50 ; Felts spelaa, 25 ; Gtilo spelatis,
30; Ursiis ■priscus, \o\ Ursus arctdides, bo; Ursus spclaus, ioo.
Of these extinct Bears, the skull of the Ursus spclaus is distin-
guished by the bold elevation of the forehead, and its size, which
indicates the animal to have greatly exceeded any living species.
The skull of the Ursus arctdides, though as large as that of U.
spelccus, has the forehead much less elevated. The skull of Ursus
priscus is smaller, and approaches, in size and contour, that of the
common Brown Bear, but is more flattened along the upper surface.
It may here be observed that certain serrated canine teeth attri-
buted to Bears, under the names of Ursus ctruscus and Ursus
cultride7is by Cuvicr and others, and to the genus Felis by Bravard,
are, according to Kaup, the relics of an animal allied to the Mega-
losaurus, one of the Saurian reptiles, but of a distinct genus, to
which he has given the name of Machairodus. In Fig. 400, a is a
tooth of lilachairodus, natural size, imperfect below ; b, the outline
of a cast of the perfect tooth ; c, a tooth of Megalosaurus, natural
size. Professor Owen, however, regards the teeth [a, c) as having
belonged to a mammiferous animal, not, however, a Bear; and the
proof is afforded by the cast [b], which shows that the tooth was
originally lodged in a socket, and not anchylosed to the substance of
the jaw, and that the fang is contracted and solidified by the pro-
gressive diminution of a temporary formative pulp, and does not
terminate in an open conical cavity, like the teeth of all known
Saurians, which are lodged in sockets.
Our space will not permit us to enter more fully into the interesting
subject of the fossil remains of the Carnivora. To those desirous
of pursuing the study, we may recommend generally the works of
Ansted, Tennant, Murchison, and other eminent geologists. As a
guide to British fossils, one of the best works is that of Mr. John
Morriss, entitled a " Catalogue of British Fossils."
The British Museum contains a very valuable collection of fossils
of the Carnivora and other Mammalia. Here we may remind the
student of Natural History of the great value which is attached to
the study of Comparative Anatomy, Osteology, and Physiology.
Many of our fossil remains consist only of a few bones or teeth of
the extinct species. But by comparing them with the skeleton or
teeth of existing species, we are enabled, with almost absolute cer-
tainty, to assign the order, species, &c., to which the fossils belong.
CHAPTER XII I.
MAMMALIA.— ORDER, PINNIPEDIA— SEALS, Etc.
£2Eiii^> T will possibly be a matter of some diffi-
^JijLr'^ culty, on the part of those unacquainted
'^*i^ % with the system of classification in Natu-
ral History, to comprehend what possible
relation can subsist between Seals, Lions,
Tigers, Elephants, &c. But the inquiry
is easily answered. The great charac-
teristic of the Mammalia is, that they
bring forth their young alive, and nourish
them by suckling ; hence the classification
of the Seals with other Mammals. They
are called Pin?zipedia, or fin-footed animals, from two
Latin -words, pinna, a fin, and pedes, a foot.
The order of the Pinnipedia, including only the
Seals and the Walrus, is at once distinguished from
all other Mammalia by the peculiar structure and
arrangement of the extremities. The toes of all the
feet are united almost to their extremities by the com-
mon integument, by which they are converted into
broad fin-like organs ; the bones of the arm and leg
being usually sliort, and concealed, to a great extent,
beneath the skin of the body. The tips of the toes are armed
with strong claws, and these are frequently almost the
only indication of their existence, although the bones are
the same as those of the most perfectly-organised Mam-
The position of the hind-feet is very remarkable ; they are
placed quite at the hinder extremity of the body, and thrown back-
malia.
wards into a nearly horizontal position on each side of the very short
tail, so as to resemble the horizontal tail of the Whale, and, like
this, they constitute the principal agents in the locomotion of the
animals in their natural element the water, where they swim and
dive with the greatest facility. When swimming, the fore-paws are
applied close to the side of the body, and are only used in turning
about.
The general form of the animal is particularly adapted for a resi-
dence in the water, being nearly cylindrical, and tapering gradually
from before backwards ; the neck is short, and the head small and
rounded. Like the Cctacea, which they resemble in their general
form, the Seals have the surface of the body covered with a stratum
of blubber, which serves the same purposes as in those Mammalia.
The skin, however, is covered with hair of two kinds — a soft woolly
down, close to the skin, and a coat of long smooth hairs, which lie
close to the body, and form a shining coat, offering no resistance to
their passage through the water.
The skull and jaws are compact and powerful, and the former
exhibits strong ridges for the attachment of the muscles of the jaws.
The orbits are usually continuous with the temporal fossa;. The
teeth are always of three sorts, but they vary considerably in number.
The incisors are usually small, but the canines are large and power-
ful, curved, and sharp at the point, indicating the carnivorous nature
of the animals. A further evidence of this is furnished by the form
of the molar teeth, which are remarkable for being usually furnished
with only a single root ; their crowns are strongly compressed late-
rally, with sharp cutting edges, which are usually more or less
THE SEALS.
i^7
notched, and sometimes (Fig. 401) deeply cleft, so as to form three j
or more distinct points.
The mouth is furnished with thick fleshy lips, from which spring
numerous long bristles. The tongue is smooth. The nostrils are
placed at the front of the snout, and are capable of being completely
closed when the animal is under water. The external ears are
usually represented by a small valve, which closes the aperture
under the same circumstances. The eye is large, full, and expres-
sive of great intelligence — a quality which is exhibited by these
animals in a very high degree ; and the brain, as might be expected
pophysis, parapophysis, and pleurapophysis ; the hole being the
interval between those parts : in the lumbar vertebra; the pleurapo-
physis is short, and confluent or connate with the diapophysis.
Returning to the skeleton of the Walrus, we find that nine pairs
of ribs directly join the sternum, which consists of eight bones.
The transverse processes of the last cervical are imperforate, con-
Fig. 401. — Teeth of the Seal {^Steiwrhyuchus).
from this circumstance, is of large size, and of a very high type of
organisation. The mamma? are usually only two in number, and
placed far back ; the female produces a single young one, and
attends to it with great assiduity. Their voice is usually a kind of
bark, whence the name of Sea Dogs, applied to them in some
countries.
The habits of all the animals of this order are very similar. They
live in the sea, but always in the neighbourhood of the coasts, where
they wage an incessant war upon the fishes, which constitute the
principal food of all, with the exception of the Walrus. They are
not, however, like the Cefacea, entirely confined to the water, but
can easily climb upon the low rocks, where they are exceedingly
fond of lying in herds, basking in the sun. When thus engaged
they are exceedingly watchful, and plunge into the water the
moment any danger approaches them. On shore, as might be
expected from the structure of their feet, their movements are any-
thing but elegant ; they are performed by the action of the strong
muscles of the back ; the creatures hold by their fore-paws, whilst
they curve the back strongly, and thus draw forward the hind-feet ;
the latter then form the point of support, and the head and fore-paws
are pushed on by the straightening of the body. This mode of
progression is evidently very laborious, and the Seals consequently
never travel to any distance on land.
In reference to the skeleton. Professor Owen remarks, that in the
Phocidce, or Seal family, there is another and well-marked stage
gained in the development of the terrestrial instruments of locomo-
tion, compared with lower forms of the Mamttialia. Hind limbs
arc now added — the marine mammal has become a quadruped.
The sphere of life of the Seals is near the shores ; they often come
on land ; they sleep and bring forth among the rocks and littoral
caves : hence the necessity for a better development of the pectoral
limbs, although these, like the pelvic ones, still retain the general
form of fins. The fish-hunting Seals make more use of the head in
independent movements of sudden extension, retraction, and quick
turns to the right and left, than do the Ceiacea of like diet ; and the
Walrus (Fig. 402) works the head, as the place of attachment of its
long, vertical, down-growing tusks, in various movements required
in clambering over Hoes and bergs of ice. Accordingly, in the Seal
tribe we find the seven neck-vertebra; {ib.) c, longer and with more
finished and free-playmg joints than in the Whales and Dugongs.
The sigmoid curve, in which they can be thrown during retraction
of the head, exceeds that in most other mammals, and almost
reminds one of the extent of flexion of this part of the spine in birds.
In the Walrus, the skeleton of which is here selected to exemplify
the phocal modification of the mammalian skeleton, the vertebral
formula is : — 7 cervical, C ; 11 dorsal, D ; 5 lumbar, L ; 3 sacral, S ;
and 9 caudal, cd. ^As, in consequence of the presence of hind-limbs,
a sacrum is now established, the characters of the above five kinds
of body-vertebra:, as defined in man and other mammals, may here
be given : the cervical or neck-vertebrae " have perforated transverse
processes;" the dorsal vertebra; " bear ribs ;" the lumbar vertebra;
"have imperforate transverse processes, and no ribs;" the sacral
vertebra: " are anchylosed together ;" the rest are caudal vertebra;,
whatever their modification. In the above characters the term
"rib" is given to the vertebral element called "pleurapophysis,"
when this is long and movable ; that element may be, and often is,
present, but short and fixed, in both cervical, lumbar, sacral, and
caudal vertebrae : in some mammals, e.g., monotremes, the pleura-
pophysis may remain unanchylosed in some of the neck-vertebrae,
but it is short, like a transverse process ; and the so-called " per-
forated transverse process," in all mammals, consists of the dia-
Fig. 402. — Skeleton of the Walrus.
sisting of the diapophysis only. The neural arches of the middle
dorsal vertebras are without spines and very narrow, leaving wide
unprotected intervals of the neural canal. The bones of the neck
are modified to allow of great extent and freedom of infiection. The
perforated transverse processes of the third to the sixth cervicals,
inclusive, are remarkable for the distinctness of their constituent
parts. Inferior ridges and tuberous processes, called " hypa-
pophyses," are developed from some dorsal and lumbar vertebrae.
These processes indicate the great development of the anterior
vertebral muscles, e.g., the " longi colli " and " psoa;," and relate
to the important share which the vertebra; and muscles of the trunk
take in the locomotion of the Seal tribe, especially when on dry land,
where they may be called " gastropods," in respect of their peculiar
mode of progression. The Walrus alone seems to have the power
of supporting itself on the fore-fins, so as to raise the belly from the
ground. There is no trace of clavicle in any Seal. The upper part
of the scapula exceeds the lower one in breadth. The spine termi-
nates by a short and simple acromion. The humerus is short and
thick, and is remarkable for the great development of the inner
tuberosity and of the deltoid ridge, which is deeply excavated on its
outer side. The inner condyle is perforated. The scaphoid and
lunar bones are connate. Although the pollex, or the first digit,
exceeds the third, fourth, and fifth in length, it presents its charac-
teristic inferior number of phalanges, by which the front border of the
fin is rendered more resisting. The pelvic arch is remarkable for
the stunted development of the ilia, and the great length of the
ischia and pubes. The femur is equally peculiar from its shortness
and breadth. The tibia and fibula present the more usual propor-
tions, and are anchylosed at their proximal ends. The bones of the
foot are long, strong, and are modified to form the basis of a large
and powerful fin : the middle toe is the shortest, and the rest increase
in length to the margins of the foot ; the inner toe has, nevertheless,
but two phalanges, the rest having three phalanges, whatever their
length ; and this is the typical character, both as to the number of the
digits, and their joints, in both fore and hind feet of the MaDunalia.
In the living Walrus and Seal, the digits of each extremity are not
only bound together by a common broad web of skin, but those of
the hind-limbs are closely connected Mth the short tail : being
stretched out backwards, they seem to form, with it, one great
horizontal caudal fin ; and they constitute the chief locomotive organ
when the animal is swimming rapidly in the open sea. The long
bones of Seals, like those of Whales, are solid.
With regard to the skull in the Seal tribe, it may be remarked that
an occipito-sphenoidal bone is formed, as in man, by the coalescence
of the basioccipital with the basisphenoid ; the parts of the dura
mater or outer membrane of the brain, called " tentorium," with the
posterior part of the "falx," are ossified. The sella turcica is
shallow, but w-ell defined behind by the overhanging posterior clinoid
processes : the petrosal shows a deep transverse cerebellar fossa,
and is perforated by the carotid canal. The frontal forms a small
rhinencephalic fossa, and contributes a very large proportion to the
formation of the orbital and olfactory chambers.
In Fig. 402, a7ite, 62 is the ilium ; 63, the ischium, and 6), the
pubes ; 65 is the femur, or thigh-bone ; 66, the tibia ; 66', the
patella or knee-pan ; 67, the fibula ; 68, the tarsus ; and 66, the
metatarsus and phalanges of the hind-foot ; the numbers on the
other bones correspond with these in the skeleton of the Dugong, to
be subsequently described.
The PejinipcdicB are divided into two families, one of which
embraces the true or typical Seals, while the other consists of the
Trickca'dcE, or Walrus family. The latter connects the true Seals
iS8
THE SEALS
with the herbivorous Cetacea, that will subsequently be described.
The Seals are, for the most part, confined to the seas of the
northern and southern part of the world, and especially in the Arctic
and Antarctic regions. The common Seal is, however, abundant on
the northern coast of Scotland, and is of much value on account of
rile oil and fur it affords.
The Common Seal.
{PJwca vitulind). CaIoce;phalus vitidinus, F. Cuvier; Le Veau
marin and Phoque commun of the French ; Vecchio marino of the
Italians : Lobo marino of the Spanish ; Meerwolf and Meerhund of
Fig. 403.— Skull of Seal.
Fig. 404. — Skull of Seal.
Fig. 405.— Skull of Seal.
the Germans ; Zeehund of the Dutch ; Seel-hund of the Danes ; Sial
of the Swedes; and Moelrhon of the ancient British.
For the general characters of the skull, in the genus Phoca,
reference may be made to Fig. 403, an upper view; Fig. 404, an
under view; and Fig. 405, a profile of the i^/wfa iI/o«acA2^j. Fig.
406 illustrates the dentition. Molars, ^~^.
5-5
The common Seal is found along the shores of temperate Europe,
and is common on many parts of the Scottish coast, and also of
those of England and Ireland. It is gregarious in its habits, and
haunts caverns, and recesses
among the rocks, to which the
females retire to breed. The
young are sometimes two in
number, and the mother nurses
them with great assiduity and
affection, taking them out to
sea very early. When sur-
prised basking on the shore,
which the Seal often does,
luxuriating in the sun, its first
effort is to make for the water ;
but if intercepted, it shows
fight, and with a growl turns on its adversary, who, unless he avoid
the attack, is in some danger, for the animal has great power and
weight (often 224 pounds) : having overset its antagonist, it shuffles
to tlie water, and there disappears. All are familiar with Sir Walter
Scott's humorous narrative of Hector Maclntyre's discomfiture by a
"Phoca." ("The Antiquary.") The voice of the Seal is a gruff
grunt, not unlike that of a Pig, but when wounded it often utters a
peculiar moaning sound. These animals are sagacious and watch-
ful, and while half-slumbering on the beach their customary caution
seldom leaves them, for one of their number is usually placed a little
higher on the rock than the others, and he seems constantly awake,
and ever and anon upraises his " grim feature," scenting the wind-
ward air. Flatfish, especially Flounders, are the favourite food of
this species, at least off the coast of Colonsay, where it is common.
In the estuary of the Tees it makes great havoc among the Salmon.
This Seal is hunted, as are others also, for the sake of its skin and
blubber. The fishing commences in autumn, and is practised by
means of nets stretched across narrow sounds where the Seals are in
the habit of swimming. In these nets they are entangled ; but it is
only the young that can be thus captured ; the old ones are shot, or
their recesses and caves are entered at night by boatmen with
torches and bludgeons, upon which the animals, alarmed by the
glare and the shouts of the men, rush tumultuously forward to the
sea, and as they push along in confusion and terror they are knocked
on the head with clubs, the men being duly stationed for the purpose.
The common Seal can remain under water for about five minutes,
and swims so rapidly that, if alarmed, it will proceed nearly half a
mile during that period. The Seal is intelligent and docile, and
easily domesticated ; it becomes attached like a Dog to its master,
and may be readily taught to assist in fishing. Many anecdotes re-
specting tame Seals are recorded. Few animals have a finer sense
of hearing, and musical sounds appear to afford it great delight.
Laing, in his account of a voyage to Spitzbergen, states that the
violin, when played on board the vessel, would generally draw around
it a numerous audience of Seals, which would continue to follow it
for miles.
Teeth of Seal.
The following cuts represent the common Seal and its skeleton.
The common Seal is from four to five feet in length ; its colour is
yellowish-grey, more or less dappled and spotted with dusky-brown.
F'ig. 409 represents Seal-hunting in Scotland ; but the Seal figured
is not the common Seal ; it is a much larger and fiercer species, viz.,
Fig. 407. — Common Seal.
^^
Fig. 40S. — Skeleton of Seal.
THE SEALS.
'59
the Grey ScaX, ffalichcsrus Gryphus (Phoca Gryphus, Fabricius),
which is also common round the Fam Islands. (See Mr. Selby's
observations in " Ann. and Mag. Hist. Nat.," February, 1841, p.
462.) -•
The Grey Seal is of great size, sometimes attaining the length of
twelve feet, and producing upwards of twenty gallons of oil. It
swims and dives with wonderful rapidity ; but, from its curiosity, often
comes within range of the rifle ; for as the boats approach it while
reposing on the rocks, or swimming on the water, it raises its head
and remains for many minutes gazing at the objects of its attention.
The Grey Seal has but little intelligence, and cannot be tamed.
Seal-hunting in Scotland.
The young, which are produced in August, grow rapidly, and are
able to follow their dams to the water within a fortnight after
birth.
Mr. Newman, in his interesting " Notes on Irish Natural History,"
observes, that " these Seals are most abundant all round the coast of
Connemara, from Galway to the Killery ; indeed, I imagine, on every
part of the coast of Ireland : they are strong, resolute, and ferocious
animals, and totally different from the Phoca vitulina, which is in
these respects the reverse. The Halicharus Gryphus grows occa-
sionally to an enormous size, sometimes attaining even the length of
Fig. 410. — Immature Ilarp-Seal.
twelve feet ; and Mr. Ball, of Dublin, told me of one he had killed at
Howth Harbour, which he believed to weigh five hundred pounds.
Phoca vitulina occurs not unfrequently on the north coast of Ireland,
and among the Scotch islands ; but it appears to be nearly expelled
from the southern half of Ireland by the more powerful and savage
species above referred to." Mr. Selby records one killed in the
Fam Islands, weighing upwards of forty-seven stone, fourteen pounds
to the stone.
The Grey Seal is stated by Nilsson to be solitary in the Baltic ; but
such is not the case either on the Farn Islands or the coast of
Ireland, where it tenants caves and rocks, in parties of twelve or
fourteen, or perhaps more. No doubt, like the common Seal, it is
often seen alone.
The Harp Seal.
(Phoco GrcenlandicaJ.—T^s native regions of this Seal are the
shores of Greenland, Newfoundland, Iceland, Kamtschatka, &c. It
is one of the species in the
chase of which the Greenlander
encounters so many perils.
Crantz, in his history of Grcen-
^is:_,^ land, states that it is there
>^^=^'^ called Attarsoak. " It has a
pointed head and big body,
and is, when full-grown, nearly
three yards long ; it is then
almost all of a white-grey
colour, and has a black figure
on its back like two half-moons,
with their horns in a uniform
direction towards one another.
But there are others somewhat
blackish all over. All Seals
vary annually in colour till they
are full-grown, but no sort so
much as this, and the Green-
landers vary its name accord-
ing to its age. In the first year
it is called Attarak, and is of a
cream colour : in the second
year, Atteisiak ; it is then grey :
in the third year, Aglcktok ; it
is then painted : in the fourth
year it is Milektok ; spotted :
in the fifth year, Attarsoak ; it
then wears its half-moon, the
signal of maturity."
It is singular that the Green-
land Seal, in its immature
livery, occasionally visits the
British shores and also the
coasts of France. In the " Pro-
ceedings of the British Institu-
tion" for 1836, there is an ac-
count of two caught in the
Severn : one captured on the
coast of France lived for some time in the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris. Fred. Cuvier, considering it a new species, gave it the title
of Caloccphaliis (Phoca) discolor. Professor Nilsson also re-
garded the immature as a distinct species, and characterised it as
such under the name of Phoca ajiiicl/afa. The titles, therefore,
discolor and anncllata, must both merge into Gi-amlandica.
Fig. 410 is the immature Harp-Seal, the Phoca discolor oi F.
Cuvier, from a specimen which was captured on the coast of France,
and lived for several weeks in the Paris Menagerie ; and Fig. 411
illustrates an adult Seal. M. F. Cuvier declares that he never knew
Fig. 411.— An adult Ilarp-Seal.
any wild animal that was more easily tamed or attached itself more
strongly. When it first came to the Jardin des Plantes, it did its
best to escape when M. F. Cuvier tried to touch it ; but in a very
few days its timidity vanished, and it rather courted his caresses
than shunned them. In the same enclosure with it were two little
Dogs, and they amused tliemselves by mounting on the Seal's back,
barking, and even biting it : the Seal, however, took it in good part,
and seemed pleased with them, though it would sometimes give
i6o
THE SEALS.
them slight blows with its paws, as if more to encourage their play
than repress their liberties. When the little Dogs made their way
out of the enclosure, the Seal tried to follow them, not deterred bv
the rough and stony ground. In cold weather they all three huddled
kindly and warmly together. If the Dogs snatched the fish from
the Seal's mouth when he was feeding, he bore it patiently ; but he
exhibited very different conduct to another Seal, who shared his
mess ; for they generally had a fight over their meal, the combat
ending, as usual, in the defeat of the weakest.
The Sea-Leopard.
(Stenorhy)tchus Icopardinus) ; St. IVeddclUi, Lesson ; Phoca Ico-
fardina, Jamieson. — The genus Stenorhynchtis is characterised by
the prominence of the muzzle and the jagged form of the teeth,
Fig. 412.— Teeth of Sea-Leopard.
which have each a bold, acute, middle tubercle, and an anterior and
posterior acute tubercle of smaller size, separated from the middle
one by a deep notch. Claws very small.
5 = 32
Dental formula :— Incisors, 4 ; canines, I ^- ; molars, 5
4 i-i '5-5
Fig. 413 represents the skull of a species of Stc7io-
(see Fig. 412.)
rhy7icluis.
Of the habits of the Sea-Leopard little is ascertained. It inhabits
the South Shetlands (south of Terra del Fuego), in 60° 2,1' S. lat.,
and attains to the length of eleven feet. The hair is soft and thin,'
greyish above, yellowish on the under parts ; the whole of the upper
Fig. 413.— Skull of Sea-Leopard.
surface is spotted with whitish. The claws are sharp, black, curved,
and grooved. (See Fig. 414.)
The Monk Seal (S. monaclms) inhabits the Mediterranean, and
attains a length of from ten to twelve feet.
The Crested Seal.
\Siemniatopus cristatiis). — In the genus Siemmalojius the head is
surmounted by a curious hood-like appendage, the nature of which
is not well understood. Molars with simple roots, short, wide, and
striated only on the crown ; muzzle narrow and obtuse. Dentition :
^Incisors, 1 ; canines, i
2 I
i; molars, ^ — ^=30. (See Fig. 415.)
Fig. 416 represents the skull, and Fig. 417 the animal itself.
The Crested Seal is a native of Greenland and various parts of
the coast of North America. Crantz says it is called Neitsersoak by
the Greenlanders, and also Clapmutz, from the "thick folded skin
on its forehead, which it can draw down over its eyes like a cap to
defend them against the storm, waves, stones, and sand." The
apparatus consists of a cartilaginous crest which arises from the
muzzle, and mcreases rapidly in height as it passes backwards.
Fig. 414. — Sea-Leopard.
Fig. 415.— Teeth of Crested Seal.
being about seven inches high at its posterior edge, which is
separated into two planes by an intervening depression an inch
deep : this cartilaginous appendage is a development of the septum
of the nose, and it runs into the hood or sac-like appendage of the
head, which is strongly muscular, with circular fibres round its two
orifices at the snout like nostrils,
the true nostrils opening on each
side of the cartilaginous crest
beneath the hood, and are of an
oblong figure. In the females and
young the curious apparatus is
undeveloped, being peculiar to
the adult male. The eyes, which
are capable of being drawn deeply
into the socket during repose,
are eminently formed for discern-
ing distant objects. The fur is soft,
long, and woolly beneath ; in old individuals it is black, silvered on
the under-parts. In young animals it is grey, spotted irregularly
with brown. The dilatable sac which crowns the head is covered
with short brown hair.
Fig. 416.— Skull of Crested Seal.
THE SEALS.
i6i
The Crested Seal attains to the length of eight feet. It haunts
the open sea, and is said to visit the land chiefly in April, May, and
June. These animals are commonly seen on large ice-islands,
where they sleep without precaution. Great numbers are found in
Davis's Straits, where they are stated to make two voyages a year —
in September and March. They depart to bring forth their young,
Fig. 417. — Crested Seal.
and return in June very lean and exhausted. In July they proceed
again to the north, where they appear to procure plenty of food, for
they return in high condition in September. One male is lord of
many females. They fight among themselves very desperately, in-
flicting deep wounds with the claws and teeth. Their bite is, indeed,
very formidable. The voice of this Seal is stated to resemble the
bark and whine of a Dog. Great numbers of the skins of this
animal are brought to England, and it is one of those Seals which
are so valuable to the Greenlanders. It is the Phoca cristata of
Gmelin, and the Phoca leonina of Fabricius.
The Elephant-Seal, or Bottle-Nose.
{CysioJ>?!ora froboscidca, Macrorhinus ^roboscideiis); Bottle-Nose
of Pennant ; Phoque a trompe of Peron ; Miouroung of the Austra-
lians. — In this genus the males have the power of lengthening their
large movable snout into a proboscis resembling that of the Tapir,
Fig. 418.— Teeth of Elephant-Seal.
through which, when excited, they respire violently. The teeth con-
sist of four incisors above, and two below, formed like the canines :
the canines themselves are very large, conical, and recurved : the
molars are i^i, with simple roots far exceeding in circumference
the crowns, which are mere mammillary projections. (See Fig. 418.)
Fig. 415 represents the skull of the genus.
The whiskers are strong, coarse, long, and screw-twisted; the
eyes are large and prominent ; the paddles well developed, the nails
small ; hair short and close ; its colour greyish or bluish-grey, rarely
blackish-brown. Length from twenty to thirty feet ; girth from fifteen
to eighteen feet. In the female there is no proboscis ; the colour is
dark olive-brown above, passing into yellowish-bay on the under-
parts. The hair lies in patches in all directions, giving a spotted
appearance to the body somewhat like watered-silk. No nails on
the hmd-toes.
The Elephant-Seal (see Figs. 420 and 421) is a native of the
bouthern hemisphere, both in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Southern
oceans, between 35° and 55^ S. lat., Kerguelen's Land, South
Georgia, Juan Fernandez, South Shetland, and the Falklands.
This huge Seal lives in troops, which at certain seasons frequent
various islands in the Southern seas, especially where fresh-water
lakes or swamps, in which they delight to wallow, are easily ac-
cessible. They are, in fact, migratory animals, advancing with the
winter season towards the tropic of Capricorn, and towards the
Fig. 419.— Skull of Elephanf-Seal,
south in the summer. It is in the middle of June that they perform
their first migration, covering, in countless multitudes, the shores of
King Island, which, as the sailors report, arc sometimes blackened
by them. Here the females produce their young, and, as it is
afBrmed, the males form a line between the females and the sea,
while the latter are nursing their cubs, in order to prevent the possi-
bility of their deserting their charge, even for the shortest space of
time. The period of nursing and imprisonment lasts for seven or
eight weeks, during which time the females are debarred from food,
and become extremely emaciated; some, it is said, occasionally
perish. The growth of the young is very rapid. After birth they
measure between four and five feet, but in eight days are double
Fig. 420. — Elephant-Seals — Males,
Fig. 421. — Elephant.Seal — Female.
their original dimensions, and in the third year are from eighteen to
twenty-five feet in length. At this period the proboscis begins to be
developed in the male. When the term of imprisonment has expired,
the whole troop, young and all, visit the sea, where the females soon
recover their strength and condition, and where they sojourn for
about a month, when they again visit the shore, which now becomes
Y
l62
THE SEALS.
the arena of most furious conflicts between the adult males, the
females remaining passive spectators. \Vhen these scenes of blood-
shed and excitement have ended, the troop, under the guidance of a
leader, leave the shores of the islands in lat. 2,;^, and migrate south-
wards towards the Antarctic circle, where they spend the summer
months. It is observed, however, that a few remain in the former
localities, even during the summer, probably in consequence of
being disabled by wounds or debility from undertaking the ordinary
journey. As soon as the frost commences in the low southern
latitudes, the herds begin their return towards the tropic, and in
June have arrived at their accustomed breeding-places.
Captain Carmichael, in his description of the island of Tristan
d'Acunha (see " Linn. Trans.," vol. xii.), observes that a full-grown
male will yield seventy gallons of oil ; indeed, as they crawl along,
their body trembles like a great bag of jelly. "These Seals pass
the greater part of their time on shore : they may be seen in hundreds
lying asleep along the sandy beach, or among the long grass which
borders the sea-shore The huge animals are so little apprehensive
of danger, that they must be kicked or pelted with stones before
they make any effort to move out of one's way. When roused from
their slumber, they raise the fore-part of their body, open wide their
mouth, and display a formidable set of tusks, but never attempt to
bite. Should this, however, fail to intimidate their disturbers, they
set themselves at length in motion, and make for the water ; but with
such deliberation, that on an excursion we once made to the oppo-
site side of the island, two of our party were tempted to get upon
the back of one of them, and rode him fairly into the water."
These animals taken young are easily tamed, and become very affec-
tionate ; one petted by an English seaman became so attached to his
master from kind treatment for a few months, that it would come at
his call, allow him to mount upon its back, and put his hands into
its mouth.
The voice of the male is deep, hoarse, and terrific, and may be
heard at a great distance ; that of the females and young is a kind
of loud bellowing.
The food of the Elephant-Seal appears in great part to consist
of Cuttle-fish and seaweed ; the beaks of the former and remains
of the latter, often mixed with pebbles, being commonly found in the
stomach.
It is for the oil of this species principally, which, besides being
yielded in great abundance, is clear and inodorous, that the Seal-
fisheries of the South Pacific are conducted. The skin, however, is
valuable, from its strength and thickness, and is extensively used for
carriage and horse harness. The flesh is oily and disgusting; but
the tongues, when salted, are said to be very excellent.
The Ursine Seal, or Sea-Bear
fOtaria ursina; Arctocephalus ursimis ) ; Phoca ursina, Lmn.;
Ursus marinus, Steller; L' Ours marin of Buffon. — The[characters
of this genus are as follows : — Head with a narrow retracted
muzzle: the dentition thus: — Incisors, — : canines, —^^ ; molars,
4 1-1
— ~— = 36. (See Fig. 422.)
Small external ears. Fig. 423 represents the skull of the genus.
The Ursine Seal attains the length of nearly eight feet ; its fur is
brown, washed with grey ; it is long and erect, especially around the
neck in old males, where the hair is two inches in length and stiff;
_ there is beneath the hair a soft
brownish-red wool close to the
skin. This species inhabits the
islands on the north-west of
America, Kamtschatka, the Ku-
rile Islands, &c., and is migra-
tory in its habits. When these
Seals appear off Kamtschatka
and the Kuriles early in the
spring, they are in high condi-
tion, and the females are preg-
nant. They remain on or about
the shore for two months, during which the females bring forth.
They are polygamous, and live in families, every male being sur-
rounded by a crowd of females (from fifty to eighty), whom he
guards with the greatest jealousy. These families, each including
the young, amounting to 100 or 120, live separate, though they
crowd the shore, and that to such an extent on the islands oS
the north-west point of America, that it is said they oblige the
traveller to quit it and scale the neighbouring rocks. Both male
and female are very affectionate to their young, and fierce in their
defence ; but the males are often tyrannically cruel to the females,
which are very submissive. If one family encroaches on the station
of another, a general fight is the consequence. They will not, in
fact they dare not, leave their stations, for if they did they must
encroach on that of some other family. Steller relates that he
had been beset by these Seals for six hours together, and was
at last obliged to climb a precipice to get rid of the infuriated
animals, at the imminent peril of his life. They have their war-
notes and several other intonations. When amusing themselves on
the shore, they low like a Cow, chirp like a Cricket after a victory,
and, when they are wounded, cry like a whelp. They swim very
swiftly, and are as great a terror to other Seals as the Sea-Lion
is to them.
Fig. 422, — Teeth of Ursine Seal.
Fig. 423.— Skull of Ursine Seal.
Fig. 424. — Ursine Seal.
The skin of the Ursine Seal is very thick, and from its full deep
fur makes excellent winter clothing. Steller speaks of a garment
which he made for himself from one, when he was in Behring's
Island, with grateful remembrance. Fig. 424 represents the Ursine
Seal.
The Sea-Lion.
(Otaria jubaia ; Platyrhynclms Fosteri) ; Otaria Fostcri, Less.,
in " Diet. Class.;" Phoca Forsteri, Fischer. — Forster's, or the Pata-
gonian Sea-Lion, is a native of the Southern seas, frequenting the
Magellanic coast, Terra del Fuego, and the Magellanic Islands.
The skin is thick, the hair reddish, yellowish, or dark-brown ; no fur
THE WALRUS, OR MORSE.
163
or short wool under the long hair. A mane on the neck of the male
reaches to the shoulders. Head small in proportion to the body,
which is everywhere equally thick-looking, as Buffon describes it,
like a great cylinder, more suited for rolling than walking, Ears
conical, about six or seven lines long ; cartilage iirm and stiff, but
yet rather curled at the margin. Upper lip overhanging the lower ;
both furnished with long, coarse, black whiskers, which become
white with age. Length from ten to fourteen feet; the females
shorter and more slender. (See Fig. 425.)
Fig. 425. — The^Sea-Lion.
Captain Cook stated that it was not at all perilous to go among
these animals, for they either fled or stood still. The only danger
was going between them and the sea ; for if they took fright at any-
thing, they would come down in such numbers, that the person in the
way would be run over. When he and his party came suddenly upon
them, or waked them out of their sleep, they would raise up their
heads, snort and snarl, and look fierce, as if they meant to devour
the intruder ; but when the men advanced, the Sea-Lions always ran
away. He stated that the male is surrounded by from twenty to
thirty females, and that he is very attentive to keep them all to him-
self, beatmg off every male that attempts to come to his flock.
Others, again, had a less number ; some no more than one or two ; and
here and there was seen one lying growling in a retired place, suf-
fering neither males nor females to come near him. These he judged
to be old and superannuated.
Forster relates that the rocks along the shore in New Year's
Harbour were covered with multitudes of these Sea-Lions. "We
put into a little cove under the shelter of some rocks," says he, " and
fired at some of these fierce animals, most of which immediately
threw themselves into the sea. Some of the most unwieldy, however,
kept their ground, and were killed by our bullets. The noise which
all the animals of this kind made was various, and sometimes
stunned our ears. The old males snort and roar like mad Bulls or
Lions ; the females bleat exactly like calves, and the young cubs like
lambs. They live together in numerous herds. The oldest and
fattest males lie apart, each having chosen a large rock to which
none of the rest dare approach without engaging in furious combat."
Forster goes on to relate that they were often seen to seize each
other with an indescribable degree of rage, and that many of them
had deep gashes on their backs, which they had received in the
wars. The younger active Sea-Lions, with all the females and the
cubs, lay together. They commonly awaited the approach of the
people ; but as soon as some of the herd were killed, the rest pre-
cipitately fled, some females carrying off a cub in their mouths,
while many were so terrified that they left the young behind. When
undisturbed, they were often observed caressing each other in a
most tender manner, and their snouts often met together as if they
were kissing. The same author states that they come on shore on
those uninhabited spots to breed, and that they do not feed during
their stay on land, which sometimes lasts for several weeks ; they
then grow lean, and swallow a considerable quantity of stones to
distend the stomach. He adds that the stomachs of many of them
were found entirely empty, and those of others were filled with ten
or twelve round heavy stones, each of the size of two fists.
As will have been seen, the Eared Seals, or Sea-Lions and Sea-
Bears, form a very distinct group of marine carnivorous animals,
readily known from the true Seals by the presence of a small exter-
nal ear. In i866 the Zoological Society of London first obtained a
living specimen of one of these remarkable animals, which proved
to be of no ordinary interest both to scientific observers and to the
public. Upon its death the Council determined to send the late
Francois Lecomte— the keeper who had it under his charge — out to
the Falkland Islands, in order to obtain other individuals of the
same species. Lecomte returned from this expedition in August,
1867 ; but, owing to various unforeseen circumstances, only succeeded
in landing alive in this country one out of the four Sea-Lions with
which he had started from Port Stanley. This individual, which, in
1877, was quite adult, is a female, captured by Lecomte at North
Point Island, on the eastern coast of East Falkland Island, on Tune
8th, 1867.
Of the smaller Sea-Lion of the Capo, a single specimen was pre-
sented to the Society by H. E. Sir Henry Barkly, Governor of the
Cape Colony in 187 1. It was very fierce and wild on its first
arrival, but is now quite as tame and tractable as its larger com-
panion. Other specimens of the Seal tribe may be seen in the
gardens of the Society in Regent's Park, London.
The Walrus, or Morse.
{Trichecus Rosmarus). — Leaving the genuine Seals, we come to
the genus Tric/iccus, of which we are acquainted with only one
species, the Walrus, or Morse, and Sea-Cow of the British ; Morse,
Vache Marine, Cheval Marin, and Bete a la grande dent of the
French. It is the Horse-Whale or Whale-Horse (Hval-ros) of
Octher, the Norwegian, who, about the year 890, made his report of
it to Alfred, as having in its teeth bones of great price and excel-
lency, some of which he brought to the king on his return from his
voyage beyond Norway : also Rosmar of the Norwegians ; Morss
or Morsh of the Russians, and Morsk of the Laplanders. The
Walrus forms the family Trichecida.
The Walrus is a native of the Polar regions of both hemispheres ;
and it is more than probable that the Arctic animal is specifically
distinct from the Antarctic, though in habits and manners tlicy
agree precisely. The Arctic Walrus has occasionally visited the
British shores, and is therefore figured by Mr. Bell in his " History
of British Quadnipeds," though it can scarcely be accounted one of
their number. In general form, no less than in habits, the Walrus
closely resembles the larger species of Seals ; but it differs from all
the species of this group in the general contour of the skull, and in
the dental formula. Fig.°426 represents the skull and lower jaw;
Fig. 427, the molars and tusks of this animal.
Fig. 426. — Skull and Lower Jaw of Walrus,
The first peculiarity which strikes us in the skull of the Walrus
consists in the enormous magnitude of the canine teeth of the upper
jaw, which are from eighteen inches to two feet in length, stout and
solid, with large roots imbedded in protuberant alveoli, or sockets,
occupying the anterior part of the muzzle, and rising above the
cranium, which appears of disproportionate volume. The immense
development of the alveoli of these canines, gives a swollen appear-
ance to the face, which is increased by the tumid character of the
lips, covered with thick wiry moustaches. The dentition is as
follows : — Upper jaw, incisors four, of which the two middle are
deciduary, falling out at an early period ; the two lateral have the
character of molars. Of the enormous canines we have already
spoken. Molars on each side four, cylindrical, short, and obliquely
truncate; lower jaw, incisors wanting, canines wanting ; molars as
in the upper jaw. The lower jaw is not only small in proportion to
the general volume of the skull, but is compressed as it proceeds, in
order to fit in between the huge canines of the upper jaw, which
sweep with a gentle curve perpendicularly downward. The nostrils,
in consequence of the development of those imbedded in the
maxillary bones, are thrown upwards, so as to open considerably
above the muzzle with a vertical aspect. The eyes are small, but
1 64
THE WALRUS.
brilliant ; the orifices of the ears are placed very far backwards on
the head ; the neck is short and thick, the chest of great volume ;
the tail short ; the body thinly clothed with short, stiff, brownish
hair; the hinder paddles are large. In length the Walrus attains to
fifteen or sixteen feet, and its body not only yields abundance of oil,
but its skin is highly valued for its toughness and durability. The
Fig. 427. — Molars and Tusks of Walrus,
tusks of this animal, which remind us of those of the Elephant, are
instruments both of defence and -of progression ; by their aid it
assists itself in clambering up floating icebergs, or in traversing the
fields of ice along the shore, to which it resorts both to rest and
breed. It uses them also with great effect in defending itself from
the attacks of the Polar Bear, which may be regarded as its most
formidable adversary, and with which it often engages in bloody
conflicts. But there is also another use to which these tusks are
destined : the Walrus feeds to a great extent on a species of
marine vegetable, the fticus digitatus, and these instruments are
admirably calculated for tearing up the long wreaths of seaweed,
Fig. 428.— Walruses,
fast rooted in the bed of the ocean. Besides this vegetable, they
also feed upon other aliment. Mr. Scoresby found in their stomachs
Shrimps, a kind of Crayfish, and the remains of young Seals. They
are probably omnivorous.
The Walrus, like the Seal, is gregarious in its habits, and is often
observed in vast flocks reposing upon the ice, or upon rocky islands,
or sand-banks ; on these occasions some appear to act as
sentinels, and give notice of the approach of an enemy;
their voice is a loud roar or bray, and may be heard at a
considerable distance. Captain Cook observes, that in the
night, or in foggy weather, the roaring of the Walruses
gave notice of the vicinity of the ice before it could be seen.
When attacked, or fired at, the whole troop rushes tumultu-
ously into the sea ; should one be wounded, its companions
hasten with loud cries to the rescue, and, emboldened by
their numbers, assail the boat with great ferocity, and
endeavour to upset or break it with their powerful tusks.
The thickness and toughness of the skin render it no easy
matter to drive a lance or harpoon into the animal's body,
and a sharp weapon not unfrequently glances off without
piercing. When wounded on shore, the Morse turns furi-
ously upon its adversary, striking right and left with its
tusks, and endeavouring to dash him to the ground ; then
roaring with pain and fury it makes off into the sea, where
it is joined by its companions. Zorgdrager, in his descrip-
tion of the Greenland fishery (1750), states, that before the
Morse had been so persecuted, large troops would often
advance on the shore to a considerable distance from the edge
of the water, so that it was easy to cut off their retreat, and
the more so as the animals exhibited no alarm on seeing
the approach of the hunters, who would often kill several
before the rest attempted to regain the sea. As is the case
with the Whale, the annual slaughter made among these
animals for the sake of their oil, and of their tusks, which
are of the finest ivory, has thinned their numbers, or driven them
from haunts where they formerly abounded, to seek shelter in more
inaccessible localities. That they are not without courage or sym-
pathy for their wounded companions there is ample testimony.
When Martens wounded one, others speedily surrounded the boat,
and whilst some endeavoured to pierce it with their tusks, others
raised themselves out of the water and endeavoured to board her.
Captain Phipps (afterwards Lord Mulgrave) relates, that when near
a low flat island opposite Waygat's Straits, in 1773, two of the
officers went in a boat in pursuit of Sea-Horses. They fired at one
and wounded it. The animal was alone when it was wounded, but
diving into the sea, it brought
^ back a number of others. They
made a united attack upon the
boat, wrested an oar from one
of the men, and were with diffi-
culty prevented from staving
or oversetting her ; but a boat
from the "Carcass" joining
that firom the " Racehorse,"
they dispersed. Captain Phipps
adds that one of that ship's
boats had before been attacked
in the same manner off Moffen
Island. Sir Edward Parry en-
countered about 200 in Fose's
Channel, lying piled as usual
over each other on the loose
drift-ice. A boat's crew from
both the " Fury" and " Hecla"
went to attack them, but they
made a desperate resistance,
some with their cubs mounted
on their backs, and one of them
tore the planks of a boat in two
or three places. Their parental
affection is great. , Captain
Cook states, that on the ap-
proach of the boats, which were
hoisted out to attack them in
Behring's Straits, all the Wal-
ruses took their cubs under
their fins, and endeavoured to
escape with them from the ice
into the sea. Several whose
young were killed and wounded,
and were left floating on the
surface, rose again and carried
them down, sometimes just as
the people were going to take
them into the boat : and they
might be traced bearing them
to a great distance through the
THE WALRUS.
i6s
water, which was coloured with their blood. They were afterwards
observed bringing them up at times above the surface, as if for air,
and again diving under it with a dreadful bellowing. The female in
particular, whose young had been destroyed and taken into the
boat, became so enraged that she attacked the cutter, and struck
her tusks through the bottom of it.
In the Arctic regions the flesh of the Walrus is held by the natives
in great estimation ; Sir Edward Parry remarks that the flesh was
tolerably good, affording variety amid the ordinary sea fare. The
ivory is finer than that of the Elephant ; the skin makes excellent
carriage-harness ; and the oil is valuable, though only from twenty
to thirty gallons are yielded by a single carcass ; its blubber, as
Crantz says, being white and solid like bacon, and a hand's breadth
thick, but not giving out much fluid oil.
Fig. 429 represents a Greenlander in his kajak hunting Seals.
Seals' flesh, says Crantz, supplies the Greenlanders "with their
most palatable and substantial food ; the fat furnishes them with
oil for lamp-light, chamber and kitchen fire ; and whoever sees their
habitations, presently finds that, even if they had superfluity of wood,
it would not be of use : they can use nothing but oil in them. They
also mollify their dry food, mostly fish, with oil ; and finally they
barter it for all kinds of necessaries with the factor. They can
sew better with fibres of the Seals' sinews than with thread or silk ;
of the skins of the entrails they make window-curtains for their
tents, and shirts ; part of the bladder they use as a float to their
harpoons, and they make oil-flasks of the stomach. Neither is the
blood wasted, but is boiled up with other ingredients, and eaten as
soup. Of the skin of the Seal they stand in the greatest need, be-
cause they must cover with Seal-skins both the largo and small boats
in which they travel and seek their provisions. They must also cut
out of them their thongs and straps, and cover their tents with them,
without which they could not subsist in summer. No man therefore
can pass for a right Greenlander who cannot catch Seals. This is
the ultimate end they aspire at in all their device and labour from
their childhood up." To the Greenlander, then, the sea is his pas-
turage, where his flocks and herds are fed ; the sea is his hunting-
domain, where, in his light kajak, he skims over the waves. — In the
Arctic collection at the British Museum, some beautiful articles,
manufactured by the Esquimaux, may be seen. The neatness and
elegance of the work can hardly be excelled by European workmen.
Fig. 429.— Greenlander in his Kajak, hunting Seals,
i66
RODENT QUADRUPEDS.
CHAPTER XIV.
MAMMALIA.-ORDER, RODENTIA-THE GNAWERS, OR RODENTS.
■■-a^j
tiJi-i'r
^^
^^
>i^
^'0,
i~^
HILE, in most of the orders
of the Mamnialia, the species
and genera are readily incor-
porated into families, the
Rode7itia order presents great diffi-
culties, owing to the great number of
species it embraces. Consequently
ideas have greatly differed in the
classification of the order. The gene-
ral characteristics, however, are sufficiently
marked. The animals are all of small size ;
the individuals are very prolific ; and, conse-
quently, we find the Rodents abundantly
distributed in the world.
A" -^v Mr. Dallas remarks, that their most con-
^^,. spicuous character is to be found in their
dentition, which is very peculiar, and only
occurs elsewhere in a remarkably aberrant form
of the Quadrumana. The teeth are of two sorts,
incisors and molars, the canine teeth being entirely
deficient. The incisors are two in number in each jaw ;
their bases pass into the jaw, beneath the molar teeth,
where usually there is a permanent pulp, by the
action of which the incisors are kept constantly grow-
ing during the life of the animal, so as to supply the
continual wear going on at the extremities, where the
upper and lower teeth come in contact. The substance
of the body of these teeth is moderately soft ; but their
anterior surface is covered with a layer of very hard
enamel, secreted by a membrane coating the anterior
wall of the socket. The thin layer of hard enamel
which coats the front of the tooth, resists abrasion much
better than the dentine of which the body of the tooth is composed ;
the latter consequently wears away most rapidly, and thus the enamel
always constitutes a sharp projecting edge, like that of a chisel,
of which the dentine forms the bevelled portion. The object of
this arrangement is very apparent. These animals feed to a great
extent upon hard substances, or such as
are enclosed in hard coverings, as nuts,
&c. ; and in order to get at their food they
require both sharp and strong teeth : the
requisite sharpness is furnished by the thin
plate of enamel ; but as this by itself would
break away directly when applied to its
ordinary purposes, it is strengthened by a
thick layer of dentine, which, although it
furnishes the necessary support, wears
away so readily as never to interfere with
the efficiency of the edge. (See Fig. 430.
Behind the incisors there is a large gap,
beyond which the molars are situated.
These vary in number from two to six, and are usually destitute
of true roots; in fact, like the incisors, they generally continue
growing throughout the animal's existence. They are sometimes
composed of a simple prism of dentine coated with enamel ; the
latter is occasionally folded so as to produce transverse ridges at
Fig. 430. — Skull of a Ro-
dent Mammal.
the surface of the tooth, which is usually
worn flat, and, in some cases, exhibits
small isolated spots of enamel in the body
of the dentine. These teeth are evidently
adapted for the comminution of vegetable
substances ; and although many of these
animals are omnivorous, there is no doubt
that vegetable matters constitute the
principal part of their nourishment.
Professor Owen remarks, in reference to
the dentition of the Rode?ih'a, some of
which — e. g., the Rat — are mixed feeders,
but most of them herbivorous, that the
canine teeth are wanting in both jaws,
and the incisors, reduced to two in num-
ber, are the seat of that excessive and
uninterrupted growth, which makes them
allied to tusks.
These incisors (Fig. 431, i) are curved,
the upper part describing a larger part of
a smaller circle, the lower ones a smaller
part of a larger circle, the latter being the longest, and usually
having their sockets extending from the fore to the back part of the
under jaw. The tooth consists of a body of compact dentine, with a
plate of enamel laid upon its anterior or convex surface, and the
enamel commonly consists of two layers, of which the anterior and ex-
ternal one is the densest. Thus the substances of the incisor diminish
Fig. 431. — Skull and Teeth of a Porcupine,
in hardness from the front to the back part of the tooth. The wear
and tear from the reciprocal action of the upper and lower incisors,
produce, accordingly, an oblique surface, sloping from a sharp an-
terior margin formed by the denser enamel, like that which, in a
chisel, slopes from the sharp edge formed by the plate of hard steel
laid on the back of that tool ; these teeth have, therefore, been
called "chisel-teeth" {denies scalprarii). Their growth never
ceases while the animal lives, and the implanted part retains the form
and size of the exposed part, and ends behind, in a widely open or
hollow base, which contains a long, conical, persistent forming pulp.
This law of unlimited growth is unconditional, and constant exercise
and abrasion are required to maintain the normal form and service-
able proportions of the scalpriform teeth of the Rodents. When, by
accident, an opposing incisor is lost, or when, by the distorted
union of a broken jaw, the lower incisors no longer meet the upper
ones, as sometimes happens to a wounded Hare or Rabbit, the in-
cisors continue to grow until they project, like the tusks of the
Elephant ; and the extremities, in the poor animal's attempts to
acquire food, also become pointed like tusks. Following the curve
prescribed to their growth by the form of their socket, their points
often return against some part of the head, are passed through the
skin, cause absorption of the bone, and perhaps again enter the
mouth, rendering mastication impracticable, and causing death by
starvation. In the Museum of the College of Surgeons, there is a
lower jaw of a Beaver, in which the scalpriform incisor has, by un-
checked growth, described a complete circle ; the point has pierced
the masseter muscle, entered the back of the mouth, and terminated
close to the bottom of the socket containing its own hollow root.
The difference in the diet of the Rodent quadrupeds is very great ;
there is a corresponding difference in the mode of implantation of
their molar teeth. Those which subsist on mixed food, and which,
like the Rats, betray a tendency to carnivorous habits, or which
subsist, like Squirrels, on the softer and more nutritious vegetable
substances, as the kernels of nuts, suffer less rapid abrasion of the
THE SQUIRRELS.
167
grinding teeth ; a less depth of crown is, therefore, needed to per-
form the office of mastication during the brief period of life allotted
to these active little mammals ; and, as the economy of nature is
manifested in the smallest particulars as well as in her grandest
operations, no more dental substance is developed, after the crown
is formed, than is requisite for the firm fixation of the teeth in the
jaw.
The Rodents that exclusively subsist on vegetable substances,
especially of the coarser and less nutritious kinds, as herbage, foli-
age, and the bark and wood of trees, wear away more rapidly the
grinding surface of the molar teeth ; the crowns are, therefore,
larger, and their growth continues by a reproduction of the formative
matrix at their base, in proportion as its calcified constituents, form-
ing the working part of the tooth, are worn away. So long as this
reproductive force is active, the molar tooth is implanted, like the
incisor, by a long undivided continuation of the crown. These root-
less and perpetually growing molars are always more or less curved,
for they derive, from this form, the same advantage as the incisors,
in the relief of the delicate tissues of the active vascular matrix, from
the effects of the pressure which would otherwise have been trans-
mitted more directly from the grinding surface ; the Capybara, and
the Patagonian Hare {Dolichotis), afford good examples of this more
complex condition of the grinding teeth.
In the Rodents the skull is small, and the jaws, especially the
lower one, large and strong. To give full action to the gnawing in-
cisors, the lower jaw is articulated to the skull by an elongated con-
dyle, which allows it to move freely backwards and forwards. The
head is more or less rounded, with the snout pointed, and usually
furnished with long moustaches. The opening of the mouth is
small ; but the cheeks often form large pouches, in which tlie ani-
mals can convey food to the hoards which they lay up in their
dwelling-places. The brain is small, and exhibits scarcely any con-
volutions ; and the cerebellum is almost entirely exposed. In these
characters the Rodenfta approach the Marsupial animals, close to
which they are, indeed, placed by many zoologists. The legs are
generally short, and adapted either for walking or climbing ; the
feet are furnished with four or five free toes, armed with nail-like
claws ; but the thumb is never opposible. The eyes and external
ears are usually of moderate size ; but the latter sometimes attain a
great length. The skin is generally covered with soft hair ; but, in
some cases, with bristles and spines. The tail varies greatly in its
development, and is sometimes naked or scaly, and occasionally
covered with hair.
The Rodents are distributed in all parts of the world, even New
Holland possessing apparently in-
digenous species. Very few are
domesticated ; but the flesh of
some species is eaten ; whilst the
skins of others are sought after
as furs. Notwithstanding their
small size, their great numbers,
their habit of storing up large
quantities of provisions, and their
extraordinay propensity for gnaw-
ing, cause them to commit great
devastations in many places.
The attempt at instituting a
natural arrangement of the Ro-
dentia (that is, an arrangement
exhibiting the multiform links and
affinities of different groups], is
confessedly a work of difficulty ;
but peculiarly so as it respects the
component parts of the present
order, as already pointed out. In
itself, indeed, this order is definite,
and based upon characters which
form a clear line of separation
between it and every other ; but
when we come to investigate the
species it embraces, we soon feel
ourselves perplexed among a mul-
titude of forms, and begin to hesi-
tate at every step. Hence it is
that no two naturalists have
arranged the Rodcntia in tlic
same manner ; nay, Cuvier him-
self, in the last edition of hir
" Regne Animal," set aside the
principles by which in his earlier
edition he was guided, and fol-
lowed out other views.
Among those naturalists who have devoted their attention to the
Rodentia, Mr. Waterhouse takes a foremost place ; and his arrange-
ment, founded on the truest philosophical principles, is a decided
step in the advancement of this department of Zoology. It would be
out of place, in a work like the present, to follow this naturalist
through his tram of researches ; but we may give an outline of their
results. Mr. Waterhouse considers that the Rodents resolve them-
selves mto three great primary sections : first, the Murine section ;
secondly, the Hystricine section ; and thirdly, the Leporine section.
Each of these sections embraces several families, each of the
latter comprehendmg several genera. The principal genera con-
tamed in the Murme section, are Scitiriis, Arctoviys, S^crmophilus,
Tamias, Myoxiis, Dipus, Mas, Arvicola, Geomys, and Castor.
Tlie principal genera contained in the Hystricine section, arc
Bathurgus, Orycterus, Poephagomys, Ociodon, Abrocoma, Myo-
■potamtis, Capromys, Echunys, A ulacodtis, Jlisinx, Dasyprocta,
Chinchilla, Cavia, and Hydrochccrus. The Leporine section con-
tains the genera Lepus and Lagoniys.
Mr. Dallas, on the other hand, prefers the arrangement of Wagner.
With such a difference among " doctors," we may perhaps be par-
doned if we follow none of their views specifically, but rather give a
popular account of some of the most interesting of the species, in
partial independence of the strict law of classification.
The Squirrels, or Sciurid^e.
These elegant animals are distributed throughout every quarter of
the world, Australia excepted. The general characters of the true
Squirrels (^Sf^wrzcj), as exhibited by our well-known British species,
are familiar to all : its fine full eyes, its light contour, its activity, its
deep soft fur, and long bushy tail, have contributed to render it a
general favourite. They arc furnished with proper clavicles, or
collar-bones, and possess the use of the fore-arm and paws in a high
degree of perfection ; the toes are four, with the rudiment of a thumb,
on the anterior feet ; five on the hind-feet ; the claws are sharp and
Ears often tufted with a pencil of long
hooked. Molars, ^ — 5.
4-4
hairs. In feeding, these animals sit up on the haunches, and hold
their food (nuts, &c.), not between the fingers of their joined fore-
paws, but between the rudimentary thumbs, while they work at it
with their teeth.
The Northern Grey and Black Squirrel.
iScitirus leucofis). — It is to Dr. Bachman, D.D., President of the
Lit. and Phil. Soc, Charlestown, S. Carolina, that we are indebted
for clearing up the mass of confusion in which the Squirrels of
America have been involved.
Fig. 432.— Northern Grey and Black Squirrel.
It appears from this author that several Black Squirrels exist,
totally distinct from each other, and that of these some are mere
varieties. Of the genuine species he notices the large Louisiana
Black Squirrel {S. Auduhonii), the Black Squirrel [Saurtis wger,
Linn., not Catesby), and the Dusky Squirrel {S. nigrescetis). There
i68
THE SQUIRRELS.
is a black variety of the Fox Squirrel {Sc. capistratus'), and a black
variety of the Northern Grey Squirrel, the species figured. The Grey
Squirrels are numerous, and perplexing to the naturalist. The
Northern Grey Squirrel has been, for instance, confounded with the
Carolina Grey Squirrel, from which it is distinct. The Northern
Grey and Black Squirrel is a very common species, and exceedingly
active and sprightly. (See Fig. 432.) It is spread through the
Northern and Middle States : it is abundant in New York and in the
mountainous parts of Pennsylvania, and extends as far north as
Hudson's Bay : southwards, it occurs in Virginia, and perhaps still
farther south.
Like all the true Squirrels, this species is arboreal in its habits,
quick and alert ; — it rises with the sun, and continues industriously
engaged in search of food during four or five hours in the morning,
running over logs, ascending trees, and playfully coursing'from limb
to limb. During the warm weather of spring it prepares its cradle
or nest on the branch of a tree, constructing it of dried sticks which
it breaks off, or, if these are not at hand, of green twigs as thick as
a finger, which it gnaws from the boughs. These it lays in the fork
of a tree or of some large branch so as to make a framework : it then
lines this framework with leaves ; and over these again spreads a
layer of moss. In the preparation of this nest, a pair is usually en-
gaged for an hour in the morning, during several successive days,
and the noise they make in cutting the branches and dragging the
leaves may be heard at some distance. In winter they reside en-
tirely in holes of trees, where their young in most instances are
brought forth. The young are from four to six in number ; and in a
few weeks are sufficiently advanced to leave their nest. It is gene-
rally believed that this Squirrel lays up a gi-eat hoard of food as a
winter supply ; but Dr. Bachman doubts the fact, though he admits
that other northern species do. Further, he states that the species
\vhich inhabit the southern portion of the United States, where the
ground is seldom covered with snow, derive in winter a precarious
subsistence from seeds, insects, and worms, which are scratched up
among the leaves. We may here observe that, singular enough,
no one has noticed the fact, excepting Mr. C. Coward (" Mag. Nat.
Hist.," New Series, June, 1839, p. 311), of our common British
Squirrel {Sciurus inilgaris) being carnivorous as well as frugivor-
ous ; such is, however, the case : it attacks young birds and greedily
devours them, nor is even the Wood-Pigeon safe from its assaults.
The Northern Grey Squirrel feeds on nuts and various seeds ; but it
seems to prefer the shell-bark (Carya alba) and the several species
of hickory to any other food. Green corn and young wheat suffer
greatly from its depredations, and hence a war of wholesale destruc-
tion is everywhere waged against it. In Pennsylvania an old law
existed offering threepence a head for every Squirrel destroyed ; and
in 1749, the enormous sum of ;^8,ooo was paid out of the treasury for
the destruction of these depredators. The extensive migrations
which are undertaken by this species, either from a scarcity of food
or from some other inexplicable cause, have often excited not only
wonder, but apprehension. They generally take place in autumn,
but by no means with regularity. It would appear that, in the far
north-west, multitudes congregate in different districts, forming
scattered troops, which all bend their way instinctively in an eastern
direction, collecting into larger bodies as they proceed; neither
mountains nor rivers stop their progress : onward they come, a de-
vouring army, laying waste the corn and wheat fields of the farmer;
and as their numbers are thinned by the gun, others fill up the ranks :
Fig. 433. — Malabar Squirrel.
few perhaps none, ever return westwardly ; those that escape the
carna<^e take up their abode in the forests of their newly-e.xpIored
countnr. The Grey Squirrel has many enemies ; the Fox, the Lynx,
the Weasel, Hawks, and Owls, are all eager to seize it : when
attacked by the Red-tailed Hawk, its most formidable foe, it is amus-
ing to see the skill and dexterity exercised by both, in the attack
and in the defence; often, indeed, the Squirrel, by dodging and
twisting round the branches and large limbs of the tree, foils and
wears out his antagonist ; when, however, a pair of Hawks combine,
the Squirrel has no chance.
The Malabar Squirrel.
{Scfurus maximus). — Of the Indian Squirrels, one of the finest is
the Malabar Squirrel, measuring fourteen or fifteen inches in the
length of the head and body, and somewhat more in that of its full
bushy tail. This species is found in Malabar, and also in Ceylon.
Like the rest of its tribe, it is eminently arboreal, tenanting the
summits of palm-trees, and feeding to a great extent upon the
cocoa-nut, to the milk of which it is said to be very partial. We
have seen several specimens in captivity. They soon become tame
and familiar, but are not to be trusted too far : their bite is very
severe. General colour above, rich chocolate, deepening about the
shoulders into black; under-parts abruptly pale-reddish yellow;
ears tufted with a long full brush. (See Fig. 433.)
The Rocky-Mountain Flying Squirrel.
{Pferomys Alj)tnus, or Pi. Sabinus,_ var. /3, Richardson).— The
flying Squirrels {Petromys, Geofr. ; Sct'urojiierus, F. Cuv.) agree in
the general characters of their dentition with the rest of the family.
Fig. 434.— Teeth of Tamias.
Fig. 435. — Teeth of Sciurus.
(See Fig. 434 for the teeth of Tamias, and Fig. 435 for the teeth
of Sciurus.) The incisors are laterally compressed : the molars,
5^ 5^ rarely 1^,
4-4 4-4
anterior molar of the upper jaw, where they are 5 — 5, which is
smaller than the rest. The series of molars on each side are widely
separate and parallel. It is in the possession of a lateral fold of
skin, forming, when extended, a parachute, enabling them to take
are equal in size or nearly so, excepting the
FLYING SQUIRRELS,
THE SQUIRRELS.
169
Ion? sweeping leaps, that the flymg Squirrels are dist.nRuishablc
from the ordinary group. These expansions are fully clothed with
soft fur- and they usually project in a pointed form from each wrist,
beino- there supported by along slender osseous stylet. In some
specTes, as the one figured, this is either reduced to a mere tubercle
or wanting. (See Fig. 436-) ^ , . ^. r ^, ■
The Flying Squirrels are conspicuous for the rapidity ot their
Fig. 436. — Rocky Mountain Flying Squirrel.
Fig. 437. — Common Ground Squirrel.
evolutions : they ascend the trees with such velocity that the eye can
scarcely follow them ; and they skim from one tree to another, or
precipitate themselves to the ground, with singular agility. In their
habits they are nocturnal.
These elegant animals are respectively natives of the northern
regions of Europe, the north of Asia, the north of America, and the
glowing islands of the Indian Archipelago. The present species is
one of the American flying Squirrels, and was discovered by Dr.
Drummond, on the Rocky Mountains, where it lives in dense pine-'
forests, seldom venturing from its retreat except in the night. Dr.
Richardson received specimens from the Elk River, and also from the
south branch of the Mackenzie. Whether it is a mere variety of the
Pi. Sabriinis, or a distinct species, is not clear.
Its general colour is yellowish-brown above. The tail is flat,
longer than the body, and blackish-grey. Total length, fourteen
inches and three lines, of which the tail, including the fur, measures
six inches three lines.
The Common Ground-Squirrel
{Tamias strtatus). — Unlike the true Squirrels, the Ground-Squirrels
are chiefly terrestrial in their habits, and are furnished with cheek-
pouches, in which they carry food to their retreats, forming maga-
zines for winter. They live in burrows, but do not appear to become
torpid. Their fur is shorter and closer, and the tail less bushy th.an
in their arboreal relatives. These animals are chiefly spread through
the northern and temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and America.
The Palm-Squirrel of India, and the Barbary Squirrel, though asso-
ciated by some authors with the Ground-Squirrels, occupy an
intermediate situation between the latter and the true arboreal
species.
The common Ground-Squirrel is a native of the north-eastern part
of Europe and the north of Asia. It is the Ecureuil Suisse of the
French, so called because its striped back has some resemblance to
a Swiss doublet. (See Fig. 437.) According to^ Pallas, these
striped Squirrels dig their burrows in woody places, in small hum-
mocks of earth, or near the roots of trees ; but never, like the com-
mon Squirrels, make their nests in the trunk or branches, although
when scared from their holes they climb with facility, and make their
way from branch to branch with great speed. A winding passage
leads to their nest, and they generally form two or three lateral
chambers to store their food in. The striped Squirrel, in its manners,
and from having cheek-pouches, is allied to the Hamster and
Ciiillus (type of Ihe genus S^ermo^kilus), and is likewise connected
with the latter by its convex nose,
^.i-Vx^. proper for an animal accustomed
to dig. In its whole habit it
differs from the Squirrels which
live in trees, and forms, with
other striped Squirrels, a division
of the genus. It has a longer
head than the common Squirrel ;
rounded ears, not tufted ; a
roundish, hairy tail, which it
less frequently turns up ; a slen-
der body, and shorter limbs.
The fur likewise is very short and
less fine. Yet in its diurnal
habits, and in not becoming tor-
pid in winter, it comes near the
Squirrels : it is difficult to tame.
' Parry's Spermopiiile
{Sj>ermophihn Parryi\ — The
genus Spo'inophilus is inter-
mediate between the Ground-
Squirrels and the Marmots. Be-
sides possessing check-pouches,
the Spermophiles are distin-
guished by the closeness of the
ears, the slender form of the
body, which is Squirrel-like, and
the narrowness of the paws.
Two species arc natives of
eastern Europe, viz., the Souslik
of the Volga, and the Zizel or
Susel of Hungary, Poland, (Sic,
which are, perhaps, mere va-
rieties. Many species are Ameri-
can, one of which. Parry's Sper-
mophile, is the species figured.
(See Fig. 438.)
Colour of the body above, a
mixture of white thickly spotted
on a grey or black ground ; face,
chestnut; under parts, rust-
170
THE MARMOTS.
brown ; tail with a narrow white margin, and black at the extremity.
This, according to Dr. Richardson, who first named the species, is
the Ground-Squirrel of Heme ; the Quebec M.arniot of Forster ; the
Seek-Seek of the Esquimaux ; the Thce-thiay (Rock Badger) of the
Chepewyans; and the Arctomys Al^iiia of Parry's "Second
Voyage."
Dr. Richardson states that it inhabits the barren grounds skirting
the season, with tender shoots of herbaceous plants, berries of the
alpine arbutus, and of other trailing shrubs, or the seeds of grasses
and leguminous plants. They produce about seven young at a time.
The Marmots.
The true Marmots, genus Arctomys, are thicker, more robust,
and less elegant in figure than the Spermophiles. The head is
Fig. 43S. — Parry's Spevmophile,
the sea-coast from Churchill in Hudson's Bay, round by Melville
Peninsula, and the whole northern extremity of the continent, to
Behring's Straits, where specimens precisely similar were procured
by Captain Beechey. It is abundant in the neighbourhood of Fort
Enterprise, near the southern verge of the Barren Grounds, in lat.
65°, and is also plentiful on Cape Parry, one of the most northern
parts of the continent. It is
found generally in stony dis-
tricts, but seems to delight
chiefly in sandy hillocks
amongst rocks, where bur-
rows, inhabited by different
individuals, may be often
observed crowded together.
One of the society is generally
observed sitting erect on the
summit of a hillock whilst the
others are feeding in the
neighbourhood. Upon the
approach of danger, he gives
the alarm, and they instantly
hurry to their holes, remain-
ing, however, chattering at
the entrance until the advance
of the enemy obliges them to
retire to the bottom. When
their retreat is cut off, they
become much terrified, and,
seeking shelter in the first
crevice, they not unfrequently
succeed only in hiding the
head and fore-part of the body,
whilst the projecting tail is,
as is usual with them under
the influence of terror, spread
out flat on the rock. Their
cry, in this season of distress,
resembles the loud alarm of
the Hudson's Bay Squirrel,
and is not very unlike the
sound of a watchman's rattle.
The Esquimaux name is an
attempt to express this sound.
Heme states that they are
easily tamed, and very cleanly
and playful when domestica-
ted. They never come abroad
during the winter. Their food
appears to be entirely vege-
table ; their pouches being
generally filled, according to
Fig. 439. — Alpine Marmot.
broad and flat, and the muzzle obtuse ; the limbs are short, and
there are no cheek-pouches. Among the Marmots are the fol-
lowing : —
The Alpine Marmot.
{Arcfomys Jilarmofa : see Fig. 440.) — This well-known species is
common in the high mountain districts of Europe, where it takes up
Fig. 440.— Group of Alpine Marmots.
THE DORMICE.
171
its abode just below the line of perpetual snow, excavating- a deep
burrow, to which it has recourse on every appearance of an enemy.
In this, which it lines with dried grass, moss, &c., it hibernates
durin"- the severity of the season. The burrows of the Marmot are
always constructed in dry situations, and mostly on declivities ex-
posed to the south or south-east. They are of considerable extent,
and are worked out and tenanted by families consisting of from five
to fifteen individuals. They begin by a passage which runs for
about six feet, and is just capable of admitting the animal's body.
From the farther end of this gallery two others bifurcate, one of
which, according to Desmarest, leads to a sort of chamber in the
form of an oven, from three to seven feet in diameter ; the other ends
abruptly, and serves as a storehouse for dried grasses, &c. Accord-
ing to some, these passages are not always to be met with, and
MM. Geoffrey and F. Cuvier assert that the cell is at the end of the
first gallery. During the summer months, groups of these animals
may be seen feeding and sporting on the mountain-side. They
never wander to any great distance from their burrows, and have
always one or more of their number posted as sentinels, which by a
piercing cry give warning of danger. About the middle of Sep-
tember they betake themselves to their winter dormitories, and close
the entrance with earth and the dried grass which they have accu-
mulated : here they sink into a profound repose, from which they do
not awaken till the return of April. Though timid and inoffensive,
these animals defend themselves resolutely when driven to an
extremity, and their powerful incisors inflict severe wounds. They
lift their food to their mouths while sitting Squirrel-like, and will
walk on their hind-feet. On retiring for the winter, they are at first
very fat, and numbers are taken at this season, partly for the sake
of their skins, and partly for their flesh, which is eaten by the moun-
taineers. The young are easily tamed, and are often carried about
by the Savo3'ards for the purpose of exhibition. The Marmot pro-
duces from three to five at a birth.
This species is about the size of a Rabbit. Its general colour is
yellowish-grey, passing into hoary about the cheeks, and blackish-
grey on the top of the head ; the tip of the tail is black.
The Bobac {Arcfoinys Bobac). — This species inhabits the regions
of Poland through which flow the Dnieper and its tributary streams,
whence it ranges through a great part of Northern Asia. It gives
preference to hills of moderate elevation, where it chooses a dry locality
in which to construct its burrows. These are carried to a great depth,
and are tenanted by families consisting of twenty or even forty indi-
viduals.
Fig. 441. — Bobac.
The Bobac accumulates in its retreat a quantity of dried herbage
for use, before the severity of the season commences, and for early
spring consumption, as well as for the sake of warmth. General
colour of the fur, greyish-yellow mingled with brown, which latter
forms transverse undulations on the upper parts. Under-parts rust-
brown. Length of head and body, sixteen or seventeen inches; of
the tail, six inches. (See Fig. 441.)
The Quebec Marmot {Arctomys Emfctfa).—1\)\% species is
one of the American Marmots, and is a native of Canada and the
neighbourhood of Hudson's Bay. It is the Quebec Marmot of Pen-
nant and Godman ; the Common Marmot of Langsdorff; the Thick-
wood Badger of the Hudson's Bay residents; the SifSeur of the
French Canadians, who apply the same name to the other species of
Marmot and to the Badger ; Tarbagan of the Russian residents on
Kodiak(.^); Wcenusk of the Crees ; Kath-hilla5-Kooay of the Che-
pewyans; Ahts Enipctra of Pallas; and Arctomys Etnpetra of
Sabine and others. (See Fig. 442.)
Dr. Richardson, who gives the above synonyms, states that the
Quebec Marmot inhabits the woody districts from Canada to lat.
61", and perhaps still farther north. He says that it appears to be a
solitary animal, inhabits burrows in the earth, but ascends bushes
and trees, probably in search of buds and other vegetable produc-
tions on which it feeds. Mr. Drunimond killed two, one on some
low bushes, and the other on the branch of a tree. According to
Fig. 442. — Quebec Marmot.
Mr. Graham it burrow^s perpendicularly, selecting dry spots at some
distance from the coast, and feeding on the coarse grass which
gathers on the river-sides. The Indians capture it by pouring water
into its holes. Its flesh is considered delicate when the animal is
fat, but its fur is valueless.
Dormice— Family Myoxidce.
The Dormice, or Myoxida, seem to connect the Squirrels, on the
one hand, to the Murine or Mouse groups on the other. They are
arboreal in their habits, and clothed with fine soft fur. The toes are
four on each fore-foot, with the vestige of a fifth ; the hind-feet have
five toes. The dentition (Fig. 443) is as follows :-
lars, 3 — ft. Incisors laterally compressed ; molars unequal in size,
4-4
rooted ; the series on each side of each jaw widely separated and
parallel.
The Common Dormouse {Myoxus aveUanariiis).—'X\\\% ele-
gant httle creature is the Muscadin, Croque Noix, and Rat d'or of
the French ; Moscadino of the Italians ; Liron of the Spanish ; Rothe
Wald-maus, Hasel-maus, and Hasel-schliifer, of the Germans;
Skogsmus of the Swedes ; Kassel-muus of the Danes; and Pathew
-Incisors, -
2
Fig. 443. — Teeth of Dormouse.
of the ancient British. It has been supposed by some that it was
this species which the Romans fattened in their Gliraria for the
table ; but that animal was most probably the Loir (M. Glis), which
is common in the woods of Italy, and which approaches the Squirrel
in size.
Though common in the southern and midland counties of England,
the Dormouse is not so abundant in France as the Lerot (next to be
described) ; yet its distribution is very extensive. It ranges from the
south of Europe as far north as Sweden. The favourite resorts of
this little animal are dense thickets, low woods and coppices of
hazel, bushy dells, and tangled hedgerows. It creeps about the
branches with a quick but gliding sort of movement, and with singu-
lar facility. It leaps nimbly, and makes its way so quickly through
intertangled brushwood, that it cannot be easily captured. The
Dormouse appears to be in some degree gregarious, or at least to
colonise favourite spots, and ten or a dozen of their nests have been
seen at no great distance apart in the shrubs of a thicket. These
1/2
DORMICE— JERBOA S.
nests are made of leaves, grass, &c. : they are of a rounded form,
about six inches in diameter, with the aperture at the top. It is in
these that the young are brought forth and reared. The number of
the young is about four : they "are born blind ; in a few days, how-
ever, their eyes are opened ; and in a short period they are capable
of providing for themselves. Corn, haws, hazel-nuts, and fallen
acorns, constitute the food of the Dormouse. It eats sitting up like
a Squirrel, holding the food between its paws ; and often it hangs
suspended by its hinder feet, in which position it feeds as easily as
in its ordinary attitude. (See Fig. 444.)
Fig. 444. — Common Dormouse.
Mr. Bell states that the name Avellanarius is not well chosen,
and that he never saw any Dormouse that could gnaw through the
shell of that nut when fully ripe. We, however, have frequently
seen the Dormouse open with its teeth the hard shell of a nut, and
clear it out with great address. The Dormouse hibernates, and
hoards up a store of provisions in holes, and the crevices about the
roots of trees, &c., to which to have recourse in the winter; for its
torpidity is not without interruption. A mid-day gleam of sunshine
rouses it up in its snug retreat ; and invites it forth, when it takes a
little food ; on the diminution of the temperature it betakes itself to
its dormitory, and rolling up itself into a ball, sinks into a profound
slumber ; hence it has been called the Sleeper. Its name Dormouse
refers to its habits of sleeping. In this condition it may be handled,
or rolled about a table, if not exposed to the influence of warmth,
without being roused from its trance. It is not until the spring has
fairly set in that the Dormouse regains its full activity, and it is at
this period that its magazine is of the greatest service ; for without
a store thus providently accumulated, it would, for some time at
least, be straitened for food.
The head of this species is proportionately large ; the eyes are
large, black, and prominent : the ears are broad ; and fur soft ; the
Fig. 445. — Lerot, or Garden Doimouse,
tail long, fringed with hair on each side, and somewhat tufted at
the end ; the body plump ; the limbs short. General colour cinna-
mon red, passing into pale yellow below. The young are of a Mouse-
grey. Length of the head and body, two inches eight lines ; of the
tail, two inches six lines.
The Garden Dormouse, or Lerot [Myoxtis Nitela). The
Greater Dormouse of Shaw.— This species is a native of the whole of
the temperate portions of Continental Europe, and indeed it is found
as high north as Poland and Prussia. In France it is very common,
gardens and orchards being its favourite abode : it makes sad
havoc among wall-fruits, attacking peaches, apricots, pears, &c.,
with great avidity. Its winter store, however, consists of nuts, peas,
beans, and the like, which are collected in great abundance, and
stowed away in some convenient recess, where eight or ten indivi-
duals assemble to pass away the colder season in sleep. The
summer nest of the Lerot, in which it rears its young, is built in the
holes of walls or the chinks of aged trees. The young are four or
five in number. The colour of this pretty but annoying creature is
reddish-grey; beneath, white; a black patch surrounds the eye,
and spreads behind the ear. The tail is covered with short black
hair, except at the end, which is tufted v/ith white. Length of
head and body, four inches and a-half ; of the tail, four inches. (See
Fig. 445-)
The Cape Graphiure {Graphiurus Cape7isis).—T\\^ genus
Graphiurus is scarcely to be separated from Myoxus : it is repre-
sented by the Cape Graphiure, a native of South Africa. This species
is about the size of the Lerot, which it much resembles in the style of
Fig. 446. — Cape Graphiure.
its colouring, the general tint above being of a deep brownish-grey ;
the muzzle and sides of the face reddish-white ; under-parts greyish-
white, with a tinge of red ; tail brown — the tip, which is not tufted,
reddish-white ; a band of blackish-brown extends from the eyes to
the base of the ears. (See Fig. 446.)
The Jerboas— Family Dipodida.
The Jerboas constitute a group of the section of Rodents, termed
by Mr. Waterhouse Dipodidcs ; of which, he observes, the genera
Dipus, Alactaga, and Alen'ones are examples.
All the animals of this tribe are remarkable for the shortness of
the fore-limbs, the development of the hinder limbs, and the length
and slendemess of the metatarsus ; they resemble in these points
the Kangaroos. They bound along on their hind-limbs with great
rapidity, and appear almost to skim, like birds, the flat plains or
sandy wastes where they take up their abode. In an elaborate me-
moir by M. F. Cuvier on the Jerboas and Gerbilles, he divides these
animals into different genera. The Jerboas [Dipus) have only three
toes on the hinder feet, and these, as in birds, are articulated to a
single elongated metatarsal bone, commonly known as the canon-
bone. In the Alactaga there are five toes ; of these the three
central are articulated to a single metatarsal bone, while the other
two have each their own slender metatarsal bone.
In the genera JMerioiies and Gei-bflhts the toes are five, each with
their own distinct metatarsal bone. The incisors of the Alactaga
are simple, whilst those in the upper jaw of the Jerboas are divided
longitudinally by a furrow. The molars of the latter genus are
complicated in form, and but little resemble those of the former.
They are four in number in the upper jaw, and three in the lower;
but the first in. the upper is a small rudimentary tooth, which pro-
bably disappears in aged individuals. After a detailed account of
the structure of the grinding-teeth, M. Cuvier observes, that the
general structure of the head of the Alactagas and Jerboas is evi-
dently the same, and is characterised by the large size of the cranium,
the shortness of the muzzle, and, above all, by the magnitude of the
sub-orbital foramina. The cranium of the Jerboa is distinguished by
its great breadth posteriorly, resulting from the enormous develop-
ment of the tympanic bone, which extends beyond the occipital
posteriorly and laterally, as far as the zygomatic arch, which is by
no means the case in the Alactagas, where all the osseous parts of
the ear are of moderate dimensions. Another differential character
between the two genera is presented by the maxillary arch, which
circumscribes externally the sub-orbital foramina, and which in the
Alactagas may be said to be linear, presenting a very limited sur-
THE JERBOAS.
173
face for the attachment of muscles. He then notes a difference in
tile relative development of the jaws, the lower being: comparatively
much shorter in the Alactagas than in the Jerboas. Having ^t-
scribedanewspeciesofyl/iJcAz^^-^z, a native of Barbary, under the
name oi Alactaga aruiidinis, M. F. Cuvier proceeds to consider the
characters and affinities of the genera GcrbiUus and Merwues, and
enters into a critical examination of all the species referred to those
genera, and comes to the conclusion that they have a closer affinity
Fig. 447. — SkuU and Teeth of Dipiis hirtipcs.
with the true Muridcs than with the Jerboas and Alactagas. Fig.
447 represents the skull and teeth of Diptis hirtipes : a, skull, pro-
file ; b, the same seen from above ; c, the same seen from below ; d,
e, the teeth.
Fig. 448 represents the skull and teeth of Alactaga: a and b,
the cranium, one-third larger than the natural size ; c and d, the
teeth, five times enlarged.
The Egyptian Jerbo.\ i^Dipus ^gyptiiis).—\n the true Jerboas
the head is large, and not unlike that of a Rabbit in form ; the ears
are long and somewhat pointed ; the eyes arc full and prominent ;
the tail is very long, cylindrical, and covered with short hair, except
at the extremity, which is tufted. The fur of the body is soft and
delicate ; the whiskers are long, the fore-feet are very small, and
have four toes and the rudiment of a thumb, furnished, however, with
a nail. In the hind-feet of these animals we behold palpable evi-
dences of their express adaptation to the deserts where they habitu-
ally reside. Not only is the metatarsal portion of the foot extremely
elongated, but the toes are clad on Uie under-surface with long
bristly hairs, which, while they add to their span, and give firmness
and security to their tread on a loose and yielding surface, defend
the foot from the heat of a glowing waste beneath a fervid sun.
The Egyptian Jerboa is found in Egypt, Barbary, Nubia, and the
warmer parts of Syria and Arabia. It lives in troops, which colonise
the most arid parts of the desert, where, on hillocks of sand or the
crumbled heaps of ruins, they w^ork out long burrows in which to
dwell. In these burrows they make their nests and rear their young.
So powerful are their teeth, that they not only gnaw in a short time
through the hardest wood, but, as Sonnini affirms, through thin
layers of stone beneath the sand. According to some, these animals
are nocturnal in their habits, stealing forth to feed and sport when
evening begins to close. They are, however, not altogether noctur-
nal, for Sonnini observed them in broad day playing around the
mouths of their subterranean habitations ; and he particularly noticed
that those which he kept delighted to bask in the sun, and were always
lively in that situation. The Jerboas are very timid creatures, and
hasten to their burrows for security on the least noise : if intercepted,
they trust to their speed, and seem to fly across the plain : so great,
indeed, is the rapidity with which they bound along, that a Grey-
hound has some difficulty in the chase. (See Fig. 449.) In making
Fig. 44S. — Skull and Teeth of Alact.iga.
Fig. 449. — Egyptian Jerboa.
each leap they spring from the hind-feet, the impulse being given by
the powerful muscles of the thighs, while the tail serves as a balance
and rudder. In the act of springing the fore-paws are pressed close
to the chest ; they descend," however, upon them ; but such is the
quickness of the leap, and the celerity with which they recover their
duo posture, and spring again, that the eye is completely deceived,
for it appears as if they never used the fore-paws at all, but alike
sprang from and alighted on their long slender hind-legs alone.
When undisturbed, their common attitude is that of sitting up on the
haunches ; and the fore-paws are us^ in the same manner as in the
Squirrels and Marmots. (See Fig. 450, a group of Jerboas.) The
food of the Jerboa consists principally of bulbous roots, which the
animals dig up wirh their fore-paws ; they also devour grain and
other vegetable matters. It would appear that the Jerboa hiber-
nates ; but the duration of its torpor cannot be very protracted.
The flesh of these animals, though unsavoury, is eaten by the
Arabs and Egyptians, who contrive to capture them by stopping up
all the openings of their subterranean retreat except one, which is
netted.
Few animals, if we may judge from our own observations, bear
confinement so impatiently as the Jerboas : they sedulously exclude
themselves from observation ; and when they come forth from their
retreat in the evening, they are restless and distrustful in the
extreme.
In size this species is equal to a large Rat ; the general colour is
pale tawny yellow, passing into a lighter tint beneath ; the terminal
tuft of the tail is black, merging at the tip into white ; a white or
whitish strip appears on each of the buttocks below the base of the
tail.
The Dark-banded Jerboa.— Of this Jerboa, which is figured
by Shaw under the name of " the Jerboa," we have never seen an
example. It is neither noticed nor figured by Lichtenstein, who has
published the best monograph of these animals that has yet ap-
peared. For ourselves, we have no doubt but that the original
»74
THE JERBOAS.
figure was taken from a specimen of the Egyptian Jerboa, in which
the abrupt border to the white mark was darker than usual ; for in
some instances the back is washed with a dusky tint, which has a
tendency to assume wavy transverse bands, one of which, on the
haunch, as it is said, is occasionally distinct. (See Fig. 451.)
With regard to the Alactagas, to which we have alluded, the typi-
Fig. 450. — Group of Egyptian Jerboas.
cal species, the Siberian Alactaga {Dipus Jacidus, Gmel. ; the
Alactaga, Buff. ; the Siberian Jerboa, Pennant), is distributed from
Arabia, through Persia, Tartary, and Turkey, and as far north as
the Volga and Irtish. It inhabits the plains and flat districts, where
it makes extensive burrows ; in general habits it resembles the
common Jerboa of Egypt, but is of larger size.
Its food is stated to consist not only of vegetable, but also of
animal substances, as small birds and insects ; and, as we learn
from Pallas, it spares not even its own species. The subterranean
habitations of these animals are extremely capacious, and formed
about half a yard below the surface of the ground. The passage
leading to them is of great length, and pursues a circuitous course,
having at intervals additional shafts or openings upwards, affording
extra facilities for escape in the event of danger. During the winter
they hibernate ; retiring to their subterranean chambers, they shut
up the openings, and sink into a complete state of lethargy. It is
affirmed by Gnielin, that when their burrows are opened at this sea-
son, a quantity of grain, dried shoots, and herbs are found within
them ; on the contrary, Pallas affirms
that they collect no stores of pro-
^^ ^ vision for the winter. It is possible
iii^^-VS*?*^ that both these naturalists, who had
ample opportunities of investigating
the habits of the Alactaga in a state
of nature, may be correct, and that
in the more northern districts of its
range it may accumulate a store of
provision, for use in the spring, when
it first rouses from its torpidity. The
Alactaga is more numerous and fer-
tile in the warmer than in the colder
latitudes ; but it is nowhere to be
seen in such numbers as the Egyptian
Jerboa. From its large size, and the
superior flavour of its flesh, it is more
sought after, as food, than that ani-
mal, and is chased, and also taken
by stratagem, by the Arabs and
Tartars. Such is its swiftness that
it appears to skim the plain without
touching the ground ; even a mounted
horseman on a fleet steed can scarcely
overtake it. The fur of the Alactaga
is extremely soft and fine ; on the
upper parts it is of a pale fawn yel-
low, clouded with greyish-brown on
the lower part of the back ; a white
crescentic line extends on each side
of the crupper, below the root of the
tail. Tlie under-parts of the body
and inside of the limbs are white ;
the tail is brown, except the tuft at
the extremity, which is black tipped
with white.
The Labrador Jumping-Mouse
{Meriones, or Jactilus Labradori-
cus). — This species appears to be the
Labrador Rat of Pennant; the Ger-
bilhis Hiidsofiius of Rafinesque ; 3Ius Labradorius of Sabine ;
Gerbillus Labradorius of Harlan ; the Labrador Jumping-Mouse
of Godman ; and Katse (the Leaper) of the Chepewyan Indians.
(See Fig. 452.)
Fig. 451.— Dark-banded Jerboa.
Fig. 452. — Labrador Jumping-Mouse.
The genus Mcrioncs, in dental formula, differs in some points from
Dipus. The upper incisors, of a deep orange colour, are marked
with a longitudinal furrow ; the molars are four on each side above,
and three below ; the first above is very small ; the surfaces of the
rest in both jaws are marked with irregular winding lines of enamel.
(See Fig. 453.) The muzzle is narrow and elongated ; the ears
rounded, the hind-limbs considerably developed; the tail long,
ringed with scales, and thinly covered with short hair.
CAPS LEAPING HARE— THE GERBILLES.
I7S
The Labrador Jumping-Mouse, whieh was first described by Pen-
nant in his "Arctic Zoology," is very common in the fur countries
of North America, as far north as the Great Slave Lake, and perhaps
farther ; but of its habits we have no precise details. Its general
colour is brownish-yellow, merging into white beneath. The length
of the head and body is about five inches, that of the tail five and a
Fig. 453. — Teeth of Labrador Jumping-Mouse.
half. Dr. Richardson remarks, respecting the Jumping Mice, of
which there are, it would appear, several species, that Ihose inhabit-
ing different districts in America require to be compared with each
other, before the true number of species, and their geographical dis-
tribution, can be ascertained.
The Cape Leaping Hare {Pedetes Capetisis, 111. : Helamys
Capensts, F. Cuvier). Grande Gerboise, Buffon ; Spring Haas of
the Dutch Colonists ; Cape Jerboa, Pennant.
This curious animal occupies an undeterminate situation among
the Rodents ; but is most probably the most nearly related to the
true Jerboas, which it resembles in external appearance. The
molars are four on each side in each jaw, of simple structure, with
two laminae; the incisors are large, strong, and broad. (See Fig. 454.)
F'g- 454-— Teeth of Cape leaping Hare.
The anterior limbs are short, but very strong, furnished with five
toes armed with powerful claws. The hind-limbs are developed and
muscular, four-toed, the toes armed with long-pointed and somewhat
hoof-hke claws. Tail long. The Leaping Hare equals our common
Hare in size : the fur is soft, and of a dark fawn or brownish-yellow,
passing into white beneath ; the tail is hairy, and tufted at the ex-
tremity with a pencil of black. The head is large ; the ears are lono-
and pointed ; and the eyes full and dark. Native country. South
Africa (See Fig. 455.)
the Leaping Hare is a burrowing animal, making its holes in the
soft sandy ground, which it digs up with its fore-paws, spurtino- it
backwards with its hind-feet, as is done by the Rabbit. In these
burrows it sojourns during the day, secure from the attacks of the
various carnivorous animals which infest the precincts of its retreat.
JNight IS the season of acrivity: it steals forth on the close of day-
light to teed ; and in some districts where it abounds, the depreda-
tions which it commits in the fields of grain are very serious. It
proceeds in the same manner as does the Jerboa, by a series of
bounds : and when the animal is pursued, each bound it makes
clears a space of twenty or thirty feet. It eats sitting nearly upright,
and using its fore-feet in the manner of a Squirrel, to bring the food
to the mouth. It also sleeps in the same attitude, excepting that the
head is bent down between the hind-limbs, while the fore-paws cover
the eyes and cars.
The Leaping Hare gives preference to the sides of steep and
craggy mountains, and in some places they colonise a considerable
F'g- 455- — Cape Leaping Hare,
extent of ground, making it a complete warren. Mr. Burchell, on
his second journey to Asbestos Mountain, observed their burrows in
abundance. Whether this animal lays up a store of winter provision,
or whether it hibernates during a part of the year, does not appear
to be ascertained : but it is very certain that, in the localities it fre-
quents, it is not only subject to a low temperature during the cold
season, but that it will also experience a scarcity of its usual food.
Its voice is a kind of inarticulate grunt.
The Caffres esteem these creatures for food, and expel them from
their burrows by pouring water into the entrances, when they issue
forth and are easily taken.
The GERBILLES— il/«7b«/a'cj-.
The Gerbilles are chiefly inhabitants of Africa, but a few species
occur in India. By some authors they have been placed among the
Jerboas, and by others among the Aliirida:, or Rat and Mouse
family. The contour of the skull and the characters of the teeth are
confessedly Murine. (See Fig. 456 : a, the skull, profile ; b, the
same seen from above ; c, the sam^seen from below ; d, c, teeth of
the same.) Though the Gerbilles have the posterior limbs developed,
their development is by no means to the same extent as in the
Jerboas ; and there is a far more equal proportion between them
and the anterior pair ; hence these animals run as well as leap.
They are active, elegant little creatures, living in burrows, which
they excavate to a considerable depth, and are nocturnal in their
habits. F. Cuvier enumerates eight species, respectively natives of
Egypt, and other parts of Africa^ and India. The species figured
(Fig. 457) has been described by F. Cuvier. (See "Trans. Zool.Soc,"
vol. ii.) Of its peculiar habits we know nothing definite, but they, in
all probability, agree with those of the Indian Gerbille, so well
described by General Hardwicke in the eighth volume of the " Linn.
Trans." The Indian Gerbille is common in Hindostan, and seems
to be gregarious, great numbers associating together. " These
animals are very abundant about cultivated lands, and are particu-
larly destructive to wheat and barley crops, of which they lay up
considerable hoards in spacious burrows near the scenes of their
plunder. They cut the culms of the ripening corn just below the
ears, and convey them thus entire to one common subterraneous
repository, which, when filled, they carefully close, and do not open
for use until supplies abroad become distant and scarce. Grain of
all kinds is their favourite food ; but, in default of this, they have
recourse to the roots of grass and other vegetables. About the close
of the day they issue from their burrows, and traverse the plains in
176
RATS AND MICE.
all directions to a considerable distance ; they run very fast, but
oftener leap, making bounds of four or five yards at a time, carrying
the tail extended in a horizontal direction. When eating, they sit
on their hind-legs like a Squirrel, holding the food between their
fore-feet. , They never appear by day, neither do they commit
depredations within doors. I have observed their manners by night,
in moonlight nights, taking my station on a plain, and remaining
for some time with as little motion as possible. I was soon sur-
Fig. 436. — Skull and Teedi of Burton's Gerbille.
rounded by hundreds at the distance of a few yards, but on rising
from my seat the whole disappeared in an instant, nor did they
venture forth again for ten minutes after, and then with much caution
and circumspection.
"A low tribe of Hindoos, called Kunjers, whose occupation is
hunting, go in quest of these animals, at proper seasons, to plunder
their hoards of grain ; and often, within the space of twenty yards,
find as much corn in the ear as could be crammed into a common
bushel. They inhabit dry situations, and are often found at the dis-
tance of some miles out of the reach of water to drink. In con-
finement this animal soon becomes reconciled to its situation, and
Fig- 457- — Burton's Gerbille.
docile ; sleeps much in the day, but when awake feeds freely at
night. The Hindoos above mentioned esteem them good and
nutritious food." i
The Indian Gerbille is of the size of a common Rat ; its eyes are
full and black ; the ears are large, rounded, and almost naked.
The general fur is bright bay, variegated on the back, with pencil-
like strokes of dark brown ; the under-parts are white ; the tail is
cylindrical, thickly covered with short hair except at the tip, which
is somewhat tufted, and of a dark brown.
Mitchell's Jerboa. — This animal, a native of Australia, and
described by Mr. Ogilby under the name of Dipiis Mitchellii
("Linn. Trans.," vol. xviii.), belongs, apparently, to the genus
Hapalotis. It seems to take the place, on the open plains of
Australia, of the Jerboas and Gerbilles of the deserts and plains of
Africa and Asia ; or of the Jumping Mice of North America. This
singular species was found on the reedy plains near the junction of
the Murray and Murrumbidgee, on the northern boundaries of
Australia Felix. The cut is taken from the figure in Sir T. Mit-
chell's account of "Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern
Australia." Sir T. Mitchell states, that the fore and hind legs of
this animal resemble in proportion those of a Kangaroo ; and it
used the latter by leaping on its hind-quarters in the same manner.
It was not much larger than a common Field-Mouse, but the tail
was longer in proportion than even that of a Kangaroo, and termi-
nated in a hairy brush about two inches long. (See Fig. 458.)
Fig. 458. — Mitchell's Jerboa.
The Rats and Mice — Family Muridts.
The genus Mus, which includes the true Rats and Mice, is
typical of the extensive family Muridce. The characters of this
genus may be thus summed up : incisors of the usual number ;
those of the lower jaw compressed and pointed ; molars on each
side, both above and below, three, with true roots, and a trans-
versely tuberculated surface, the ridges varying in number in each
tooth ; the anterior molar is the largest, the posterior the smallest.
(See Fig. 459.) The muzzle is elongated and sharp ; the ears are
oblong or rounded, and almost naked. The toes of the anterior
feet are four, with the minute rudiment of a thumb ; those of the
hind-feet are five. The limbs are short ; the tail is long, cylindrical,
tapering, and annulated with scales of epidermis, from between
which emerge short hairs, forming a scanty covering. The fur is
soft, but traversed by long outer hairs of a stiffer quality than those
composing the under-coat. All these animals are of small size,
yet many are among the greatest pests to man. Although vegetable
aliment, as grain, peas, &.C., forms their principal food, still, to a
certain extent, they are carnivorous. We know the partiality of the
Mouse to cheese, butter, lard, tallow, &c., and of the Brown Rat to
raw flesh. The stronger and larger species often prey upon the
smaller, and in times of scarcity they will attack and devour each
other. All are nocturnal, and most, if not all, subterranean in their
habits, and also gregarious. Some frequent the fields and woods,
some the gardens, and some the abodes of man, undermining
floors and walls, and breeding within the precincts of his habitation.
They are spread through every quarter of the globe ; and the
common Mouse and the Brown Rat have been introduced by the
indirect agency of man, even into the remotest and most desolate
islands. (See "Zoology of the Voyage of Vi.M..?>. Beagle — Mam-
malia," No. ii. of pt. ii,, p. 31, et seq.) With respect to the Brown
Rat {Mus decmnanus), sometimes erroneously called the Norway
Rat, it appears to have been originally transported from Persia or
India into Europe ; its place was previously occupied by the Black
RATS AND MICE.
m
Rat (Mas ratfus), a smaller and more timid animal, and in some
districts now quite extirpated by its more powerful rival. The
Brown Rat was not known in England before 1730, nor in France
before 1750. According to Pallas, it did not appear in Russia and
Siberia till 1766; and Dr. Harlan states that it did not make its
appearance in North America till 1775. When Dr. Richardson
wrote his " Fauna Boreali-Americana," it was common in Lower
Canada, but had not advanced much beyond Kingston in Upper
Fig. 459. — Teeth of Common Mouse.
Canada. He did not observe it in the fur countries, and believes,
if it exists there, that it is only at the mouth of the Columbia river,
or at the factories on the shores of Hudson's Bay. Mr. Darwin
found it at Buenos Ayres, Valparaiso, East Falkland Island, and
Keeling Island. With respect to the Black Rat, even that is, in all
probability, of foreign origin. It was not known in Western Europe
before the middle of the sixteenth century, and Gesner was the first
who described and figured it.
In the island of Ascension, in the Atlantic Ocean, Mr. Darwin
found two varieties, as he and Mr. Waterhouse consider, of the
Black Rat {Miis ratfus). These two animals differ in the colour of
the fur, one being of a grizzled brownish colour, the other black,
with more soft or glossy fur. " The specimen which has a black
and glossy fur, frequents the short coarse grass near the summit of
the island, where the common Mouse likewise occurs. It is often
seen running about by day, and was found in numbers when the
island was first colonised by the English a few years since. The
other and browner coloured variety lives in the outhouses near the
sea-beach, and feeds chiefly on the offal of the turtles slaughtered
for the daily food of the inhabitants. If the settlement were
destroyed, I feel no doubt that this latter variety would be compelled
to migrate from the coast. Did it originally descend from the
summit ? and in the case first supposed would it retreat there ? and
if so, would its black colour return } It must, however, be observed
that the two localities are separated from each other by a space,
some miles in width, of bare lava and ashes. Does the summit of
Ascension, an island so immensely remote from any continent, and
the summit itself surrounded by a broad fringe of desert volcanic
soil, possess a small quadruped peculiar to itself ? or, more pro-
bably, has this new species been brought by some ship from some
unknown quarter of the world ? Or, I am again tempted to ask, as
I did in the case of the Galapagos Rat, has the common English
species been changed by its new habitation into a strongly marked
variety? — D." {"Zool. of Voyage oi Beagle," p. 36.)
This zoological problem is one of the many so difficult to solve.
Mr. Waterhouse remarks — " It appears as if the Brown and Black
Rats (M. decumanus and M. rattus), and likewise the common
Mouse {ISIus 7niisciilus), all of which follow man in his peregrina-
tions, and which, to a certain degree, are dependent upon man, and
may be, therefore, termed semi-domestic animals, are, like really
domestic animals, subject to a greater degree of variation than
those species which hold themselves aloof from him."
The common Mouse {l\Ius musculus) is undoubtedly indigenous
in Europe, and has been known from the earliest times ; it is the
Anglo-Saxon Mus, the German Maus, the Danish Muys, the Latin
Mus, and the Greek Muc. In Spanish its name is Rat ; in Portuguese,
Ratinho ; in Italian it is called Sorice ; and in French, Souris : from
the Latin Sorex, employed by zoologists to designate the Shrews.
This elegant but troublesome little animal needs no description :
all are well acquainted with it. "Domestic in its habits," says
Mr. Bell, "nourished by almost every article of human food, and
finding effectual shelter in the secret recesses of the habitations
which human art has raised, it has accompanied man in all his ad-
ventures for colonisation, and identified itself with every new terri-
torial occupation of of our race." The Mouse is easily tamed, and
it is interesting to observe it sitting up holding its food between its
paws, or cleansing with them the sides of its face and the back of its
ears, its black eyes glistening with animation. An Albino variety
(white, with red eyes) is not uncommon (Fig. 460), and often kept io
Fig, 460. — Common Mouse.
cages for the sake of its beauty. It breeds freely in captivity, per-
petuating a white race, which, bom and bred in captivity, are gentle
and familiar, and when allowed to run about a room never attempt
to escape.
The common Mouse produces young to the number of five or six,
several times during the course of the year. In about a fortnight
they leave the mother, and obtain their living independently.
Many years ago (i855-'56), a great sensation was created in
London by the " discovery " of a Singing Mouse. It was about the
size of an ordinary Mouse, and was of a grey colour. The voice
resembled that of a young Chaffinch, and the animal seemed to use
it for the purpose of calling for food. It chiefly " sang" at break of
day. The note was really an extraordinary development of the or-
dinary squeaking of the Mouse and Rat family.
The Barbary Mouse [Mus Barbarus). — In size this beautiful
species is intermediate between the common Mouse and Rat. It is
found in Barbary, where the natives term it Phar Azeph, the Pal-
metto Mouse. Some time ago three individuals were living in the
Fig. 461.— Barbary Mouse,
Vivarium of the Zool. Soc, Lond. ; and were described and figured
by Mr. Bennett, who may be said to have really introduced this
species to science : for, since the time of Linnajus, who first described
the animal in the addenda to the twelfth edition (the last published
by himself) of his " Systcma Naturx," no naturalist appears to have
' 2 A
178
MICE.
seen it. So completely, indeed, had it escaped the researches of
later zoologists, that M. Desmarest ventured to suggest a doubt of
its existence.
" The ground-colour of the Barbary Mouse is dark brown, marked
on each side with five or six yellowish stripes, about half as broad as
the intervening spaces, extending along the whole length of the
body, and becoming confused towards the under-parts, which are
nearly white. On the fore-feet only three of the toes are at first
visible ; and this circumstance, mentioned in the specific character
given by Linnasus, has led many subsequent naturalists to doubt
whether the Barbary Mouse really belongs to the genus with which
it was associated. LinnEus himself liad, however, stated in his de-
scription of the species, that rudiments of a thumb, and also of a
fifth toe, were observable on a closer inspection ; and this staternent
has been fully confirmed by an examination of the specimens in the
Zool. Gardens." ("Gardens and Menagerie delineated," p. 31.)
(See Fig. 461.)
Of the native habits and manners of the Barbary Mouse we have
no definite information. Those in confinement, to which we have
alluded, resembled the Rat in actions and disposition. Their carni-
vorous propensities indeed were amply evinced on the death of one
of their number, by the two survivors having commenced devouring
the body.
It may be observed, that the specimens e.xamined by Linnaeus were
very young, for he describes them as being smaller than the common
Mouse.
A beautiful striped Mouse, termed the Cape Striped Mouse {Mus
pumilio), is peculiar to the districts of the Cape of Good Hope. It
was first described by Spanman, who gives a figure of it in his
"Travels in Africa," taken from a young individual. The general
colour is brownish-grey, with four black stripes along the back ; the
upper surface of the head is black. Another species, the Indian
Striped Mouse {]\Ius striatus), of which a few years since little was
known, may also be noticed. The general colour is grey with a
tinge of reddish or yellow, and the back is marked with a dozen
longitudinal rows of small white spots distinct from each other,
forming so many interrupted stripes ; the under-parts are whitish.
D.\rwin's Mouse (^Mus Danuiini'). — Among the numerous
small Rodents belonging to the family Muridce, collected by Mr.
Darwin (see "Zool. of H.M.S. Beagle"), \s a small group, the
species of which, Mr. Waterhouse observes, though very closely
allied to the genus Mus, offer some slight modification, not only in
their external form, but also in the structure of the teeth. (See
Fig. 462.) " They have the fur soft and silky ; the head large ; and
Fig. 462. — Darwin's Mouse.
the fore-legs very small and delicate ; the tarsus moderately long,
and bare beneath. In the number and proportion of their toes they
agree with the true Rats ; the tail is moderately long, and more
thickly clothed with hair than in the typical Rats. The ears are
large and clothed with hair. Like the true Rats, they have twelve
rooted molars ; the folds of enamel, however, penetrate more deeply
into the body of each tooth, and enter in such a way that the crowns
of the teeth are divided into transverse and somewhat , lozenge-
shaped lobes of a triangular form. In the front molar of the upper
jaw the enamel enters the body of the tooth twice, both in the outer
and inner sides ; and in the second and posterior molars, both of the
upper and under jaws, the enamel penetrates but once externally and
internally in each. In the front molar of the lower jaw the enamel
enters the body of the tooth three times mternally, and twice exter-
nally "(" Proc. Zool. Soc," 1837, p. 27). These Murine animals
Mr. Waterhouse regards as constituting a sub-genus, for which he
proposed the name of Phyllotis. Darwin's Mouse, Mus [Phyllotis)
Darwinii, was found in dry and stony places at Coquimbo m Chile.
The fur above consists of cinnamon-coloured and blackish hairs
intermixed ; the space before the eyes is of a greyish tint ; the sides
of the face and body are of a pale cinnamon colour ; the under-parts
and limbs white ; the ears are large ; the tail as long as the head
and body; brownish above, white beneath. Length of head and
body, six inches.
In North America there are some interesting genera of the
Murida, which may here be noticed — namely, Neotoma and Sigmo-
don, both established by Say and Ord in the "Journal of the Acad.
Nat. Soc," Philadelphia. To the first genus belongs the Florida
Rat (Neotoma FIorida?ia), larger than the ordinary Rat, with soft
velvety fur of a lead colour, with yellowish and black hairs inter-
mixed. The specimen described by Say and Ord was discovered in
a log granary situated in a ruined and deserted plantation in East
Florida. " When first aroused it ran a short distance, then returned,
and stood close by us, allowing us to touch it with a gun before it
again retreated. It was mild, or without that suspicious and cun-
ning air so remarkable in the common Brown Rat. We have reason
to think that the species is not uncommon in Florida, as several in-
dividuals were seen by Mr. Say in an old mansion ; but he was
unprovided with the means of capturing them." Specimens are
preserved in the Museum of the Zool. Soc. A second species was
discovered by Mr. Drummond in the Rocky Mountains, and is de-
scribed by Dr. Richardson under the title oi Neotoma Dritmmondii.
This animal "makes its nest in the crevices of high rocks, and
seldom appears in the daytime. Its food most probably consists of
herbage of various kinds, and of small branches of pine-trees, be-
cause there is generally a considerable store of those substances laid
up in the vicinity of its residence. It is very destructive. In the
course of a single night, the fur traders who have encamped in a
place frequented by these animals, have sustained much loss by their
packs of fur being gnawed, the blankets cut in pieces, and many
small articles carried entirely away. Mr. Drummond placed a stout
pair of English shoes on the shelf of a rock, and, as he thought, in
perfect security, but on his return after an absence of a few days, he
found them gnawed into fragments as fine as sawdust. This species
is nine inches in the length of the head and body, its tail being seven
and a-half inches. Its general colour is yellowish-brown above, and
white beneath : the fur is full and soft, and the tail is bushy and
densely hairy, instead of being round, tapering, and thinly covered
with hair, as in the Florida Rat. With respect to the genus Sigmo-
don, the dentition of which is characterised by the flexures which the
folds of enamel on the molar teeth present, one species only is de-
scribed, viz., the Rough-haired Sigmodon {S. kispidum). This
animal is very numerous in the deserted plantations lying on the
river St. John in East Florida, particularly in the gardens. Its
burrows are seen in every direction. Emigrants to that section of
the country will find the species a great pest to rural economy.
General colour, pale dirty ochre mixed with black ; under-surface,
ashy-grey. Length of head and body, six inches; of the tail, four
inches. Closely allied to the genus Neotoma is a species termed
the White-footed Mouse {Mus leucopus), found in California, and on
the borders of the Columbia river. The habits of this elegant little
creature are well described by Dr. Richardson, who observed it as
far north as the Great Bear Lake. " The gait and actions of this
little animal are so much like those of the English domestic Mouse,
that most of the Europeans resident at Hudson's Bay have considered
it to be the same species, although overlooking the obvious differ-
ences of their tails and other peculiarities. This American Mouse,
however, has a habit of making hoards of grain or little pieces of
fat, which I believe is unknown of the European domestic Mouse ;
and what is more singular, these hoards are not formed in the
animals' retreats, but generally in a shoe left at the bed-side, the
pocket of a coat, a nightcap, a bag hung against the wall, or some
similar place. It not unfrequently happened that we found barley
which had been brought from a distant apartment, and introduced
into a drawer through so small a chink, that it was impossible for
the Mouse to gain access to its store. The quantity laid up in a
single night, nearly equalling the bulk of a Mouse, renders it pro-
bable that several individuals united their efforts to form it. This
Mouse does considerable mischief in gardens, and in a very few
nights will almost destroy a plantation of maize, by tracing the rows
for the purpose of collecting the seeds, and depositing them in small
heaps under the loose mould, generally by the side of a stone or
piece of wood. From the facility with which it seems to transport
the substances it preys upon, I suspected that it had cheek-pouches,
but none were found on examination. The Ermine is a most invete-
rate enemy to this species, and pursues it even into the sleeping
apartments of houses." The colour above is fine dark brown; the
under-part and feet are white.
The Long-tailed Field-Mouse {Mus syhjaficus). — Eyes full,
black, and bright; colour above reddish-brown, beneath whitish;
ears more than half the length of the head ; tail somewhat shorter
than the head and body. Length of head and body, three inches
eight lines. It is Le Mulot of Buffon.
This beautiful but mischievous little animal is spread over the
whole of temperate Europe. It frequents woods, plantations, parks,
orchards, and gardens, where it commits great devastations. In
some places it multiplies in hosts ; and instances are on record of
young plantations covering acres having been totally destroyed by
their depredations. They strip the bark and shoots from off the
MICE.
»79
sapling- trees, and root up the newly-planted acorns ; nor are they
less injurious in wheat-fields. Each individual lays up in its hole or
burrow a winter store of food, consistinsf of grain, acorns, nuts, peas,
(Src. ; and hence it is not only from what they devour at the time, but
also from what they carry awav that they cause such injuries. In
the kitchen-ffarden, as we can personally testify, they are not a little
annoying, digging up peas and beans when newly sown or when be-
ginning to germinate. One of their natural enemies, and one of the
Fig. 463. — Long-tailed Fleld-Mouse.
most efficient agents in their destruction, is the Short-eared Owl
(Oils ziliila). Latham informs us, that in certain districts which
have been infested with these Mice, the "Owls have collected in
large troops, and attacked the depredators to their utter extermina-
tion." It is not exclusively to vegetable matters that these IMice
confine their diet ; young birds become their prey ; and when food is
scarce they will attack each other, the younger or weaker falling
victims to the more powerful. (See Fig. 463.)
The Field-Mouse, though extremely timid, is easily tamed and
rendered familiar, and its manners are very engaging. It is free
from the unpleasant odour which renders the common Mouse a
nuisance. The Field-Mouse breeds twice in the year, producing
from six to ten young at a time. It is easy, therefore, to calculate
the rapidity of its multiplication, and to account for the sudden ap-
pearance of swarms in spots where few had been previously observed.
Buffon states that, by means of a single trap, 2,300 were killed in
twenty-three days in a single field of about forty acres in extent. In
Fig. 464. — Sliort-taikJ Field-Mice.
some parts of our own country their numbers have been incalculable,
and their devastations frightful.
The Short-tailed Field-Mouse {Arvicola agrestis).~-T\i^
Campagnot of Buffon; Arvicola arvalis of Selys-Longchamps.
The Short-tailed Field-Mouse (or Field-vole of Bell) is one of those
Rodcntia from which we often receive extensive injury, proving how
necessary it is that, in order to keep their numbers within due bounds,
an incessant warfare be maintained against them — a warfare to
which birds and beasts of prey are appointed. (See Fig. 46.).)
This species is a native of the greater part of Europe, and is com-
mon in our island, where its depredations (and in France and other
parts of the continent the same may be said) have rendered it no-
torious. It is exclusively a tenant of woods, plantations, corn-fields,
and meadows ; and not unfrequently appears in enormous multitudes!
Often is the farmer disappointed of his crop of wheat, the newly-
sown grain having been all rooted up and devoured by an army of
these " wee cowerin creepit timorous beasties," formidable not from
their individual size, but their numbers. Whole plantations of
young trees have in like manner been destroyed, the root of every
sapling being eaten, or the bottom of the stem barked round. In
the years 1813 and 1814, the ravages of these animals in the New
Forest and the Forest of Dean were so great, as to create an alarm
lest the whole of the young trees in those extensive woods would be
destroyed by them. In the first vol. of the " Zool. Journal" is a
letter from Lord Glenbervie to Sir Joseph Bankes, entering into a de-
tailed account of the devastations committed. Mr. Jesse, in his
" Gleanings," referring to the plantations in these forests, says, that
soon after their formation, " a sudden and rapid increase of Mice
took place in them, which threatened the destruction of the whole of
the young plants : vast numbers of these were killed, the Mice
having eaten through the roots of five-year-old oaks and chestnuts,
generally just below the surface of the ground. Hollies also, which
were five or six feet high, were barked round the bottom ; and in
some instances the Mice had crawled up the tree, and were seen
feeding on the bark of the upper branches. In the reports made to
government on the subject, it appeared that the roots had been eaten
through wherever they obstructed the runs of the Mice."
Various plans were adopted for their destruction ; and in holes
dug purposely to entrap them, in the Dean Forest alone, 30,000
Mice were caught in about three months, and a much greater
number destroyed by Stoats, Weasels, Kites, Hawks, Owls, Crows,
&c., and also by Cats purposely turned out. In the New Forest
about the same number were also destroyed ; and it was calculated
that the total destruction, including those caught in pits and traps,
and those killed by other animals, and by their own species (for
when their food fell short they attacked nnd devoured each other),
amounted, in the two forests, to more than 200,000.
The Field-Vole measures four inches one line in the length of the
head and body, and one inch three and a-half lines in that of the
tail. The fur is reddish-brown above, grey beneath. A distinct
species, the Bank- Vole (^rz^zw/a ^ratoz/j, Baillon ; A. riparica,
Yarrell ; .^. rz//"Mce«j, Selys-Longchamps), is found on the conti-
nent, and in some parts of England. It is less than the former
species, with a longer tail, and differs in several particulars in its
internal anatomy.
The Harvest-Mouse {Miis Messorius). — Of all our British
Mammalia the Harvest-Mouse is the smallest. This beautiful
little species was first discovered in our island by Gilbert White, and
described in his "Natural History of Selborne." Yet it is by no
means uncommon in the corn counties, and especially in Hampshire,
though so long overlooked by British naturalists. It is found in
Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Devonshire, and Cambridgeshire, and
occurs in France, Germany, Russia, and Siberia. It is the Mulot
pain and Rat de moissons of F. Cuvier ; the Mits minntus of
Pallas, and the Mies peiidiilinus of Hermann.
The Harvest-Mouse is a lively, active, playful little creature ; its
eyes are dark : its general colour above is delicate reddish-fawn ;
the under-parts are abruptly white : the ears are short and rounded ;
the tail is rather shorter than the bojiy. Length of head and body,
two inches six lines.
This animal lives entirely in the fields, resorting in the winter to
burrows of its own construction, or to corn-ricks, into which it pene-
trates, and there finds food and shelter. The asylum in which it
rears its young is an artful and beautiful nest of a spherical figure,
consisting of the split leaves and panicles of grasses artificially in-
terwoven together, and suspended among the stalks of standing
corn, or thistles, or other plants, to which it is secured, and of which
the leaves will shroud it from notice.
According to Dr. Gloger, the entrance of the nest is rather below
the middle, on the side opposite to the stems, and is scarcely
observable ; the parent closes it when she leaves the nest, and
probably while she remains herself within. The inside is warm,
smooth, and neatly rounded. One nest, examined by Dr. Gloger,
contained five young ; another nine.
It would appear that the Harvest-Mouse is insectivorous as wdl
as granivorous ; and this fact was first noticed by the Rev. W.
Bingley, who obtained a female, which after its capture produced
eio-ht young ; but being disturbed by a conveyance of several miles,
sh'e killed them, as the Rabbit is frequently known to do. " One
evening," he observes, "as I was sitting at my writing-desk, and
the animal was playing about in the open part of its cage, a large
blue fly happened to buzz against the wires ; the little creature,
althouo-h at twice or thrice the distance of her own length from it,
i8o
THE HAMSTER.
sprang along- the wires with the greatest agility, and would certainly
have seized it had the space between the wires been sufficiently
wide to have admitted her teeth or paws to roach it. I was surprised
at this occurrence, as I had been led to believe that the Harvest-
Mouse was merely a granivorous animal. I caught the fly, and
made it buzz in my fingers against the wires. The Mouse, though
usually shy and timid, immediately came out of her hiding-place,
and, running to the spot, seized and devoured it. From this time
Fig. 463. — Harvest-Mouse.
I fed her with insects whenever I could get them, and she always pre-
ferred them to every other kind of food that I offered her." The same
writer observed that the tip of the tail possessed a prehensile povifer,
and that the animal used it while climbing about the wires of its
cage. We have seen the Har\'est-Mouse in captivity tolerably
tame, and reconciled to its prison. It often sits erect, and feeds
itself, holding grain between its paws, which it also uses in dressing
its soft fur. "it drinks by lapping the water with its tongue, and
sleeps rolled up into a ball. (See Fig. 465.)
The Hamster {Cricctus vulgaris).— Yoxi-ansXAy for England,
the Hamster is not indigenous within the precincts of the island. _ It
inhabits the whole tract of countries extending between the Rhine
and the Ural Mountains, and between the German Sea and Baltic
to the north and the Danube to the south, wherever it finds a con-
genial soil. It is very common in Thuringia. Its proper soil is a
deep alluvial mould with a substratum of clay ; in dry, strong-soiled,
or stony districts, it is not often found. The teeth of the Hamster
closely resemble those of the Rat. (Fig. 466.) The tail is short
and hairy. There are large cheek-pouches, as in some of the
Monkeys, in the form of sacks, which serve for carrying home food :
they extend from the inside of the cheeks beneath the skin, along
the sides of the neck, even over the shoulders. The general figure
is thick : the limbs are short ; there are four toes and a small thumb
on the anterior feet ; five toes on the hind-feet ; the head is large,
the muzzle abruptly pointed, the ears rounded. The general
colour is as follows : head and upper parts reddish-grey, verging to
yellow on the face ; under-parts black, with the exception of the
throat and feet, which are white. Three large distinct spots of
white are also disposed on each side, one on the cheeks, one on the
shoulder and one on the ribs. Black varieties are not unfrequent ;
in these the nose and feet are white. There are two oblong spaces
on the skin, situated one on each side of the spme, at a short dis-
tance in front of the thighs, which, instead of havmg the usual fur,
are covered with short, brown, stiff hairs. These patches, which
are about an inch long, are not always directly perceptible, being
obscured by the surrounding long fur, which must be blown aside to
^hnw them The adult measures from nme to twelve mches ex-
clusive of the tail, which is about three inches long. The weight is
sometimes more than a pound. The female is smaller by one-fourth.
(See Fig. 467.)
The Hamster is
short growling tones ; but when irritated its voice is a shrill yelling
cry. In collecting food, as beans, peas, wheat, &c., it uses its paws
to press the grain backwards to the bottom of the pouches, in order
to make room for the entrance of more. When these are well filled,
it returns to its burrow to unload them, in which act it again uses
its paws. In summer it feeds upon green fodder and the leaves of
many plants ; but the Hamster is also carnivorous, attacking and
devouring Rats, Mice, Birds, Lizards, insects and their larvae, and
nocturnal in its habits: during the day it lies
rolled up in its burrow : at night it issues forth to ramble in quest of
W auer midnight it returns to its burrow and rests ti 1 about an
hour 'be ore sunris?, when it takes a second ramble till the morning
airly dawns. Its Movements are slow and creeping : it often utters
Fig. 466. — Teeth of Hamster.
the weaker of their own species. Even the two sexes live in har-
mony only during the few days of each breeding season. The
Hamster fights obstinately, and will jump with equal fury at a
waggon-wheel or at a Horse if he tread near it ; and when two rival
males meet, they engage in a desperate conflict till one retreats or
perishes. In these paroxysms of fury the cheek-pouches become
distended with air, the animal at the same time blowing and uttering
at intervals its shrill cry.
In the construction of its burrows the Hamster displays great
ingenuity. They are in some respects modified by age, sex, and
soil ; for each individual has its own exclusive burrow. Each
burrow has at least two openings ; one descends obliquely, the other
perpendicularly. The former is termed the " creeping-hole," and
this is excavated from without ; but the perpendicular passage,
termed the "plunging-hole," is worked out from one of the
chambers ; that is, from within the subterranean domicile, and is
often four feet deep. The distance of these two holes from each
Fig. 467. — Hamster.
other varies from four to ten feet, and between the termination of
these two passages are the chambers. The creeping-hole is not in
such constant use as the other ; and in an inhabited burrow it is
regularly found stopped with earth at the distance of about a foot
from the mouth. The chambers are more or less oval, and of large
size ; that nearest the creeping-hole is the smallest, and is well lined
with a bed of soft fine straw : it has three openings, one into the
creeping-passage, one into the plunging-passage, and one com-
municating with the store-chambers, of which there are several,
at least in the burrows of the old male. Each chamber is filled in
the autumn with provisions, and sixty-five pounds of corn, or a
VARIETIES OF RATS AND MICE.
i8i
hundredweight of horse-beans, have been found in the magazines of
a sino'le Hamster. The burrow of a female has from three or four
to eight plunging-holes, all terminating in her nest-chamber. Here
she produces her litter, from six to eighteen in number. The young
are born blind and naked, but in eight or nine days their eyes are
opened ; they grow rapidly, and in about a fortnight begin to dig
small burrows, each making its own. The female has several
litters in the course of a year. About the middle of October the
Hamster retires for good to its retreat, stopping up first the creeping-
holes, then the plunging-holes ; after this the animal keeps awake
(though under ground) for about two months, living on its store and
becoming very fat. When the cold of winter has fairly set in and
reached it, it sinks into a complete state of torpor, which continues
till the middle of February. About the middle of March it begins
to open its passage, and re-visits the fields ; it now abandons its old
burrow, and begins to form a fresh one. The flesh of the Hamster
is said to be very good ; the fur is also esteemed ; and the Hamster-
hunter, who trades in the skins, usually opens the burrows after the
corn has been reaped, for the sake of obtaining the grain which the
Hamster has accumulated.
The Caffre Broad-e.^red Rat {Euryotis imisukafus). — This
species of Rat is a native of South Africa, whence it was brought by
M. Delalande. It forms the type of the genus Euryotis of Brands,
to which title that of Otoniys, proposed by F. Cuvier, must give
place. Dr. A. Smith has appropriated the term Otomys to another
group of Rodents. In its dentition (Fig. 468) this animal closely
Fig. 46S.— Teeth of CaflFre Broad-eareJ Rat.
approximates to the true Rats, as also in general form and structure :
the eyes are large ; the ears are ample and broad, and furnished
with an internal projecting membrane, which, when its edges are
approximated, entirely shuts the entrance of the auditory opening.
The fur is thick and soft, and the general tone of colouring is a
clouded yellow tint, becoming yellowish-white on the under-parts.
Length of head and body, about six and a-half inches , of tail, nearly
three inches. Of the habits and manners of this animal we have no
definite information. (See Fig. 469.)
Fig. 469. — Caffre Broad-eared Kal,
The Hydromvs {Hydromys leucogasfer and ckrysogasfer). —
Though we refer the genus Hydromys to the Mi/ridcB, it differs in
dentition from the other members of that family. There are only
two molars on each side, above and below ; the first above is three
times the size of the second, and is composed of three irregular
portions, each portion being depressed in its centre, which is sur-
rounded by a ridge of enamel ; the second molar is composed of
two unequal parts ; the first molar below is twice the size of the
second, and both are composed of two parts:, (See Fig. 470.) The
Hydromys is an aquatic animal, and well adapted for swimming :
470. — Teeth of Hydromys.
the head is flat ; the body Otter-like, elongated, and covered with
close glossy fur : on the fore-feet there are four toes and the rudi-
ment of a thumb ; on the hind-feet there are five toes, united by
webs. The tail is long and cylindrical, covered with close stiff
hairs ; the ears are short and rounded ; the upper surface is brown ;
the extremity of the tail, for about a third of its length, white ; the
under-surface varies from white to a fine deep orange-yellow.
Some writers have regarded these varieties as distinct species ; — we
have seen specimens with the colour of the under-surface in inter-
mediate stages between white and yellow. Length of head and
body, about twelve inches ; that of the tail, nearly as much. The
Hydromys is a native of Van Diemen's Land, and various small
islands in D'Entrecasteaux Channel. (See Fig. 471.)
Fig. 471. — Hydromys.
The Economist Mouse {Arvic(fla csconomus).—\x^ the genus
Arvicola the molars are ^—3, composite with flat crowns, present-
i-i
ing angular enamelled laminas. (Fig. 472.) The ears are moderate,
the muzzle obtuse, the tail shorter than the body, and hairy. The
Economist Mouse is a native of the northern sweep of Siberia and
Kamtschatka. It would appear that the same, or a closely allied
species, inhabits Iceland. It is a burrowing animal, and constructs,
beneath the turf, narrow galleries which lead to a chamber, in the
form of an oven, communicating with another used as a magazine,
in which it stores up food for winter consumption. This consists of
bulbous roots, and various grains and berries ; and the quantity of
provision amassed is often very considerable. These animals breed
several times in the year, producing three or four at a birth. Like
the Lemming, for some unknown cause, these Mice, at irregular
periods, but always in the spring, perform extensive migrations.
Multitudes assemble together, forming an army myriads strong. In
Kamtschatka their progress is westward ; neither rivers, nor lakes,
nor. even arms of the sea stop them: thousands are drowned or
destroyed by birds and beasts of prey; but onwards the army
marches, pursuing their course until they have crossed the river
Penshim, when they bend their way towards Judoma and Ochot,
which they usually reach about July : they return to_ Kamtschatka
in October, but sadly reduced in numbers by the accidents of flood
l82
THE WATER-RAT— THE BEAVER FAMILY.
and field. According to Dr. Henderson, the Economist Mouse of
Iceland displays great sagacity in conveying home and stocking its
provisions; and he corroborates the account of ]\IM. Olafsen and
Povelson respecting their mode of conveying them across such
streams as they may meet with in their foraging expeditions. " The
party, which consists of from six to ten, select a flat piece of dried
cow-dung, on which they place the berries in a heap in the middle ;
Fig. 472. — Teeth of Economist Mouse.
then by their united force they bring it to the water's edge, and,
after launching it, embark and place themselves round the heap with
their heads joined over it, and their backs to the water, their tails
pendent in the stream serving the purpose of rudders." (Fig. 473.)
The truth of this fact, he says, was confirmed by the testimony of
Fig. 473. — Economist Mice.
two credible witnesses, the clergyman of Briamsloek, and Madame
Benedictson, of Stickesholra. He further states that they make a
drainage from their burrow, leading into a deep hole, intended for
the reception of the water.
The Water-Rat [Arvtcola amj>htbia). Rat d'eau. Buff. — The
Water-Rat is by many regarded as a variety of that destructive ani-
mal the common Rat, which, as is well known, often takes up its
quarters in drains and ditches, and the banks of canals, especi-
ally near houses, farms, stables, &c., making deep burrows in which
to rear its young. From this pest the Water-Rat is totally distinct.
It frequents the borders of large ponds, reservoirs, streams, and
rivers, dwelling in burrows of considerable extent to which there are
generally two or more outleto. The main outlet is in most instances
close to the water's edge, so that during floods it is not unfrequently
below the surface ; but the gallery, sloping upwards as it proceeds in
the bank, terminates in a chamber which the water does not reach.
Here, in a snug bed of dried grass and vegetable fibres, the female
rears her young. Nocturnal or crepuscular in its habits, it is chiefly
as the dusk of evening steals on that the Water-Rat emerges from
its retreat, but it seldom ventures far from the margin of the pond or
river, into which, when alarmed, it immediately plunges, and swims
under the cover of overhanging roots and herbage to its burrow.
Though not web-footed, it is at home in the water, and dives with
great ease. There are few persons who have not noticed its way-
marks on the surface of stagnant ponds, or ditches mantled over
with a thick crop of chickweed. These tracts are made during the
night, the season in which it wanders in search of food or its fellows.
The roots of aquatic plants, especially the Typlia, the stems of equi-
sctum, buds, and bark, &c., constitute the diet of this species : it
has been affirmed that it feeds also upon insects, small fishes. Frogs,
&c. ; but for this assertion there is not the slightest foundation. It
would appear that the Water-Rat hibernates during some portion of
the winter, and also lays up a store of food. Mr. White says, " As
a neighbour was lately ploughing in a dry chalky field, far removed
from any water, he turned out a Water-Rat that was curiously laid
up in an hibemaculum artificially formed of grass and leaves. At
one end of the burrow lay above a gallon of potatoes regularly
stowed, on which it was to have supported itself for the winter." It
Fig. 475. — Molar Teeth of
the Beaver.
Fig. 474.— Water-Rat.
must be acknowledged that there are some points in the history of
this species to be cleared up. In size this animal equals the com-
mon Brown Rat, but the head is thicker and more obtuse, the
muzzle being blunt and short ; the ears are scarcely apparent, being
buried in the fur ; the eyes are small and black; the tail is little
more than half the length of the body, and thinly covered with short
hairs. The fur is thick and close ; its colour on the upper parts is
dark reddish-brown, mixed with grey ; on the under-surface brown-
ish-white : a black variety sometimes occurs. The species is spread
over most parts of Europe. {See Fig. 474.)
The Castorid^, or Beaver Family.
The CastoridcB, or Beavers, are large, stout-built Rodents, with
five toes on all the feet ; and those of the hinder pair united by a
swimming membrane. The incisor teeth are of great size and
strength ; and the molars, of which there are four on each side in
each jaw, exhibit a most complicated
arrangement of the enamel (Fig. 475),
which forms three folds on one side of
the tooth, and a single fold on the other.
The tail in one of the genera included in
the family, is broadly depressed, ovate,
and scaly ; in the other it is rounded, and
clothed with hair.
The Beaver (Castor fiber) is not ex-
clusively confined to the northern portions of the American continent.
Herman (see "Journey round the Earth," &c.) informs us that it
" abounds in the Obi, and is taken, not for the sake of its fur, but for
its musk, which bears a very high price." It is common along the
Euphrates, and a skin sent home by Colonel Chesney was in the pos-
session of the Zool. Soc. , Lond. The Beaver occurs also along some
of the large rivers of Europe, as the Rh6ne, the Danube, the Weser,
and the Nuthe, near its confluence with the Elbe. It was formerly
an inhabitant of our own island, and Giraldus Cambrensis gives us a
short account of their manners in Wales ; but in his time (1188) they
were only found in the river Teify. By the laws of Hoel-dda, the
price of a Beaver's skin was fixed at 120 pence, a great sum in those
days. Whether the European, Asiatic, and American Beavers are
specifically identical or not, yet remains to be determined. Certain
it is that the European Beaver, as proved by the little colony in the
Nuthe, displays the same manners and building propensities as its
Transatlantic brethren ; and ^er C07it}-a, the various scattered
Beavers near the settlements in America were solitary animals,
dwelling in burrows like the scattered few along the Rhone ; though
it must be observed that one from the latter river in captivity exhi-
bited as marked a constructive disposition as any American Beaver
under the same restrictions. The mode of building, as conducted by
the Beaver of America, is described by Hearne with great clearness
and the absence of the ordinary exaggeration. The situation chosen
is various : where the Beavers are numerous, they tenant lakes,
BEA VERS.
183
rivers, and creeks, especially the two latter, for the sake of the
current, of which they avail themselves in the transportation of the
materials. They also choose such parts as have a depth of water
beyond the freezing-power to congeal at the bottom. In small
rivers or creeks in which the water is liable to be drained off when
the back-supplies are dried up by the frost, they are led by instinct
to make a dam quite across the river, at a convenient distance from
their houses, thus artificially procuring a deep body of water in which
to build. The dam varies in shape : where the current is gentle, it
is carried out straight ; but where rapid it is bowed, presenting a con-
vexity to the current. The materials used are drift-wood, green
willows, birch, and poplars, if they can be got, and also mud and
stones ; these are intermi.xed without order, the only aim being to
carry out the work with a regular sweep, and to make the whole of
equal strength. (See Fig. 476.) Old dams by frequent repairing
become a solid bank, capable of resisting a great force of water and
ice ; and as the willows, poplars, and birches take root and shoot up,
they form by degrees a sort of thick hedge-row, often of considera-
ble height. Of the same materials the houses themselves are built,
and in size proportionate to the number of their respective inhabit-
ants, which seldom exceeds four
old and six or eight young ones.
The houses, however, are ruder
in structure than the dam ; the
only aim being to have a dry
place to lie upon, and perhaps
feed in. When the houses are
large, it often happens that they
are divided by partitions into two
or three or even more compart-
ments, which have, in general,
no communication, except by
water ; such may be called double
or treble houses, rather than
houses divided. Each compart-
ment is inhabited by its own
possessors, who know their own
door, and have no. connexion
with their neighbours, more than
a friendly intercourse, and join-
ing with them in the necessary
labour of building. So far are
the Beavers from driving stakes,
as some have said, into the
ground when building, that they
lay most of the wood crosswise,
and nearly horizontal, without
any order than that of leaving a
cavity in the middle ; and when
any unnecessary branches pro-
ject inward, they cut them off
with their chisel-like teeth, and
throw them in among the rest
to prevent the mud from falling
in. With this wood is mixed
mud and stones, and the whole
compacted together. The bank
affords them the mud, or the
bottom of the creek, and they
carry it, as well as the stones, under their throat by the aid of
their fore-paws ; the wood they drag along with their teeth. They
always work in the night, and have been known during the course
of a single night to have accumulated as much mud as amounted
to some thousands of their little handfuls. Every fall they cover
the outside of their houses w'ith fresh mud, and as late in- the
autumn as possible, even when the frost has set in, as by this
means it soon becomes frozen as hard as stone, and prevents their
most formidable enemy, the Wolverene or Glutton, from disturbing
them during the winter. In laying on this coat of mud they do not
use their broad fiat tails, as has been asserted — a mistake which has
arisen from their habit of giving a flap with the tail when plunging
from the outside of the house into the water, and when they are
startled, as well as at other times. The houses, when complete, have
a dome-like figure, with walls several feet thick, and emerging from
four to six feet above the water. The only entrance is deep under
water, below a projection called the "angle" by the hunters, and
beyond the reacli of the frost : near this, also under water, is laid up
their winter store, a mass of branches of willows and other trees, on
the bark of which they feed. These they stack up, sinking each
layer by means of mud and stones, and often accumulate more than
a cartload of materials. Besides these winter-houses, in which they
are shut up during the severities of the season, they have always a
number of holes in the banks which serve them as places of retreat
when any injury is offered to their houses, and in these they are
generally taken. The entrance to these holes is deep below the
water, which fills a great part of the vault itself. When the hunter
forces the houses of the Beaver in winter (the hunting season), the
animals swim beneath the ice to these retreats, the entrances of
which are discovered by striking the ice along the banks with an
iron ice-chisel, the sound indicating to practised ears the exact spot:
they cut a hole in the house and surprise their booty. During the
summer the Beavers roam about at pleasure, and it is during this
season that they fell the wood necessary for repairing tlieir houses
and dams, or for building others, commencing the latter about the
end of August. Such is the strength and sharpness of their teeth
that they will lop off a branch as thick as a walking-stick at a single
effort, and as cleanly as if cut with a pruning-knife. Large stems
they gnaw all round, taking care that their fafl shall be towards or
into the water. They rapidly fell a tree, the shaft of which is as
thick or thicker than a man's thigh, or from six to ten inches in
diameter ; and places of more than three acres in front of the river,
and one in depth, have been seen with the timber all felled by these
animals, though many of the trees were as thick as a man's body.
The Beaver docs not attain its full growth before three years, but it
breeds before that time. It produces from two to six at a birth.
The flesh of this animal is esteemed by the Canadian hunters, and
by the natives, as a great delicacy ; and we need not say how
Fig. 476. — Beavers Building their Houses.
valuable its fur is as an article of commerce. It is from certain
glandular sacs in the Beaver that the substance called castor, or cas-
toreum, used in medicine, is obtained, and which (procured from the
European variety) was well known tO/the ancients.
In captivity the Beaver soon becomes familiar and sociable, and,
if permitted, will even in a room exercise itself in attempts to build,
using brushes, baskets, boots, sticks, and, in short, anything it can
get hold of for the purpose.
The fine fur of the Beaver varies from glossy brown to black ; the
tail, or caudal paddle, used as a rudder in diving or in ascending, is
flat, scaled, and oar-like. The length of the head and body of a full-
grown animal is about forty inches ; of the caudal paddle, one foot.
The feet are all five-toed ; those of the hind-feet are united by a
broad palmated expansion ; the nails are strong, and that of the
second toe of the hind-feet consists of two portions. _ On land the
gait of the Beaver is awkward and shuffling, owing in part to the
outward tournure of the hind-feet, which fits them for aquatic pro-
gression, and in part to the thick and clumsy configuration of the
body.
The MuSQtTASH {Ondatra zibeihica).— Fiber zibefhicus,Sa.h\'ne;
Musk-Rat, Godman ; Ondathra of the Hurons ; Musquash, Watsuss,
or Wachusk, and also Peesquaw-Tupeyew (" the animal that sits on
the ice in a round form ") of the Cree Indians. The dentition of
this animal (Fig. 477) presents a close affinity to that of the Water-
3-3
Rat and other species of Arvicola ; namely :— Molars, -— ,•
The Musquash is a native of North America, and in its general
184
THE MUSQUASH— THE MOLE-RAT.
form it resembles the common Water-Rat, size excepted. In the
length of the head and body it measures about fourteen inches, that
of the tail being eight or nine. iThe fur, which is much like that of
the Beaver, is dark umber brown, passing into brownish-yellow on
the under-parts : pied and even white varieties are sometimes seen.
The hind-feet are not webbed ; the tail is compressed laterally.
fig- 477.— Teeth of Musquash.
broadest in the middle, and covered with a thin sleek coat of short
hairs ; longer hairs run along the acute margins. (See Fig. 4/8.)
The range of this animal is from lat. 30° as high north as 69°.
Small grassy lakes, or swamps, or the grassy borders of slow streams,
are its favourite haunts. Vegetable matters are its principal food,
as roots, tender shoots, the leaves of various carices, &c. : to which
it adds fresh-water Mussels [U?n'o). The Mus-
quash swims and dives well, plunging into the
water on the least alarm, and diving instantane-
ously on perceiving the flash of a gun. This ani-
mal builds winter habitations, but far less solid
and durable than those of the Beaver. These
habitations are thus described by Dr. Richard-
son : — "In the autumn, before the shallow lakes
and swamps freeze over, the Musquash builds its
house of mud, giving it a conical form, and a
sufficient base to raise the chamber above the
water. The chosen spot is generally amongst
long grass, which is incorporated with the walls
of the house from the mud being deposited
amongst it ; but the animal does not appear to
make any kind of composition or mortar by tem-
pering the mud and grass together. There is,
however, a dry bed of grass deposited in the
chamber. The entrance is under water. When
ice forms over the surface of the swamp, the Mus-
quash makes breathing-holes through it, and pro-
tects them from the frost by a covering of mud.
In severe winters, however, these holes freeze up
in spite of their coverings, and many of the ani-
mals die. It is to be remarked, that the small
grassy lakes selected by the Musquash for its
residence are never so firmly frozen nor covered
with such thick ice as deeper and clearer water.
The Indians kill these animals by spearing them
through the walls of their houses, making their
approach with great caution, for the Musquashes
take to the water when alarmed by a sound on the
ice. An experienced hunter is so well acquainted with the direction
of the chamber and the position in which its inmates lie, that he can
transfix four or five at a time. As soon as, from the motion of the
spear, it is evident that the animal is struck, the house is broken
down, and it is taken out. The principal seasons for taking the
Musquash are the autumn before the snow falls, and the spring,
after it has disappeared, but while the ice is still entire. In the
winter-time, the depth of snow prevents the houses and breathing-
holes from being seen. One of the first operations of the hunter is
to stop all the holes with the exception of one, at which he stations
himself to spear the animals that have escaped being struck in their
houses and come hither to breathe. In the summer the Musquash
burrows in the banks of the lakes, making branched canals many
yards in extent, and forming its nest in a chamber at the extremity,
in which the young are brought forth. When its house is attacked
in the autumn, it retreats to these passages, but in the spring they
are frozen up. The Musquash may be frequently seen on the shores
of small muddy islands, sitting in a rounded form, and not easily to
be distinguished from a piece of earth, until, on the approach of
danger, it suddenly plunges into the water. In the act of diving,
when surprised, it gives a smart blow to the water with its tail. Its
flesh is eaten by the natives, though it has a strong musky flavour.
The fur is used for hat-making. The Musquash breeds three times
in the year, producing from three to seven at a birth.
The Mole-Rat [Aspaiomys typhlus, Laxmann). Sfalax
typhlus, Guldenst. ; Aspalax typhhis, Desm. ; Zemni, Rzaczinski ;
Slepez, Gmelin ; Podolian Marmot, Pennant.
This strange animal (which forms the type of a distinct family, the
Georhychidce, or Mole-Rats) is expressly organised as a miner. The
body is Mole-shaped, and covered with close fur; the limbs are short
and thick, with strong short claws. The head is broad and flat,
with a lateral margin or ridge running from the great naked nose to
the ears, and indicated by a line of white stiff hairs. Breadth of
head across, 2\ inches ; length the same. Total length, 11 inches.
Tail wanting. Teeth white : general colour, pale sandy ash-grey ;
the hairs pale lead colour at the base. The specimen from which
fig. 47S. — Musc^uash.
Fig. 479.— Mole-Rat.
these notes were made (in the Paris Museum), was brought from
Russia (" le pays des Cosaques du Donn") : a second specimen,
from Syria, was smaller ; 8i inches long, with bright-orange teeth,
and the lateral ridg'e of the head not fringed with white hairs ; its
colour also was darker.
The Mole-Rat is a native of Asia Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia, and
Southern Russia between the Tanais and Volga. The Russians
term it Slepez, or the blind ; and the Cossacks, Sfochor Nomon,
which has the same meaning. It is generally supposed to be the
(iujraXa? (Aspalax) of Aristotle ; but as a species of Mole inhabiting
Europe [Talpa caca) has the eyes also rudimentary, this point is
doubtful. In the Mole-Rat the eye is a minute black grain lying be-
neath the skin, which passes over it, and is besides covered with the
fur : it is evident that the sense of vision is denied to this creature;
but, by way of amends, its internal organs of hearing are largely
developed, and the external orifice is wide, though the conch of the
ear is almost obsolete. The mouth is small ; the tip of the nose is
largely bare and cartilaginous, with the nostrils wide apart and
placed below. The Mole-Rat has much of the manners of our com-
mon Mole : it is gregarious, and its burrows are clustered together.
Rich level plains are its favourite localities. Its burrows consist of
THE SAND-RAT AND POUCHED-RAT.
185
galleries at a little distance below the surface of the earth, which
communicate with chambers sunk to a greater depth. From its
galleries it drives lateral passages in search of roots, particularly of
the bulbous Clucrophyiluiii , on which it feeds. According to Rzac-
zinski, it also devours grain, of which it amasses a store in its
burrow for winter consumption. Its actions are sudden and quick,
but irregular; and it moves along with equal ease both forwards and
backwards. It burrows very expeditiously. In the morning it often
quits its retreat and basks with its mate in the sun. At the least
noise it raises its head to listen, and in a menacing attitude ; when
attacked, it snorts and gnashes its teeth, and defends itself reso-
lutely, inflicting severe wounds. There is a superstition among the
people of the Ukraine, that the hand which has suffocated one of
these animals is gifted with the virtue of curing scrofulous affections.
(See Fig. 479.)
The CAN.-iDA Sand-Rat {Geotfiys bursarius). Mtis biirsarius,
Shaw. — Fischer regards, and perhaps correctly, the genera Sacco-
^hortis, Pseudostoina, Diplosfoma, and Saccojnys, as synonymous
with the genus Gcomys of Rafinesque (family Psamnioryctidcs), and
■ Fig. 4S0.— Canada Sand-Rat.
which is represented by the Sand-Rat, distinguished by large cheek-
pouches, which, when full, have an oblong form, and nearly touch the
ground ; but when empty, are retracted for three-fourths of their
length. (See Fig. 480.) Their interior is very glandular, particu-
larly the orifice that opens into the mouth. The incisors are illi
4-4
^ JK l\
Fig. 4S1. —Skull and Teelh of Canada Sand- Rat,
Fig. 481 represents the skull and teeth of Gcomys, as given by Dr.
Richardson : i, 2, 3, skull, natural size, in different views: 4, lower
jaw; 5, palate and upper teeth ; 6, upper grinder magnified. Fig.
4S2 represents the teeth of Geomys (Saccomys, V. Cuv.) enlarged.
The skull is large and depressed ; the nose short ; the nasal and
frontal bones are in the same plane ; the palate is very narro\» and
Fig. 4S2.— Teclh of Canada Sand-Rat.
the zygomatic arch is but little depressed below the upper surface of
the skull.
The nostrils are somewhat lateral ; the mouth is contracted ; the
pendulous cheek-pouches are thinly clothed with short hairs, and
sometimes almost naked — they open into the mouth by the side of
the molar teeth ; auditory openings large, external ear almost obso-
lete ; eyes small and far apart ; body cylindrical ; tail of moderate
length, round, tapering, and more or less hairy. Limbs short ; toes
five on each foot, with strong claws.
Dr. Richardson observes that the Sand-Rats burrow in sandy soils,
and feed on acorns, nuts, roots, and grass, which they convey to
their burrows in their cheek-pouches ; they throw up little mounds of
earth, like Mole-hills, in summer, but are not seen abroad in the
winter season. Speaking of the Columbia Sand-Rat, he observes, that
when in the act of emptying its pouches it sits up like a Marmot or
Squirrel, and squeezes the sacs against its breast with its fore-paws
and chin. These animals commit great havoc on the potato-fields.
This animal is about the size of a common Rat, and of a pale
greyish-brown. A specimen of the Mole-like Sand- Rat ((?. falpoidcs)
is preserved in the collection of the Zoological Society of London.
It was a native of the borders of the Saskatchewan.
The Camas Pouched-Rat [Dip/ostofna bidbivoriini).—T\\c
animals of this genus differ from those of the genus Geo7nys, in
/
Fig. 4S3.— Camas Pouched-Rat.
having cheek-pouches which open e.xtemally at the sides of the
mouth, and are carried inwards and downwards along the side of
the lower jaw ; these pouches are not pendulous ; the mouth is a
vertical fissure nearly an inch long, entirely exposing the incisors ;
and the lateral fold of skin before the opening of the pouch is
covered internally and externally with fur. The iDody resembles that
of a great Mole with a large clumsy head.
2B
1 86
THE COAST-RAT, RABBIT CERCOMYS, AND OCTODON.
The animals of this genus were termed " Gauffres," by the early
French travellers : there appear to be several species.
The Camas Pouched-Rat is common in N. America, on the banks
of the Columbia river, and the Multnomah, where it is known under
the name of Camas-Rat, because the bulbous root of the Quamash or
Camas-plant {Sci'lla csciilenta) forms its favourite food. It is eleven
inches long-, and of a chestnut-brown colour. These animals, the
Gauffres of the French, are excessively voracious, and they are very
destructive to beets, carrots, and similar vegetables. They live
almost exclusively under-ground, working their way like a Mole, and
are said to fill their cheek-pouches with the earth by means of their
paws, and to empty them of their contents at the mouth of the
burrow.
The Coast- Rat {Bafhiergus maritimus).—'\.\\Q dental form of
Bathiergus {Orycterus, F. Cuv.) is as follows : — Molars,
4-4
4-4
(see
Fig. 484.). In this genus are comprehended several species of Mole-
like Rodents peculiar to Africa, the whole form and organisation of
Fig. 4S4. — Teeth of Coast-Rat.
which fit them for an under-ground existence. The most remarkable
is the Coast-Rat, or Sand-Mole of the Downs. This species is a
native of Southern Africa, frequenting sandy tracts along the coast.
On the surface of the ground it proceeds slowly, but it burrows with
great rapidity, and works out long galleries, throwing up hillocks as
does the Mole. In some districts these are extremely numerous,
rendering it dangerous to pass over them on horseback, and not
pleasant even on foot, the earth, where excavated, suddenly giving
way. This animal is about a foot in length, exclusive of the tail,
which is about three inches. The incisors are of enormous size, and
those above have a deep longitudinal furrow down the front ; and a
hairy palate e.xtends behind them. The general colour is greyish-
ash. (See Fig. 485.)
Fig. 485.— Coast-Rat.
The Rabbit Cercomys. — This animal, which in shape resembles
a Rat, represents the genus Cercomys, closely allied to that of
The molars are - — 3; rooted.
4-4
The general colour of this species is deep brown above, paler on the
sides and cheeks ; all the under-parts are whitish ; the tail is lon^^,
Echymys, containing the Spiny Rats.
like that of the Rat ; ears and eyes large. It is a native of Brazil.
The teeth of the genus Echymys (a South American group) are
shown in Fig. 487.
Cuming's Octodon (Octodon Cumingii). Dendrobius Degiis,
Meyen. — The family Octodontida was established for a few allied
Fig. 4S6. — Rabbit Cercomys.
I
1
Fig. 4S7. — Teeth of Echymys.
genera peculiar to South America, of which that termed Octodon is
the type. Molars, 4 — 4_ jjig antorbital foramen is as large as the
4-4
orbit, or nearly so. The descending ramus of the lower jaw is deeply
emarginated behind, and the posterior angle acute. Fig. 488 repre-
sents the skull of the Octodon in different views.
I
I
Fig. 488. — Skull of Cuming's Octodon.
Cuming's Octodon, in size and shape, resembles a Water- Rat.
General colour, brownish-grey, clouded with dusky black ; under-
surface, dusky grey ; base of the tail beneath, nearly white. (See Fig.
489.)
These animals are exceedingly abundant in the central parts of
Chile. They frequent by hundreds the hedge-rows and thickets,
where they make burrows which communicate with one another. In
the neighbourhood of Valparaiso multitudes may be seen together
feeding fearlessly in the day-time. Sometimes they ascend the
lower branches of small shrubs, but not often. They are very de-
THE TUCUTUCO AND THE UTIA.
187
structive to fields of young corn. On being disturbed, they all run
like Rabbits to their burrows. Wlien running they carry their tails
raised up, more like Squirrels than Rats ; and tliey also sit up like
those animals. According to Molina, they lay up a winter store of
food, but do not become dormant. The Octodon is the Degu of that
writer : he says that the Indians used formerly to eat them with much
Fig. 4S9. — Cuming's Octodon.
relisli. Piebald and albino varieties are not uncommon. The
greatest enemy of these active little creatures is a species of Horned-
Owl, which feeds chiefly upon them.
The Tucutuco {Cicnoiiiys MagcIIaniciis). — General colour
brownish-grey, tinged with yellow, and slightly varied by a blackish
tint ; under-parts paler ; chin and throat pale fawn. Length of head
and body about seven inches; of the tail, about two inches and a
quarter. Toes, as in the Octodon, five on each foot. Fig. 490 repre-
sents the skull of this animal.
Fig. 490.— Skull of Tucutuco.
Locality.— The east entrance of the Strait of Magelhacns at Cape
Gregory, and the vicinity (King;. The wide plains north of the
Rio Colorado are undermined by these animals ; and near the Strait
of Magelhaens, where Patagonia blends with Tierra del Fuec^o, the
whole sandy country forms a great warren for them. (See 'Fit^
491.)
Mr. Darwin (" Journal and Remarks") gives a circumstantial ac-
count of this curious animal, which he well describes as a Rodent
with the habits of a Mole. The Tucutuco, says that author " is ex-
tremely abundant in some parts of the country, but is difficult to be
procured, and still more difficult to be seen when at liberty. It lives
almost entirely under-ground, and prefers a sandy soil with a gentle
inchnation The burrows are said not to be deep, but of great
length._ They are seldom open ; the earth being thrown up at the
mouth into hillocks, not quite so large as those made by the Mole
Considerable tracts of country are so completely undermined by these
animals, that Horses, m passing over, sink above their fetlocks.
.Lhe Tucutucos appear, to a certain degree, to be gregarious. The
man who procured specimens for me had caught si.>c together, and
he said this was a common occurrence. They are nocturnal in their
habits ; and their principal food is afforded by the roots of plants,
which IS the object of their extensive and supcrlicial burrows. Azara
says they are so difficult to be obtained, that he never saw more than
one. He states that they lay up magazines of food within their
burrows. This animal is universally known by a very peculiar noise
Fig. 491. — Tucutuco.
which it makes when beneath the ground. A person, the first time
he hears it, is much surprised: for it is not easy to tell whence it
comes, nor is it possible to guess what kind of creature utters it.
The noise consists in a short but not rough nasal grunt, which is
repeated about four times in quick succession ; the first grunt is not
so loud, but a little longer and more distinct than the three follow-
ing : the musical time of the whole is constant, as often as it is
uttered. The name Tucutuco is given in imitation of the sound. In
all times of the day, where this animal is abundant, the noise may be
heard, and sometimes directly beneath one's feet. When kept in a
room, the Tucutucos move both slowly and clumsily, which appears
owing to the outward action of their hind-legs ; and they are like-
wise quite incapable of jumping even the smallest vertical height.
When eating they rest on their hind-legs, and hold the piece in their
fore-paws ; they appear also to wish to drag it into some corner.
They are very stupid in making any attempt to escape; when angry
or frightened, they utter the Tucutuco. Of those I kept alive,
several, even the first day, became quite tame, not attempting to bite
or to run away ; others were a little wilder. The man who caught
them asserted that many are found blind. A specimen which I pre-
served in spirits was in this state. When the animal was alive, I
placed my finger within half an inch of its head, and not the slightest
notice was taken : it made its way, however, about the room nearly as
well as the others."
The Utia {Caproniys Ftirnicri). Isodon Pilorides, Say. — Mr.
Waterhouse considers the genus Caproniys as one of those included
in the Histricine section of Rodents. The anterior paws have four
toes and a rudimentary thumb ; the hind-feet are thick, broad, and
strong, and five-toed ; the claws are strong ; the soles of all the feet
are naked, and covered with a coarse granular black skin, divided
into pads by deep fissures. The muzzle is obtuse ; the nostrils are
Fig. 492. — Muzzle and Paws of Utia.
open, oblique, edged cxteraally with an elevated rim, and separated
by a medial furrow, running to the fissure of the upper lip. The
whiskers are long; the tail is annulated with a scaly epidermis, with
short thinly-set hairs from between each scale. (Sec Fig. 492 : a.
THE UTIA AND THE COYPU.
muzzle ; b, portion of tail ; c, under-part of fore-foot ; d, under-part
of hind-foot.) The ears are moderate, erect, almost rounded. Molars,
^— :5, with the crown traversed by folds of enamel. Eyes small.
4-4
This animal is a native of Cuba, where it is known by the name of
Utia. It appears to have been described by Bomare and Oviedo
300 years ago. The general colour of the Utia is glossy brown,
F^g- 493-— Utia.
grizzled with yellowish-grey; the muzzle, chest, and under-parts
greyish-white ; the fur of a coarse texture ; length about 2 feet 2
inches, of which the tail is eight inches. (See Fig. 493.)
With respect to the habits "of the Utias in a wild state, it is only
known that they are found in the woods, that they climb trees with
great facility, and that they live on vegetables. From observations
on those kept in a domesticated state, M. Desmarest gives the
following details : — Their intelligence appears to be developed to as
great a degree as that of Rats and Squirrels, much more so than
that of Rabbits and Guinea-pigs. They have, indeed, a great share
of curiosity. At night they are very wakeful, and the form of the
pupils is indicative of nocturnal habits. The sense of hearing does
not appear to be so acute as that of Rabbits or Hares. Their nostrils
are incessantly in motion, especially when they smell any new object.
Their taste is sufficiently delicate to enable them to distinguish and
reject vegetables which have been touched by animal substances, to
which they manifest the greatest repugnance. They agree perfectly
well together, and sleep close by each other. When they are apart
they call each other by a sharp cry, differing little from that of a
Rat. _ Their voice, when they express pleasure, is a low soft kind of
grunting. They scarcely ever quarrel except for food— as when one
piece of fruit is given between both ; in that case one seizes and
runs away with it, until the other is able to take it from him. They
sometimes play for a long time together, holding themselves upright
in the manner of Kangaroos, firmly supported upon the broad soles
of their hind-feet and the base of the tail, and striking each other
with their paws, until one of them, finding a wall or some other body
against which to support himself, acquires an additional power, and
gains an advantage ; but they never bite each other. Towards
other animals they manifest the greatest indifference, paying no
attention even to Cats. They are fond of being caressed, and par-
ticularly of being scratched under the chin. They do not bite, but
slightly press with the incisor teeth the skin of those who caress
them. _ They do not ordinarily drink, but occasionally suck up water
as Squirrels do. Their food consists of vegetables exclusively, such
as cabbage, succory, grapes, nuts, bread, apples, &c. They are not
very dainty in the choice of their food, but still have a particular
fondness for strong-flavoured herbs and aromatic plants, as worm-
wood, rosemary, geraniums, pimpernel, celery, &c. Grapes pleased
them much, to obtain which they would instantly climb up a long
pole, at the top of which the fruit was placed. They are also fond
of bread steeped in aniseed, or even wine. These animals are plan-
tigrade : their movements are slow, and their hinder parts are em-
barrassed when they walk, as is obser\'able in the Bear. They leap
occasionally, turning suddenly round from head to tail like the Field-
Mouse. When they climb, which they do with the greatest ease,
they assist themselves with the base of their tail as a support, and
the same in descending. In certain positions, on a stick for ex-
ample, the tail serves as a balance to preserve their equilibrium.
They often raise themselves to a listening attitude, sitting erect, with
the paws hanging down, like Rabbits and Hares. In eating they
employ sometimes only one, sometimes both their fore-paws ; the
former is the case when the substance they are holding is small
enough to be held between the fingers and the tubercle at the base
of the thumb.
The Coypu {Myo^otamus Coypu). Quoiya, d'Azara ; Coui, Mo-
lina ; Hydromys Cnypiis, Geoff. ; Ahts Castorides, Burrow. — This
animal is placed by some naturalists among the Casioridcr, or
Beavers, but differs from them in its round hairy tail. It is a much
smaller animal than the true Beaver.
The Coypu is common in certain districts of South America, as
Chile, Buenos Ayres, and Tucuman. The head is large ; the muzzle
obtuse : the ears small and round ; fore-feet with a rudimentary
thumb and four toes, all free : hind-feet plantigrade, with five toes,
of which the outermost only is free, the rest palmated. Tail strong
and scaly, and sprinkled with scattered hairs. Molars 2 — 4, in-
4-4
creasing in size from the first to the last, with winding folds of
enamel (see Fig. 494.) The eyes are small, approximating to each
•"SX
Fig. 494. — Teeth of Coypu.
other, and placed high in the head. Behind the upper incisors there
is a hairy palate or space, a peculiarity noticed also in Bathiergus.
The body is clothed with two sorts of hair, an under-garment of fine
close fur almost water-proof, and an upper layer of long, shining,
straight hairs of a rich brown, which is the general colour, the muzzle
being dirty white. The limbs are short but strong ; and the move-
ments of the animal on land are slow and crawling. (See Fig. 495.)
Fig. 495.— Coypu.
The Coypu remained unknown to the scientific world, while
hundreds of thousands of its skins, under the name of Racoonda,
had been, for more than forty years, annually imported into Europe,
for the sake of the fine under-fur, which, like that of the Musquash
and Beaver, was extensively used in the manufacture of hats.
This animal is gregarious and aquatic, residing in burrows which
it excavates along the banks of rivers : and in these burrows the
female produces and rears her young, from three or four to seven in
number, to which she manifests great attachment. In the Chonos
Archipelago, according to INIr. Darwin, these animals, instead of
THE PORCUPINE FAMILY.
189
inhabitin.s: fresh water, live exclusively in the bays or channels which
extend between the innumerable small islets of that ffroup. The in-
habitants of Chiloe, who sometimes visit this Archipelago for the
purpose of fishing, state that these animals do not live solely on
vegetable matter, as is the case with those inhabiting- rivers, but that
they sometimes eat shell-fish. The Coypu is said to be a bold animal,
and to fight fiercely with the Dogs employed in chasing it. Its flesh
when cooked is white and good to eat. An old female, procured on
these islands, weighed between ten and eleven pounds. An extensive
trade in the skins of these animals is carried on at Buenos Ayres,
where they are improperly called " Nutrias," or Otters. In captivity
the Coypu soon becomes gentle and attached ; and is evidently
pleased with marks of attention from those with whom it is familiar.
Length of adult male, I foot II inches, exclusive of the tail which is
1 foot 3 inches.
The HYSTRiciDi-E, OR Porcupines.
The Porcupine family, or Hystricidce, are distinguished from
other Rodoitia by the spiny excrescences on their bodies, which,
however, in some of the American species are almost concealed by
the fur. They are divided into the genera Hystrix, Erethizoti,
Syncthercs, (Sic, and are respectively distributed over Europe and
North Asia, Africa, India and its islands, and North and South
America. All the Porcupines have the molars four in each jaw on
each side ; nearly equal in size, and furnished with distinct roots ;
when worn, the surfaces present tortuous folds of enamel. (See Fig.
496, the teeth of Hystri.x, and Fig. 497, the teeth of Ercthizon.)
Fig. 496. — Teeth of H3'strix.
The tongue is rough with papilla;, like those of the Cats ; the head
is short and blunt ; the nostrils large and open ; the cars and eyes
comparatively small ; and tlic general form thick and clumsy.
Two figures (Figs. 498 and 499) represent the skull of a species
termed, by F. Cuvicr, Acanthion jaratiiciim, and that of the
common Porcupine, by way of comparison. With respect to the
Fig. 49S. — Skull of Acanthion Javanicum.
Fig. 497. — Teeth of Ercthizon.
Fig. 499. — Skull of Common Porcupine.
genus Aca7ithio7i, founded by F. Cuvier on the characters of two
skulls, one of which was brought from Java, we are strongly inclined
to consider it identical with the genus Atkerura of Baron Cuvier;
though the latter, in his " Regne Animal," makes no allusion to the
genus proposed by his brother. Fischer gives the Acajithioii
java7iiciiin of F. Cuvier as identical with the fasciculated Porcupine
{Atheriira fasciculata),z.'!\6^ is probably correct. The fasciculated
Porcupine has been long known to science, and is figured by Buffon
as the " Pore-epic de Malacca ; " but it was not till some time after
his death that a specimen reached Europe.
The name of Porcupine, given to these animals, is derived from
the French name, and signifies "Spiny Pig" — a denomination
which is justified not only by the heavy Pig-like appearance of the
animals, but also by their peculiar grunting voice. They are found
in both hemispheres ; but those of the Old World differ greatly in
their habits from those of the American continent.
The Common Porcupine {Histrix crisfafa). Pore-epic of
the French : Istrice of the Italians; Stachelschwein, Dornschwein,
and Porcopick of the Germans. — This spine-covered animal is
found in Italy, throughout Africa, in Southern Tartary, the borders
of the Caspian Sea, Persia, and India; it was observed by Mr.
Hodgson inhabiting the central and lower regions of Nepdl. \\'hen
full-grown it is upwards of two feet in length ; but the specimens
from Italy are generally smaller than the African, and have shorter
quills. It would appear that in Italy it is not indigenous, but has
become naturalised. (See Fig. 500.)
The Porcupine is a nocturnal animal, of quiet and secluded
habits, passing the day in its subterranean retreat, for the digging
of which its muscular limbs and stout claws are well adapted. At
night it steals forth to feed ; roots, bark, fruits, and vegetables con-
stitute its diet. In winter it appears to undergo a pirtial hiberna-
tion. Sluggish and timid, the Porcupine is yet enabled, clothed in
its array of spears, to repel the assault of enemies : when driven to
act on the defensive, he bends his head down, turns his back
towards his assailant, erects his spines, and receiving the r.ash
assault, pushes them forcibly by the action of the whole body against
the aggressor. The wounds thus inflicted are very severe, and do
not heal readily. The spines of the Porcupine are of two sorts : one
sort being long, slender, and bending ; the other spines, concealed
beneath the former, are short, thick in the middle, and tapering to a
sharp point ; they are ringed black and white. The length of the
short spines, which are the true eftective weapons, is from four to
ten inches, and the point, which consists of flint-like enamel, is
somewhat compressed with two slightly raised and opposite ridges,
which, when minutely examined, are found to be finely jagged.^
There is another sort of furniture on the tail— namely, a number of
6xy, hollow, open quills, of considerable circumference, and sup-
ported upon long and very slender stalks, which vibrate with every
motion. When the Porcupine clashes these together they produce a
190
THE PORCUPINES.
rustling noise. The apparatus by which the spines and these hollov;
rattles are clashed and raised consists of a strong muscular expan-
sion underneatli, and adherent to the thick skin. From the raising
and clasliing of the spines, and perhaps the accidental falling of one
looser than the rest (about to be shed naturally), has arisen the belief
that the animal was capable of darting his spines, like a javelin,
point foremost — an error which we need" not stay to confute.
Fig. 500. — Porcupine.
Among the Old World species are the Sumatran Porcupine
{^Hysfrix lo7igicauda) and the Javan Porcupine {Hystrix java-
nica). — Specimens of the species may be seen in the menagerie of
the Zoological Society in Regent's Park, London.
The American Porcupines, of which there are at least seven
species, differ from the Eastern Porcupines in their habit of ascend-
ing trees ; and with the exception of one species, the Ercfhizoiz
dorsata, or North American Porcupine, they are all furnished with
long prehensile tails. The species thus provided form the genus
Cerco/ahcs, and are peculiar to South America. Among these is —
The BRAZiLi.'iN Porcupine {Cercoiabes, or Synctheres p-elmi-
silis). Cuandu of Marcgrave ; Coendu, Buffon ; Prehensile Porcu-
pine of Pennant.— In Brazil we are presented with the species
Fig. 501. — Brazilian Porcupine.
termed Cuandu, decidedly organised as a climber, having a prehen-
sile tail, resembling that of the Opossum. The muzzle is broad
and short; the head convex in front, the spines rather short; the
tail very long, and naked for half its length. The feet have only
four toes. The length of this species is about two feet, exclusive of
the tail, which is about eighteen inches ; the nose is covered with
brownish hair ; the ears are nearly naked ; the body is covered
above with spines ; the longest
^ (on the lower part of the back)
are about three inches in length ;
those on the sides and base of
the limbs are the shortest. All
are sharp, and barred near their
points and roots with white ;
brown in the middle. The basal
half of the tail is clad with sliort
spines ; the breast, under-parts,
and lower portion of the limbs,
with dark brown bristles.
• The Brazilian Porcupine ap-
pears very much to resemble the
Canada Porcupine in its habits,
living in woods, sleeping by day,
and feeding on fruits, &c., by
night. Marcgrave states that
its voice is like that of a Sow.
The quills are stated to have the
same penetrating and destructive
quality as those of the Canadian
species. It is a sluggish animal,
climbing trees very slowly, and
holding on with its prehensile
tail, especially in its descent. It
grows very fat, and the tlesh is
said to be white and well-tasted.
Our cut is taken from a speci-
men formerly in the garden of
the Zoological Society. (See
Fig. 501.)
The Chinchillid.^, or
Chinchillas.
The family of the Chinchil-
lidcB, or Chinchillas, includes a
small number of elegant little
animals, w'hich are entirely con-
fined to South America, where
the greater part of them inhabit
the mountains at a considerable
altitude. In these, the hind-feet are considerably longer than the
anterior ; and the animals, when feeding, always sit upon their
haunches, and hold the food between the short fore-paws. The cars
are very large and broad ; the tail is long, and covered above with
long hairs, which form a large tuft at the tip, and the molar teeth are
composed of three transverse laminae of bony matter and enamel,
united by cement. The clavicles are complete.
The fur of the Chinchillas is very thick, and of a soft, woolly
texture, especially in those species which live at a considerable alti-
tude ; it is usually of a grey colour, very elegant in its appearance ;
and that of some species, especially the Chinchilla (Eriomys
lanigcr), is greatly admired for winter clothing. With one excep-
tion, these animals are found upon the Andes, in Chili, and Peru.
Here they live in societies, retreating into natural cavities amongst
the rocks, and only making their appearance on the surface at night.
The Mountain Viscacha {Lagidiuiii Cttvieri) lives on the plateaux
of the Peruvian Andes, always at an elevation of at least twelve or
thirteen thousand feet, and usually near the line of perpetual snow.
It is a larger animal than the Chinchilla, but its fur is not of so much
value. The Viscacha [Lagostomus trichodactylus), a species
nearly allied to the preceding, inhabits the great plains of Buenos
Ayres, where it digs burrows for itself; it is the largest species, but
its skin is held in no esteem. These species are more fully described
as follows : —
The Chinchilla {Ertomys or Chinchilla lanigerj. — The
Chinchilla appears to have attracted, in very early times, the notice
of travellers, though the accounts scattered in their works have been
but little regarded by naturalists. In 1824, Schmidtmeyer, in his
travels over the Andes into Chili, notices the Chinchilla as a woolly
Field-Mouse which lives under-ground, and chiefly feeds on wild
onions. Its fine fur is well known in Europe ; that which comes
from Upper Peru is rougher and larger than the Chinchilla of Chili,
but not always so beautiful in its colour. Great numbers of these
animals are caught in the neighbourhood of Coquimbo, and
Copiapo, generally by boys with dogs, and sold to traders, who
bring them to Santiago and Valparaiso, from whence thev are
exported. The Peruvian skins arc either brought to Buenos Ayres
THE CHINCHILLA.
191
from the eastern parts of the Andes, or sent to Lima. The extensive
use of this fur has lately occasioned a very considerable destruction
of the animals. From this it would appear that there are two or
more species of Chinchilla, respectively Chilian and Peruvian, and
hence we suspect is to be accounted for, the difference in the colour
and quality of the Chinchilla fur, which wc have frequently observed.
Our examination of specimens in the
Paris museum also leads us to the
same conclusion.
A native of the valleys in the
high mountain districts of South
America, where the cold is often
very severe, the deep woolly coat of
the Chinchilla is well calculated for
preserving warmth. Whether in the
winter season the animal hibernates
or not, yet remains to be discovered.
Of its manners, indeed, we know
little. In captivity it is quiet, in-
offensive, and cleanly : it feeds
sitting up on its haunches like a
Squirrel, holding its food between
its fore-paws. Its ratio of intelli-
gence is on the same par with that
of the Rabbit or Guinea-pig ; hence
it displays no indications of attach-
ment to those who feed it, nor much
animation or playfulness. In its
Alpine valleys it associates in num-
bers (see Fig. 502), excavating bur-
rows, in which it resides. The
female breeds twice a year, produc-
ing from four to six young at a birth.
Various roots, especially those of
bulbous plants, constitute the diet of
the Chinchilla. The colour of the
fur of this species is clear grey
above, but varying in depth, and
passing into white on the under-
parts : its quality is exquisitely fine,
and its length renders it well adapted
for spinning. Indeed, Molina in-
forms us, that the ancient Peruvians,
who were far more industrious than
the modem, made of this wool coverlets for beds, and valuable stuffs.
The tail is covered with long bushy hairs, and usually kept turned
up towards the back. In length the Chinchilla measures about nine
inches, exclusive of the tail, which is five inches. The fore-limbs
are comparatively short : the head has much resemblance to that of
a young, full-haired Rabbit ; the muzzle is short and blunt, and
furnished with long whiskers ; the eyes are black ;
the ears are ample. The skull is remarkable for
the size of the antorbital foramen and the ampli-
tude of the tympanic bulla. The general skele-
ton is slightly built, and the bones are slender ;
the ribs are thirteen on each side. Fig. 503 re-
presents the skull and skeleton of the Chinchilla :
a, skull seen from above ; b, the same seen from
below ; c, the lower jaw.
Cuvier's L.A.GOTIS, OR Mountain Viscach.a.
{Lagidium Cuvicri, ox Lagotis Ciivieri). — In this
animal, the toes of the anterior as well as pos-
terior feet are four. The hind-limbs are consider-
ably developed ; the muzzle is somewhat elon-
gated and narrow, and furnished with long whis-
kers ; the eyes are moderate, but prominent ; the
ears are elongated, rounded at the tip, and rolled
inwards at the edges. The fur is soft, long, and
downy, and but loosely attached to the skin. The
tail of tolerable length, and bushy, with
stiff, wiry hairs. General contour Rabbit-like,
Fig- 504-)
M. Desmarest was the first to suggest that a
Viscacha observed by FeuiUee in Peru, and, as
he says, often domesticated in the houses at Lima,
was a distinct species from the Viscacha of the
Pampas ; and a careful examination of the scat-
tered notices published by travellers respecting
the Viscachas of the eastern and western sides
of the Andes, led Mr. Bennett to form the same
opinion, which was confirmed by the acquisition
of a living animal regarded as the Peruvian Vis-
cacha of the older writers. The references to the
Peruvian Viscacha by various of the early travellers in South Ame-
rica are by no means limited, and in collating them, Mr. Bennett
evinced a spirit of laborious research. He refers to Pedro de Ciera,
1554; Acosta, 1590; Garcilago de la Vega, 1C09; Nicrembcrg,
1635 ; Feuillee, 1725 ; and Antonio de Ulloa, 1772. The last writer,
in his " Noticias Americanus," gives a correct account of the habits
and manners of the animal in question. Mr. Bennett's translation
is as follows :— " Taking the place of the Rabbit, which is wanting
in Peru, there is another kind of animal, called Viscacha, which is
not found in Quito. In form and in the colour of the fur it is similar
Fig. 502. — Group of Chinchillas.
to the Rabbit, but differs from it in having a long tail furnished with
tufted hair, which is very thin towards the root, but thick and long
as it approaches the tip. It does not carry its tail turned over the
head like the Squirrel, but stretched out, as it were, in a horizontal
direction: its joints are slender and scaly. These animals conceal
themselves in holes of the rocks in which they make their retreats.
long,
(See
Fig. 503. — Skeleton and Skull of Chinchilla.
not forming burrows in the earth like Rabbits. There they congre-
gate in considerable numbers, and are mostly seen in a sitting
posture, but not eating : they feed on the herbs and shrubs that grow
among the rocks, and are very active. Their means of escape do not
iga
THE VISCACHA.
consist in the velocity of their flight, but in the promptitude with
■which they run to the shelter of their holes. This they commonly do
when wounded ; for which reason the mode of killin.s;' them is by
shooting them in the head ; as, if they receive the charge in any
other part, although much injured, they do not fail to go and die in
the interior of their burrows. They have this peculiarity, that as soon
as they die their hair falls off; and on this account, although it is
characters : — the molars consist of two oblique lamellae, excepting
the posterior one in the upper jaw, which consists of three ; anterior
feet with only four toes, hinder feet with only three ; tail moderate.
(See Fig.'5o6). Of this genus {Lagostoinus) we know but one species,
of which the earliest notice to be found is in Dobrizhoffer's " His-
toria de Abiponibus," 1784. He informs us that it is called by these
people Nehelaterek, and that it resembles a Hare with the tail of a
Fig. 504. — Cuvier's Lagotis.
softer and somewhat longer and finer than that of the Rabbit, the
skin cannot be made use of for common purposes. The flesh is
white, but not well flavoured, being especially distasteful at certain
seasons, when it is altogether repugnant to the palate." Molina
speaks of the employment of its wool among the ancient Peruvians ;
adding, that the Chilians of the present day (his work was originally
published in 1782, and reprinted with additions in i8io)use it in the
manufacture of hats.
The general colour of the Viscacha of the western acclivities of the
Peruvian Andes, or Cuvier's I,agotis, or Mountain Viscacha (Z.
Cuziicn), is greyish ash, clouded here and there with a tint of brown.
The hairs of the tail are mingled black and white. The ears equal
Fig. 505. — Skeleton and Skull of Cuvier's Lagotis, or Mountain Viscacha.
the head in length. The body measures sixteen inches, including
the head; the tail, about twelve inches. Fig. 505 represents the
skeleton, with the skull of this animal: a, skull seen from above;
b, the same seen from below ; c, lower jaw ; d, crown of the two
anterior molar teeth of the lower jaw enlarged ; e, crowns of the two
posterior molar teeth of the upper jaw, enlarged.
The Viscacha or Biscacha of the Pampas {Lagostomus
trychodactylus, Brookes). The Marmot Diana of Griffith.— Generic
Fig. 50C. — The Viscacha.
Fox. " It digs its burrows on the more elevated parts of the plains
with so much art, that no aperture is left by which the rain can pene-
trate, and these burrows are divided into distinct settlements, nu-
merous families inhabiting the same locality. On the surface of the
ground are several entrances into the burrow, at which, towards sun-
set, the animals may be seen seated in crowds, diligently listening
for the sound of any person approaching. If everything remains
quiet, they venture forth by moonlight to feed ; and commit sad
havoc on the neighbouring fields, for they devour both European
wheat and Indian corn with great avidity, despising grass when
either is to be obtained. Hence the stations of the Biscachas are
seldom to be met with in the desert plains, but indicate with cer-
tainty the proximity of Spanish settlements ; and it has often been
a matter of surprise to me that I have never seen the Biscacha in the
territories (though well covered with crops of all kinds) either of the
Abipones or the Guaranis. They are in the habit of heaping up at
the entrances of their burrow dry bones, chips of wood, and refuse
articles of every sort which fall in their way. The purpose, however,
for which these things are collected, is beyond con-
jecture. The Spanish colonists occasionally spend
an idle hour in hunting them ; they pour buckets
of water into the subterranean retreats of the crea-
tures, which to avoid being drowned issue forth
into the plain, where, without any means of escape,
they are killed with sticks. Their flesh, unless they
are very old, is not considered despicable even by
the Spaniards." In 1789, the Abbe Jolis wrote a
work, which, however, appears not to have been
completed, entitled " An Essay on the Natural
History of Granchaco " (Saggio sulla Storia Natu-
rale della Provincia del Granchaco) ; and in this he
gives, from long observation, a description of the
Pampas Biscacha, which differs in some particulars
from that of Dobrizhoffer. " They resemble," he
says, " our Hares, but have the body somewhat
more arched. They live in society, in burrows
under-ground, which they form for themselves, ex-
cavating in all directions to the extent of a mile in
circumference, with various exits and separate re-
treats, in which the old live distinct from the young.
The soil in which these are usually made is that
which is hard and barren, and destitute of ever)'-
thing, but with bushes (boscaglie) at no great dis-
tance, and pasture of tender grass, roots, and the
bark of trees. They collect around their retreats
bones, dried leaves, and whatever they find in the
neighbourhood ; if anythmg is missing in their dis-
tricts, it is to be found with certainty piled up in
these situations the following day. As they are
animals that avoid the light, having little power of
vision, they are not to be seen in the day-time,
unless at dawn, or towards evening after sunset. The night, and
especially when the moon shines, is the proper time for seeking
their food. Fierce and courageous, they defend themselves with
all their might against the Dogs, and sometimes even attack the
legs of the hunters."
But neither of those authors mentions the somewhat anomalous
companions with which the Biscachas are associated ; and we select,
from the travels of Proctor, Head, Miers, and Haigh, the account of
THE AGOUTIS.
"93
the first-named traveller, which, as Mr. Bennett observes, g-ives
nearly all the particulars which are to be found in the rest. " The
whole country, from Buenos Ayres to San Luis de la Punta, is more
or less burrowed by an animal between a Rabbit and a Badger,
called the Biscacha, which renders travelling dangerous, particularly
by night, their holes being so large and deep that a Horse is almost
sure to fall if he steps into one of them. The Biscacha never ventures
far from its retreat, and is seldom seen till the evening, when it
comes out to feed, and hundreds may be observed sporting round
their holes, and making a noise very similar to the grunting of Pigs.
Their flesh is much liked by the people, and they are remarkably
fat, and on that account, when caught at any distance from their
holes, are easily run down ; they will, however, defend themselves
from a Dog a considerable time. The holes of these animals are also
inhabited by vast numbers of small Owls, which sit, during the day,
gazing at the passing travellers, and making a very ludicrous ap-
pearance. The parts of the road most frequented by the Biscacha
are generally overrun by a species of small wild melon, bitter to the
taste ; whether it thrives particularly on the manure of the animal,
or whether the Biscacha chooses its hole nearer this running plant,
does not seem to have been ascertained."
The Viscacha of the Pampas of Buenos Ayres and Paraguay is,
when fully grown, as large as our common Badger. Above it is a
blackish-grey, beneath white. The head is large and obtuse, and a
whitish band, beginning on the nose, passes across the face beneath
each eye to the root of the ear, producing a sort of crescent-shaped
mask when the face is viewed in front. The sides of the lips are
furnished with a tuft of thickly-set whiskers, composed of long black
bristles ; and from the angles of the mouth across the cheeks, below
the white band, extends a brush of black bristles, stouter than those
of the whiskers, but shorter, the lowermost being sharply pointed.
This brush reaches the angle of the jaw, forming a beard : it does
not, however, end here abruptly, but may be traced by bristly hairs
intermingled with the fur across the shoulders as far as the middle of
the back. The ears are moderate and rounded : the fore-lege are
rather slender and short ; the hind-legs are long, and the metatarsal
portion reminds one of the same part in the limb of the Kangaroo,
though it is not so disproportionally elongated. At the heel there is a
long, naked, callous sole or pad, before which is a part covered with
hair : the toes are three in number, of which the middle is the most elon-
gated : all are furnished with strong hoof-like nails, and with naked
pads beneath. The tail is rather short, and covered with greyish-
brown hairs, of which the longest form a fringe on the upper surface :
it is generally kept retroverted on the back, The incisor teeth are
remarkably large and strong.
jf'g- 507. — Skeleton of Viscacha.
. Fig- 507 represents the skeleton of the Pampas Viscacha : a, under
view of skull; b, lower jaw; c, crown of the second molar tooth of
the left side of the lower jaw ; d, crown of the last molar tooth of the
right side of the upper jaw.
The AGOori— Family Dasyf>roct!dts.
The family termed Dasyp-octida next claims our notice. It cm-
braces two genera, Calogcnys and Dasyprocta. In these genera
the molars are ^~A, rooted, and bear much resemblance to those of
4-4
the Porcupines ; they are crowned with distinct tubercles, which,
wearing down with use, give place to winding lines of enamel, set in
the interior bony cement.
The genus Ccclogctiys includes the Pacas (a corruption of the word
Pag of the Brazilians, or Paig of the natives of Paraguay ; and Pakiri
of some of the tribes of Guiana).
These animals, the Pacas, are remarkable for a curious structural
peculiarity in the skull, which imparts a singular aspect to their
Fig. SoS.— Skull of Paca.
Fig. 509. — Upper Jaw of Paca.
physiognomy. We give a sketch of the skull of the Fulvous Paca
\Ca:logc7iys fulvus), in profile (Fig. 508), and as viewed on its palatal
aspect (Fig. 509). The peculiarity in question is the immense de-
velopment of the zygomatic arch, forming an expansive shield of
bone, almost concealing the lower jaw, rough and convex externally,
and deeply concave within. This broad projecting convex plate has
its concavity lined by a continuation or reduplicature of the skin of
the face, constituting a sort of pouch, with a narrow linear opening
just below the angle of the mouth, and having its edges, from which
the pouch leads directly upwards, almost if not quite destitute of
hair.
Notwithstanding this narrow orifice, the sac or pouch is so closed,
that it cannot be serviceable as the receptacle for food, for neither
is the orifice dilatable, nor the pouch, enclosed as the latter is within
walls of unyielding bone. The use of this sac is not ascertained :
perhaps a secretion of some kind may take place from the sub-zygo-
matic fold of skin ; but this remains to be determined. Besides the
sac described, the Pacas have true cheek-pouches of considerable
extent, opening from the mouth, and extending down the sides of the
neck, and below the inferior margin of the zygomatic shield.
The lower jaw, which is almost concealed, is shown at Fig. 510.
The characters of the molar teeth, worn by use, are well depicted.
2 C
194
THE 4G0UTIS.
Fig. 511 represents the germ of the first molar, before the tooth is
completely developed, in three views — namely, the outer aspect, the
inner aspect, and the crown with its tubercles. The Pacas are
animals of considerable size, and of a heavy clumsy figure, having a
thick muzzle, with the upper lip deeply cleft; a large inelegant
head ; prominent eyes, rounded ears, and stout limbs, of which the
Fig. 510. — Lower Jaw of r.ica.
Fig. 511.— Tooth of Taca.
hinder pair exceed in length the anterior ; but as the greater portion
of the tarsus rests habitually on the ground, the body smks even
lower at the haunches than at the shoulders. The fore-feet are
divided into five toes, of which the innermost is a mere rudiment,
seated high, and furnished with a small claw. The hind-feet have
also five toes, but of these the outermost on each side is small, and
seated high : the three central are large, strong, and furnished with
powerful iioof-like nails. The tail is wanting. The body is clothed
with short, stiff, wiry hairs.
The Dusky Paca.— This species, according to Cuvier, is identi-
cal with the Fulvous Paca ; but we have examined the skulls, and
find them different. In the former the bones of the skull are smooth,
and the zygomatic arches less inordinately developed. The general
colour of the Dusky Paca is brownish-black, with four lateral rows
of white spots, which begin on the shoulders and terminate on the
buttocks. The lowest line is almost confounded with the white of
the under-surface. The sides of the lower jaw, the throat, and
chest are also white. Total length of head and body, about two
feet; average height, fourteen inches. (See Fig. 512.) These
Fig. 512. — Dusky Paca.
animals are natives of the whole of the eastern portion of South
America, from Surinam to Paraguay, and formerly existed also in
some of the islands of the West Indies. Forests in the vicinity
of water ; wooded, marshy places ; and borders of rivers, are their
favourite localities : they inhabit burrows, which they excavate, but
so superficially, that they are apt to give way beneath the foot of a
person passing over them, no less to his annoyance than that of the
animal, which thus suddenly finds itself in open daylight. These
burrows have three openings, which the animal conceals with dry
leaves and branches. In order to capture the Paca alive, the hunter
stops two of these apertures, and proceeds to work at the third, till
he arrives at the chamber to which the avenues lead. Driven to an
e.xtremity, the Paca makes a desperate resistance, often inflicting
very severe wounds.
When not disturbed, the Paca often sits up and washes its head
and whiskers with its two fore-paws, which it licks and moistens
with its saliva at each ablution, like a Cat ; and with these fore-
paws, as W'ell as with the hind-ones, it often scratches itself and
dresses its fur. Though heavy and corpulent, it can run with a good
deal of activity, and often takes lively jumps. It swims and dives
with great adroitness, and its cry resembles the grunting of a young
Pig. Its food consists of fruits and tender plants, which it seeks in
the night, hardly ever quitting its burrow in the day, the strong
light of which, as is the case with other nocturnal animals, being
oppressive to its eye : the planter often rues the visits made by these
midnight foragers to his sugar-canes. The female is said to bring
forth at the rainy season, and to produce but a single young one,
which stays a long time with the mother. The Pacas are very
cleanly creatures in all their habits, and keep their subterranean
dwelling in a state of the utmost purity.
It appears that these animals root in the ground with their nose —
a circumstance which, taken in conjunction with their voice, a Pig-
like grunt, the bristly character of their hair, and the flavour of their
flesh, probably gave rise, as Mr. Bennett observes, to the com-
parisons made by the older writers between them and the tenant of
the sty. Those which we have seen in captivity were gentle, but
certainly not intelligent ; and so far we agree with F. Cuvier, who
observes that when the animal is offended, it throws itself violently
at the object which has displeased it, and then makes a kind of
grumbling, which at length breaks out into a sort of bark. The
greater part of the day it passes in repose, delighting in a soft bed,
which it forms of straw, hay, and similar materials, collecting the
materials with its mouth, and making a little heap, in the centre of
which it lies down. M. Buffon gives a detailed account of one of
these animals, which he kept alive in his house for some time, and
which was gentle and very familiar.
The flesh of these animals is in great estimation, and in some
districts is in ordinary consumption, but as it is fat and rich it is apt
to cloy. It is prepared for cooking by being scalded like a Sucking-
Pig and roasted. The fur is of no value, but the skin might be useful
if converted into leather.
The Agoutis {Dasyprocta, Illig. ; Chhrmys, F. Cuv.)— These
animals differ from the Pacas in the formation of the skull and the
conformation of the feet and toes. With respect to the former, the
zygomatic arch presents nothing of that strange development so
remarkable in the Pacas. The toes are distinctly four on each of
the anterior feet : of these the outermost toe on each side is small
and seated high, while the two middle are long, and armed with
Fig. 513. — Teeth of Agoutis.
stout claws. The hind-feet are divided into three toes, furnished
with claws of a hoof-like character, and of considerable strength.
The limbs are slender, and the hinder pair considerably exceed in
length the anterior : hence the pace of these animals is tolerably
rapid for a short distance, though they seldom trust to speed for
safety, but seek shelter and security in the first hollow tree they meet
with, or under a rock. Here they allow themselves to be captured,
without offering any resistance, only uttering a shaip plaintive note
THE AGOUTIS.
»9S
of alarm. The head of the Agouti is large, the forehead convex,
the nose swollen ; the ears round, short, and nearly naked ; the eyes
large and black ; the tail is very short, generally indeed a mere
tubercle. The hair is glossy and of a wiry character, and annulated
in different degrees with black, yellow, or white, and olive green.
The molars are tli, nearly all of the same size, and when worn
4-4
presenting winding folds of enamel on the flat crowns. It is impos-
sible to convey, by mere description, an idea of the figures which
these convolutions assume, and which vary in proportion to the
wearing down of the tooth : we therefore refer to Fig. 513, where a
and b represent respectively the upper and lower jaws. No. i repre-
sents the teeth when much worn down ; 2, the same in an inter-
mediate state ; and 3, the same when the tubercles are just effaced,
and the surface smoothed down to a level.
The flesh of the Agouti is in some districts highly esteemed, being
white and tender.
The Agoutis use the fore-paws as hands to convey their food to
the mouth, and usually sit upright on their haunches to eat : they
frequently also assume the same position in order to look around
them, or when they are surprised by any unusual sound or occur-
rence. Their food is exclusively of a vegetable nature, and consists
most commonly of wild yams, potatoes, and other tuberous roots ; in
the islands of the different West India groups they are particularly
destructive to the sugar-cane, of the roots of which they are ex-
tremely fond. The planters employ every artifice for destroying
them, so that at present they have become comparatively rare in the
sugar islands, though on the first settlement of the Antilles and
Bahamas, they are said to have swarmed in such countless multi-
tudes as to have constituted the principal article of food for the
Indians. They were the largest quadrupeds indigenous in these
islands upon their first discovery. The same rule of geographical
distribution holds good generally in other cases — viz., that where
groups of islands are detached at some distance from the mainland
of a particular continent, the smaller species of animals are usually
found spread over both, whilst the larger and more bulky are con-
fined to the mainland alone, and are never found to be indigenous in
the small insulated land.
Though the Agoutis use the fore-paws as described, yet they are
incapable of climbing trees ; and though the nails are strong, they
do not burrow, but conceal themselves in hollow trees, among fallen
logs and timber in the forest, and similar places of concealment.
Here they produce and rear their young, which are born with the
eyes closed : they soon become capable of shifting for themselves.
The Common Agouti {Dasyprocta acuta).— 'lh:\=, species is very
abundant in Brazil and Guiana, and occurs also in Paraguay, where
it was observed by D'Azara, who informs us that the Guarinis term
it Cotia : in size it is about equal to a Rabbit, but it rarely if ever
makes a burrow. It frequents densely-wooded districts in preference
to open lands, and generally takes up its residence in the hollow
trunks of decayed trees, where it remains concealed during the day.
This retreat usually serves for several individuals, for it appears to
be gregarious, associating in small troops consisting of eighteen or
twenty individuals. Its movements are rapid, active, and abrupt,
Fig. 514. — Common Agouti.
and when chased it bounds along like a Hare, to gain its accus-
tomed hiding-place : it is, however, seldom seen e.xcept during the
night, or as evening begins to sink into twilight.
_ In Brazil and Guiana the Agouti is exposed to wholesale destruc-
tion for the sake of its flesh, which is said to be intermediate in
flavour between the Hare and Rabbit ; but in Paraguay, according
to D Azara, no one eats it ; and M. Morcau St. Mery observes that
It has a strange sort of flavour, and is a dish of little relish to the
palate. The latter writer also informs us that the Agouti is common
in the island of St. Lucia, and also inhabits others of the West India
group ; and that in 1788 several were taken in St. Domingo, which
had made a hollow tree their domicile. It is said to breed several
times in a year, and to produce from three to six at a birth. The
general colour of tlie Agouti is grizzled reddish-brown, tinged on the
neck, chest, and under-surface with yellow. The hairs of the upper
and fore parts of the body are annulated with brown, yellow, and
black, which gives the animal a speckled yellow and green appear-
ance on the neck, head, back, and sides ; on the croup, however,
they are of a uniform golden yellow, much longer than on any other
part of the body, and directed backwards, concealing the tail, wliich
IS a mere naked stump ; the moustaches and feet black. The
general length of the hair on the upper and anterior parts of the
body is about an inch ; that of the croup is upwards of four inches
long ; and all, excepting the short coarse fur of the legs and feet,
and that on the breast and belly, is of a stiff, harsh nature, partaking
more of the quality of bristles than of simple hair. (See Fig. 514.)
The Golden Agouti differs from the common species principally
in its brighter colouring.
The Black Agouti {Dasyprocta cristata).—'Y\i\% species, to
which the term crested {cristata) is ill applied (since the hairs of the
head and neck are not longer than those of the shoulders), is smaller
than the common species, but its general proportions and form are
the same ; it differs, however, in colour, for the hairs of the back and
sides, instead of being annulated with various tints, as in that
animal, are nearly of a uniform black, whilst the long hairs of the
croup are perfectly so. A specimen we regarded as the Black
F'S- 5'S- — Black Agouti.
Agouti, in the Paris Museum, might be thus described: — Black,
beautifully freckled with pure white, especially about the cheeks and
sides, each hair on those parts being once ringed with white ; length,
twenty inches. (See Fig. 515.)
The Acouchi {Dasyprocta actichi). — This animal differs from
the Agouti in being of a much smaller size, lighter make, and
deeper colour, and especially in having a much longer tail, this ap-
pendage measuring two inches : it is very slender, being not much
thicker than a crow-quill, and covered with short scattered hairs.
Fig. 516. — Acouchi.
Its manners resemble those of the Agouti, and it also inhabits the
woods of Guiana, but is not by any means so common as that animal.
M. D'Azara was mistaken in asserting the Acouchi to be identical
with the Agouti ; and it is very obvious that he never saw the
former, for, if he had, the distinction could not have escaped his
notice ; indeed, it does not appear to be a n.ative of Paraguay.
Specimens of the Acouchi, as well as its skeleton, are in the museum
of the Zool. Soc. Two living individuals (now the museum speci-
mens alluded to) were described in the " Proceeds. 2ool. Soc,"
1830, by T. Bell, Esq., who obtained them from Guiana. "Both
individuals," he observes, "are mild and gentle in their disposi-
tions, but somewhat timid : they are, however, familiar with their
iq6
THE CAVIES.
master, and run to him whenever he enters the room in which they
are kept, and about which they are allowed to range during the
day. Their food is entirely vegetable ; they are especially partial
to nuts and almonds ; they drink but very little. They are extremely
cleanly, and take great pains to keep their fur in order, in cleansing
which they assist each other. They leap occasionally in play to a
considerable height, and frequently, in springing from the ground
to an elevation of two feet, descend on the spot from which they
rose. Their voice is a short, rather sharp, plaintive pur. The indi-
viduals, male and female, show great attachment to each other.
They frequently agitate their tails with a quick tremulous motion."
Mr. Bell observes that he had never, before the arrival of these
individuals, seen a specimen of the Acouchi, nor was he aware of the
existence of even a preserved skin in any English collection. It is
the Olive Cavy of Pennant. The general colour is olive, mixed
with yellow and black ; the hairs of the croup are not so long as in
the Agoutis, and black. (See Fig. 516.)
The Ca\^' — Family Cavidcs.
The Cavies {CavidcB) constitute a group which is one of the most
distinctly marked in the order Rodenfia, 3.a&.\\h\c\\ should not be
confounded with that of the Pacas and Agoutis, the difference being
very great, both as respects the conformation of the skull and the
characters of the teeth. The molars, as seen in the teeth of the
Guinea-pig [Cavi'a apcrecF, or cobaia), Fig. 517, and of the Kerodon,
Fig. 518, may be compared with those of the Agouti, Fig. 513,
p. 194, a)ite, and the wide distinction will be at once appreciated.
Fig. 517.— Teeth of Guinea-pig.
Fig. 518.— Teeth of Kerodon.
The molars are
lamellose, and composite ; the folds of
4-4'
enamel enclose triangular or cordiform interspaces. A projecting
ridge always occurs on the outer side of the ramus of the lower jaw.
In the genus Cavia the anterior feet have four toes, the posterior
three ; the nails are short and robust ; there is no tail. As an ex-
ample of this genus we may take the common Guinea-pig, the
domestic descendant of a species still common in a wild state in
various parts of South America. Mr. Darwin, who met with the
wild animal abundantly, states it to be " exceedingly common in the
neighbourhood of the several towns which stand on the banks of the
Rio Plata. It frequents different kinds of stations, such as hedge-
rows made of the agave and opuntia, or sand hillocks ; and again
marshy places covered with aquatic plants, the latter appearing to
be its favourite haunt. Where the soil is dry it makes a burrow, but
where otherwise it lives concealed amidst the herbage. These
animals generally come out to feed in the evening, and are then
tame ; but if the day be gloomy they make their appearance in the
morning. They are said to be very injurious to young trees. An
old male killed at Maldonado weighed i lb. 3 oz." Mr. Darwin
observed that in this animal the attachment of the fur to the skin is
very slight. Possessing but little intelligence and very timid, the
Guinea-pig is nevertheless tamed without any difficulty. Azara, who
kept one, remarks, that though he took no pains to make it familiar,
it manifested no fear when in his presence, and seemed quite uncon-
cerned. It is to this ease with which the wild animal becomes
domesticated that we owe the introduction of it into Europe, for,
excepting that it is a very pretty creature, there is nothing to render
it a valuable acquisition. It is, however, eaten by the native tribes
of Paraguay, who sometimes capture it by hundreds when, driven
from the lowlands by sudden inundations, it retreats for safety to the
adjacent hilly grounds, where it finds neither shelter nor conceal-
ment.
Of the genus K'crodon we may notice the Rock Kerodon [K'erodn?i
mocu, F. Cuv. ; Cavi'a rii;pesirts, Pr. Max). It is a native of the
rocky mountain districts in the interior of Brazil. It is less than the
Guinea-pig, and its fur is very thick and short. The colour is grey
mi.xed with black, and reddish-brown above, the under-parts being
white. A second species. King's Kerodon {Kerodon Kiiigii), was
introduced to science by Mr. Bennett. It was found by Captain
King at Port Desire, on the eastern coast of Patagonia. In size it
is less than the Guinea-pig, being about nine inches long. Its
colour is more uniform than that of the Rock Kerodon, and of a
deeper tint ; a slight dash of white is perceptible behind each ear,
and a line of the same tint marks the edge of each branch of the
lower jaw. Mr. Darwin states that this Kerodon " is common at
intervals along the coast of Patagonia, from the Rio Negro (lat. 40")
to the Straits of Magellan. It is very tame, and commonly feeds by
day. It is said to bring forth two young ones at a birth. At the
Rio Negro it frequents in great numbers the bottoms of old ruins.
At Port Desire it lives beneath the ruins of the old Spanish build-
ings. At the Straits of Magellan, I have seen, amongst the Pata-
gonian Indians, cloaks for small children made with the skins of this
little animal. And the Jesuit Falkner says that the people of one of
the southern tribes take their name from the number of these
animals which inhabit their country. The Spaniards and half-civi-
lised Indians call the Kerodon ' Conejos,' or Rabbit, and thus has
the mistake arisen that Rabbits are found in the neighbourhood of
the Straits of Magellan."
The Patagonian Cav-v^ or Mara {DoIicJwtis Pafac/wm'ca,
Desm. ; Cavia PatachoJiica, Shaw). — This large Cavy is rare in
European museums. A fine specimen, however, is preserved in the
British Museum and the Museum of the Zool. Soc. It is a beautiful
animal, standing high on the legs, with much of the port of some of
the bush Antelopes of Africa. Its height at the shoulder is about a
foot and a-half. Its length is about 2 feet 6 inches, including the
tail, which is nearly two inches long. It lives on the Pampas, south
of IBuenos Ayres, and especially in Patagonia. It is noticed by
Narborough, Wood, and Byron as being very abundant in Port
Desire, and also at Port St. Julian, where, however, it does not now ■
appear to exist. It is only where the country has a desert character
that this species is common ; and in the wilds of Patagonia, little
groups of two, three, or four may be continually seen hopping after
each other in a straight line, over plains of gravel thinly clothed
with a few thorny dreary bushes and a withered herbage. (See Fig.
519O
According to Azara, this Cavy does not range higher north than
latitude 35° ; but in this statement he appears to be mistaken, for
Mr. Darwin observed, that near the coast of the Atlantic its northern
limit is formed by the Sierra Tapalguen, in latitude 37° 30', where
the plains rather suddenly become greener and more humid ; and he
remarks that its limit there certainly depends on this change, since
near Mendoza, 33° 30' , four degrees farther northward, where the
country is very sterile, this animal again occurs. Azara states that
this Cavy never excavates its own burrow, but always uses that of
the Viscacha, or Biscacha ; and Mr. Darwin considers that where
THE CAPYBARA.
'97
tliat animal is present, Azara's statement is doubtless correct, but
that on the sandy plains of Bahia Blanca, where the Biscacha is not
found, this Cavy, as the Spaniards maintain, is its own workman.
The same thing, he adds, occurs with the little Owls of the Pampas
{Noctua cunicularia), which have been described by travellers as
standinjj like sentinels at the mouths of almost every burrow ; for in
Banda Oriental, owing- to the absence of the Biscacha, these birds
are obliged to hollow out their own habitations. Azara moreover
states that, e.\cept when pressed by danger, this Cavy does not have
I'atcigonian Cavy.
recourse to its burrow for safety, but crouches on the plains, or trusts
to its speed; adding, however, that it is soon run down. On the
contrary, Mr. Darwin asserts, that at Bahia Blanca he repeatedly
saw two or three animals sitting on their haunches by the mouths of
their holes, which they quietly entered as he passed by at a distance.
He remarks, however, that, different from most burrowing animals,
they wander, commonly two or three together, to miles or even
leagues from their home, and he was not able to ascertain whether
or not they returned at night. This species is diurnal in its habits,
roaming about by day. It is very shy and watchful, seldom squats
after the manner of a Hare, and cannot run fast, so that indifferent
Dogs easily overtake it. The female breeds in her burrow, generally
producing two young ones at a birth. The flesh of this animal is
white, but dry and insipid. The skin with the fur on is in esteem,
being used for rugs, and is beautiful from the character of the hair,
which is full and soft, and from the tasteful arrangement of the
marking. The colour of the back is brown, grizzled with white,
verging into yellow on the sides of the body and on the limbs, but
becoming black as it approaches the haunch : this dark hue is there
abruptly interrupted by a white band passing transversely above the
root of the tail, and spreading on the back and sides of the thighs.
The appearance of this white mark is very striking. The chest,
inside of the limbs, and under-part of the body, are also white. The
ears are three inches and a-half in length, erect and pointed. Full-
grown individuals weigh between twenty and twenty-six pounds.
The young, it is said, may be easily domesticated.
The Capybara, or Water-Pig {Hydrochcerus capybara).
Cabiai, Buff. — -The Capybara (the only known species of the genus
Ilydrochccriis) is the largest of all the Hodeniia ; and its size, its
massive, heavy proportions, its thick head, and the bristly character
of its hair, give it a degree of resemblance to some of the Pachy-
dcrmata. Marcgrave regards it as a sort of aquatic Hog ; Fermins, in
his " History of Surinam," 1775, terms it Parens fluviatilis, or River-
Hog ; while Pennant gives it the title of Thick-nosed Tapir. It is
also the Cochon d'eau of Desmarchais ; the Sus maximus^aliistris
of Barrere ; and the Sus hydrocJucrus. Pig-like as the Capybara
may be in its external aspect, it is nevertheless a genuine Rodent, as
much so as the Hare or Agouti. Its dentition consists of the usual
incisors, which are of prodigious size and strength : those in the
upper jaw have a deep longitudinal furrow on their outer surface.
The molars are four on each side, above and below ; and consist of
a series of obliquely transverse, parallel lamina; of enamel (Fig. 520),
presenting acute lateral projections in the three first teeth : these
projections are on the outer edge of the upper teeth and the inner
edge of the lower. The spaces enclosed by the layers of enamel are
filled in with osseous matter, and the whole is united into a single
mass by intervening cortical matter, or crusta petrosa. The molars
of the Capybara are in fact analogous to those of the Elephant.
We have stated that, in some Rodents, the fauces, or back of the
mouth, is continued funnel-shaped, opening into the oesophagus
through a small orifice surrounded by a muscle of circular fibres,
allowing only the gradual transmission of food which has been pre-
viously reduced to a thorough pulp. This structural peculiarity was
first pointed out in the Capybara by Mr. Morgan (" Linn. Trans.,"
vol. xvi.) ; but we meet with it also in the Coypu, the Capromys, and
the Beaver. (See " Proc. Zool. Soc." 1832, p. -^t,; 1835, p. 175-)
In the Capybara the head is large, the muzzle thick and blunt, the
upper lip deeply fissured ; the eyes are moderately large ; the ears
small and rounded. The naked patch, of the size of half-a-crown,
occupies the cheek a little below each eye. The fore-limbs arc short
hlrd'Z,?'-""' ' '' t°<-:^'^^■■">^^fo"^, furnished with strong claws Uie
n ; ; .^r .'••'' '° ""'■'■ ''?' '•''"-" "^•■'" "^o^<^ before, and the whole
^[n .nil ■"^'^ °r-''"' three in number, having strong large hoof-
hke nails, and being partially connected together by intervening^
Fig. 520. — Teeth of Capybara.
membranes. The tail, a mere rudiment, is scarcely to be perceived.
This animal exceeds 3 feet 6 inches in length, and its body, which is
rnore than 3 feet in girth, owing to its bulk and the shortness of the
limbs, almost touches the ground. It is covered with long, coarse,
thinly-set hairs of a sandy or brownish-grey. A line specimen,
stuffed, is preserved in the museum of the Zool. Soc, and a living
one may be seen in the gardens of that Society. (See Fig. 521.)
Fig. 521. — Capybara.
The Capybara is a gregarious animal, frequenting the rich and
wooded borders of the lakes and rivers in Brazil, Guiana, and Para-
guay. Mr. Darwin states that it is common wherever there are large
rivers or lakes, over that part of the South American continent which
lies between the Orinoco and the Plata, a distance of nearly 1,400
miles. They are not generally supposed to extend south of the
Plata ; but he heard that there were Capybaras (provincially termed
Laguna Carpincho) high up the Salado. and presumes that they
have sometimes been seen south of the former river. This animal
lives usually in small companies, which remain concealed among
the thickets and dense herbage of the borders of the water during
the day, and wander forth at night to feed. When alarmed, the
Capybara utters a loud cry like the vow-el sounds a-pr, and imme-
diately makes for the water, into which it plunges, swimming with
great ease and quickness, little more than its nose appearing above
the surface. If hard pressed or wounded, it dives in order to bafHe
its pursuers, and then endeavours to gain a more secure place of
concealment. It is eagerly hunted for the sake of its flesh, which is
accounted good, though of a musky flavour : the hind-quarters are
made into hams. Of its natural enemies, the terrible Jaguar is the
most formidable : this powerful beast steals ugon the Capybara by
surprise, and destroys numbers. The food of the Capybara consists
1 98
THE HARE FAMILY.
exclusively of grass and vesjetables, as water-melons, gourds, &c.
Azara does not believe that tliese animals ever frequent salt water.
Mr. Darwin shot one in the bay of Monte Video, an old female,
measuring, from the tip of the snout to the end of the stumji-Iikc tail,
3 feet 8i inches ; in girth, 3 feet 2 inchr .
and weighing gS lbs. Several also w.
seen by the officers of the Bcag! ■ -•■" •
island of Guritti, off Maldonadn,
the water is nearly as salt as in ih, ., .1.
On the banks of the Apure, HumboMi
saw the Capybara, which he calls Clii
guira, in troops of fifty or si.xty. lb
notices the ease of the Capybara in tin
water; and states that he saw with sur
prise the animals, affrighted by the ap
proach of a boat, dive and remain from
eight to ten minutes under water. On
the Apure, Arauco, &c., and in the va~
savannahs of the Llanos, the animal 1
said to be often seen in droves of a hun
dred. They there browse upon a sort of
grass called chiguirirero.
The common posture of the Capybara,
when atrest, is sitting upon the haunches,
the soles of the hind-feet being applied
flat to the ground, like the Agouti, the
Viscacha, and many others of the Ro-
dents. The female breeds once in a
year, and brings forth from four to six
or seven at a birth, having prepared a
snug bed of dried herbs and grasses.
The Hare — Family LeporidcB.
The Leporida, or Hares, are at once
distinguished from all the other Rodents
by the possession of a small additionnl
incisor behind each of the two larL;^'
chisel-like incisorteeth in the upper jaw.
They also present several other remark-
able characters, amongst which we may
notice that the orbits communicate with
each other through an aperture in the
septum — a structure which is charac-
teristic of the class of birds. The max-
illary bones are pierced with numerous
sieve-like holes — a character which is
otherwise peculiar to the Ruminants.
The molar teeth have a transverse ridge
of enamel, so that they appear to be
composed of two halves ; they are usually
six in the upper, and five in the lower jaw ; but in some species the
upper jaw has only five molar teeth. The Leporidcs are all strictly
herbivorous animals.
The Common Hare {Lcpus Timidiis). Aaywf (Lagos) of the
Greeks ; Lcpus of the Latins ; Lepre and Lievora of the modern
Italians ; Liebre and Lebratello of the Spaniards ; Lebre and I.c-
brimho of the Portuguese ; Lievre, French ; Has, Haas, and Hase of
the Germans ; Haas and Haze of the Danes : Hara of the Swedes ;
Fig. 522, — Teeth of Common Hare.
Hara of the Anglo-Saxons ; Ysgyfarnog, Ceinach, of the Ancient
British.
Dental formula: — Incisors, 4 ; molars, -^^. (See Fig. 522.) The
2 5—5
ears are long ; the eyes large ; the tail short and turned upwards ;
five toes before, four behind ; feet and toes hairy beneath.
The common Hare of this country is distributed in most parts of
Europe. It may be taken as the type of the true Hares, in which
the disproportion between the fore and hind legs attains its highest
degree ; and its habits may therefore serve to exemplify thfse of that
group of the family. The Hare frequents thickets [(see Fig. 523),
where it rests during the day in a shallow depression, which it makes
on the surface of the ground, and comes abroad at night to feed on
the tender herbage. This resting-place is called the form, and the
Hare's attachment to it is proverbial; it shifts its residence, how-
ever, with the season, so as to get a warm place in the winter. Its
senses are exceedingly acute, and give it timely notice of the approach
of danger : when pursued it runs with the greatest swiftness, and
adopts a great variety of expedients to escape from its enemies. It
takes the water freely, not only when pursued, but in passing from
one place to another; and the "Magazine of Natural History"
contains an account of a Hare being seen to swim across an arm of
the sea a mile in breadth — apparently on his return, like another
Leander, from his beloved, who came down to the shore to see him
off. The chase of the Hare is a favourite sport in most countries,
and its flesh is veiy highly esteemed ; the ancients even attributed
medicinal properties to it. It has frequently been tamed, and ap-
pears then to be an amusing pet. In cold climates it is said to be-
come white in the winter ; but this phenomenon is presented in a
more striking manner by some of the northern species, of which the
Alpine Hare (Z. variabilis), which is also an inhabitant of this
country, is an example. North America possesses numerous species
of Hares ; in some of these the tail is upwards of five inches long.
The Alpine Hare is intermediate in size between the Rabbit and
the English Hare. In Sutherlandshirc and other parts of the
TAME RABBITS.
THE RABBIT.
199
The flesh of the
with M. Ude in
Scottish Highlands it tennnts the summits of the mountains, hiding-
in the clefts of rocks, or amonq- rocky fragments. During- the winter,
lichen is its staple food. At this season it descends to a lower and
less exposed station ; and its fur, gradually losing the light fulvous
grey of summer, becomes of a snowy
white, the tips of its ears (which are
shorter than the head) remaining
black.
The common Hare of Ireland (Ze-
j)us Hibernic7is) is again distinct
from the common Hare of England.
Though somewhat larger than the
English species, its head is shorter
and more rounded ; its ears still
shorter than its head, and its limbs
less lengthened. The fur also dif-
fers greatly in its quality from that
of our common Hare, and is useless
as an article of trade.
The Rabbit {Lepus Cunicuhis).
Coney, Anglice ; Coneglio of the
Italians ; Conejo, Spanish ; Coelho,
Portuguese ; Koniglein and Kanin-
chen, German ; Konin, Dutch ;
Kanin, Sw'cdish ; Kanine, Danish ;
and Cwningen of the Welsh. (See
Fi.?- 525-)
Size excepted, the Rabbit closely
resembles the Hare in all its prin-
cipal characters. It may, however,
be at once distinguished by the
comparative shortness of the head
and ears, as well as of the hinder
limbs ; the absence of a black tip to
the ears ; and by the brown colour
of the upper surface of the tail. Its
habits and general economy are
totally opposite to those of the
Hare ; and its flesh, instead of
being dark and highly flavoured, is
white, and, though delicate, some-
what insipid, especially that of the tame breed,
latter is indeed preferred by some, but we agree
thinking it very inferior.
It would appear that the Rabbit is not an aboriginal of our island,
but the date of its introduction is unknown. In the year 1309, at
the installation feast of the Abbot of St. Austin's, six hundred of
these animals were provided, at the then greait cost of ;^I5 ; the
price of each (sixpence) being that of a
Pig. It is generally believed that the
Rabbit was first introduced into Spain
from Africa by the Romans, whence it
gradually spread, naturalising itself in
temperate climates.
This animal is eminently gregarious ;
and, as is well known, makes extensive
burrows, in which it habitually dwells
and rears its young. Sandy soils, with a
superficial layer of fine vegetable mould
clothed with thyme, fine grass, and
other herbage, which at the same time
afford food and are easily mined, are
favourable spots for the increase of the
Rabbit. They delight in steep sand-
banks overhung with brushwood and
furze ; and we have remarked, that when
the old red sandstone crops out, and is
rendered friable, or somewhat decom-
posed by the action of the atmospheric
elements. Rabbits are very numerous,
burrowing with great facility. They
abound also in woods, especially such
as clothe the declivities of hills, whence,
like the Hare, they make incursions into
the adjacent corn-lands. A Rabbit-
warren — that is, a wide sandy heath, or
extensive common, devoted to their in-
crease and feeding — when visited at the
close of day or by moonlight, affords an
amusing spectacle. Hundreds may be
seen of all sizes, gambolling and sport-
ing, and chasing each other with astonishing rapidity,
alarmed, they take to their burrows, disappearing as if by magic.
(See Fig. 525.)
The female is capable of breeding at six months old ; and four or
five litters, consisting each of about five young, arc annually pro-
duced. The Hare produces her young clothed, capable of seeing,
and soon in a condition to shift for themselves. With the Rabbit
circumstances are widely different. The young are born blind, .ind
at the bottom of which she makes a nest of dried grass, lining it
V//I ( ^
Fig. 524. — Group of Hares.
with fur taken from her own body. In this nest she deposits her
young ; carefully covering them over every time she leaves them.
It is not until the tenth or twelfth day that the young are able
to see ; nor do they leave the burrow till four or five weeks old.
The Wild Rabbit is undoubtedly the origin of our various domestic
breeds. Tame Rabbits, indeed, easily resume their natural state of
freedom, and return to their instinctive habits. Albinoes are com-
When
Fig. 525.— Group of Rabbits.
mon in a state of domestication, and it often happens that one or
two apoear in a litter when neither of the parents are so.
The'"Ostend" Rabbits, of which hundreds of thousands are
yeariy imported into England, are a variety which are bred like
Sheep, in flocks, for the purpose of food,
variety of objects.
The skins are used for a
THE CALLING-HARES.
The Syrian Hare. — According to Desmarest, the common
Hare of Europe exists in Greece, Asia Minor, and Syria. It is,
however, very probable that the Egyptian Hare [Lcpiis JEgyptius)
extends into the latter region. It differs from the European species
""'"^kk.
Fig. 326. — Syrian Hares.
principally in the greater proportionate length of its hind-limbs and
ears. (See Fig. 526.)
The Dwarf 'Pika, or Calling-Hare {Lagomys ^usilhts).
The Calling-Hare of Pennant ; Semlanoi Saetshik, or Ground-Hare,
of the Russians about the Volga ; Tschatschat or Ittsitskan,
Barking Mouse, of the Tartars ; Rusla of the Calmucs.
In the genus Lagomys the muzzle is acute ; the cars short and
somewhat rounded, and the soles of the feet hairy ; the tail is
wanting. The dental formula approaches that of the genus Lepus : —
and the west part of the Altaic chain, but occurs nowhere in the
east beyond the Obi.
These animals delight in sunny valleys and the declivities of hills,
where food is plentiful, and especially where woods or forests afford
them a refuge in time of danger. They
dig deep and intricate burrows, the
openings of which are not above two
inches in diameter, and are usually
formed beneath the concealment of a
bush, in situations abounding with
thickets and underwood, and with the
XT? "^^^ /' r/jJAi^- various shrubs and grasses upon which
">Oit/^l ' P ^^Jci-» they feed. They lead for the most part a
solitary life ; sleep during the day, with
unclosed eyelids, like the Hare, and
emerge from their retreats at night, in
search of food, which principally con-
sists of the bark of the young bushes,
flowers, buds, and grass. They form
no winter store ; but during the incle-
ment portion of the year, still continue
to seek out, by excavating tracks be-
neath the snow, their accustomed fare,
and they are frequently subjected to
severe privations, and even death, in
consequence of a deficiency of their
favourite plants. They drink often when
they happen to be near water, but can
exist with very little. The females pro-
duce, at each litter, five or six young,
which are born blind, helpless, and with-
out fur ; but in eight days they acquire
sight, are covered with hair, and begin
to enjoy the use of their limbs.
The most obvious peculiarity of these
Pikas is their voice, from which they
have acquired their trivial name. Its
tone is so like that of a Quail, that it
is often mistaken for it by the inhabit-
ants of their native districts. It is heard
only in the morning and evening, except
in dark and cloudy weather, and is re-
peated five or six times by each animal at regular intervals, and is
loud and sonorous. Both the male and female utter this note ; but
the latter is silent for some time after she has brought forth her
young, which takes place in the month of May.
Incisors, ft ;
molars, ^ — ^
5-5'
The genus Lagomys is widely dis-
tributed, though the species described are not numerous. About
five are known, and of these three are natives of the rocky deserts of
Tartary and Siberia ; the fourth is a native of the Himalaya Moun-
tains ; a fifth, of the Rocky Blountains in the high northern regions
of America, from latitude 52° to 60°.
The Pikas are pretty little animals, with something of the manners
of our Rabbits, and dwell in burrows, which are artfully concealed.
The Dwarf Pika, or Calling-Hare, measures little more than six
inches in total length. It has the head longer than usual with
Hares, and thickly covered with fur, even to the tip of the nose ;
numerous hairs in the whiskers ; ears large and rounded ; legs very
short ; soles furred beneath ; its whole coat very soft, long, and
smooth, with a thick, long, fine down beneath, of a brownish-lead
colour ; the hairs of the same colour — towards the ends of a light
grey, and tipped with black ; the lower part of the body hoary ; the
sides and ends of the fur yellowish. Weight from three and a
quarter to four and a-half ounces ; in winter scarcely two and a-half
ounces. (See Fig. 527.)
The Dwarf Pika, or Calling-Hare, is found in the south-east
parts of Russia, and about the mountain. ridge spreading from the
Ural chain to the south ; it also frequents the borders of the Irtish,
Fig- 527. — Dwarf Pika.
The Pikas are exceedingly gentle. Pallas states that they will
acquire confidence, and become tame, in the course of a day after
captivity. They sit in a crouching posture, like the Chinchilla, and
are extremely cleanly, frequently rubbing their faces with their fore-
paws, after the manner of Rabbits, and scratching their fur with
their hinder claws. They run by short leaps ; and sleep stretched
out at full length.
THE ARMADILLO AND SLOTH.
CHAPTER XV.
MAMMALIA.— ORDER, EDENTATA, OR BRUTA— TOOTHLESS ANIMALS.
HE Edentata {orms a very remarkable
and interesting- order of the Mammah'a,
lore especially as some extinct members
afford a connecting- link between the present
and a much earlier era of the natural history
of our-world. The fossilised remains of these
animals present us with gigantic creatures,
before wliich even the largest Elephant is
ij diminutive in size ; and not only so ; their dis-
covery affords many important facts relating-
to the distribution of the order in various
parts of the world. The distinguishing character of
the order is found in the total absence of the incisor
teeth, with the exception of one — the Armadillo
{^Dasypits setosus), in which a single tooth is found
in each intermaxillary bone, but placed so completely
at the sides of these bones, that the front of the
mouth is quite destitute of teeth. The canine teeth
are also deficient in most of the species, and some are
even destitute of molars, so that the jaws exhibit no
trace of teeth. The latter are exceedingly simple
in their construction, quite destitute of roots, and
remarkably similar in each species. (See Fig. 528.)
The structure of the skeleton varies considerably,
according to the particular habits of the animals ; in
some it is adapted for terrestrial progression ; whilst
in others- it is remarkably fitted for climbing upon trees. The toes
are furnished with very long and powerful curved claws.
The skin is often covered with hair ; sometimes with horny or even
bony scales or plates ; the external ear is frequently wanting, and
the tail varies greatly in its de-
velopment, being occasionally of
great length; at times rudimen-
tary.
The Edentata are all confined
to the tropical parts of the world,
and principally to the Southern
hemisphere. They are sluggish
animals, for the most part noctur-
nal in their habits ; some of them
live upon vegetable, and some upon animal food ; the former are
arboreal in their habits ; whilst the latter are terrestrial, and gene-
rally burrow in the earth. They are usually of small or moderate
size ; but the remains of some gigantic extinct species have been
found in South America, which is still the country in which the
Edentata most abound. A description of these animals will subse-
quently be given.
Mr. Dallas remarks that, according to the views of some natural-
ists, there are three leading families — the MyrmecophagidcB, or
ANT-EATERS, the Dasypodidcs, or Armadillos, and the Bradypo-
didcB, or Sloths. Other naturalists resolve them into two great
sections — namely, the Leaf -eaters , and the Insect- or Ftesh-eaters.
The first to which we shall draw attention is the Bradypodtdce, or
Sloth family.
Bradypodid.5:, or Sloths.
The Common Sloth, or Ai {Bradyjius tHdactylus), represents
creatures as extraordinary in their habits as in their organisation,
the one having a mutual relationship to the other. They are exclu-
sively arboreal ; the trees afford them at once their needful food and
their permanent abiding-place : and for the trees alone are they
structurally adapted. It is not long since that the Sloth was con-
demned as a degraded miserable being ; slow and embarrassed in
all its movements, and wretchedly framed, as if Nature had bungled
in its creation. Inconsistent with philosophy, and presumptuous in
the extreme, is such an opinion. The tall Giraffe and the sinewy-
limbed Antelope are not more directly organised for their respective
requirements, than is the Sloth for its appointed place in the scale of
creation. Were it a terrestrial animal, then indeed might we call
its structure defective ; but, its mode of life taken into consideration,
we view it in another light, and perceive that it affords a marked ex-
ample of design and purpose.
Buffon's eloquent misrepresentation of the Sloth need not detain
us ; but we cannot avoid expressing our surprise that the great Cuvier
not only quotes the words of that naturalist, but even follows up his
ideas. The only e.xcuse is, that the habits of the animal, till re-
Fig. 528.— Skull of the Armadillo.
cently, were very imperfectly understood ; yet might we not expect
that a philosopher would pause before concluding that, in the works
of nature, there occurred exceptions to the laws of harmony by which
the whole is governed.
Professor Owen, who has made elaborate investigations into the
recent and extinct families of the Edentata, makes the following re-
marks in regard to the skeleton of the Sloth :— The transition from
the quadrupeds with hoofs to those with claws, seems in the present
series to be abrupt ; but it was made gradual by a group of animals,
now extinct, which combined hoofs and claws in the same foot.
Some of the outer toes, at least, were stunted and buried in a thick
callosity, for the ordinary purpose of walking, whilst the other toes
were provided with very long and strong claws for uprooting or tear-
ing off the branches of trees. These singular beasts were of great
bulk, and appear to have been peculiar to America. As restored by
anatomical science, they have received the names oi Mcgatlierium,
Mcgalonyx, My/odon, &c. They were huge terrestrial'Sloths : the
present remnants of the family consist of very few species, enabled
by their restricted bulk to climb the trees in quest of their leafy food,
and peculiarly organised for arboreal life. The toes, which were
modified in their huge predecessors, to tread the ground, are reduced
to rudiments, or are undeveloped; and those only are retained
which support the claws, now rendered, by their length and curva-
ture, admirable instruments for clinging to the branches. Thew-hole
structure of the hind and fore-limbs is modified to give full effect to
these instruments as movers and suspenders of the body in the re-
treats for which the Sloths are destined ; and in the same degree,
the power of the limbs to support and carry the animal along the
bare ground is abrogated. Accordingly, when a Sloth is placed on
level ground, it presents the aspect of the most helpless and crippled
of creatures. It is less able to raise its trunk above its limbs than
the Seal, and can only progress by availing itself of some inequality
in the soil offering a holdfast to its claws, and enabling it to drag
itself along. But to judge of the creative dispensations towards
such an animal by observation of it, or reports of its procedure,
under these unnatural circumstances, would be as reasonable as a
speculation on the natural powers of a tailor suddenly transferred
from his shop-board to the rigging of a ship under weigh, or of a
thorough-bred seaman mounted for the first time on a full-blood
horse at Ascot. Rouse the prostrate Sloth, and let it hook on to the
lovifer bough of a tree, and the comparative agility with which it
inounts to the topmost branches will surprise the spectator. (See
Fig. 529.) In its native South American woods its agility is still
rnore remarkable, when the trees are agitated by a storn-i. At that
time the instinct of the Sloth teaches it that the migration from tree
to tree will be most facilitated. Swinging to and fro, back down-
wards, as is its habitual position, at the end of a branch just strong
enough to support the animal, it takes advantage of the first branch
of the adjoining tree that may be swayed by the blast within its
reach, and stretching out its fore-limb, it hooks itself on, and at once
transfers itself to what is equivalent to a fresh pasture. The story of
the Sloth voluntarily dropping to the ground, and crawling, under
pressure of starvation, to another tree, is one of the fabulous excres-
cences of a credulous and gossipfng zoolog)'.
In the Sloth, accordingly (Fig. 530), the fore-limbs are much
elongated, and that less at the expense of the hand than of the arm
and fore-arm. The humerus, 53, is of unwonted length — is slender
and straight; the radius, 55, and ulna, 54, are of similar proportions
— the former straight, the latter so bent as to leave a wide interosse-
ous space. Now, moreover, these bones, instead of being firmly
united as one bone, are so articulated with each other, as to permit
a reciprocal rotatory movement, chiefly performed, however, by the
radius ; and since to this bone the carpal segment of the hand is
mainly articulated, that prehensile member can be turned prone or
supine, as in the human arm and hand. Six bones are preser\'cd in
the carpus of the three-toed Sloth {Bradypus trtdactytus), answering
to those called " lunare," " cuneiforme," "unciforme," and " pisi-
forme ; " also to the " scaphoides and trapezium" united, and to
the " trapezoides and magnum" united. The scaphotrapezium is
characteristic of the Sloth tribe, and is found in the extinct as well
as existing species. The articulation of the carpus with the radius,
and with the metacarpus, is such as to turn the palm of the long
hand inwards, and bring its outer edge to the ground. The three
fully-developed metacarpals are confluent at their base, which is also
anchylosed to the rudiments of the first and fifth metacarpals ; the
proximal phalanges of the digits answering to tt. Hi, and iv, are
confluent with their metacarpals, and those digits appear, therefore,
2 D
2oa
SKELETON OF THE SLOTH.
to have only two ioints. The last phalanx is remarkably modified
for the attachment of the very long: and strong- claw.
With regard to the blade-bone of the Sloth, 5 1 , it is much broader in
proportion to its length than in the swift cloven-footed herbivores ;
the spinous process is usually short ; the acromion is of moderate
length, and unexpanded at its extremity ; the supra-spinal fossa is
the broadest, and has a perforation instead of the usual "supra-
spinal" notch. There is a short clavicular bone attached to the
acromion, but not attaining to the sternum.
Fig. 529.— Sloths Climbing.
The iliac bones, 62, repeat the modifications of their homotypes
the scapute, and are of unusual breadth as compared with those of
other quadrupeds ; they soon become anchylosed to the broad
sacrum, S ; the ischia, 63, and pubes, 64, are long and slender, and
circumscribe unusually large "thyroid" and "ischial" foramina,
the latter being completed by the coalescence of the tuberosities of
the ischia with the transverse processes of the last two sacral verte-
brae. The head of the femur, 65, has no impression of a liga-
mentum teres. The patella, 66', is ossified; there is a fabella
behind the externa! condyle. The tibia, 66, and fibula, 67, are bent
in opposite directions, intercepting a very wide interosseous space.
The anchylosis of their two extremities, which has been found in
older specimens, has not taken place here. The inner malleolus
projects backwards, and supports a grooved process. The outer
malleolus projects downwards, and fits like a pivot into a socket in
the astragalus, turning the sole of the foot inwards — a position like
that of tiie hand — best adapted for grasping boughs. The calca-
neum, 68, is remarkably long and compressed. The scaphoid,
cuboid, and cuneiform bones
have become confluent with each
other and the metatarsals, of
which the first and fifth exist
only in rudiment. The other
three have likewise coalesced
with the proximal phalanges of
the toes which they support :
these toes answer to the second,
third, and fourth, in the human
foot.
The short and small head of
the Sloth is supported on a long
and flexible neck, presenting the
very unusual character, in the
Mammalian class, of nine verte-
bra, C — the superadded two,
however, appearing to have been
impressed from the dorsal scries
D by their short, pointed, and
usually movable ribs. The head
and mouth can be turned round
every part of a branch in quest
of the leafy food, by this me-
chanism of the neck. As the
trunk is commonly suspended
from the limbs with the back
downwards (see Fig. 531). tfie
muscles destined for the move-
ments of the back and support
of the head, are feebly developed,
and the vertebral processes for
their attachment are proportion-
ately short. The spines of the
neck-vertebras are of more equal
length than in most mammals — -
that of the dentata being little
larger than the rest : the spines
gradually subside in the posterior
dorsals, and become obsolete in
the lumbar vertebrae. The first
pair of fully-developed ribs,
marking the beginning of the
true "dorsal " series of vertebrae,
are anchylosed to the breast-
bone, which consists of eight
ossicles. In the two-toed Sloth
(the Unau), however, which has
twenty-three dorsal vertebrae,
there are as many as seventeen
sub-cubical sternal bones in one
long row, with their angles trun-
cated for the terminal articula-
tions of the sternal ribs, which
are ossified.
The skull of the Sloth is chiefly
remarkable for the size, shape,
and connections of the malar
bone, which is freely suspended
by its anterior attacliment to the
maxillary and frontal, and bifur-
cates behind; one division ex-
tending downwards, outside the
lower jaw, the other ascending
above the free termination of the
zygomatic process of the squa-
mosal. The premaxillary bone
is single and edentulous, being
represented only by its palatal
portion completing the maxillary arch, but not sending any pro-
cesses upwards to the nasals.
The skull in the toothless Ant-eater chiefly forms a long, slender,
slightly-bent bony sheath for its still longer and more slender
tongue, the main instrument for obtaining its insect food. The
mouth in the living animal is a small orifice at the end of the
tubular muzzle, just big enough to let the vermiform tongue glide
easily in and out. The fore-limbs are remarkable for the great size
and strength of the claw developed from the middle digit : this is
THE SLOTH, OR AI.
203
the instrument by which the Ant-eater mainly effects the breach in
the walls of the Ant fortresses, which it habitually besieges in order
to prey upon their inhabitants and constructors. As in the Sloths,
both fore and hind feet have an inclination inwards, whereby the
Fig. 530. — Skeleton of the Sloth.
sharp ends of the long claws are prevented from being worn by that
constant application to the ground which must have resulted from
the ordinary position of the foot. The trunk-vertcbrje of the Ant-
eater are chiefly remarkable for the number of accessory joints by
which they are articulated together. This complex structure is also
met with in the Armadillos, in which the anterior zygapophyses of
the dorsal vertebrae send processes — the metapophyses (Fig. 532),
7)1, m — upwards, outwards, and forwards, which processes, pro-
;p&-.
Fig. 531. — Sloth: mode of progression.
gressively increasing in the hinder vertebras, attain, in the lumbar
region, a length equal to that of the spinous processes, n s, and
have the same relation to them, in the support of the osseous cara-
pace, as the " tie-bearers " have to the " king-post" in the archi-
tecture of a roof.
Mr. Burchell observed, that his captive Sloths assumed, during
sleep, a position of perfect
ease and safety on the fork of
a tree, their arms embracing
the trunk, their backs resting
on the angle of a branch, and
their head reclining on their
own bosom. The animal is
thus rolled up nearly in the
form of a ball ; the entire
vertebral column, including
the neck, assumes a nearly
circular curve ; and not only
is the weight of the whole
body maintained in an atti-
tude of ease and safety, but
the head is supported be-
tween the arms and chest, Fig. 532. — Portions of Dermo- and Neuro-
and the face lies buried in Skeletons — Armadillo (Dasypus tykincius).
the long wool which covers
those parts, and is thus protected, during sleep, from the myriads
of msects which would otherwise attack it. According to Mr. Bur-
chell, the buds and young shoots of a species of Cccropia form
tlie pnncjpal food of the Sloth. Those trees grow only in damp
places, and rise, with a slender stem, to the height of thirty or forty
feet, giving off horizontal branches, hollow internally, except at the
extremities. Along these branches it travels, and the young cling
round the body of the mother. It would appear that the moisture of
leaves or buds suffices the Sloth for drink, as none kept by
Mr. Burchell took liquid in any other way. In the aspect of the
Sloth there is an expression of profound melancholy ; it seldom
utters any cry ; it notices nothing with any positive mark of atten-
tion except, perhaps, the trees to which unerring instinct draws
it, nor by any action evinces much intelligence.
The Sloths bring forth and suckle their young like ordinary
quadrupeds. They have two mamma;, which arc situated on
the breast; and the young Sloth, from the moment of its birth,
adheres to the body of its parent till it acquires sufficient size
and strength to shift for itself. The head of the AV is short ; the
face small and round like that of the American Monkeys ; the
ears concealed in the long hair which surrounds them ; the eyes
small and deeply sunk in the head, and the tail is a mere rudi-
ment. The Indians like its flesh, and arc in continual pursuit
of it.
Naturalists reckon two distinct species of the At, and three
or four varieties ; some of which may be found to be super-
ficially different, when they come to be dissected and carefully
compared with one another. The common Ai [Bradypus tri-
dactyhts) has a short round head, furnished with coarse shaggy
hair, disposed on the crown in verging rays, like that of the
human species ; the face is of a yellowish colour, covered with
very short hair ; whilst that of the body and extremities is uni-
versally long and shaggy ; the eyes arc encircled by a brown
ring ; the hair of the body varied with irregular patches of dark
and light brown, or silvery white : between the shoulders there
is an oval patch of short orange-coloured hair, of a finer quality than
that found on other parts of the body, and divided in the centre by
a longitudinal black stripe : the throat and breast are frequently of
a light straw-colour. The texture of the hair is altogether peculiar,
and more resembles dry hay, or grass shrivelled and withered by
the sun, than the hair of ordinary quadrupeds. It is coarse and
flattened at the extremity, but as small at the root as the finest
Spider's web ; and its dry and withered appearance forms the Ai's
principal security against its pursuers, as it renders it extremely
diSicult to detect it whilst at rest among the branches covered with
bark and moss of the same colour; it is only when in motion that it
can be readily distinguished from the trunk beneath which it hangs
suspended. In other respects, different individuals of this species
vary considerably from one another, in the shade and disposition
of their colours, and in the intensity of the mark between the
shoulders ; some even want this latter mark altogether, others are
of a uniform ash-colour over the whole body, and there are others
still, which have the hair of the head parted in the centre, and
hanging down upon each side. Length of the adult about seventeen
or eighteen inches.
The Collared Ai {Brady fus collaris) is a very distinct species,
even in the bony structure of its cranium. Its face is naked, and of
a black colour ; the hair of its body less flattened and withered-
looking than in the common species ; the forehead, temples, chin,
throat, and breast, covered with reddish or rust-coloured hair,
slightly frizzled ; on the crown of the head it is long and yellow,
and on the rest of the body, pale orange : but the most distinguish-
ing mark of the species is a large black collar which completely sur-
Fig. 533. — Skeleton of Unau.
rounds the neck, and from which its specific name of coUaris is
derived. Beneath this outer coat there is an inner one, of very fine
fur, which is of a dark brown colour on the collar, but gradually dimin-
ishes in intensity towards the croup, where it is entirely white.
204
FOSSIL EDENTATA.
Both these species feed upon the leaves of trees, and bring forth
but a sing-Ie young at a birth. When in motion in the forests, they
emit a feeble plaintive cry, resembling the word Ai, and which is the
origin of the name they bear among the Europeans settled in
America. They are extremely retentive of life, and have been seen
to move their legs, and exhibit other symptoms of vivacity, a full
half-hour after being deprived of their heart and other viscera.
The Unau, or Two-toed Sloth, of which we figure the skeleton
(Fig. 533), is placed by Illiger in a distinct genus, under the title of
CholcEpus. It is the Sradypus didactyltts of Linnjcus. In its
manners it closely resembles the Ai, which it exceeds in size.
In both genera the skull is rounded, and the muzzle short, but
more especially in the Ais. The zygomatic arch is very bold and
stout ; but is incomplete in the centre. The malar bone is very
developed, and gives off a descending branch, reaching over the
lower jaw ; but its zygomatic process does not reach the correspond-
ing process of the temporal bone ; hence the arch, as we have
said, is imperfect. The orbits are nearly circular, but incomplete
behind. The lower jaw is large and strong.
In the Two-toed Sloth there are no pro-dorsal or supernumerary
vertebrae in the neck ; the feet are far less universally consolidated
together.
Extinct, or Fossil Edentata.
As already mentioned, the Edeniaia afford some most interesting
fossilised remains of extinct species. They are indigenous to South
America, where the recent species are now found. Professor Owen
has included certain of them in one family called Gravigrada,
including the Megalonyx, Megatherium, Mylodon, Scelidotherium,
Ccelodon. and Sphenodon, all being extinct, and only known by their
fossil relics. The cliief characters are :— Feet short, very strong,
equal or sub-equal ; fore-feet with five or four toes, of which one or
two of the outermost are unarmed, fit for support and progression ;
the rest are armed with huge claws. Zygomatic arch complete,
clavicles perfect ; tail moderate or stout, acting as a fulcrum or prop.
The following is a description of these interesting animals, the
formed for tearing down the trees of the forest, and not living in
their branches, showed that it was closely related to the comparatively
pigmy Sloths of the present day. Conceive of a Sloth of the size
and bulk of a Rhinoceros or Hippopotamus, but with bones infinitely
Fig. 535. — Lower Jaw of Mylodon.
Fig. 534. — Skeleton of the Mylodon Roluslu!.
fossils of which, arranged as in the subsequent engravings, may be
seen in the British and other museums : —
The Mylodon Robustus.
The skeleton of this extinct giant (see Fig. 534), now preserved
in the Royal College of Surgeons, and which, except that it was
Fig. 536. — Right branch of the above : external view.
more massive, muscles infinitely more voluminous and powerful, with
a thick tail acting as a support, and forming with the hind-limbs a
firm tripod, while the animal thus raised upright, and exerting its
enormous strength, sways the tree to and
fro, and lays it at last prostrate ; — and our
reader will have a good idea of what this
mighty devastator of the primeval forests
of South America must have been.
The skeleton in question was discovered,
as we are informed by Professor Owen, in
the year 1841, by M. Pedro de Angelis,
seven leagues north of the city of Buenos
Ayres, in the fluviatile deposits constitut-
ing the extensive plain intersected by the
great Rio Plata and its tributaries, and
which has been raised, during a recent geo-
logical epoch, above the level of the sea.
In this formation, and most probably
anterior to its elevation, the animal must
have been buried entire, and if the present
heat of the climate prevailed, soon after
its death, for the parts of the skeleton were
found little disturbed, and the very few
bones that are wanting are such as would
be likely to escape the search of the most
diligent collector.
About the same time, and near the same
place, a tessellated osseous carapace of
some large quadrupedlike an Armadillowas
exhumed, and information of this discovery
having been communicated to the Royal
College of Surgeons by Sir Woodbine Pa-
rish, then Her Majesty's Charge d' Affaires
at Buenos Ayres, both this carapace and
the above-mentioned skeleton were pur-
chased by the College. They arrived in
November, 1841, in many pieces, fragile
from the loss of the animal matter ; but
having been restored in some measure to
their original tenacity, the parts of the
carapace were re-united, the skeleton was
articulated, and both «i-ere placed in the
museum.
We may here observe that the tessellated
carapace belongs to a large extinct Arma-
dillo, to which the largest living species, the
Dasypus gigas, is but a pigmy ; it is termed
by Professor Owen, Glyptodoti clavipcs.
With respect to the fossil genus Mylodon, Professor Owen de-
scribes three distinct species — viz., M. Darzvtnii, M. IIarlam,a.xid
M. Robustus, which far exceeds the others in size.
We regret that want of space prevents us from following Professor
Owen through his elaborate examination of the skeleton of Jl/ylodon
Robustus, which to the scientific is replete with interest ; nor enter
THE MEGATHERIUM.
20S
into the affinities of the Mylodon to the Megatherium, Megalonyx,
and other extinct Edentata, which are rigidly scrutinised.
Fig. 535 represents the lower jaw of Mylodon : Fig. 536, the ex-
ternal view of the right branch of the lower jaw of Mylodon. Figs.
537 and SjS. f'e simple teeth of the Mylodon, showing the depth of
their implantation. The cavity at the base of the tooth is seen at a,
Fig. 537. — Tooth of Mylodon.
Fig. 53S. — Tooth of Mylodon.
Fig. 537. As in the Sloth, the Megatherium, and Megalonyx, these
teeth, formed for crushing leaves, are composed of a central pillar
of coarse ivory, immediately invested with a thin layer of fine dense
ivory, and the whole surrounded with a thick coating of cement.
From the structure of these teeth it is evident that the Mylodon
fed on leaves, like the Sloths of the present day. But, notwithstand-
ing Dr. Lund's opinion, it was certainly not adapted for climbing
trees ; besides, what trees could bear its weight ? How then did it
obtain its food ? The whole of its osseous conformation suggests the
answer — it was formed to uprend the trees that bore its sustenance.
The enormous expanse of the pelvis, the great bulk and strength of
the hind-legs, the solidity of the tail, to which its evidently vast
muscles were attached, enabling it with the hind-limbs to complete a
firm tripod of support, the proportions of the fore-limbs, unequalled
for massiveness by those of any existing or extinct animal, tlie size
and strength of its claws, — in short, the whole mechanism of the
colossal frame becomes intelligible only on the ground of the her-
culean labour to which the animal was appointed. Perhaps it com-
menced the process of prostrating the chosen tree by scratching
away the soil from the roots, and then proceeded to grapple with it
thus partially undermined, and apply the surpassing strength of its
limbs and body, the muscles of the trunk and extremities being
animated by the influence of the unusually large spinal chord.
It may here be stated that the skull of the specimen described by
Professor Owen had at some time or other been fractured, and had
healed ; the animal living long afterwards : and it will at once occur
to the reader that these animals must have been unusually liable,
from their habits, to blows from heavy falling bodies. To meet such
accidents the skull was peculiarly constructed, its outer and inner
table being separated by extensive air-cells, so that the fracture of
the outer table might occur without injury to the brain. It was by
virtue of this structure that the subject of the Professor's memoir
appears to have been saved.
The Scelidotherium.
The following figure represents (Fig. 539) the remains of the skull ;
Fig. 540, the dentition of an extinct animal, to wOiich Professor
Owen has given the title of Scelidotherium. Fig. 541 shows
the depth of the implantation of the teeth and their structure ; e, the
crown of a tooth seen from above.
This animal was evidently allied to the Mylodon and Megatherium,
and belong;s to the same family.
The fossil remains — viz., a cranium, several vertebra;, the scapute,
and various bones of the limbs, were discovered by Mr. Darwin at
Punta Alta, in northern Patagonia, and in the same bed of partly
consolidated gravel as that wherein the lower jaws of Toxodon and
a species of Mylodon were imbedded. All the parts were discovered
in their natural relative position, indicating, as Mr. Darwin observes,
that the sub-littoral formation in which they had been origin.-illy
deposited had been but little disturbed. This beach is covered at
spring-tides, and many portions of the skeleton were encrusted with
Jtustrcs. Small marine shells were lodged within the crevices of
the bones.
The teeth in structure resemble those of the Mylodon ; there are
Fig. 539. — Remains of Skull of Scelidothcr
Fig. 540. — Teeth of the Scelidotherium.
neither incisors nor canines ; the molars are five on each side above,
and four below. According to Professor Owen, the Cape Ant-eater,
or Aard-vark, of all the Edc7itata, most nearly resembles the
Scelidotherium in the form of the skull ; and next to the Aard-vark
may be cited the Great Armadillo {Dasypus gigas).
"Although the Scelidothere, like most other Edentals, was of low
stature, and, like the Megatherium, presented a disproportionate
development of the hinder parts, it is probable that, bulk for bulk, it
equalled, wlien alive, the largest existing
Pachyderms not proboscidean. There is
no evidence that it possessed a tessellated
osseous coat of mail."
The Megatherium.
The relics of this colossal beast, of w-hich
Figs. 542, 543, and 544 represent the
skeleton, and Fig. 545, the skeleton and
the restored animal, have been discovered
only in South America, of which continent,
at some remote period, it was an in-
habitant.
The affinity of this animal to the Sloths
and other Edentata was pointed out by
Cuvie^ but many points required elucida-
tion ; m fact, zoologists at first were led,
not without apparent grounds, into some
errors, since corrected.
For a long time the museum of Madrid
afforded the only relics of the Megathe-
rium in Europe ; but the skeleton they compose is deficient in several
of its parts ; fortunately, the acquisition, by the Royal College of
Surgeons, of a great portion of the bones of this animal, has tended
to supply the defects, at least to a considerable extent.
These splendid and valuable remains form the subject of an
interesting paper from the pen of Mr. Clift, in the third vol., p. 3, of
the "Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond.," accompanied by an improved figure
of the skeleton, and figures of various detached parts, together with
a map of that part of the province of Buenos Ayres in which the
places where the bones in question were found, and also those of the
Madrid specimen, are marked down.
The acquisition of these remains by the Royal College of Sur-
geons is due to the zeal and liberality of Sir Woodbine Parish.
They were found in the river Salado, which runs through the flat
alluvial plains to the south of the city of Buenos Ayres. Their dis-
covery was owing to a succession of unusually dry seasons in the
three preceding years, which lowered the waters in an extraordinary
degree, and exposed part of the pelvis to view as it stood upright in
Fig. S41.— Teeth of the
Scelidotherium,
206
THE MEGATHERIUM.
the bottom of the river. It appears that this and some other parts
of the skeleton, having been carried to Buenos Ayres by tlie country-
people, were very liberally placed at Mr. Parish's disposal by Don
Hilario Sosa, the owner of the property on which they were found.
In the hope of obtaining the other parts of the skeleton, an intelli-
gent person was subsequently sent to the same spot, who succeeded,
Fig. 542. — Skeleton of Megatherium.
after considerable difficulties, in getting out of the mud forming the
bed of the river the remainder of the collection. Further inquiry led
Mr. Parish to suppose that similar remains might be met with in
other parts of the province of Buenos Ayres, and he applied to the
local authorities to assist him in making further search. This was
given by the governor, Don Manual Rosas, and the remains of the
two other skeletons were found on his excellency's own properties of
Las Averias and Villanueva, one to the north, the other to the south
Fig. S43. — Skeleton of Megatherium.
of the Salado, but at no great distance from the place where the
first had been discovered. In the latter instance the osseous remains
were accompanied by an immense shell, or case, portions of which
were brought to this country. A fragment of this shell, or osseous
shield, was figured by Mr. Clift ; its external surface is rough, and
it appears to consist of an assemblage of smaller parts, like rosettes
in sculpture, united together by suture ; the sutures being plainly
marked on the under-surface, which is smooth. By M. Blainville,
Dr. Buckland, and indeed by most naturalists, this buckler or cara-
pace was regarded as belonging to the Megatherium, whose colossal
bulk it was supposed to have protected, as is the case in the
Armadillos, to which it was believed
to be closely related, not only in
structure and habits, but also food.
It was, however, subsequently de-
monstrated by Professor Owen, and
we believe to the entire satisfaction
of Dr. Buckland himself, that the
tessellated carapace found with the
Salado remains did not belong to
the Megatherium, but to a large
Armadillo-like animal, to which Pro-
fessor Owen assigned the title of
Glyptodon, and whose hind-feet, like
the fore-foot, appear to be so modi-
fied as to form the bases of colum-
nar limbs destined to support an
enormous incumbent weight. More-
over, from a rigorous examination of
the details of the skeleton of the
Megatherium, into which we for-
bear to enter, he proves the incom-
patibility of such a shield with its
osseous structure, which differs in
marked essentials from that of the
Armadillo, in which latter animal
the skeleton is expressly modilied
for the armour which covers the
back and head.
In his paper on the Glyptodon,
wherein the claims of the Mega-
therium to this armour are discussed. Professor Owen gives a tabular
account of the discovery of twelve skeletons of the Megatherium,
and in no instance did any portion of bony armour occur with or
near the bone ; and, in a note, the writer of the article "Mega-
therium," in the "Penny Cyclopasdia," states as follows: — "Sir
Woodbine Parish has just now (May 29th, 1839) kindly communi-
cated to us a letter received by him, giving information of the dis-
covery of an almost entire skeleton of an adult Megatherium on the
banks of the Rio de la Matanza, with all the vertebrse of the body,
all the ribs, all the teeth, the head and the legs — in short, with the
whole of the bones except the tail and one foot. Close to it was the
skeleton of a 'Tatou Gigantesque ' (Glyptodon probably), with its
bony armour complete. There was also found a very small and per-
fect Megatherium, which must have been only just born at the epoch
of destruction. No mention is made of any traces of bony armour
or shell about the Megafkeri'a. In the old animal only one foot is
wanting. It has been suggested that the so-called young Megathe-
rium may possibly be a skeleton of Scelidotherium." (See p. 205.)
It is, then, to the Armadillo-like Glyptodon (see Fig. 546), and not
to the Megatherium, that the strong bony armour belongs : of this
latter animal relics have been found on the left bank of the Pedernal,
near Monte Video, and are preserved in the museum of that town.
Portions of bony armour also have been obtained in the Rio Seco
and Banda Oriental, similar in structure to the specimen of the
Pedernal.
" The collection of fossils," says Professor Owen, "brought to
England from South America by Mr. Darwin, has enabled me to
add the following facts to the history of the Megatherium. Its teeth,
for example, do not differ in number from those of the Sloths, there
being five on each side of the upper jaw. Microscopic examination
having demonstrated a marked difference in the intimate structure
of the teeth of the Sloths and Armadillos, I have ascertained, by this
mode of investigation, that the teeth of the Megatherium have the
same texture and composition as those of the Sloth. And if from
identity of dental structure in two different animals we may predicate
a similarity in their food, a glance at the bony framework of the
Megatherium is sufBcicnt to show that it must have resorted to other
means of obtaining its leafy provender than that of climbing for it,
whereby the necessity of inferring a proportionate magnitude of the
trees which nourished the Megatherium is obviated." It would
appear that, like the Mylodon, the Megatherium uprooted the trees,
on the leaves of which it fed, and was furnished with a small pro-
boscis as an adjunct to the tongue in stripping off the smaller
branches of the prostrate tree ; its skull, moreover, has the two
tables separated by cells, as in the Mylodon. Fig. 547 represents
the pelvis and hind-leg of the Megatherium in the Royal College of
Surgeons ; Fig. 548, the ungueal phalanx ; Fig. 549, the tooth of
Megatherium.
With respect to the Megalonyx, it was an animal closely related
to the Megatherium, and doubtless of the same habits, but of inferior
size, not excccdmg the size of an Ox, though more solidly and
THE MEGATHERIUM— ARMADILLOS.
207
heavily built. Its relics are apparently more rare than those of the
Megatherium ; at least fewer have been recovered.
Professor Ansted makes the following remarks on the fossil
Edentata : — " At the same period (the latter part of the Great Ter-
tiary) in South America, there existed a continent of the same
general shape as at present, but much narrower, and with less lofty
Fig. 544. — Skeleton of Megatherium.
mountains, on its western side, gradually becoming elevated, though
■with occasional intervals of repose, covered with vegetation, and
havinij large and deep rivers.
" On the land were tribes of Edentata, or toothless animals — the
gigantic types of the Sloth, the Armadillo, and perhaps the Ant-
eater. Of these animals, numerous skeletons, perfectly preserved,
afford us means of reconstructing them in every detail, and we are
enabled to speak of their peculiarities and habits, as if we saw them
bodily before us at the present time.
Fig. 545. — Megatherium restored.
" In the vast forests of that day, there moved about, slowly per-
haps, and with some little difficulty, a singular and clumsy-looking
monster ; its body larger than that of an Elephant, and its hinder
extremities many times thicker and stronger in proportion ; endowed
with a degree of resisting strength, compared with which, almost
every existing animal would rank as powerless. The habits of this
creature were, it may be supposed, rather peculiar. Judging from
its heavy hind extremities and powerful tail — the arrangement of its
fore-legs, in which it somewhat resembled the Bear — the nature of
Fig. 546. — The Glyptodon.
its head and teeth, and the form and strength of its claws, we may
safely imagine it performing the task of tlie modern Sloth, its nearest
representative, but enabled to root up and pull down the trees of the
forest, instead of climbing to strip tliem of their leaves. The crea-
ture here referred to is the Megatherium ; and there were several
smaller but still gigantic animals similarly constituted, and assisting
to clear away leaves and twigs, by bringing
their powerful, though sluggish, limbs to
bear upon the task. The Mylodon, one of
these, was nearly as large as a Rhinoceros ;
and of it a complete skeleton may be seen at
the College of Surgeons, as well as a restored
figure in the Crystal Palace grounds, recon-
structed from the skeleton by Mr. Hawkins.
"At present, the Armadillo clears away
the decaying wood and offal of all kinds in
the Brazilian forests, and a magnified re-
presentative accompanied the Megathere.
The Glyptodon, as this animal was called,
is known by a complete specimen of the
hard, horny covering or shell, also in the
College of Surgeons ; and the length of this
specimen is nearly twelve feet on the curve,
from the tip of the tail to the snout ; while
its height is between four and five feet.
" Large Rodents, or gnawing animals.
Horses, and several other species nearly
allied to existing races, accompanied these
singular animals."
Insectivorous Edentata.
The Armadillos {Dasypus) arc divided by
Cuvierinto five minor groups, or sub-genera, according to the number
of the teeth and fore-claws ; viz., Cachichames, Apars, Encouberts,
Cabassous, and Priodontes. They are now placed under the family
Dasypodida;.
The Cachichames have four toes on each foot, and seven teeth on
each side above and below. The Apars have four toes on each foot,
and nine or ten teeth in each side in both jaws. The Encouberts
have five toes on the fore-feet, and nine or ten teeth on each side
Fig. 547. — Pelvis and Hind Leg of Megatherium.
above and below, with two incisor teeth in the upper. The Cabas-
sous have five toes, but those of the fore-feet are disposed obliquely,
and in such a manner that the thumb and index finger are small,
the middle and fourth toes armed with tremendously large trenchant
claws, and the fifth very small : teeth nine or ten on each side above
and below. The Priodontes, in addition to the unequal toes and
enormous claws of the Cabassous, have from twenty-two to twenty-
four small teeth on each side in each jaw.
The Armadillos are exclusively confined to the warmer portions of
the American continent, and the species are tolerably numerous,
none, however, attaining to a very large size excepting the Dasypius
208
THE ARMADILLOS.
gigas, which itself is but a pigmy to the extinct Glyptodon, illustrated
at p. 207, Fig. 546, ante.
These animals are burrowing in their habits, with thick, short,
powerful limbs, and a flattened, broad, stout body, covered above
with plates and bands of horny armour. The head is broad between
the eyes, whence it runs to a pointed muzzle ; the mouth is small ;
Fig. 54S. — Ungucal Ph.ilanx of Jlcgathevium,
the teeth are cylindrical, feeble, destitute of true roots, set apart
from each other, and mutually fit, when the jaws are closed, into the
intervals. The tongue is smooth, slender, and moderately exten-
sible ; it is most probably endowed with the sense of taste in a high
degree, as we have observed, especially in one species, the Dasyptis
;peba, the animal touched with it whatever was presented by way of
food ; and we know that it is lubricated abundantly with a glutinous
fluid, poured out chiefly from the sub-maxillary gland.
The portions of armour which cover these animals consist of a
triangular or oval plate on the top of the head, or rather on the
chaffron, its posterior margin projecting over the neck ; a large
buckler over the shoulders^ and a similar buckler over the haunches,
Fig. 549. — Tooth of Megatherium.
while between these solid portions there intervenes a series of trans-
verse bands overlapping each other's edges, and allowing to the
body due freedom of motion. Each of these separate portions
consists of a multitude of small parts, all consolidated together,
giving the idea of what is termed mosaic-work, especially on the
head and shoulders, the pattern differing in different species. The
limbs, which are short and thick, are almost entirely concealed by
the edges of this armour ; but the feet, which are unprotected by it,
are covered by a hard tuberculated skin. The tail is covered with a
series of rings ; the skin of the under-surface of the body is very
rough and beset with long scattered hairs ; and from between the
joints of the rings and plates of the dorsal armour there issue hairs
of the same kind, more numerous in young than adult individuals.
In some species, however, as the Mataco {Dasypiis aj>ar), whose
armour is peculiarly tliick and solid, no hair is to be discovered.
In reference to the armour. Professor Owen remarks, that in the
Armadillo, the dermal bones. Fig. 532, p. 203, ante, o, b, are small,
polygonal, usually five or six-sided, smooth on their inner surface,
which rests on the soft sub-cutaneous layer of cellular tissue, vari-
ously sculptured on the outer and exposed side, but with a pattern
constant in, and characteristic of, each species. They are united
together at their thick margins by rough or " sutural " surfaces, and
resemble a tessellated pavement. The trunk is protected by a large
buckler of this bony armour ; the head is defended by a casque of
the same ; and the tail is encased in a sheath of similar interlocked
ossicles. To allow of the requisite movements of the trunk in the
small existing Armadillos, which, when attacked, roll themselves
into a ball, from three to nine transverse rows of the dermal bones.
b b, are interposed, having a yielding elastic junction with each
other, and with the anterior, o o, and posterior fixed, and larger,
parts of the trunk-armour. By this modification the head and limbs
can be withdrawn beneath the armour when its parts are pulled to-
gether by the strong cutaneous muscles into a hemispheric form. In
South America, to which continent the Armadillos are peculiar, re-
mains of gigantic quadrupeds, similarly defended, have been dis-
covered in the more recent tertiary deposits (see a?itc, p. 207) ; but
in these colossal Armadillos [Glyptodon) the trunk-armour was in
one immovable piece, covering the back and sides, and was not
divided by bands. Besides the defence which such a modification
of the integuments would afford against the attacks of predatory
animals, the Armadillos and Glyptodons habitually frequenting the
great forests of South America may have been protected by the same
hard, arched covering from falling timber.
The eyes of the Armadillos are small and lateral ; the ears, vary-
ing in size in the different species, are firm, and covered with tuber-
culated skin. Most of the species are nocturnal in their habits, re-
maining concealed in their burrows during the day ; these are of
considerable extent, dipping at an inclination of about forty-five de-
grees ; they have one or two sharp turns, and very narrow, just ad-
mitting the passage of their occupier. The animals make these
burrows with great expedition, and can only be forced out by smoke
or water ; such is their strength and the tenacity of their hold, that
they have been known to leave their tail in the hands of the hunter,
on his attempt to drag them forth.
When alarmed during their excursions, the first endeavour of these
animals is to gain their burrows, to which they run with a degree of
celerity little to be expected from their clumsy appearance. Most
of the species will easily outstrip a man ; their movements, however,
resemble those produced by mechanism, for as the spinous processes
of the vertebral column are all inclined the same way, viz., towards
the tail, there being no central points to which those of the upper
and those of the lower portion mutually converge, so the motions of
the limbs are unaccompanied by corresponding inflexions of this
column, as is the case in other animals whose progressive motions
are free and unconstrained.
When hard pressed, and unable to gain their burrow, they either
attempt to dig a temporary place of refuge, or they gather up their
limbs beneath their coat of mail, bend down their head, assume a
partially roUed-up figure, and wait the event. The Mataco, which
does not burrow, and is by no means swift, can roll itsslf up com-
pletely. They never attempt to bite or otherwise defend themselves.
The food of the Armadillos consists principally of fallen fruits, roots,
and Worms; but they do not reject carrion, and have been known
to penetrate into graves, when not properly protected by stones or
brick-work. Azara informs us that Ants are never found in the
districts inhabited by the Armadillos ; and that these animals break
into the Ant-hills, and devour the insects as greedily as the true
Ant-eaters. Nature, it is true, has not provided them with the
same apparatus for this purpose, but the Armadillos may, notwith-
standing, destroy vast quantities of Ants, though it is probable that
they expel them from their own peculiar districts, as much, at least,
by destroying the habitations as by actually devouring the insects
themselves. The ordinary food of the Armadillos consists chiefly of
the roots of the manioc, of potatoes, maize, and other similar sub-
stances of a vegetable nature, though, as already observed, without re-
jecting animal substances naturally soft, or so far decomposed as tobe
easilytorn without the help of canine teeth. Theyare also verydestruc-
tive to the eggs and young of such Birds as build their nests on the
ground ; and greedily devour Worms, Frogs, small Lizards, and M.
Azara says, even Vipers. The chief animal food of the Armadillos,
however, is derived from the immense herds of wild cattle which
cover the plains and savannas of every part of South America.
These are rarely slaughtered but for the sake of the hide and tallow ;
and as the carcasses are left to rot on the Pampas, or plains, the
smell soon attracts vast crowds of carnivorous animals of various
species, and among others, great numbers of Armadillos, which
greedily devour the half-putrid flesh, and soon become extremely
fat and corpulent. In this condition, notwithstanding the filthy
nature of their food, their flesh is esteemed a great delicacy, both
by the native Indians, and by the Portuguese and Spaniards of
America. The animal is roasted in its shell, and considered one of
the greatest dainties which the country produces.
The Armadillos see but indifferently ; particularly in bright sun-
shiny weather ; but their sense of hearing is extremely acute, and
amply compensates for any imperfection of sight. When alarmed
by any unusual or strange sound, they prick up their ears, stop for
a moment to satisfy themselves of its distance and direction, then
commence a precipitate retreat to their burrow, or, if that be too
remote, begin to construct a new one. Smell is, however, by far the
most acute of their senses.
It is generally believed that the female Armadillo brings forth but
once during the year, but she produces at a birth frequently six,
eight, or even ten young ones ; yet she has never more than four
teats ; and, according to the report of M. Azara, the most accurate
and extensive observer who has written upon the history of these
animals, in some species only two — an anomaly, with respect to the
number of young, and the number of teats, which appears to con-
tradict the general rule observable among other mammals.
It may here be observed, that one of the Weasel-headed Arma-
dillos fD. EncoubcrtJ, formerly in the Zoological Gardens, pro-
duced only two at a birth : when first born they were quite blind,
about four inches in length, soft, and white ; but the skin presented
all the furrows and mosaic-work which characterise it when indu-
rated and solid. The growth of these animals was not a little sur-
prising ; in six or eight weeks they attained nearly to the size of
their parents. One born on the 3rd of September, 1S31, and which
died on the i6th of November of the same year, had increased in
THE ARMADILLOS.
209
weight, during that short period, 52 ounces 2 drachms, and measured
II J inches from the nose to the root of the tail. The young are far
more hairy than the adults.
The Peba {Dasypus Pcha). — The Tatouhou, or Black Tatu, of
the Guaranis, is an example of Cuvier's group of Cachichames,
\vhich, according to Gumilla, is the general name of the Armadillos
on the banks of the Orinoco. In Zoological catalogues we find it
under the ambiguous names of Dasyptts septemci?ictiis, D. octo-
chictus, and D. iwvcincincfiis ; three different species being thus
made out from the erroneous supposition that the number of mov-
able bands on the back was invariable in the same species : whereas
the truth is, that the number of bands is subject to a certain degree
of variation ; thus, in the Mule Armadillo, there are six or seven
bands ; in the Peba, from six to nine. It appears also that the
young have not the full complement of bands, by one or two,
which become developed afterwards. The Peba is a native of
Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay, and is timid and nocturnal ; it is
tolerably rapid in its movements, and very expert in burrowing.
It is never found in woods, but frequents the open and cultivated
plains, and is much hunted by the inhabitants on account of its flesh,
which, when roasted in the shell, is said to be extremely delicate,
resembling that of a Sucking-Pig.
The length of the head and body is about sixteen inches ; of the
tail, which is slender and tapering, fourteen inches. The muzzle is
greatly elongated, straight, and pointed ; the ears are rather large,
and the eyes small ; the tongue long, narrow, pointed, and extensible.
The general colour of the shell is dusky black. (See Fig. 550.)
■Allied to the Peba is the Mule Armadillo {Dasypus hybridus,
Fig- 550.— Peba.
Desm.), called the Courigua, or Mule Tatu, by the Guaranis, in
allusion to its long upright ears. It is of smaller size than the
Peba, and its tail is comparatively shorter. It wanders by day over
the plains, feeding on Beetles, larvae, roots, &c. ; differing from the
Peba in being diurnal in its habits. It is common on the Pampas
of Buenos Ayres.
The Mataco {Dasypus Apar). — This species is an example of
Cuvier's group of Apars. The Mataco, or Bolita (little ball), as it is
sometimes called, has its shell of defence extremely hard and solid,
Fig. 551.— Mataco.
forming an admirable coat of mail. It has only three bands on the
back. Of all the Armadillos, the Mataco is the only one which can
assume the complete figure of a ball, enclosing the head and legs ;
and this faculty, together with the strength of the skull, appears the
more necessary, as it does not burrow, its limbs being feeble, and
its claws little adapted for scratching up the ground. It is diurnal
in its habits, and slow in its movements It is a native of the
Pampas of Buenos Ayres ; the tail is short, not much exceeding two
inches in length, while the head and body measure nearly fifteen
inches. Rolled up in its tessellated shell, it is safe from the attacks
of Dogs; "For the Dog," says Mr. Darwin, "not being .able to
take the whole m its mouth, tries to bite one side, and the ball slips
away. The smooth hard covering of the Mataco offers a better
defence than the sharp pines of the Hedgehog." A shell of this
species, which formed the cup of a cacique, is in the Museum of the
Zoological Society, London. (See Fig. s=;i.)
The Poyou, or Wea.sel-headed Armadillo {Dasypus En-
coubert, Desm.) — This Armadillo belongs to Cuvier's section
termed Encouherts : it is very common in Paraguay, and burrows in
the ground with almost incredible celerity. Its strength and activity
are very remarkable ; and, notwithstanding the shortness of the
legs, few men can overtake it. It is of a restless, unquiet disposi-
tion, inquisitive, and confident; and when any noise is made at the
entrance of its burrow, it is said to come fearlessly forth to investi-
gate the cause. Its voice is a low grunt, like that of a young Pig.
These animals live solitary or in pairs, and haunt wooded districts,
where they excavate very deep burrows : when danger threatens
they carry on their mining operations, rendering it ditBcult to dig
them out. They feed upon melons, potatoes, and other vegetables ;
but also, to a great extent, upon carrion ; the natives, nevertheless,
eat the fiesh of this species without any repugnance. When it stops
or rests on the ground, it has a habit of squatting like a Hare in her
form, and in this situation the great breadth of the body is very ap-
parent. The head is large, flat, and nearly triangular : the face
short, and the muzzle blunt ; the ears are moderate. (See Fig. 552.)
Fig. 552. — Weasel-headed Armadillo.
Several individuals of this Armadillo have, at various times, lived
in the menagerie of the Zool. Soc. They appear to have little fear,
and soon become familiar, even with strangers ; when running about
their enclosure, during warm or sunny weather, they turn up the
turf rapidly with their noses, apparently in search of Worms or
insects ; bread and milk is the diet on which they are fed : their
actions are prompt and rapid. The Poyou measures about sixteen
inches in the length of the head and body ; the tail is about six or
seven inches long.
Another example of this section is the Pichiy, or Pichy {Dasypus
minutus). It is extremply abundant on the arid plains near the
Sierra Ventana, and likewise in the neighbourhood of the Rio
Negro. "AtBahia Blanca," /ays Mr. Darwin, "I found in the
stomach of this Armadillo, coleoptera, larva:, roots of plants, and
even a small Snake of the genus Aniphisba^iia.
"The Pichy prefers a dry soil; and the sand-dunes near the
coast, where for many months it can never taste water, are its
favourite resort. In the course of a day's ride near Bahia Blanca,
several were generally met with. The instant one was observed, it
was necessary, in order to catch it, almost to tumble off one's
Horse ; for, if the soil was soft, the animal burrowed so quickly,
that its hinder quarters almost disappeared before one could alight.
The Pichy likewise often tries to escape notice by squatting close to
the ground. It appears almost a pity to kill such nice little
animals ; for, as Gaucho said, while sharpening his knife on the
back of one, ' Son tan mansos' (They are so quiet)."
The Pichiy measures only ten inches in the length of the head
and body, and about four inches in that of the tail, "it is diurnal in
its habits.
The Tatouay {Dasyptts Tafouay, Desm.) — This species is an
example of Cuvier's section Cabassous. The Tatouay, or Wounded
Armadillo, is so called by the Indians in allusion to its tail, which is
naked, or, as it were, rudely deprived of the crust or bony tube
which covers this organ in all the other species. The whole length
of the Tatouay, as given by Azara, is twenty-six inches and
a-half, including the tail, which is seven inches and a-half,
2 £
210
THE ARMADILLOS.
round, pointed, and naked, with the exception of a few round
scales or crusts on the under-surface of the third nearest to the
extremity, which frequently trails along the ground when the animal
walks: the rest is covered with soft brown "fur, interspersed with a
few stiff short hairs on the superior surface. The head is longer,
narrower, and more attenuated than that of the Poyou, though con-
siderably less so than in the Peba and Mule Armadillo ; the ears
Fig- SSj. — Tatouay.
arc unusually large, being nearly two inches long, and in figure
forming a segment of a circle ; the body is round ; the claws of the
fore-feet, particularly that of the middle toe, are excessively large.
The bucklers of the croup and shoulders are composed of ten and
seven rows of scales respectively, each scale forming an oblong
rectangle ; the movable bands are thirteen in number, composed
of scales much smaller than
those of the bucklers, and of
a nearly square figure. It in-
habits Guiana and Brazil, and
is rarely found so far south as
Paraguay. (See Fig. 553.)
The Great Armadillo
{Dasyptts gigas). — This Ar-
madillo is an example of
Cuvier's group Prwdonies.
The Great Armadillo mea-
sures nearly 3 feet 3 inches
in length, from the nose to the
origin of the tail ; the head
is seven inches and a-half
long, the ears an inch and
three-quarters, and the tail
one foot five inches. Its
superior size is alone suf-
ficient to distinguish this
species from all the other
known Armadillos ; but it
possesses numerous other
characters, not less remark-
able. Its head is propor-
tionately smaller than in the
other species ; the forehead
is more protuberant, and the
face, from the eyes down-
wards, assumes a tubular
cylindrical form, like that of
the Peba ; the ears are of a
moderate size, pointed and
habitually crouched back-
wards ; the bucklers of the
shoulders and croup are com-
posed of nine and eighteen
rows of plates respectively,
and separated by movable
bands to the number of twelve
or thirteen, formed of rectangular scales, about half an inch square.
The tail is thick at the root, being upwards of ten inches in cir-
cumference : it is gradually attenuated towards the tip, covered
•with plates disposed in rings at the base, and forming, spiral or
crescent-shaped lines througliout the rest of its length. The claws
are large and powerful, but in their relative form and dimensions
differ little from those of the Tatouay, already described.
This species inhabits Brazil and the northern parts of Paraguay.
It is never found in the open country, but keeps close to the great
forests, and burrows with surprising facility. Those who are em-
ployed in collecting the Jesuits' bark frequently meet with it in the
woods, and report that when any of their companions happen to die
at a distance from the settlements, they are obliged to surround
the body with a double row of stout planks, to prevent it from being
scratched up and devoured by the Great Armadillo. (See Fig. 554.)
The Pichiciago {Chlamyphorus truncatus). — This extraor-
dinary little creature, though scarcely six inches in length, is formed
on the plan of the utmost strength and solidity, being destined for
burrowing habits. It is a native of Chili, where, like a Mole, it
works out galleries in the rich soil of the valleys, living for the most
Fig- 5S4-— The Great Armadillo.
part under-ground in quiet seclusion. So rare is this animal, that it is
regarded by the natives as a curiosity. Its food, so far as we are
assured by its dentition and the imperfect accounts collected, con-
sists of insects and larvs : night probably is the season of its
activity, and of its unfrequent visits to the " upper world."
The appearance of the Pichiciago reminds us of the Armadillos,
for it is covered above by a shell, not, however, of very hard con-
sistence, nor very thick, but of a texture between horn and leather.
Fig- 555.— Pichiciago.
(See Fig. 555 .) This shield-like plate commences on the head, and
extends over the back and haunches, over which latter it dips down
quite abruptly and perpendicularly, so as to make it seem as if the
body was cut off abruptly at its hinder part. It is divided by inter-
secting furrows into a series of bands or strips, each strip being itself
made up of fifteen or twenty plates of a square form, except on the
head, which is covered with a single plate composed of a mosaic-
work of rounded and irregular portions, and the perpendicular
haunch-plate, which is also tessellated. This horny covering or
shield is not fixed by the whole of its inferior surface to the integu-
ments beneath, as is the case with the Armadillo ; but merely rests
on the back, free throughout, excepting along the spine of the back
and top of the head ; being attached to the back, immediately above
THE AARD-VARK, OR EARTH-IIOG.
211
the spine, by a loose cuticular production, and by two remarkable
bony processes on the top of the os frontis (bone of forehead), by
means of two larafe plates, which are nearly incorporated with the
bone beneath ; but for this attachment, and the tail being firmly
curved beneath the belly, the covering would be very easily detached.
I skeleton is equally indicative of the animal's habits. The skull is
firm, and prevented from being pressed upon by the shield which
rests on the two projections. The bones of the fore-limbs are short,
thick, and angular ; the scapula; broad and strong : the ribs thick,
and capable of resisting great pressure. The hip-bones arc of sin-
Fig. 556. — Extremity and Tail of Pichiciago.
The extremity of the tail is formed like a paddle. The whole surface
of the body and under-side of the shield are covered with fine silk-
like hair (of a delicate straw-colour), longer and finer than that of
the Mole, but not so thick. The anterior of the chest is
large, full, and strong : the anterior extremities short,
clumsy, and powerful. The hand, which is amazingly
thick and compact, is furnished with five powerful but
compressed nails, which, arranged together in their natu-
ral situation, constitute one of the most efficient scrapers
or shovels which can be possibly imagined ; and expressly
adapted for progression under-ground, but in an equal ratio
ill-fitted for celerity on the surface. The hind-legs are
comparatively weak, the feet being long and plantigrade,
and the toes furnished with small flattened nails. Sight
is but a secondary sense as regards its importance in the
economy of an animal living in darkness beneath the
ground. The organs of vision, therefore, are very minute,
and buried in the silky fur by which the circular orifices of
the ears are completely concealed. The head is almost conical in
figure, going off from a broad base to a pointed muzzle furnished
with an enlarged cartilage, somewhat as in the Hog, and doubtless
for the purpose of grubbing and burrowing for food.
In accordance with the details of external configuration, the
Fig. 561. — Cervical
Vertebrx.
Fig. 562.— Pelvis,
behind.
Fig. 564.— Tail.
F'g- 563.— Pelvis,
below.
gular construction, and admirably formed for protecting the internal
organs from injury. Such is an outline of the structure and habits
of the Chlamyphorus, an animal which, though bearing in some
points a resemblance to the Armadillos, yet possesses characters so
exclusively its own as to render it one of the most interesting dis-
coveries in zoology.
Fig. 556 represents the tail ; Fig. 5,57, a lateral view of the skull of
the Pichiciago ; Fig. 558, an upper view ; Fig. 559, a basal view of the
same ; Fig. 560, lower jaw ; Fig. 561, the cervical vertebra;, and first
Fig. 557- — Skull of Pichiciago, side view.
Fig. S5S-— Skull, top. Fig. 559.— Skull, base. Fig. 560.— Lower Jaw.
Fig. 565. — Skeleton of Pichiciago.
bone of the sternum, with parts of the first and second ribs seen from
below. Fig. 565, the skeleton; Fig. 562, pelvis seen from behind;
Fig. 563, same seen from below : Fig. 564, vertebra of tail.
The Aard-Vark {Orycteropus Ca^ens/s). — This animal, known
to the colonists of the Cape of Good Hope by the name of Aard-vark,
or Earth-Hog, is the sole example, as far as ascertained, of the genus
Oryctcropus. The Aard-vark is essentially burrowing in its habits,
Fig. 566. — Aard-vark.
and insectivorous in its diet. Its proportions are thick and strong,
though the general contour is elongated and the limbs short. It is
neither protected by plates nor scales, but the skin is thick, tough,
and coarse, and covered with stiff hair, resembling bristles in quality,
and somewhat scantily disposed, especially on the head. The
muzzle is elongated, narrow, and Hog-like at its apex ; the mouth
small, and the tongue extensible ; the eyes are rather small ; the ears
large, long, and pointed ; the tail tapering from a very stout base ;
the limbs are short, thick, and very muscular ; the fore-feet have
four stout toes armed with large solid nails, resembling hoofs in
appearance, and admirably adapted as scrapers of the dry, hard
212
THE ANT-EATERS.
ground of an African desert. The hind-feet are long and planti-
grade, having five toes armed with naiis of the same character as
those of the fore-feet.
The teeth consist of seven molars on each side above, of which the
first is minute and distinct from the rest, and six on each side below.
Fig. 567 gives the teeth of the upper jaw in two views ; Fig. 568,
those of the lower jaw ; Fig. 569, the teeth of both jaws together.
Fig. 567. — Teelli of Aard-vaik.
Fig. 56S.— Teeth of Aard-vark.
Fig. 569. — Teeth of Aard-vark.
The Aard-vark attains to a considerable size, measuring, when
fully grown, upwards of five feet in total length, of which the tail is
I foot 8 or 9 inches. Its food consists exclusively of Ants, which it
takes by means of its long glutinous tongue, after effecting a breach
in the dome-like houses of solid indurated mud-work which those in-
sects construct, and which are very abundant in certain districts.
These hillocks are from two to three feet high, and their structure is
irregularly cellular, not unlike volcanic honeycomb stone, exhibiting
a maze of passages opening into each other. In demolishing these
buildings for the sake of their multitudinous inmates, which are
devoured by wholesale, the Aard-vark employs the active portion of
its existence. The dwelling of the Aard-vark itself is in a burrow at
a little distance beneath the surface of the ground, out of which it
comes forth only during the night, for in its habits it is entirely noc-
turnal ; hence during the day it is seldom seen, but may be observed,
as the dusk approaches, creeping from its hole, intent upon its prey.
These burrows, where numerous (as they are in some districts, where
also innumerable Ant-hills cover the plain), are dangerous to
waggons travelling over the country ; and Cattle and Horses occa-
sionally break through the surface of the ground into them, and thus
suddenly stumble or fall. They are often very extensive, and it is
incredible with what despatch the animal makes them, and with
what rapidity it mines onwards when endeavouring to elude the
search of persons attempting to dig it out of its retreat • hence it is
not captured without difficulty. The flesh of the Aard-vark, and
especially the hind-quarters, when made into hams, are accounted
excellent.
The Myrmecophagid.^;, or Ant-eaters.
The Myrmecophagidcs, or Ant-eaters, are distinguished by the re-
markable structure of the tongue, which, by a peculiar arrangement
of the muscles of which it is composed, is capable of being protruded
from the mouth to a great length, and again retracted at the pleasure
of the animal.; The tongue is almost entirely composed of annular
or ring-like muscles ; and it is by the contraction of these that its
extraordinary extensibility is produced. It is usually of a cylindrical
or Worm-like form ; but in the genus Orycfcropus it is flattened
and strap-shaped. Its surface is smooth, and indued with a viscous
matter, and it thus becomes instrumental in enabling these creatures
to procure their food, which consists entirely of insects, and princi-
pally of Ants and Termites ; the tongue is exserted amongst the
crowds of these insects, which then adhere to its surface, and are
drawn back into the mouth by its contraction. The jaws are elon-
gated, but the external opening of the mouth is of very small size ;
so that without this extensible tongue, the animals of this family
would be unable to procure their nourishment. In the majority the
jaws are quite destitute of teeth ; these organs occur only in one
genus {Orycteropiis), including two species, both natives of Africa.
The Qryctcropuda arc also the only species of this family in which
the ears attain any considerable size.
The legs are rather short, but very powerful — adapted for terres-
trial motion, and armed with very strong claws, which are employed
by the animals in digging into the Ant-hills in search of their
favourite food ; the Ants and White Ants crowding into the breach
as soon as they find their dwelling is invaded, and thus giving their
enemy an excellent opportunity of inserting his long tongue amongst
their ranks.
The Great Ant-eater, or KiAi-v,Y,k.^{Myr7}iecophagajiibata).
The Tamanoir of Buffon. — This species, a native of Guiana, Brazil,
and Paraguay, is characterised by the total absence of teeth, a
narrow head, with an extremely slender elongated snout, contrasting
strangely with the clumsy massive contour of the limbs and body.
The mouth is a small slit at the extremity of the snout ; the eyes are
small, and the tongue long, cylindrical, and protractile, constituting
an organ for obtaining insect food, and is lubricated by a gummy
saliva ; the limbs are short, but of great thickness, furnished with
huge hook-like claws well adapted for making forcible entrance into
the solid dwellings of the Termite Ants. The claws of the fore-feet
are four in number, the inner one being the smallest ; of the hind-
feet, five. Those of the fore-feet, in a state of repose or when the
animal is walking, are doubled inwards on a rough callous pad, and
the outer portion only of the fore-feet is applied to the ground. The
claws of the hind-feet are short, and the sole is a naked protuberant
pad. The ears are short and round ; the tail is of great thickness
at the base, whence it narrows to the apex, being laterally com-
pressed, but its form is hid beneath a profusion of long, coarse,
flowing hair, which hangs like a full plume or fringe.
The hair of the head is short and close, but over all the rest of the
animal it is long and shaggy, particularly on the top of the neck and
along the back, where it forms a kind of long mane ; and on the tail,
where it is a foot in length, and hangs down on each side, sweeping
the ground when the Ant-eater walks. (See Fig. 570.)
I'ig- 570.— The Great Ant-eater.
The prevailing colour on the head, face, and cheeks of the Ant-
eater is a mixture of grey and brown ; that on the upper parts of the
body and tail is deep brown mixed with silvery white. A broad
black band, bordered on each side with a similar one of white or
light-greyish-brown colour, commences on the chest and passes ob-
liquely over each shoulder, diminishing gradually as it approaches
the loins, where it ends in a point. The'sides, arms, and thighs are
silvery-grey, with a slight mixture of brown, marked with two deep
black spots, one on the carpus, and the other on the toes ; the hind-
legs are almost perfectly black, and the breast and belly of a deep
brown, almost equally obscure.
THE ANT-EATERS.
213
Dr. Schomburg-k observes, that at a distance the Ant-eater appears
to be a much taller animal than it really is, owintj to the elongated
and nearly erect hair of the mane, and also the erect manner in
which it carries its large bushy tail. When walking, the outer por-
tion of the fore-foot is applied to the ground, and the long claws arc
then doubled inwards. It runs with a peculiar trot, and is not, as
has been represented, slow in its movements and easily overtaken;
for when chased, it will keep a Horse in canter, and does not tire
readily. White Ants, or Termites, constitute its chief food. When
the Ant-eater meets with one of the tumuli constructed by the White
Ants, it immediately pulls the fabric down by means of its large
strong claws, and when the Ants are thus exposed, its long slender
tongue is thrust out to collect them. The movements of the tongue,
alternately being protruded and retracted, are so rapid, says Dr.
Schomburgk, that it is no longer surprising how so large an animal
can satiate its appetite with such minute insects. The Ant-eater is,
however, an economist, and does not destroy more than he wants.
When he finds that the Termites diminish on the surface, and every
one seeks to escape in the numerous galleries of the ruined edifice,
he uses his left foot to hold some large lumps of the nest, whilst with
the right he leisurely pulls them to pieces. Specimens of the Ant-
eater may be seen in the gardens of the Zoological Society, Regent's
Park, London.
With the Termites he swallows a considerable quantity of the
material of which the Ants' nest is constructed. Of this fact Dr.
Schomburgk assured himself by dissection, and he is of opinion that
the substance of the nest serves as a corrector.
"It has been generally thought," says Dr. Schomburgk, "that
the Ant-eater lives exclusively on Ants ; this, however, is not the
case. In one which I dissected a year ago, a species of Jiiliis was
found ; and the avidity with which an adult one now in my posses-
sion swallowed fresh meat, which was hashed up for it, makes me
believe that even in the wild state it does not satisfy itself exclusively
with Ants, and, provided the food is of such a size that it can take it
up with its movable upper lip, it does not despise it." According to
the same authority, the Great Ant-eater makes no burrow, its tail
serving as a sufficient protection : the female produces a single off-
spring, which she carries on her back ; she defends herself by strik-
ing with her fore-feet, while raised on her haunches, or throws
herself on her back, dealing blows with both her claws. The young
soon become tame and familiar, growl like a puppy, or utter a plain-
tive whine. The sense of smell is exquisite ; and the animal is
directed more by this than by sight. The teats of the female are
two, and pectoral. The young remains with its parent for the space
of a year.
Dr. Schomburgk domesticated an adult female Ant-eater, which
he found capable of climbing with great facility, and also of taking
up objects with its paws. It ate beef and even fish cut small. When
not asleep, it rested on its haunches ; but in feeding kneeled as
Goats and Sheep often do. Its height was 3 feet ; the length of the
head, i foot 3 inches ; of the back, 3 feet 7 inches ; of the tail,
3 feet 6 inches. The Ant-eaters, in the collection of the Zoological
Society of London, are fed with a mixture of egg and finely-chopped
meat.
The Tajiandua {Tainandua letradadyle; Myrmecophaga Ta-
■ina?idua, Cuv.) The Middle Ant-eater, Shaw; theCagouare of Azara.
This species is a native of Brazil and Paraguay. In the general
plan of its osteology, the Tamandua agrees with the Tam.anoir, but
the bones of the muzzle are shorter than the cranial portion, instead
of being twice as long ; hence the whole head is more abbreviated :
the snout is also more conical, and presents a less tubular appear-
Fig. 57'' — Tamandua.
ance. Independently, however, of this difference, the Tamandua is
easily distinguished from its congener. It is far inferior in size, and
its tail, instead of being furnished with full flowing hair, is a long,
taper, thinly covered organ of prehension, nearly naked indeed at
the tip, though well covered at the base. The fur of the body is
thick, dense, and harsh ; and on the hinder quarters of tolerable
length, but on the head and fore-quarters it is short, wiry, upright,
and glossy, and radiates from an areola between the shoulders : the
point of the muzzle is bare ; the eyes are small ; the ears of a mode-
rate size and rounded ; the mouth is small, and the nostrils arc
lateral slits. (See Fig. 571.)
In the structure of the limbs it closely resembles its larger con-
gener. The Tamandua, when fully grown, measures about two feet
in the length of the head and body, and sixteen or seventeen inches
in that of the tail. A young specimen measured nineteen inches in
the body, and thirteen in the tail. Its colour on the head and fore-
quarters was yellowish-white : the sides of the body, the haunches,
and the under-surface, together with the base of the tail, being black,
and a black stripe passed along each shoulder.
M. Geoffroy regards as distinct species one altogether black,
which he terms T. nigra, and another, with a double shoulder-
stripe, which he has named T bivittatd. They are, however, most
probably, only varieties ; at least Cuvier states, in his " Ossemens
Fossiles," that however these animals may vary in colour, they pre-
sent no difference in their proportions, nor in the details of their
skeletons, though he has rigidly compared them together. Azara
tells us that he once found dead a Cagouare thirty-seven inches and
three-quarters long, which was of an universal yellowish-white ;
whence he concludes that the perfect livery is not gained until the
second year. The young are of an universal pale cinnamon colour.
In its manners the Tamandua agrees with the Tamanoir, with this
difference, that it often climbs trees, aiding itself by its prehensile
tail, which, however, is much inferior as a prehensile organ to that
of the little two-toed Ant-eater, and its claws are also less calculated
for arboreal habits. Azara suspects th.at it feeds much upon honey
and Bees, which he adds, are here (in Paraguay) destitute of stings,
and take up their abode in trees. When reposing, the Tamandua
doubles its head on its chest, lies on its belly, places its fore-limbs
along its sides, and its tail over its body. It smells strongly of
musk, and the odour, when the animal is irritated, is very disagree-
able, and may be perceived at a great distance. The female pro-
duces one at a birth ; it is, says Azara, very ugly, and is carried by
the mother on her shoulders.
The Little Ant-eater {Myrmecophaga didadyla Linn.) —
The distinguishing characters of this species consist in the shortness
of the muzzle, which is conical ; in the number of the claws, which
are two on each fore-foot, of hook-like shape, compressed laterally
and very sharp, the outer one being considerably the largest ; in the
oblique position of the hind-feet, which are armed with four short
compressed claws ; and lastly, in the strongly prehensile power of
the tail, which is very long, and covered with fine silky fur, like that
of the body, except for three inches of the under-surface at the tip,
where, as in the Spider-Monkey, it is perfectly naked. The claws
of the fore-feet, which resemble those of the Sloth, are folded down
on a callous pad ; and with these the little creature can cling to a
branch while the inward tournure of the hind-limbs combines with
the prehensile structure of the tail to fit it for its arboreal residence.
It may be observed that the animal possesses clavicles, which do
not exist in the Great Ant-eater, the Tamandua, nor yet in the Pan-
golins (See Fig. 572.)
Fig. 572. — Little Ant-catcr.
The eyes are small, the ears close and buried in the fur; the
mouth is small, and the tongue long and vermiform. The fur is ex-
quisitely fine, soft, curled, and silky ; the general colour is delicate
golden-straw, with a brownish mark on the back, often wanting.
Length of head and body, ten inches ; of the tail, ten inches and
The Little Ant-eater is a native of Guiana and Brazil, where it
tenants the forests, suspending itself by its long tail, as well as
clino-ino-by means of its claws : it searches for insects among the
fissures^of the bark, and attacks the nests of Wasps, the nympha; of
which it pulls out with its fore-claws or nippers, and eats them while
it sits up like a Squirreh In defending themselves, these animals
strike with both the fore-paws at once, and with considerable force.
In their habits they are nocturnal, sleeping with the tail twisted
214
THE PANGOLINS, OR MANIS.
round their perch. They utter no cry. The female is said to breed
in the hollows of trees, making a bed of leaves, and producing only
one at a birth. There is a pale variety, regarded by some as a dis-
tinct species.
The Pangolins.
The American Ant-eaters, Mant'na, are represented in India and
Africa by the Pangolins, or Scaly Ant-eaters {Mam's ;pcntadacfyla),
Fig. 573. — Short-tailed Manis and Long-tailed Manis,
Fig. 574. — Temminck's Manis.
which constitute the genus Manis of Linnaeus. These singular
animals may at once be known by their armour of dense horny
scales, or triangular plates overlapping each other, by which every
part of the body, except the middle line of the under-surface, is com-
pletely invested. The body is depressed, rounded above, long and
low ; the head is small and conical, the eyes are minute ; there are
no external ears; the mouth is small,' and
the tongue long and extensible ; the tail is
long and broad, and covered above and below
with hard imbricated scales ; the limbs are
very short and thick, and mailed like the
rest of the body ; no distinct toes are ap-
parent beyond the claws, which on the fore-
feet are five in number, the three central
ones being of enormous size, arched, thick,
and bluntly pointed. The first and the last
claws are very small. The large claws fold Fig. 575.— Skull of Short-
down on a thick coarse pad, as in the Ant- tailed Manis.
eater, and the mode of progression in both cases is the same. The
hind-feet have five short, thick, blunt claws, edging a pad-like sole,
covered with coarse granular skin, and so protuberant that the claws
do not fairly touch the ground. The ungueal phalanges, or last joints
of the toes (both of the fore and hind-feet), which are sheathed by
the claws, are remarkable for being bifurcated at their extremity, a
peculiarity found in no other of the Edeiitata. It is evidently a
conformation intended to give the claws a more secure attachment.
The osseous framework, in
general, is moulded upon the
same plan as that of the Ant-
eaters. Slow in their motions,
and unfurnished with weapons
of offence, the Manis defies the
assaults of almost every foe ;
when attacked, it rolls itself up
into a ball, wraps its tail over
the head, and raises all its
pointed and sharp-edged scales
in serried array, and thus in-
vulnerable, conquers by passive
resistance. The food of the
Manis consists of Termites and
Ants, which it takes in the same
manner as the American Ant-
eaters. It dwells in holes which
it burrows out in the ground.
The Short-tailed Manis
{Ma/iis brachyura, Erxl.) —
This species is a native of
India, and is very common in
the Dukhun, living on Termite
Ants. It measures about four
feet in total length. A second
Indian species is from Java ; it
is the Manis Java7iica of Des-
marest. A third species has
been discovered by Mr. Hodg-
son, in Nepal.
The Long-tailed Manis
{Ma?iis lo?2gica7tdata, Geoff.)
— This is the best known of the
African species, and attains to
a large size, measuring about
two feet in the length of the
body, and about three feet in
the length of the tail. Both of
these species are represented
in Fig. 573.
Temminck's Manis {Manis Temminckii, Smuts). — This Pan-
golin is a native of South Africa. Mr. Bennett observes, that the
most remarkable features of this animal are the shortness of the
head, the breadth of the body, and the breadth of the tail, which is
nearly equal to that of the body, and continues throughout the
greater part of its extent of nearly the same width, tapering only
slightly towards the end, where it is rounded and almost truncate.
Mr. Bennett further remarks, that a peculiarity in the distribution of
the scales of the Manis Teniminckii is the cessation of the middle
Fig. 576.— Skull of Short-
tailed Manis.
Fig. 577.— Skull of Short,
tailed Manis.
THE PANGOLINS, OR MANIS.
215
series of them at a short distance anterior to the extremity of the
tail, so that the last four transverse rows consist of four scales each,
each of the preceding rows havin.e:' five.
Dr. Smith relates, that when the Main's Te>nminckti\s discovered
it never attempts to escape, but instantly rolls itself up into a glo-
bular form, taking especial care of its head, which is the only part
that is easily injured. Ants constitute its chief and favourite food,
and these it secures by extending its projectile tongue into holes
which may exist in the habitations of these insects, or which it may
itself form ; and when, by means of the glutinous matter with
which its tongue is covered, a full load has been received, a sudden
action of the retractor muscles carries both into its mouth, after
which the Ants are immediately swallowed. (See Fig. 574.)
It is a rare species, the natives having a prejudice against it, and
burning every individual they find, so that it is almost extirpated in
many places. Fig. 575 represents the posterior view of the skull of
the Short-tailed Manis ; Fig. 576, the skull seen from above ; Fig.
577, ditto seen from below; Fig. 579, ditto profile; Fig. 580, the
fore-foot ; Fig. 581, the hind-foot ; 'Fig. 578, the skeleton ; Fig. 582,
the pelvis.
Fig- 578.— Skeleton of Short-tailed Manis.
Fig. 5S0.— Feet of Short-tailed Manis.
Fig. 5S1.— Feet of Short-lailed Manis
Fig. 582.— Pelvis of Short-tailed Manis.
2l6
THE RUMINANT ANIMALS.
CHAPTER XVI.
MAMMALIA.— ORDER, RUMINANTIA— OXEN, Etc.
N the Bible may be found, perhaps, the
best definition of the order RUMINANTIA
— "Whatsoever parteth the hoof, and
is cloven-footed, and cheweth the cud,
among the beasts, that shall thou eat,"
Lev. xi. 3. These animals are especially distin-
guished by the remarkable faculty of ruminating,
or chewing their food twice over, which they all
possess in an eminent degree. They form a member of
the Ungulated or hoofed animals ; but present charac-
teristics which make them a very distinct group of the
Mammalia. To man their existence is a necessity in
almost every part of the world. In temperate climates we
have only to refer to two animals, the Ox and Sheep, to at
once remind the reader how far we are indebted to those
Ruminants. Many of our most valued articles are derived
from them, including food, clothing, and a vast variety of products
of comparatively minor importance. Their wide distribution indi-
cates how far their creation was intended to subserve the purposes
of man, from the Reindeer of the Polar regions to the Sacred Bull
of the Hindoos. As far as Europe, but especially Great Britain, is
concerned, one of the most important manufactures, that of wool,
depends on the products of various Ruminants, especially the Sheep ;
and, to a minor degree, the hair of the other members of the order
is similarly utilised. For our supplies of leather we depend almost
entirely on the Ruminants, while their tallow affords material for
candles, soap, grease, &c. In fact, from the hoof to the head or
horn, every part of these animals is utilised by man, whether civil-
ised or savage. We learn from both sacred and profane history, that,
in ancient times, a man's riches were solely estimated by the extent
of his flocks and herds.
The head in the Ruminants is usually small in proportion to the
size of the body : it is of an elongated, conical form, with the jaws
of large size, but by no means so strong as in the Equida;, or Horee
family. In the majority, the lower jaw is furnished with incisor
teeth, the only exceptions to this rule being the Camelidcc, or Camel.
The number of incisor teeth in the lower jaw varies from six to eight ;
but when the latter number is present, the two outer ones have been
regarded by some zoologists as canines. The place of the incisors
in the upper jaw is taken by a hardened gum, against which those
of the lower jaw press in the act of biting. The canine teeth are
generally altogether absent in both jaws, unless we regard the two
outer incisors as their representatives ; and this view is supported by
the fact, that the Camelida, which possess distinct canine teeth in
both jaws, have only six incisor teeth in the lower. The little ani-
mals, called Musk Deer, possess canine teeth in the upper jaw ; and
these, in the males, are of great length, and project downwards be-
yond the lower jaw. Of the molars, which are separated from the
front teeth by a considerable gap, there are always six on each side
in each jaw. The three hindmost of these, or tfie true molars, are
each composed of two columns, which, in the upper jaw, are convex
internally, flat, and furnished with three prominent ribs externally ;
in the lower jaw, on the contrary, the convex surface is external, and
the flat one turned towards the interior of the mouth. The teeth are
completely surrounded with a thick layer, of enamel, which is also
folded inwards so as to form two semilunar figures
in each column of the tooth ; these are exposed
as the teeth are worn away in grinding the food,
and each tooth is then seen to consist of four
crescentic folds of enamel, with their interstices
filled up with dentine. The three foremost teeth
in each jaw consist of a single column, and con-
sequently present only two crescents of enamel.
In most Ruminants the frontal bone is fur-
nished with a pair of appendages, or horns,
which, however, differ greatly in their nature in
the different families. In some the horns are
permanent, consisting of a bony process of the
frontal bone, which forms the core of the horn,
and is coated with a hollow cone, of a substance
analogous to that of which the hoofs and nails
of the Alammalia in general are composed ;
these are the true horns. In the Giraffe, this
horny coat is replaced by hairy skin similar to
that of the body, and the horn is terminated by
a tuft of hairs ; these are also permanent. But
the Stags, in which these weapons are almost
always confined to the males, possess large branched bony antlers,
that, notwithstanding their size, are produced every year a little
before the season of their amours, and shed soon after this period of
excitement has passed.
In the general arrangement of the skeleton, there is nothing to
which we need refer here, with the exception of the structure of the
feet, which is characteristic of the order. The peculiarity com-
mences in the metatarsus, formed of a single elongated bone, the
composition of which, by the amalgamation of two of the true meta-
tarsal bones, is, however, always distinctly recognisable. At its
lower extremity this bone exhibits two separate condyles, for the re-
ception of the basal phalanges of the two complete toes, with which
each foot terminates ; these are followed by two others, so that each
toe is composed of three phalanges, the last of which is inclosed in a
complete lioof, and the extremity of the foot is deeply cleft. The
animal consequently always walks upon two toes ; but besides these,
two others are often present at the back of the foot ; these, however,
are always but slightly developed, and furnished with very small
hoofs, that are of considerable service to the animals in descending
steep declivities. The structure of all the four feet is exactly
similar, and the same conformation prevails throughout the order,
with the exception of the Camels, which present as remarkable
peculiarities in the structure of their feet as in their dentition. Pro-
fessor Owen's views on the dentition and skeleton will be found
further on.
The Riimi7ia7itia are generally of moderate or tolerably large
size, and endowed with great swiftness of foot. They feed in herds,
usually headed by an old male, and their diet consists exclusively of
e f a *
Fig. 5S3.— Stomach of the Sheep.
a, oesophagus ; b, cardia ; c, psalterium ; d, intestine ; e, pylorus ; /, aboma-
sus ; g, reticulum ; li, paunch.
vegetable matter. As they naturally require a considerable quantity
of this food for their support, and its proper mastication is a work of
time, whilst in a wild state, they are constantly exposed to the at-
tacks of carnivorous beasts, from whose clutches they can only
escape by flight, they would stand but a poor chance of obtaining a
sufficiency of nourislimeut, if the conforinatiun of their intestinal
THE RUMINANT ANIMALS.
217
canal were the same as that of the ordinary Mammalia ; and we
accordinijly find that they have been furnished with a most remark-
ably complicated dig:estive apparatus, that enables them to take in
as much food as they require by grazing for a comparatively short
time, leaving the necessary comminution of the food until they can
retire to repose in a place of security. For this purpose the stomach
is divided into four separate compartments, which are usually de-
scribed as four distinct stomachs. The first of these, called the
■paunch {rumen) is by far the largest, and forms the receptacle into
which the food is passed when first swallowed. The interior of this
is covered with numerous villi. The second chamber communicates
with the first by a rather wide opening ; it is very much smaller than
the paunch, and its inner surface is furnished with anastomosing
ridges, forming numerous polygonal cells, from which it has received
the name of the reticulum. The third cavity is called the psal-
terium : it is also of small size, and its lining membrane forms
several longitudinal plates, which have been compared to the leaves
of a book, whence the name applied to it. The -psalterium leads
immediately into the abomasiis, or fourth stomach, which is gene-
rally regarded as the analogue of the true stomach of those Mam-
malia in which that organ forms a single cavity ; this is an elon-
gated pyriform sac, that exhibits numerous folds upon its inner
surface, and leads, by its smaller end, to the commencement of the
intestine. (See Figs. 583 and 584.)
The mode in which this complicated organ is employed in the
digestion of food is as follows : — The oesophagus leads down to an
open canal, which communicates with the two first stomachs, and
allows the crude vegetable matters to pass directly into the paunch.
Here the food appears to undergo little alteration, beyond moisten-
ing with a saliva-like fluid ; but, w'hen rumination is about to com-
mence, a small portion of it is passed into the reiiculufn, where it is
formed into a ball. From this it is expelled again into the canal of
the oesophagus, by the action of the muscles of which it is carried up
into the mouth, there to undergo the process of mastication. When
i ft
Fig. 584. — Section of the Stomach of the Sheep.
a, oesophagus ; b, groove ; r, psalterium ; d, abomasus ; e, intestine ;
/, reticulum ; g, paunch,
sufl5ciently comminuted, the portion of food again passes down the
oesophagus ; but this time the sides of the canal are closed by mus-
cular action, so that the food cannot pass back into the paunch ; and
as the tube thus formed leads directly into the third cavity, the pre-
pared aliment is necessarily conducted there. In this it undergoes
a further change, previous to its admission into the fourth or true
stomach, where the actual process of digestion is carried on. In
the young Ruminants, this structure of the stomach is not distinctly
visible, the first three cavities being very small, and the milk passes
directly into the fourth or true stomach ; and in the Camelidcs it has
been recently found that ihe^saltcriicm, or third stomach, is entirely
deficient. This is also the case in the Javanese Musk Deer. In the
Camels, however, the walls of the second stomach {reticulujn) are
excavated into large deep cells, which can be closed by muscular
action ; in these, those extraordinary quadrupeds are said to store
up a considerable supply of water, serving them for days when
travelling over the parched deserts of Arabia and Africa.
In their form the Ruminants are generally light and elegant, and
supported upon long and rather slender limbs. Their skin is covered
with hair or wool ; their eyes are large, full, and often exceedingly
beautiful ; and their external ears are elongated, erect, and usually
more or less pointed. The tail varies greatly in length and clothing,
and the mammary organs are always placed between the posterior
limbs.
In reference to the ' dentition of the Ruminants, Professor Owen
remarks, that the even-toed or artiodactyle Ungulata, superadd the
characters of simplified form and diminished size, to the more im-
portant and constant one of vertical succession, in their premolar
teeth. These teeth, in the Ruminants, represent only the moiety of
the true molars, or one of the two semi-cylindrical lobes of which
those teeth consist, with, at most, a rudiment of the second lobe. An
analogous morphological character of the premolars will be found to
distinguish them in the dentition of the genus Sus in the Hippopo-
tamus, and in the Phacochcvrm:, or Wart-Hog, where the premolar
series is greatly reduced in number : yet this instance of a natural
affinity, manifested in so many other parts of the organisation of the
artiodactyle genera, has been overlooked in F. Cuvicr's work,
although it is expressly designed to show how such zoological rela-
tions are illustrated by the teeth.
Most of the deciduous teeth of the Rumin.ants resemble in form the
true molars ; the last, e.g., has three lobes in the lower jaw, like the
last true molar. When, therefore, the third grinder of the lower jaw
of any new or rare Ruminant shows three lobes, the crowns of the
premolars should be sought for in the substance of the jaw below
these, and above their opponents in the upper jaw ; and thus the
true characters of the permanent dentition may be ascertained.
The deciduous molars are three in number on each side, and, being
succeeded by as many premolars, the ordinary permanent molar
formula is, ;p 3J^, in ?^ : but there is a rudiment of an anterior
3-3 i-Z
milk-molar in the embryo Fallow-Deer ; and in one of the most
ancient of the extinct Ruminants {Dorcatherium, Kaup), the normal
number of premolars was fully developed.
The molar series of all the Diphyodonts is naturally divisible into
only two groups, premolars and molars ; the typical number of these
,4-4^ 3.-13
4-4' 3-3
; and each individual tooth may be determined and
symbolised throughout the series.
In regard to the skeleton. Professor Owen observes, that the Ox,
the Hog, and the Hippopotamus are examples of even-toed hoofed
quadrupeds. In the Ox, besides the two large and normally deve-
loped hoofs, two small supplementary hoofs dangle behind in each
foot ; in the Hog these are brought down to the level of the mid-
pair, but are smaller; in the Hippopotamus, the four digits and
hoofs are sub-equal on each foot. From this type of extremity to
that of the Giraffe, or Camel, where the digits are absolutely re-
stricted to two on each foot, there is a close series of gradational
short-comings affecting the outer and the inner toes, until they
wholly disappear. The Giraffe (Fig. 585) is a Ruminant, dwelling
Fig. 585.— Skeleton of the Giraffe (Camilafardalis giraffa).
in climes where herbage disappears from the parched soil soon after
the rainy season has terminated, and where sustenance for a herbi-
vore of its bulk could hardly be afforded, except by trees ; it .-s
therefore modified to browse on the tender branches, and chiefly on
the light and lofty acacias. Its trunk is accordingly short, and
raised high upon long and slender limbs, especially at the fore-part ;
a small and delicate head is supported on an unusually long neck.
The number of vertebra; here, however, accords with that character-
istic of the Mammalian class, viz., seven. They are peculiar for the
length of their bodies. There are fourteen dorsal vertebra with very
° 2 F
2l8
THE CAMELS.
long- spinous processes, and supporting^ long- and slender ribs,
especially the anterior ones, seven pairs of which join the sternum,
which consists of six bones ; the lumbar vertebra? are five in number,
the sacral four, and the caudal twenty ; this series is terminated in
the living animal by a tuft of long, wavy, stiff black hair, forming an
admirable whisk to drive off insect tormentors The blade-bone, 51,
is remarkably long and slender ; its spine or ridge forms a very low
angle, and gradually subsides as it approaches the neck of the
scapula ; the coalesced coracoid is a large tuberosity. The hume-
rus, 53, forms the shortest of the three segments of the limb ; it is
remarkable for the strength of the proximal processes ; the second
segment is chiefly constituted, as in all Ruminants, by the radius, 55 ;
the slender shaft of the ulna, 56, which supports a long olecranon,
becomes blended with the radius, and lost at its lower third, but its
distal end reappears as a distinct part. The metacarpals of the
retained digits, answering- to the third and fourth in the human and
other five-fingered (pentadactyle) hands, are blended together to
form a single "cannon-bone" of the veterinarians ; but the nature
of this is different from that in the Horse ; it divides at its distal end
into two well-formed trochlea;, or pulley-joints, and to these are
articulated the digits Hi and ii\ each of which consists of three joints
or phalanges. Thus the main extent of this singularly elongated
limb is gained by the excessive development of the hand-segment,
restricted, however, to those elements that answer to the middle and
ring-fingers of the human hand. (See Fig. 585.)
The pelvis, of which the sacral, S, iliac, 62, and ischial, 64,
elements are shown in Fig. 585, is small in proportion to the animal's
bulk. The femur, 65, is short like the humerus, and chiefly remark-
able for the great expanse of its distal end. The tibia, 66, forms the
main basis of the leg, as its homotype, the radius, does in the fore-
arm, but the fibula is more reduced than in the ulna ; rarely in any
Ruminant is more of it visible than its distal end, 67, wedged in
between the tibia and the calcaneum. The series of tarsal bones,
68, is peculiar in all Ruminants for a coalescence of the two bones
answering to the " scaphoid and cuboid " in the human tarsus. In
all Ruminants the astragalus is unusually symmetrical in shape, with
a deep trochlear articular surface for the tibia, and two equal convex
surfaces for|succeeding tarsal bones ; the calcaneum is produced into
a long "hock." The rest of the bones of the hind-feet conform
closely with those of the fore-foot.
A few remarks, although interesting chiefly to the professed
anatomist, appear called for in reference to the bony structure of the
head of the Giraffe.
The e.xoccipitals form a marked protuberance above the foramen
magnum, and below a deep fossa, for the implantation of the liga-
mentum nuchse — the length of the dorsal spines being related, in all
Ruminants, to a due surface for the attachment of this strong elastic
support of the head and neck. The parietals are chiefly situated on
the upper surface of the skull ; the osseous horn-cores, which are
originally distinct, become anchylosed in old Giraffes, across the
coronal suture, equally to the parietals and frontals : if one of these
be divided longitudinally, it will show the extension of the frontal
and pariental sinuses into its lower fourth, the rest of the horn-core
being a solid and dense bone. The protuberance upon the frontal
and contiguous parts of the nasal bones is entirely due to an enlarge-
ment of these bones, and not to any distinct osseous part : its sur-
face is roughened by vascular impressions. The lachrymal is
separated from the nasal by a large vacuity intervening between
those bones, the frontal and the maxillary. The premaxillaries,
which are of unusual length, articulate with the nasals. The
petrotympanic is a separate bone, as in all Ruminants. The sym-
physis of the lower jaw is unusually long and slender in the Giraffe.
In the_ skeleton of the Camel {Camclus bactriatiiis) the vertebral
formula is — seven cervical, twelve dorsal, seven lumbar, four sacral,
eighteen caudal. Seven pairs of ribs articulate directly with the
sternum, which consists of six bones, the last being greatly expanded
and protuberant below, where it supports the pectoral callosity in the
living animal The cervical region, though less remarkable for its
length than in the Giraffe, is longer than in ordinary Ruminants, and is
remarkable for its flexuosity ; the vertebra? are peculiar for the absence
of the perforation for the vertebral artery in the transverse process,
with the exception of the atlas ; that artery, in the succeeding cervicals,
enters the back part of the neural canal, and perforates obliquely the
fore part of the base of the neurapophysis. The costal part of the
transverse process is large and lamelliform in the fourth to the sixth
cervical vertebrse, inclusive : in the seventh it is a short protube-
rance. The spinous process of the first dorsal suddenly exceeds in
length that of the last cervical, and increases in length to the third
dorsal ; from this to the twelfth dorsal the summits of the spines are
on almost the same horizontal line, and are expanded and obtuse
above, sustaining the substance of the two humps of this species ;
they afford, however, no other indication of those risings, which are
as independent of the osseous system as in the dorsal fin in the
Grampus or Porpoise. The spines of the lumbar vertebra:" progres-
sively decrease in length. The spine of the scapular is produced
into a short-pointed acromion : the coracoid tubercle is large, and
grooved below. The ridge upon the outer condyle of the humerus
is much less marked than in the normal Ruminants. The ulna has
coalesced more completely with the radius, and appears to be repre-
sented only by its proximal and distal extremities. The carpal
bones have the same number and arrangement as in ordinary Rumi-
nants, but the pisiforme is proportionally large. There is no trace of
the digits answering to the first, second, and fifth in the pentadactyle
foot : the metacarpals of those answering to the third and fourth have
coalesced to near their distal extremities, which diverge more than
in the ordinary Ruminants, giving a greater spread to the foot, which
is supported by the ordinary three phalanges of each of those digits.
The last phalanx deviates most from the form of that in the ordinary
Ruminants by its smaller proportional size, rougher surface, and less
regular form : it supports, in fact, a modified claw rather than a
hoof. In the femur the chief deviation from the ordinary Ruminant
type is seen in the position of the orifice of the canal for the
medullary artery, which, as in the human skeleton, enters the back
part of the middle of the shaft, and inclines obliquely upwards.
The fibula is represented by the irregularly-shaped ossicle inter-
locked between the outer side of the distal end of the tibia and the
calcaneum. The scaphoid is not confluent with the cuboid, as in the
normal Ruminant : the rest of the hind-foot deviates in the same
manner and degree from the ordinary Ruminant type, as does the
fore-foot.
The Camelid^, or Camels.
The Camels, as already stated, differ remarkably in many respects
from the other members of this order. In some of their characters
they present a certain resemblance to the Horses, and they accord-
ingly form the types of the first family of the Ruminants — that of
the CajiiclidcB — which includes the Camels of the eastern, and the
Llamas of the western hemisphere. In their dentition these animals
differ greatly from the rest of the order. They have two canine
teeth in each jaw, and the upper jaw contains two small incisor
teeth, which, however, are placed close to the canines, so as to leave
a considerable vacant space in the front of the mouth. The number
of molar teeth varies, but there is usually one more on each side in
the upper than in the lower jaw ; in the true Camels the foremost
molar is placed considerably in advance of its fellows, and is of a
conical form, closely resembling the true canine. (See Fig. 586.)
Fig. 586.— Teeth of Camel.
The Camel {Camclus dromedariiis ; Gamal of the Hebrews,
Djemel of the Arabs).— Of these there are two species— namely, the
Arabian and the Bactrian. The Arabian Camel is distmguished
from the Bactrian by having only one large fatty hump upon the
back, and in being of a somewhat slighter make. (See Fig. 587.)
It is not known in a wild condition, but most probably was mdi-
genous in Arabia and the adjacent regions, the whole of its structure
proclaiming the desert as its destined abode. Reclaimed from the
earliest state, its history is interwoven with that of the patriarchs of
old : time immemorial it has been the bond-slave of man ; and under
his mastership is spread over the whole of Northern Africa as far as
Nubia, and from Syria, throughout Arabia, Persia, and India, being
valued in all these regions as a beast of burden. In Central Asia the
THE CAMELS.
219
Bactrian Camel takes its place, but it is inferior in those qualities
which render the Arabian species so eminently adapted to the arid
buminn- desert, over which it moves silently alonjj, heavily loaded,
patient of thirst and hunger, thus maintaining an intercoarse between
districts separated by vast plains of sands, a barrier more effectual
than that of the rolling ocean. It is the unwearied patience, the
Fig. 5S7. — Arabian Camel.
strength, the docility, the power of maintaining long journeys on
scanty fare, that render the Camel in its own country of intrinsic
importance. By its means the merchant transports his merchandise
from Aleppo or Bagdad to Mecca or El-Basrah. Long strings of
Camels, or caravans, as they are called, venture across the desert,
each animal bearing a load of 500 or even 600 pounds weight, and
the procession moves at the rate of nearly three miles an hour,
regular as clock-work, day after day for eight hours daily. A
caravan of Camels thus wending their way over the plain, their
footsteps falling noiselessly, so that the ear cannot catch the sound
of their approach, whether on hard ground or sand, strongly
impresses those who for the first time witness this truly Eastern
spectacle, which indeed calls to mind
the days when " a company of Ishmael-
ites came from Gileadwith their Camels,
bearing spicery, and balm, and myrrh,
going to carry it down to Egypt."
The more prominent of the structural
peculiarities of the Camels may here be
briefly noticed. The Camel treads flat
on his toes, and not, as the Ox, on a thick-
hoofed termination. We have already
stated that they are cushioned beneath
with large spreading callous elastic pads,
connecting them together, and e.xtend-
ing laterally beyond them, the horn-
covered tips being alone free and sepa-
rate (see Fig. 588 — the Camel's Foot
with the skin removed). This cushion
expands by pressure at each step, a pro-
vision of evident advantage to the ani-
mal in passing over a sandy, yielding
surface, while on hard or stony ground
the elasticity of the pad gives ease to its movements. The Camel
kneels down to be loaded, and kneeling is its natural state of repose,
and hence it is provided with certain callosities upon which to throw
the weight of the body, both in kneeling down and rising up. The
largest of these callosities occupies the chest, which is always
brought to the ground ; one is placed on each elbow and knee of
the fore-limbs, one on the front of each knee of the hind-limb, and
a very small one on the outer side of each hock. The natural
cushions are not produced by the habit of kneeling, as some have
been ready to suspect, for the young Camel is born with them
already formed ; and it may be observed that a similar callous pad
is spread on the breast of the Ostrich, which dwells in the desert,
and reclines upon its chest. The Camel is essentially the inhabitant
of a flat expanse of country, beneath a burning sky. Elevated as
it carries its head, it can discern the green oasis in the sea of sand,
at a vast distance ; and so acute is "its sense of smell, that it can
scent the far-distant water. To shield the large eyeball from the
glare of light, a beetling brow overarches it, and long lashes fringe
the upper lid. Incessantly exposed to clouds of suffocating dust,
Fig. 5SS.— Camel's Foot.
the Camel has its nostrils so constructed as to exclude, as much as
possible, the particles of sand driven by the wind ; they are in the
form of slits, converging towards each other, with elevated margins,
the upper of which is capable of being shut down like the lid of a
box, so as to close the aperture, or keep it open to any degree, at
pleasure.
Hard and scanty is the desert fare upon which this anim.al subsists ;
but the fertile meads and flowery vales of our climate would afford it
no temptation. Thorny shrubs, date-leaves, and the leaves and
branches of the tamarisk, are its staple diet ; and dates, beans, the
hard kernels of which it crushes to powder, with cakes of barley, pro-
vided by its master, sufiice to refresh it on its wearisome pilgrimage.
Hence we see the necessity of its strong incisors, canine teeth, and
canine-like molars, which enable it to browse on the coarsest shrubs
with ease, and sever branches of considerable thickness. With its
powerful, cleft, prehensile lip it draws the twigs or leaves to its mouth,
or even nips off the tender shoots, or holds the tuft of herbage as it is
gradually undergoing mastication. Hard and scanty, we have said,
is the desert fare of the Camel, but oftentimes the supply fails for
days, or is to be obtained only in small quantities, and the travel-worn
beast is put upon short allowance ; then it is that we recognise the
utility of that hump, w'hich seemed at first a deformity. The fatty
mass is gradually absorbed into the system, which thus receives
nutriment ; for the hump is a magazine against a time of want, to
which the system has recourse when other supplies are inadequate.
It is a saying of the Arabs that the Camel feeds on its own hump ;
and in a certain sense they are correct. After the wasting of this
fatty mass, as described, three or four months of repose and copious
nourishment are required to restore it to its usual condition, and
this does not take place till the other parts are well replenished.
When an Arab is about to commence a journey, the first thing about
which he is solicitous is the state of his Camel's hump.
In the Camel, besides the almost total absence of the third stomach,
or omasus, there is another peculiarity to be noticed, viz. , an arrange-
ment of deep cells in the paunch for the reception and preservation of
water, and the enlargement of the cells of the reticulum for the same
purpose. The paunch is divided into two portions, a right and a
left, by a longitudinal ridge of muscular fibres : in the left "is a series
of deep cells capable altogether of containing from four to five quarts
of water; in the right is a smaller series capable of containing
about a quart. When these cells are filled, the fluid is kept free
from mixture with the food by the contraction of the orifice of
each cell, and it can be forced out at pleasure by the action of a
muscular expansion covering the bottom of this cellular apparatus.
The deep cells of the reticulum are arranged in twelve rows, and
are formed by muscular bands, intersecting each other transversely.
This compartment in the Camel appears to be destined exclusively
as a reservoir for water, never receiving solid food, as in the Ox or
Sheep ; and it would seem that the re-masticated food passes into
the third small cavity, being conducted along the upper margin of
the second, through a canal formed by a muscular ridge, which con-
tracts with so much force as not only to open the orifice of the
second cavity, but so as to bring forward the mouth of the third into
the second, by which action the muscular ridges that separate the
rows of cells are brought close together, so as to exclude these
cavities from the canal through which the water passes. Sir E.
Home observes, that "while the Camel is drinking, the action of
the muscular band opens the orifice of the second cavity ; at the
same time it directs the water into it : and when the cells of that
cavity are full, the rest runs off into the cellular structure of the first
cavity. It would appear that Camels, when accustomed to journeys
in which they are kept for an unusual number of days without water,
acquire the power of dilating the cells,
so /as to make them contain a more
than ordinary supply for their journey ;
at least such is the account given by
those who have been in Egypt." The
Llama resembles the Camel in the
arrangement of the cellular apparatus
in the stomach. Fig. 589 represents a
portion of the cellular apparatus of
the Camel's stomach, one-ninth of the
natural size.
From the data collected by Burck-
hardt there is great difference among
different breeds of Camels as respects
the power of enduring thirst, accord-
ing to the mode of life to which they
have been inured. Thus the Camels
of Anatolia require water every second
day during a summer's journey; but the Camels of Arabia can dis-
pense with it until the fourth, or even the fifth. In spring, when the
young herbage is succulent, the Camel scarcely requires to drink,
and the journey across the great Syrian desert, from Damascus to
Bagdad, twenty-five days, may be then performed without any
water being needed by or given to the Camels.
The senses of sight, hearing, and smell are exquisitely acute in
Fig. 5S9. — Camel's Stomach.
220
THE CAMELS.
the Camel : it is said to delight in the jingle of the bells hung about
its neck, for it is often thus ornamented, as in ancient days, and as
pack-horses formerly were in England, perhaps in order that strag-
glers may be enabled to rejoin the caravan. (See Fig. 590.) Shells
called cowries, and even ornaments of silver, are also added : the
Fig. 590. — Head of Camel.
shells are strung in a semicircular form ; hence the phrase, "orna-
ments like the moon."
During a journey it is customary to halt about four o'clock, to
remove the loads, and permit the Camels to feed. If the Arabs are
desirous of preventing them from straying too far, they tie their
fore-legs together, or bind the fetlock to the upper joint by a cord.
Towards evening they are called in for their evening meal, and
placed in a kneeling posture round the baggage. They do not
browse after dark, and seldom attempt to rise, but continue the
process of rumination for the greater portion of the night. Amongst
themselves they are sometimes very quarrelsome ; and after the
hardest day's journey, no sooner is the baggage removed than they
begin to fight, and are prone to give each other the most savage
bites, and are not to be separated without danger. (Fig. 591.) One
Fig- 591- — Camels Fighting.
of the favourite amusements of the Turks of Asia Minor is Camel-
fighting : each being previously muzzled, they strike each other's
heads, twist their neck, wrestle with their fore-legs, each endeavour-
ing to throw the other to the ground. Crowds attend to witness the
spectacle, and, as at the disgraceful Dog-fights of our country, the
Turks will clap their hands, encourage their respective favourites,
and bet upon their success. The Pasha of Smyrna used frequently
to regale the people with these games in an enclosed square before
his palace. It is, however, only at particular seasons that the
temper of the animal is thus excited, and that these combats take
place.
The Camel is often excessively loaded, and sometimes, inhumanly,
the load is laid on sores or wounds ; yet even then the animal
neither refuses to rise nor attempts to cast it off : when suffering and
irritated, however, he cries out, but his complaint is only of in-
justice, and then it must be extreme for him to complain at all.
Fig. 592 is a delineation of the head of an ill-used Camel uttering
its cry of distress. When a Camel, loaded or unloaded, fails, from
hunger and excessive fatigue, and sinks down, it seldom gets on its
legs again, and is left to perish. Wellsted tells us that he often
passed them when thus abandoned, and remarked the mournful looks
with which they gazed on the receding caravan. When the Arab is
upbraided with inhumanity,
because he does not at once
put a period to the animal's
sufferings, he answers, that
the law forbids the taking
away of life save for food,
and even then pardon is to
be asked for the necessity
which compels the act.
When death approaches the
poor solitary beast, Vultures
collect around, and, eager
Fig. 592. for food, commence their
repast even before life is
extinct. The traveller continually sees remains of this faithful ser-
vant of man, exhibiting sometimes the perfect skeleton covered
with a shrunk, shrivelled hide ; sometimes the bones only, deprived
of flesh, and bleached to dazzling whiteness by the scorching rays
of a desert sun.
The Arabian or one-humped Camel (Fig. 587) is called, by way of
distinction, the Dromedary, but erroneously. The Dromedary is a
light variety^of this species, and is termed Maherry or El Heirie in
the Arabian desert, and Sabayee in the North of Africa. It is used
principally for journeys of dispatch, carrying a single rider, or but a
very light burden; and it will perform very long journeys in almost
an incredible space of time. " When thou shalt meet a heirie, and say
to the rider, 'Peace be between us,' ere he sliall have answered, ' There
is peace between us,' he will be far oif, for his swiftness is like the
wind," is an Arabian figure to illustrate the fleetncss of this Saddle-
Dromedary. This fleetness is, however, much overrated, and it is
less by positive speed than by extraordinary powers of sustained
exertion, day after day, through a time and space which would ruin
any other quadruped, that it accomplishes such surprising journeys.
Urged to a gallop, it cannot maintain its pace for half an hour, and
is easily distanced by the Horse : but it can sustain a forced trot for
several hours together ; Wellsted says for twenty-four consecutive
hours, at the rate of from six to eight miles an hour. A gentle and
easy amble of five or five miles and a-half an hour, is, however, the
favourite quick pace of the Dromedary, and if allowed to persevere
in it, the animal will carry its rider an uninterrupted journey of
several days and nights. A common caravan journey of twenty-five
days is sometimes performed in five days at this rate. This swift
breed is of great antiquity, and is referred to in several places in the
Scriptures. The Camels of Oman are the fleetest, the most beauti-
ful, and the most highly prized. It would appear that there is also a
swift breed of the Bactrian or two-humped Camel, which is in re-
quest in China.
The rate of travelling long journeys performed by the heavy cara-
van, each Camel carrying from 500 to 800 pounds weight, does not
exceed two miles and a-half or two miles and three-quarters an hour.
This, however, can be maintained for fifty days in succession, and
for eight hours each day ; but a more lightly loaded caravan (see Fig.
593) will not only travel quicker, but continue the march for nine or
ten hours daily.
The soil best adapted to the Camel's foot is a dry and hard, but
fine and gravelly plain ; where the sand is deep and soft, the loaded
animal sinks at every step, and becomes rapidly exhausted. It can
also ascend steep and rugged mountain-paths with considerable
ease, but, as Belzoni once experienced to his cost, sometimes slips
and rolls down.
Besides the commercial caravans which traverse the desert, there
are also caravans of pilgrims to Mecca, enjoined by the Mohammedan
religion. AtMeccameettheMohammedans fromAbyssinia andlndia.
To have visited the tomb of Mohammed, which entitles the pilgrim
to the proud distinction of being a hadji, is an honour to which the
meanest devotee aspires ; and thus it is that within the walls of Mecca
are annually assembled vast bodies of Asiatics and Africans, who
have toiled thither, sustaining every privation and misery, and of
whom many, worn out with fatigue, never return to claim the rewards
of their enthusiasm. In these extraordinary journeys the Camel
sustains an important part ; and, indeed, without the services of
these animals — some bearing water in skins, some the merchandise
of distant lands, some the food and necessaries of the pilgrims, and
their own provender, and others the devotees — the pilgrimage could
not be accomplished.
Mr. Parsons, who saw the pilgrim caravan set out from Cairo about
forty years ago, has given a programme of the procession, drawn
up with all the precision of a herald, and which occupies ten pages
of his quarto work. The cavalcade was six hours in passing him.
The most striking appearance to a European must have been the
Camels, in every variety of splendid trappings, laden with provisions,
clothes, and cooking apparatus, and water-skins, and tents, and
THE CAMELS.
321
artillery, and holy sheiks, and Mamelukes,
"with two brass field-pieces each" — othe
There were Camels
-others "with bells and
streamers" — others- "with men beatinpf kettle-drums" — others
" covered with purple velvet" — others " with men walking by their
sides, playing on flutes and flageolets" — others " handsomely
Fig, 593. — Mounted Camels.
ornamented about their necks, their bridles being studded with silver,
intermixed with glass beads of all colours, and ostrich feathers on
their foreheads"- — and, last of all, "the sacred Camel, an extra-
ordinary large Camel, with a fine bridle studded with jewels and
gold, and led by two holy sheiks, in green, a square house or chapel
on his back." In addition to these Camel splendours there were
Horses with every variety of caparison ; Mamelukes, and pikemen,
and janissaries, and agas, and the Emir Hadji (commander of the
Fig. 594. — Loaded Camels.
pilgrimage) in robes of satin— to say nothing of numberless "buf-
foons playing many pranks." Mr. Parsons sums up the splendour
of this pilgrim caravan by declaring, that " it is by much the grander
exhibition than the spectacle of the Lord M.iyor and Aldermen
going in procession through the City of London ;" but this m.iy
be doubted by some as the exaggeration of a traveller,
while others may deem it impossible.
Differing from the usual practice of commercial cara-
vans, the pilgrimage is performed chiefly by night.
The caravan generally moves about four o'clock in
the afternoon, and travels without stopping till an hour
or two after sunrise. A large supply of torches is
carried from Cairo, to be lighted during the hours of
darkness. The Bedouins, who convey provisions for
the troops, travel by day only, and in advance of the
caravan. The watering-places on the route arc regu-
larly established. Each is supplied with a large tank,
and protected by soldiers, who reside in a castle by
the well throughout the year. On parts of the route
the wells are frequent and the water good ; but on
others, three days of the journey frequently intervene
between one watering-place and another— and the
fountain is often brackish. When the Cairo caravan
is completely assembled, and the formalities which we
have just described are gone through, the great body
^, of travellers begin to move, the stations of the different
y^*^'-'- partiesofhadjis, according to their provinces and towns,
U'j-" • being appointed, and rigidly observed throughout the
march. This order is determined by the geographical
proximity of the place from which each party comes.
At Ajeroud, where the Egyptian caravan halts on the
second day's march, it is supplied with water from
Suez ; and here it reposes a day and a night, to pre-
pare for a forced march of three days and two nights,
through a region where there is no water, the desert of El
Tyh, which nearly extends from the head of one gulf
of the Red Sea to the other— that is, from Suez to Akaba. The
Hadj route is circuitous. It is here that the privations both of
men and quadrupeds commence. The splendid trappings of the
Camels, their velvet and their bells, have lost their attraction ; but
their power of endurance becomes the safety of the pilgrims— while
the richly-caparisoned Horse, impatient of thirst, and more easily
subdued by fatigue, is more frequently a burthen to the caravan than
an advantage. The route of the Egyptian caravan, after it passes
the Akaba, lies by the shores of the Red
Sea for nearly six hundred miles ; and,
therefore, it cannot properly be said at
any time after the first ten days' march
to be upon the desert, as the Syrian
caravan is for thirty days. But its diffi-
culties are more numerous ; and it has
to pass regions quite as arid and inhos-
pitable. Every part of Arabia is covered
with sandy plains ; and when the moun-
tain steeps are crossed, the long ex-
tended valleys rarely offer water. The
Arabic language is rich in words ex-
pressing every variety of desert, differing
from each other by very slight shades
of meaning: thus, they have terms de-
scriptive of a plain — a plain in the moun-
tain — a plain covered with herbs — a
naked sandy desert — a stony desert — a
desert with little spots of pasturage —
a desert without water. Although the
caravan route from Cairo to Mecca pre-
sents, with the exception of the desert
El Tyh, none of those enormous wastes,
like the great Southern Desert of Arabia,
"where the Arabs have only the sun
and the stars to direct their way;" nor
is, like the Libyan desert, "a sea with-
out waters, an earth without solidity,
disdaining to hold a foot-print as a
testimony of subjection, there are many
tracts, as well as the desert from Suez
to Akaba, in the forty days' journey,
which offer to the pilgrim abundance of
fatigue and suffering. ,If water fail, as
it sometimes does, even at the wells at
a particularly dry season — if the water-
skins evaporate more quickly than they
ordinarily do — the Camel's power of en-
durance is severely tried — for his wants
are the last attended to. Happy are the
pilgrims if the rain of the mountains
have filled the banks of some little
222
THE CAMELS.
river. Even the much-enduring Camels, at the sight of water, after
many days' abstinence, break the halters by which they are led,
and in rushing or stumbling down the banks throw off their loads,
and occasion infinite disorder." Mr. Buckingham has, however, de-
scribed a scene in which the patience of the Camels is contrasted
in a remarkable way with the eagerness of the Horse: — " It was
near midnight when we reached a marshy ground, in which a
clear stream was flowing along, through beds of tall and thick
rushes, but so hidden by these, that the noise of its flow was heard
long before the stream itself could be seen. From the length of the
march, and the exhausting heat of the atmosphere, even at night,
the Horses were exceedingly thirsty : their impatient restlessness,
evinced by their tramping, neighing, and eager impatience to rush
all to one particular point, gave us, indeed, the first indications of
our approach to water, which was perceptible to their stronger
scent long before it was even heard by us. On reaching the brink
of this stream, for w-hich purpose we had been forcibly turned aside,
by the ungovernable fury of the animals, to the southward of our
route, the banks were found to be so high above the surface of the
water, that Horses could not reach it to drink. Some, more
impatient than the rest, plunged themselves and their riders at once
into the current ; and, after being led swimming to a less elevated
part of the bank over which they could mount, were extricated with
considerable difficulty ; while two of the Horses of the caravan, who
were more heavily laden than the others, by carrying the baggage
as well as the persons of their riders were drowned. The stream
was narrow, but deep, and had a soft muddy bottom, in which
another of the Horses became so fastly stuck, that he was suffocated
in a few minutes. The Camels marched patiently along the edge of
the bank, as well as those persons of the caravan who were provided
with skins and other vessels containing small supplies of water ; but
the Horses could not, by all the power of their riders, be kept from
the stream, any more than the crowd of thirsty pilgrims, who, many
of them having no small vessels to dip up the water from the brook,
followed the example of the impatient Horses, and plunged at once
into the current. . . . This scene — which, amidst the obscurity of the
night, the cries of animals, the shouting and quarrelling of the
people, and the indistinct, and perhaps exaggerated, apprehensions
of danger, from a totally unexpected cause, had assumed an almost
awful character — lasted for upwards of an hour."
The Camel is not only valuable as a beast of burden, its milk is
in requisition : it is the milk used for ordinary purposes by the Arabs,
that of Goats and Sheep being generally made into butter. The
Arab feeds his colt with it, and even gives it to his mare. Flour
made into a paste with sour Camel's milk is a common dish among
the Bedouins ; it is called ayesh. Rice or flour boiled with sweet
Camel's milk is another : it is called behatta.
Though the flesh of the Camel was among the meats prohibited to
the Jews, it is not only eaten, but relished by the Arabs : it is not
often, however, that the Arab kills a Camel in order to enjoy this
luxury. When this does happen, the flesh is cut into large pieces :
some part is boiled, and its grease mixed with borgoul (wheat boiled
^yith some leaven and then dried in the sun) ; part is roasted, and,
like the boiled, put upon the dish of borgoul. The whole tribe then
partake of the delicious feast. The grease of the Camel is kept in
Goat-skins, and used like butter. The woolly hair of the Camel,
which towards the close of spring is loose and easily pulled away
from the skin, is applied to various purposes, and woven into coarse
cloth, used as tent-coverings. Even the dung of the Camel is not
neglected : it forms the chief material for fuel in Egypt, Arabia,
and Persia, and from the smoke, or rather soot, of this fuel is
obtained sal-ammoniac, which was formeriy procured almost
exclusively from this source, and for the manufacturing of which
there were, in the last century, laboratories at Cairo and other towns
in Egypt.
At San Rossora the Tuscan government established a stud of
Camels for the purpose of carrying faggots, hay, straw, &c. from the
domain of San Rossora to Pisa and other towns. It would appear
that this estaljlishment was founded about the middle of the 17th
century, in the reign of the Grand Duke Ferdinand de' Medici II.
The Moors introduced the Camel into Spain ; and after the con-
quest of Granada, and the expulsion of the Moorish inhabitants,
many of these animals remained in the southern districts ; but
the race was not kept up, and therefore Spain, where in various
localities the Camel would be peculiarly serviceable, no longer pos-
sesses this useful animal.
The colour of this animal, as of most domestic animals, is subject
to variety. The brown colour appears not to be esteemed ; reddish
or light grey is preferred. Occasionally black Camels are seen.
In Egypt the average price of one of these beasts of burden is from
30 to 50 dollars : but the swift Oman Camels, which are much
valued, sell at a higher rate, and Burckhardt mentions an instance
in which 300 dollars were given for one. When travelling in Nubia,
Burckhardt saw the Camel almost in a wild state, whole herds being
left to pasture unattended by men : they were kept for the sake of
their flesh and milk, few being employed as beasts of burden ; they
even appeared frightened at the approach of men and loaded Camels
The
—a circumstance this traveller had never before witnessed.
Nubian Camels are generally white.
Fig:- 595 represents a Camel carrying a bride. "One of the
greatest solemnities of these simple Arab tribes is that of conducting-
a bride to her husband. The lady is placed in a frame on the back
of a Camel, and is housed over with carpets, shawls, and Ostrich
F'S- 595- — Camel canying a Bride.
feathers. The Camel is led by a relation of the bride, preceded by
dancing-people, music, mounted and dismounted Arabs, who shout
and fire their guns, running backward and forward in the procession.
Captain Lyon made a drawing of the bridal Camel and his trap-
pings." Fig. 596 shows the Swift Camel, mounted. " The wandering
Arab and his Maherry have an extraordinary appearance, which
Captain Lyon has described. The saddle is placed on the withers,
and confined by a band under the belly. It is very small and
Fig. 596. — Swift Camel mounted.
difiicult to set, which is done by balancing the feet against the neck
of the animal, and holding a tight rein to steady the hand." The
following is a description of a Bedouin encampment : — " Those who
are, from reading or travelled observation, conversant with the
existing manners of the Asiatic pastoral tribes, as the Arabians and
the Tartars, can easily form in their minds a picture of this great
migrating party. Under the conduct of their venerable emir, and
the active direction and control of his principal servants, we behold,
from the distance, a lengthened dark line stretching across the plain,
or winding among the valleys, or creeping down the narrow path-
way on the mountain side. That in this line there 'are hosts of
Camels we know afar off, by the grotesque outline which the figures
of these animals make, their tall shapes, and their length of neck ;
and that the less distinguishable mass which appears in motion on
the surface of the ground is composed of flocks of Sheep, and
perhaps Goats, we can only infer from circumstances. On approach-
ing nearer we find that all this is true, and that, moreover, many
of the Camels are laden with the tents, and with a few utensils and
needments which the dwellers in tents require ; and if the natural
condition of the traversed country be such as to render the precaution
necessary, some of the animals may be seen bearing provisions and
skins of water. The baggage Camels follow each other with steady
and heavy tread, in files, the halter of those that follow being tied
THE LLAMAS.
223
to the harness of those that precede, so that the foremost only needs
a rider to direct his course; but nevertheless women, children, and
old men are seen mounted on the other burdens which some of them
bear. These are slaves, retainers, and other persons not actively
engaged in the conduct of the party, and not of sufficient conse-
quence to ride on saddled Dromedaries. Such are reserved for the
chiefs of the party, their women, children, relatives, and friends;
and are not, unless it happen for convenience, strung together like
the drudging animals which bear the heavier burdens."
The Bactri.\n Ca.mel {Camchcs bac/ria?nisj. — This species is
at once to be distinguished from the Arabian by the presence of
two humps on the back ; it is comparatively rare, and limited in the
Fig. 597. — Bactrian Camd.
extent of geographic range : it is spread, however, through Central
Asia, Thibet, and China, and is reported to exist in a wild state in
Turkestan, anciently Bactriana. Pallas states that very large
Camels, with two haunches, occur wild in the deserts of Shamo,
towards the frontiers of China ; but as the Calmucks liberate all
animals upon a principle of religion, we may conclude that these
Camels are descendants of the domestic stock. Occasionally the
Bactrian Camel is seen in Egypt and Arabia : during his travels
through the latter country Niebuhr saw three, and only three, speci-
mens ; and Mr. Macfarlane met with only one in Asia Minor, which
came from some remote province. A Bactrian Camel foaled in a
menagerie at Hackney, near London, in January, 1864, a circum-
stance somewhat extraordinary in this country. (See Fig. 597.)
The manners of the Bactrian Camel are the same as those of the
Arabian, and its utility is as great as that of the latter. It is the
patient, laborious, and willing slave of man, travelling over sandy
deserts, and administering to the wants of a wandering people.
The height of this species is about eight feet between the two
humps.
Here we conclude our sketch of the history of the Camel — an
animal, in the countries for which it is specially organised, the most
important and valuable to man, and one of the earliest which he
reclaimed to his service. It is true that it has not spread, like the
Horse and the Ox, over the whole globe ; but the reason is evident :
out of its own regions its value and importance are diminished ;
within them no other beast of burden can compete with it, and for
ever will it remain, as it is and has been, " the ship of the desert."
The Auchenia, or Llamas.
Under the general term Llama are comprehended four, if not more
species, which belong to the same section of the Ruminants as the
Camel. Indeed, the Llama was referred by Linnjeus, and other
naturalists of the last century, to the genus Camclus ; from which
Illiger separated it, and assigned it to a genus which he established
under the title of Aicchcuia, in allusion to the length and slender-
ness of the neck, for which the Llamas are remarkable.
The Llamas may be regarded as the analogues of the Camel ;
and, in the Cordilleras of Peru and Chili, are the mountain represen-
tatives of that desert-born servant of man.
In outward form, excepting that there is no hump on the back —
in the general structure and cellular apparatus of the stomach, with
the concomitant power of enduring thirst, or abstaining for a long
season from water — in the expression of the large, full, overhung eye —
in the mobility and division of the upper lip, the fissured nostrils, the
slender neck, and meagre limbs, together with the long, woolly
character of the clothing, the Llama and the Camel exhibit striking
points of agreement. The foot of the Camel, however, with its
broad elastic pad, expressly adapted for traversing the sands of the
desert, differs in its modification from that of the Llama, destined to
inhabit the rough and rocky Cordilleras, along the craggy sides of
which the Llama proceeds with a free and fearless step.
The foot of the Llama (Fig. 598) consists of two springy toes,
Fig. 598. — Feet of Llama.
completely divided, each with a rough cushion beneath, and pro-
vided at the end with a strong short hoof. These hoofs are pointed
at the tip, and hooked down somewhat like a claw ; they are
compressed laterally, and the upper surface represents an acute
ridge ; the under surface is linearly concave — a form well fitted for a
mountain climber.
When the Spaniards first invaded Peru and Chili, they found the
Llama domesticated, and used as a beast of burden, its flesh and
wool being also in great request. It was their only beast of burden :
its flesh was eaten, its skin prepared into leather, and its wool spun
and manufactured into cloth. One of the labours to which the
Llama was subjected was that of bringing down ore from the mines
among the mountains : its ordinary load was 80 or 100 pounds, and
its average rate of travelling with its burden 12 to 15 miles a day,
over rugged mountain-passes ; but, like the Camel, if too heavily
laden it would lie down, and obstinately refuse to proceed, nor
would it bear to be urged beyond its accustomed pace. Gregory
de Bolivar estimated that, in his day, 300,000 were employed in the
transport of produce of the mines of Potosi alone, and four millions
annually killed for food.
Augustin de Zerate, treasurer-general of Peru, in 1544, under the
Spanish dominion, thus describes the Llama, which he calls a Sheep ;
though it is, he observes, Camel-like in shape, but destitute of a
hump : — " In places where there is no snow, the natives want water,
and to supply this they fill the skins of Sheep with water and make
other living Sheep carry them ; for it must be remarked, these Sheep
of Peru are large enough to serve as beasts of burden. They can
carry about 100 pounds or more, and the Spaniards used to ride
them, and they would go four or five leagues a day. When they
are weary they lie down upon the ground, and as there are no means
of making them get up, either by beating or assisting them, the
load must of necessity be takfo off. When there is a man on one
of them, if the beast is tired, and urged to go on, he turns his head
round, and discharges his saliva, which has an unpleasant odour,
into the rider's face. These animals are of great use and profit to
their masters, for their wool is very good and fine, particularly that
of the species called Pacas (the modern Alpaca), which have very
long fleeces ; and the expense of their food is trifling, as a handful
of maize suffices them, and they can go four or five days without
water. Their flesh is as good as that of the fat Sheep of Castile.
There are now public shambles for the sale of their flesh in all parts
of Peru, which was not the case when the Spaniards came first ; for
when one Indian had killed a Sheep, his neighbours came and took
what they wanted, and then another Indian killed a Sheep in his
turn."
D'Acosta gives nearly a similar testimony ; and notices two kinds
(species)— one which is woolly, and called Paco by the natives : the
other covered with a slight fleece {^jillis levibtis) only, and nearly
naked, whence it is more fitted for carrying burthens. It is called
Guanaco.
Captain G. Shelvocke, an Englishman, who sailed round the world
in i7i9-'22, gives a similar account, informing us that the Indians of
Peru call these animals Llamas ; the Chilese, Chilihueque ; and the
Spaniards, Carneros de la tierra.
With respect to the distinct species of Llama, we learn from De
224
THE LLAMAS.
Lact that, besides the domestic race, there are in Peru and Chili
various wild animals, of which some are called Guanaco, or
Huanacu, whence, from their resemblance to the tame breed, the latter
have obtained the same appellation ; their flesh is good, but accord-
ing to Garcilaso, inferior to that of the domestic or Huanacu
Llamas. These animals inhabit the mountain-ranges, where the
males keep watch above whilst the females are feeding in the Alpine
valleys. When the males observe men approaching in the distance,
they utter a sort of neigh, not unlike that of a horse, to warn the
females ; and if the men advance nearer, they flee, driving the
females before them. The wool of these animals is short and rough,
but is, notwithstanding, used by the natives for making cloth. These
animals are taken in traps and snares, Another kind are termed
"Vicunas ; e.\cepting that they have no horns, they are not much
unlike Goats, but are larger, and of a tawny or Lion-like colour with
a rufous tint : these live in the highest mountains, giving preference
to the colder regions, and especially the bleak solitudes which the
Peruvians designate by the common name of Punas. Frost and
snow, so far from annoying, seem rather to invigorate them. They
associate in flocks, and run with great swiftness. Such is their
timidity, that at the sight of men or wild beasts, they instantly betake
themselves into hidden and inaccessible fortresses. Formerly these
animals were very numerous, but they are now become much more
rare in consequence of the promiscuous licence for hunting. Their
wool is very fine, and resembles silk, or rather the fur of the Beaver,
and the natives deservedly estimate it highly : besides other proper-
ties, it is said to resist heat and impart coolness, and consequently
is especially used in the manufacture of caps. Besides these are
the Tarugas, or Tarucas, which are larger and more swift than the
Vicunas, and of a more burnt colour, with pendulous and light ears ;
they rarely associate in flocks, but wander singly about the precipices :
according to Garcilaso they are a species of Deer, inferior in size to
those of Europe. In the time of the Incas they w^ere innumerable,
and even entered the precincts of the towns, nor was there any
deficiency of their fawns and does. All these animals, he adds, pro-
duce bezoar stones.
It is generally believed by naturalists, and among them F. Cuvier,
that there are really only three species— viz., the Llama, called,
when wild, Guanaco, the Paco or Alpaca, and the Vicugna. Mr.
Bennett, indeed, and Baron Cuvier, suspect there are but two
species, but some say [four or more. The former expressly states that
he should have little hesitation in proceeding still farther than F.
Cuvier, being strongly inclined to agree with the Baron in regarding
the Paco as a mere variety of the Llama, with the wool more amply
developed, and in considering the Vicugna as the only animal of
that group that deserves to be specifically distinguished from that
animal. From our own personal observations we are inclined to
believe that there are three species as indicated by F. Cuvier ; but
we confess that we have our doubts as to whether De Laet's Taruga,
with pendulous ears, may not prove to be a fourth species.
The Guan.\CO {Auchem'a Guaiiaco), is supposed to be the wild
stock whence the Llamas are derived, At what period the Guanaco
became domesticated, whether before the foundation of the ancient
Peruvian empire, while the natives were in the rudest state of savage
life, or after Manco Capac had established over the Peruvians the
reigning line of Incas, it is useless to inquire. All we know is, that
the Spaniards on their invasion found the Llama trained as a beast
of burden, and excepting as regards its milk, to them what the
Camel is to the native of the Arabian desert.
The Guanaco, or wild Llama, is more slender, and has an aspect
more expressive of energy and spirit than its domesticated relative,
but it soon becomes familiar in captivity. In its native regions, the
highlands of Peru and Chili, it lives in herds, continuing among the
mountains during the summer, but descending to the valleys on the
approach of winter. At this latter season the Chilians hunt them
with Dogs, but it is only the young and the feeble that can be thus
taken ; the old ones are swift, active, and vigorous, and easily
escape. During the chase they are said frequently to turn on their
pursuers, neigh loudly, and then take to their heels again. Indeed,
when alarmed, they often stop in their flight to gaze at the object of
their fear, and again gallop off.
The Guanaco feeds upon mountain herbage, and especially a
species of rushy grass called ycho ; and when there is sufBcient of
this green fodder for them, they are never known to drink. The
same observation applies to the domestic breed, and the Alpaca
and the Vicugna. Mr. Bennett suggests as a probability that they
may have the power of extracting from their food sufficient liquid to
satiate their thirst. It cannot have escaped notice that the secretion
of saliva in these animals is remarkably abundant, even, as we have
observed, in the hottest weather in England, and that upon the
slightest offence, real or supposed, they discharge a copious shower
of it over the person of the offender. May it not be that the naturally
abundant flow of this saliva obviates the necessity of frequently
drinking ? This saliva was once supposed to possess acrid, irritat-
ing qualities, which certainly is not the case, though it must be
confessed, a sprinkling with rose-water would be more pleasant.
When assaulted and pushed to defend themselves, these animals
strike with their fore-feet, and that with great energy, giving very
severe blows : we have, indeed, seen them strike upon trifling provo-
cation, though in general they are quiet and inoffensive.
The wool of the Guanaco is in request, being of fine texture : the
general colour is rich rufous brown, the head and ears being grey.
The neck is peculiarly long ; the tail a little raised and curved
down. Height at the top of the shoulders about three feet and
a-half.
Mr. Darwin states, the Guanaco " abounds over the whole of the
Fig. 599. — Guanaco.
temperate part of South America, from the wooded islands of Tierra
del Fuego, through Patagonia, the hilly parts of La Plata, Chili, even
to the Cordillera of Peru. Although preferring an elevated site, it
yields in this respect to its near relative, the Vicugna ; on the plains
of Southern Patagonia we saw them in greater numbers than in any
other part. Generally they go in small herds, from half-a-dozen to
thirty together, but on the banks of the St. Cruz we saw one herd
which must have contained at least 500. On the northern shores of
the Strait of Magellan they are also very numerous. Generally
the Guanacoes are wild and extremely wary. The sportsman fre-
quently receives the first intimation of their presence by hearing
from a distance the peculiar shrill neighing note of alarm. If he
then look attentively, he will perhaps see the herd standing in a line
on some distant hill. On approaching them, a few more squeals are
given, and then off they set at an apparently slow, but really quick,
canter along some narrow beaten track to a neighbouring hill. If,
however, by chance he should abruptly meet a single animal, or
several together, they will generally stand motionless and intently
gaze at him ; then, perhaps, move on a few yards, turn round, and
look again. What is the cause of this difference in their shyness ?
Do they mistake a man in the distance for their chief enemy, the
Puma, or does curiosity overcome their timidity ? That they are
curious IS certain ; for if a person lies on the ground and plays
strange antics, such as throwing up his feet in the air, they will
almost always approach by degrees to leconnoitre him. It was an
artifice that was frequently practised by our sportsmen with success ;
and it had, moreover, the advantage of allowing several shots to be
fired, which were all taken as parts of the performance. On the
mountains of Tierra del Fuego, and in other places, I have more
than once seen a Guanaco on being approached, not only neigh
and squeal, but prance and leap about in the most ridiculous man-
ner, apparently in defiance, as a challenge. These animals are very
easily domesticated, and I have seen some thus kept near the
houses, although at large on their native plains. They are in this
state very bold, and readily attack a man by striking him from be-
hind with both knees. The wild Guanacoes, however, have no idea
of defence : even a single Dog will secure one of these large animals
till the huntsman can come up. In many of their habits they are
like Sheep in a flock. Thus when they see men approaching in
different directions on horseback, they soon become bewildered, and
know not which way to run. This greatly facilitates the Indian
method of hunting, for they are thus easily driven to a central point
and encompassed. The Guanacoes readily take to water ; several
times at Port Valdes they were seen swimming from island to island.
THE LLAMAS.
225
tra'
o
o
j
>
2 C
22b
THE LLAMAS.
Byron, in his voyage, says he saw them drinking salt water. Some
of our officers, likewise, saw a herd drinking the briny fluid from
Salina, near Cape Blanca. I imagine, in several parts of the country,
if they do not drink salt water, they drink none at all. In the
middle of the day they fre-
quently roll in the dust of
saucer-shaped hollows. The
males fight together; two, one
day, passed cjuite close to me,
squealing, and trying to bite
each other; and several weiu
shot with their hides deeply
scored. Herds sometimes ap-
pear to set out on exploring par-
ties. At Bahia Blanca, where,
within thirty miles of the coast,
these animals are extremely
unfrequent, I saw one day the
tracks of thirty or forty, which
had come in a direct line to a
muddy salt-water creek. They
must then have perceived that
they were approaching the sea,
for they had wheeled with the
regularity of cavalry, and had
returned back in as straight a
line as they had advanced
The Guanacoes have one singu
lar habit, which is to me in
explicable, namely, that on sue
cessive days they drop their
dung in the same defined heap.
I saw one of these heaps which
was eight feet in diameter, and
necessarily was composed of
a large quantity. D'Aubigny
says that all the species of this
genus have this habit ; and
Frezier remarks that it is very
useful to the Indians, who use
the dung for fuel, and are thus
saved the trouble of collecting
it. The Guanacoes appear to
have favourite spots for dying
in. On the banks of the St
Cruz the ground was actually
white with bones in certain
circumscribed places, which
were generally bushy, and all
near the river. On one such
spot I counted between ten
and twenty heads. I particu-
larly examined the bones ; they
did not appear, as some scattered ones which I have seen, gnawed
and broken, as if dragged together by some beasts of prey. The
animals must have crawled, before dying, beneath and amongst
the bushes. Mr. Bynoe informs me that during the voyage he
■SBSl^qc.
Fig. 6oi. — Tame Llama (white).
Fig. 602. — The Guanaco and the Tame White Llama.
observed the same circumstance on the banks of the Rio Gallegos.
I do not understand the reason for this, but I may observe that all the
wounded Guanacoes at St. Cruz invariably walked towards the river.
At St. Jago, in the Cape de Verd Islands, I remember having seen,
in a retired ravine, a corner under a cliff, where numerous Goats'
bones were collected : we at the time exclaimed that it was the
burial-ground of all the Goats in the island. I mention these cir-
cumstances because, in certain cases, they might explain the occur-
rence of a number of uninjured bones in a cave, or buried under
alluvial accumulations, and likewise the cause why certain Mam-
malia are more commonly imbedded than others in sedimentary
deposits. Any great flood of the St. Cruz would wash down many
bones of the Guanaco, but probably not a single one of the Puma,
Rhea, or Fox." (" Voyage of the Beagle.")
Like the Elephant, the Horse, the Camel, and many others, the
Guanaco has its fossil prototypes. Mr. Darwin found, at Port St.
Julian (Patagonia), the fossil bones of a Llama, which must have
fully equalled the Camel in magnitude ; and he observes that, " as
the Guanaco is the characteristic quadruped of Patagonia, and the
Vicugna of the snow-clad summits of the Cordilleras, so in bygone
days this gigantic species of the same family must have been con-
spicuous on the southern plains."
The domestic Llama is more stoutly built than the Guanaco ; its
limbs are thicker, its neck shorter, and its aspect more subdued. The
wool is longer and fuller, but of a coarser quality. We have seen brown
and white individuals, but the white seem to be the most common.
When the Spaniards became acquainted with Peru and Chili,
these animals were kept by the natives in vast numbers ; but now
the Horse, the Ass, and especially the iVIule, have superseded the
Llama as a beast of burthen ; while the introduction of the Sheep,
the Goat, and the Ox, has rendered it less necessary, either as con-
tributing by its flesh or its fleece, to the benefit of man. In some
places, however, it still is, or was recently, employed as a beast of
Ijurthen.
THE ALPACA AND VICUGNA.
The preceding cut represents the wild and tame Llama (see Fig.
602) ; the latter in a recumbent position.
The Alp.aca, or Vaco [Auchcnia Paco ; Auchevia Alpaca,
Dcsm. ; Camelus Pacos, Linn.), is as large as the Guanaco, but
proportionately shorter in the limbs ; its forehead, instead of being
regularly arched to the nose, rises abruptly prominent above the
eyes ; the wool is long, delicately fine, and silky, excepting on the
head and limbs, and of a deep fawn colour ; it is, moreover, dis-
posed in long flakes or tassels. Black varieties also occur, of which
a most beautiful specimen, some years ago, existed in the Gardens
of the Zool. Soc. , Lond.
The Paco dwells in herds among the mountains of Peru and
Chili ; it is less fleet than the light-limbed Guanaco, but its general
habits are the same ; it would appear, however, to frequent a higher
and colder range of elevation, as it is said to be frequently seen
with herds of Vicugnas, as will be presently mentioned ; its wool is
largely used for manufacturing purposes, as a material midway be-
tween Sheeps' wool and silk.
The full-paged illustration, at p. 225, ante, represents the Alpaca
of South America.
The VtcuGNA, OR Vicuna [Auchcnia Vicugna), is a smaller
animal than either the Gua-
naco or Paco, and more slen-
der in its proportions. (See
Fig. 603.) Its limbs are thin,
its neck swan-like, the fore-
head is broad and also pro-
minent, but not abruptly so,
as in the Alpaca ; the muzzle
is very narrow, and the head
short. The eyes are large, and
the ears long. The height of
the animal at the shoulder is
about two and a-half feet.
The wool of the body is
extremely delicate and soft,
varying from an inch to three
inches in length : on the
breast it is of the latter mea-
surement ; on the head and
limbs it is close. The colour
is pale yellowish-brown, pass-
ing into white on the under
parts.
The Vicugna lives in herds
on the bleak and elevated
parts of the mountain-range
bordering the region of per-
petual snow, amidst rocks
and precipices, where the
chase is both toilsome and
arduous. The Cordilleras of
Copiapo, Coquimbo, and Peru
are the principal seats of its
abode, but it is also found in
Chili. Its manners very much
resemble those of the Cha-
mois of the European Alps,
and it is as active, vigilant,
wild, and timid. Its wool is
highly valued ; and for this ^ _
alone thousands are annually "'"'■ ^ ' ^
killed, various means being
employed in their wholesale
destruction.
Holding, as the Llamas do, especially the Alpaca and Vicugna,
so conspicuous a place among wool-bearing animals, it is singular
that, after Europeans became acquainted with them, and with the
beautiful fabrics manufactured by the native Peruvians, three cen-
turies should have elapsed before any attention was paid in Europe
to the importation of their produce as an article of commerce, or any
attempts were instituted with regard to the naturalisation of the
animals in localities best fitted for their multiplication ; and this
more especially as the fineness of the wool had, from the first, at-
tracted the notice both of the Spaniards and other Europeans.
That no difficulty existed in the transportation of the Llama to
Europe, and that it would bear our climate well, was abundantly
proved by the numerous individuals which have lived both in the
Gardens of the Zoological Society and in other places, and which,
under the inevitable disadvantages of confinement, and, perhaps,
too luxurious a diet, continued long in health and vigour — as long,
indeed, as animals indigenous to Europe under the same circum-
stances.
At the ninth meeting of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, the value of the silk-wool of these animals,
and the benefits which would result from their naturalisation in our
country, formed an interesting topic of discussion. The subject was
227
'J^lf^^f ^^ ^'- 7i\ °''"'°"' ^'^°' '" illustration of his views.
cxh b ted samp es of Alpaca wools, and manufactured specimens in
imitation of si k (and without dye), as black as jet. Mr. Danson
urged, that the .animals producing it ought to be propagated in
uigland, Ireland Scotland, and Wales; and stated, that to the two
Kattcr places the Alpaca is weH-suitcd, being an inhabitant of the
Cordilleras, or mountain district in Peru. The late Fail of Derbv
had propagated the Alp.aca in his private menagerie at Knowslcy.
In i860 to 18&3 several Llamas were imported into England • and
eventually sent to Australia, where they became completely natural-
ised. Of recent years, however, little has been heard of the result of
this venture.
The Giraffe, or CA-i.iiL-LOV\v.T>—CamelopardidcB.
The Giraffe [Cameiopardalis girafa; Zarapha, Zerafct, and
Zurafel, of the Arabs ; Surnapa, Zlirnapa, and Ziirnepa, of the
lurks) may be considered as one of the most curious of animals
but It admirably illustrates the adaptation of construction to the cir-
cumstances of existence. The genus Camclopardalis stands in a
certain sense isolated among the Ruminants, and is the represcnta-
Fig. 603. — The Vicugna.
five of a family group, intermediate, as Professor Owen's researches
demonstrate, between the Deer and the Antelopes. It has been
observed that the characters of the Giraffe offer a mixture of several
genera, among which the followers of the quinary system may select
whether to class it, with Illiger, among the Camels, or, with other
naturalists, among the Cervine, or Antelopine animals.
This extraordinary creature, of which, at one period, the very
existence was almost doubted, has become now familiar to us ; and
though we gaze with wonder upon its strange proportions, we no
longer regard it as one of the monsters of a land which credulity
pictured as tenanted by creatures which exist only in imagination.
On beholding the Giraffe, we are at once struck with the shortness
of its body, the length of its limbs, the elevation of its withers, and
the elongation and slenderness of its neck, supporting a small and
delicately modelled head. Its movements are no less strange than
its figure ; for, owing to the shortness of the body and the length of
the limbs, the hind-hoofs are brought at each step as far forward as
the spot the previous moment occupied by the fore-hoofs, but some-
what to the outside of it, for the hind-limbs diverge somewhat out-
ward from the hock-joint. The legs of each side are in action
nearly in unison together, those of the right side appearing to alter-
nate with those of the left, and vice versa.
228
THE GIRAFFE.
The Giraffe, however, is not really awkward, and is very far from
being slow ; indeed, the swiftest coursers of the desert are scarcely
equal to the chase, and among rugged and broken ground utterly
unable to take it.
When walking along, the Giraffe does not ordinarily carry its
beautiful swan-like neck upright, but obliquely forwards, in a line
continued from the spine, over the withers, to the top of the head —
an attitude scarcely consistent with grace ; the animal, however,
often wreaths it very gracefully, nor can anything produce a more
imposing effect than the Giraffe when its neck is stretched up to the
full, while the animal gazes round with its large beaming eyes, or
plucks the foliage from the branches of the trees, browsing beneath
their shade.
It is scarcely necessary to state that the Giraffe is exclusively con-
fined to the continent of Africa. Its characters may be detailed
as follows : — The head (Fig. 604) is small, and narrows to a slender
Fig. 604. — Head of Giraffe.
elongated muzzle, entirely covered with hair. The nostrils are
longitudinal slits, capable of being closed or opened at pleasure ;
the upper lip is endowed with great flexibility and muscular power,
and projects beyond the lower ; it is used as an organ of prehension
in the acquisition of food. The tongue is an extraordinary instru-
ment, and requires special notice. It is long, slender, pointed, and
endowed with a surprising share of mobility. Nor is this all ; it is
capable of being greatly elongated, and in this state, of being coiled
Fig. 605. — Mode of procuring Food.
round twigs or branches, and of drawing them to the mouth (Fig.
605). In this respect it is analogous to the proboscis of the
.Elephant, and is at once a feeler, a grasper, and an organ of taste.
It is interesting to see with what address the Giraffe uses this m-
strument, and how dexterously he applies it as a hook or holder.
It is smooth, except when the papilla: are raised— its surface then
becomes rough : its colour is black. The eyes are full, dark.
lustrous, and prominent ; and the upper eyelid is furnished with a
fringe of long lashes. So prominent indeed are the eyes, that they
command, without the animal moving its head, a survey of the
whole horizon, thus enabling it to see, without turning, what passes
on each side and even behind it ; and, from the elevation of the
head, to discern its enemies at a great distance. Fig. 606 repre-
sents a back view of the Giraffe's
head, showing this advantageous
position of the eyes. The ears are
long, pointed, and movable ; and
the sense of hearing is very acute.
There are no sub-orbital sinuses.
Both sexes have horns, if they can
be so termed, for they are truly
analogous to the peduncles of the
horns in the Muntjac Deer, being,
in fact, processes of bone covered
with skin, having a tuft of black
hairs at the top ; but besides these
substitutes for horns, a similar but
shorter process projects from the
forehead between the eyes, more
developed in males than females,
and in adults than in the young.
According to Rijppell and Cuvier,
this, like the other horns, is articu-
lated by suture to the skull ; but Professor Owen has demonstrated
that this frontal protuberance is not a true horn articulated by a
suture, but results from a singular thickening of the bone of the
forehead. (See Fig. 607.) The osseous peduncles, or horns, as they
are commonly called, continue for a long time united to the frontal
bone only by means of a suture, and are not fairly anchylosed till
at an advanced period. This, indeed, is the case with all the bones
of the skull of the Giraffe : it would appear that the process of ossifi-
Fig. 6o5. — Back view of
Giraffe's Head,
Fig. 607. — Skull of Giraffe.
cation is carried on but slowly in this part of the frame-work, and,
as it respects the horns, that nature having completed the first stage
of her intentions, having, in fact, prepared the peduncles, was
arrested in her operations, and forbidden to add the antlers.
The long flexible neck of the Giraffe is provided with a short
mane, extending from the withers to the top of the head. The ele-
Fig. 60S. — Giraffe about to lie down.
vation of the withers is remarkable, and from this part to the
crupper there is a rapid descent, whence has arisen the idea that
the fore-limbs are much longer than the hinder pair, which is not
the case. The fore-knees are large : and when about to lie down.
THE GIRAFFE.
229
the animal sinks upon them, and assumes an attitude by no means
easy or graceful. (Fig-. 608.)
The tail is rather long, slender, and tufted at the extremity with
long, coarse, black hairs. The skeleton of the Giraffe is well
worthy the attention of an anatomist. At page 217, Fig. 585, a)ite,
we have illustrated the skeleton, and given Professor Owen's
remarks thereon. In the following cut, the e.xterior of the animal,
corresponding with the skeleton, is illustrated. (See Fig. 609.)
Fig. 609. ^Skeleton of Giraffe.
In giving a sketch of the history of the Giraffe, we may com-
mence by observing that some naturalists of the present day con-
sider that there are two distinct species, one peculiar to Nubia,
Abyssinia, and the adjacent districts ; the other a native of the
regions of Southern Africa. We regard them as mere varieties.
It is with the North African variety that the ancients were ac-
quainted, and of which there are several delineations preserved to
the present day. Among the most remarkable is one on the Prze-
nestine pavement, where two of these animals are pictured : one in
a straddling attitude endeavouring to reach the ground with his
mouth ; the other in the act of browsing on the trees. It is sup-
posed that this pavement, which was executed by the direction of
Sulla, is the work of Egj'ptian Greeks. Belzoni notices the Giraffe
on the walls of the Sekos of the Memnonium, and on the back of the
temple of Erments. A Giraffe led by Nubians is given in Rosellini's
work on Egypt.
It is supposed by some that the word Zemer, translated
Chamois in the book of Deuteronomy (ch. xiv., ver. 5), of which
animal the flesh was forbidden, really refers to the Giraffe ; and
there is, certainly, some affinity between the Hebrew Zemer and
the Arabic Zurafa, or Zurafet, It is a point, however, not easily
decided.
Though the Praenestine pavement was made by the orders of Sulla
(born A. c. 138), the animal itself was not seen in Rome before the
time of Julius Caesar, who exhibited it at the Circensian games. It
is described by Pliny (book viii.) from a specimen, as is conjectured.
which Varro mentions as having been brought from Alexandria.
Afterwards the Giraffe became not unfrcquent among the animals
exhibited in the Roman games. (Divcrsum confusa genus
Panthcra Caviclo, Horace, Epist. ii. 195.) Oppian, who lived in
the 2nd century, notices this animal in the third book of his
treatise on hunting. Gordian III., Emperor of Rome from A.D. 239
to 244, is stated to have possessed ten of those animals. After the
fall of the Roman empire we hear nothing of the Giraffe for a con-
siderable period. The first instance, after the darkness of the middle
ages had passed, of a living Giraffe in Europe, is that of one pos-
sessed by Frederick II., King of Germany (crowned 12 15), which he
received from the Prince of Damas, now Damascus, and which was
described by Albortus Magnus under the name of Anabula, with the
synonyms Seraph, Oraflus, and Orasius.
Towards the end of the 15th century, the Soldan of Egypt pre-
sented one of these animals to Lorenzo de' Medici, Grand Duke of
Tuscany : it was a great favourite with the inhabitants of Florence,
and was accustomed to walk about the streets, stretching its neck to
the balconies and windows for fruits and other articles of food. Its
picture exists in the frescoes of the Poggio Acajano, one of the
duke's villas near Florence.
From this time no living Giraffe was seen in Europe for nearly
three centuries and a-half; though in that space various descrip-
tions and figures were published by writers on natural history, mixed
up with abundant errors. Gesner, however, gives a tolerable account
and figure in his " Natural History," published in 1551. Thevet, in
his " Cosmographia " (1575), describes and figures the Giraffe;
Bellonius, in his " Observations," 1605, also figures it; Wolfgang,
in his " Historia Animalium Sacra," mentions it. Topsell, in his
" History of Four-footed Beasts " (1607), describes it, and gives two
figures. Leo Africanus and Ludolph both describe the Giraffe, as
does Johnston, in his "Quadrupeds." We may also mention Al-
pinus (" Nat. Hist. Egypt ") ; and Carteret, whose paper, read be-
fore the Royal Society, is entitled " Observations on a Camelopard-
alis found about the Cape of Good Hope." (See " Phil. Trans." Ix.,
p. 27.) Buffon describes and figures the Giraffe; but in his draw-
ings, as in those of all the preceding writers, the fore-legs are much
too long. In the supplement (Supp., vol. vii.) the figure is improved,
but still is not without faults. Vosmaer published in 1787, at Am-
sterdam, a quarto tract on this animal, with tolerable figures. It may
here be noticed, that when the supplement to Buffon's great work
was published there was an adult female specimen in the museum
of Paris, and M. AUemand of Amsterdam had also a young speci-
men.
Le Vaillant, when in South Africa, hunted the Giraffe, and pro-
cured some specimens ; his description of the habits of the animal,
and his narrative of the incidents of the chase, are interesting and
graphic, but perhaps a little over-coloured. It is from this time that
we may date our correct knowledge of this animal, of which several
skins found their way from time to time into our island ; that brought
by Mr. Patterson, and ultimately deposited in the old British
ISIuseum (then Montague House), was the first.
The recent history, if we may so call it, of the Giraffe, is given in
the following quotation from the " Guide to the Gardens of the Zoo-
logical Society of London," published in 1879.
The first living Giraffe which appeared m England was trans-
mitted to his Majesty George IV., in the year 1827, by H.H. Mo-
hammed AH, then'Viceroy of Egypt. It lived, however, for a few
months only in the menagerie at Windsor.
About seven years afterwards, the Council of the Zoological So-
ciety entered into an arrangement with M. Thibaut, to obtain for
them four individuals of this species from Kordofan ; his account of
their capture is as follows : it was written at Malta, where the
Giraffes wintered, on the 8th of January, 1S36 : —
" Instructed by Colonel Caiflpbell, his Majesty's Consul-General
in the Levant, and desirous of rendering available, for the purposes
of the Zoological Society, the knowledge which I had acquired by
twelve years' experience in travelling in the interior of Africa, I
quitted Cairo on the 15th of April, 1834. After sailing up the Nile
as far as Wadi Haifa (the second cataract), I took Camels, and pro-
ceeded to Debbat, a province of Dongolah ; whence, on the 14th of
July, I started for the desert of Kordofan.
"Being perfectly acquainted with the locality, and on friendly
terms with the Arabs of the country, I attached them to rne still
more by the desire of profit. All were desirous of accompanying me
in my pursuit of the Giraffes, which, up to that time, they had hunted
solely for the sake of the flesh, which they eat, and of the skin, from
which they make bucklers and sandals. I availed myself of the
emulation which prevailed among the Arabs ; and, as the season
was far advanced and favourable, I proceeded immediately to the
south-west of Kerdofan. ,~- a-
" It was on the 15th of August that I saw the first two Giraffes.
A rapid chase, on Horses accustomed to the fatigues of the desert,
put us in possession, at the end of three hours, of the largest of the
two : the mother of one of those now in my charge. Unable to take
her alive, the Arabs killed her with blows of the sabre, and, cutting
her to pieces, carried the meat to the head-quarters which we had
230
THE GIRAFFE.
established in a wooded situation ; an arrangement necessary for
our own comfort, and to secure pasturage for the Camels of both
sexes, which we had brought with us in aid of the object of our chase.
We deferred until the morrow the pursuit of the young Giraffe, which
my companions assured me they would have no difficulty in again
discovering. The Arabs are very fond of the flesh of this animal.
I partook of their repast. The live embers were quickly covered
with slices of the meat, which I found to be excellent eating
" On the following day, the i6th of August, the Arabs started at
daybreak in search of the young one, of which we had lost sight not
Fig. 6io.— Group of Giraffes.
far from our camp. The sandy nature of the soil of the desert is well
adapted to afford indications to a hunter ; and in a very short time
we were on the track of the animal which was the object of our pur-
suit. We followed the traces with rapidity and in silence, cautious
to avoid alarming the creature while it was yet at a distance from
us. Unwearied myself, and anxious to act in the same manner as
the Arabs, I followed them impatiently, and at nine o'clock in the
morning I had the happiness to find myself in possession of the
Giraffe. A premium was given to the hunter whose Horse had first
come up with the animal ; and this reward is the more merited, as the
laborious chase is pursued in the midst of brambles and of thorny
trees.
" Possessed of this Giraffe, it was necessary to rest for three or
four days, in order to render it sufficiently tame. During this period
an Arab constantly holds it at the end of a long cord. By degrees
it becomes accustomed to the presence of man, and takes a little
nourishment. To furnish milk for it I had brought with me female
Camels. _ It became gradually reconciled to its condition, and was
soon willing to follow, in short stages, the route of our caravan.
" The first run of the Giraffe is
exceedingly rapid. The swiftest
Horse, if unaccustomed to the
desert, could not come up with it
unless with extreme difficulty. The
Arabs accustom their coursers to
hunger and to fatigue ; milk gene-
rally serves them for food, and
gives them power to continue their .
exertions during a very long run.
If the Giraffe reaches a moun-
tain, it passes the heights with
rapidity ; its feet, which are like
those of a Goat, endow it with the
dexterity of that animal ; it bounds
over ravines with incredible power ;
Horses cannot, in such situations,
compete with it.
" I was so fortunate as to collect
five individuals at Kordofan ; but
the cold weather of December,
1834, killed four of them in the
desert on the route to Dongolah,
my point of departure for Bebbah.
Only one was preserved ; this was
the first specimen that I obtained,
and the one of which I have
already spoken. After twenty-two
days in the desert, I reached Don-
golah on the 6th of January, 1835.
"Unwilling to return to Cairo
without being really useful to the
Society, and being actually at
Dongolah, I determined on re-
suming the pursuit of Giraffes. I
remained for three months in the
desert, crossing it in all directions.
Arabs, in whom I could confide,
accompanied me, and our course
was through districts destitute of
everything. We had to dread the
Arabs of Darfour, of which country
I saw the first mountain. We
were successful in our researches.
I obtained three Giraffes, smaller
than the one I already possessed.
Experience suggested to me the
means of preserving them.
"Another trial was reserved for
me ; that of transporting the ani-
mals, by barque, from Wadi Haifa
to Cairo, Alexandria, and Malta.
Providence has enabled me to sur-
mount all difficulties. The most
that they suffered was at sea, dur-
ing their passage, which lasted
twenty-four days, with the weather
very tempestuous.
" I arrived at Malta on the 21st
of November. We were there de-
tained in quarantine for twenty-
five days ; after which, through the
kind care of Mr. Bourchier, these
valuable animals were placed in a
good situation, where nothing is
wanting for their comfort. With
the view of preparing them for
the temperature of the country to
which they will eventually be removed, I have not thought it advis-
able that they should be clothed. During the last week the cold has
been much greater than they have hitherto experienced ; but they
have, thanks to the kindness of Mr. Bourchier, everything that can
be desired."
The Giraffes brought over by M. Thibaut succeeded in the most
remarkable manner, and the female gave birth to no less than seven
fawns before her death in October, 1852. In the autumn of 1866 an
unfortunate fire occurred in this house, resulting in the death of two
MUSK-DEER.
231
of the animals. Shortly afterwards the old male died, being rather
more than twenty years old. The Society's stock thus became re-
duced to a female (born in 1853), and a male (born March 17th,
1867), to which a pair was added by purchase. The present series
(1879) consists of two males and three females.
The preceding cut illustrates the Giraffe in the various attitudes,
&c., already mentioned. (See Fig. 610.)
In its native wilds, man e.xxepted, the Lion is the only enemy to
be feared by the Giraffe ; and from various sources we learn that the
Lion often surprises the latter when he comes to drink at the pools
or fountains, and springs from his ambush upon the tall and power-
ful beast, which, mad with terror and pain, rushes over the desert,
bearing th '"great destroyer," till, strength failing, he reels, sinks,
and expires.
According to M. Thibaut, the Arabs of Nubia are very fond of the
flesh of the Giraffe; and he himself, partaking of the repast (viz.,
broiled slices), found it to be excellent. In South Africa its flesh is
equally acceptable.
The height of the male Giraffe, to the top of the head, is from
fifteen to sixteen feet ; of the female, from thirteen to fourteen. The
general colour is fawn-white, marked regularly with large angular
spots of chocolate-brown, compacted rather closely together ; the
throat and legs are white ; the tuft at the end of the tail black ; the
hair is close and glossy. The South African variety is generally
darker than the Nubian.
In a state of confinement the Giraffe eats hay, carrots, and
onions, to the latter of which it is very partial. We have never
heard these animals utter any noiso or cry, nor do travellers make
any mention of their voice. The Giraffe shot by Colonel Gordon, to
which w'e have already alluded, when so wounded as to be incapable
of rising from the ground, exhibited no signs of anger or resentment,
nor is it stated to have made any moan. Hence we conclude that
the Giraffe is mute. The period of gestation is about sixteen months.
The Moschid.'e, or Musk-Deer.
Linnaeus gave the title Aloschus to a group of Ruminants, from
the circumstance of one of the species producing that well-known
substance called musk, the secretion of a peculiar glandular pouch
in the abdomen of the male, for the sake of which the animal is
eagerly hunted in the regions it frequents — namely, the high moun-
tain-ranges in China, Thibet, .Tonquin, Pegu, Southern Tartary, and
in some of the larger islands of the Indian Ocean. The Musk-
Deer, however, is the only known species of this group in which
this secretion is produced. The JSIoschidce closely resemble the
Deer in general form and appearance ; but they resemble them in
miniature ; for, with the exception of the true Musk {fit. moschife-
Fig. 611. — Dentition of the Musk-Deer,
rus), which equals a Roebuck in size and stature, the rest are ex-
tremely small, some not exceeding a Hare in magnitude. They are
extremely beautiful : the eyes are large, dark, and beaming with a
mild and animated expression ; the head is small, and tapers to a
slender muzzle ; the ears are moderate and open ; the haunch ele-
vated and round ; and the limbs delicately slender and tapering to
narrow-pointed hoofs. The family characters consist in the absence
of horns, and also of sub-orbital sinuses (pits beneath the inner angle
of the eye), so conspicuous in many of the Deer and Antelopes.
The muzzle is naked. There are long canines in the upper jaw of
the males, projecting downwards, and coming out from between the
lips. These canines are compressed, pointed, arched backwards,
and have a sharp posterior cutting edge. In the true Musk-Deer
they are at least three inches in length. The crowns of the molars
are acutely tuberculated. Fig. 611, A, represents the teeth of the
upper jaw in two views : B, those of the lower ; and C, a lateral
view of teeth of both jaws together. Besides the two toes united to
a single canon-bone, as usual, there are two accessory toes 011 each
foot, each of which has its own slender metatarsal or mctarcarpal
Fig. 612. — Skeleton of Musk-Deer.
Fig. 613. — Skeleton of Meminna.
bone. Fig. 612 shows the skeleton of the Moschus moschifcrus, and
Fig. 613, the skeleton of the Meminna, which are excellent illustra-
tions of their osteqlogy. There are no horns or antlers, nor even
their rudiments.
Mr. Gray divides the Mosc/u'dcs into three genera — viz., Moschus,
Menii7i7ia, and Traguius. The latter title, however, is applied by
Mr. Ogilby to a species of Antelope {A. -pigtHcsa). Most authors,
moreover, adopt the Linna;an genus Moschus ; and we shall, in this
instance, follow their example. Setting aside the true Musk, the
other members of the genus are termed Chevrotains, and, till very
recently, were supposed to be respectively restricted to Java,
Sumatra, Ceylon, and perhaps other adjacent islands : recently,
however, to the surprise of naturalists, a species has been discovered
in Sierra Leone, to which, from its aquatic habits, Mr. Ogilby has
given the title of Moschus aqicaticus.
The Musk-Deer {Moschus moschifcrus):—JhQ Musk-Deer,
232
MUSK-DEER.
unlike its relatives which tenant the forests of Ceylon and Java, &c.,
inhabits the great mountain-rang-e ^s•hich belts the north of India,
and branches out into Siberia, Thibet, and China, through a vast
extent of which it ranges, preferring the bold precipitous crags and
wild rocks, on the borders of the line of snow, to the valleys or the
lower elevations. It is common in Nepal, Boutan, Thibet, and the
adjacent districts of China. It also abounds in the Altaic range
near Lake Baikal, where it was obser\'ed by Tallas on the moun-
Fig. 614.— Musk-Dcer.
tains of Kouznetzk, near the Lake Telet Koi. The texture and
thickness of the fur of the Musk-Deer sufBciently demonstrate the
animal to be the native of a cold and elevated region. The fur is
not only full and long, but presents that peculiar harsh or rigid and
inelastic texture which we observe in the Chamois, or rather in the
Klip-springer of the mountains of South Africa. Instead of lying
flat on the skin, it grows erect, and is so closely set as to form a
dense substantial covering. (See Fig. 614.) Common as is the
Musk-Deer in the great Al-
pine ranges of Asia, never-
theless it does not appear to
have been known to the anci-
ents, a circumstance doubt-
less to be attributed to the
almost inaccessible nature ot
the regions it frequents.
Neither Aristotle nor Pliny
mentions either the animal
or its celebrated produce. It
is from the male only that the
drug and perfume termed
musk is procured ; it is the
unctuous secretion of a cer-
tain glandular pouch, and
when dry it becomes dark
brown or black, and some-
what granular. Its peculiar
odour is well known. For-
merly it was in high repute
for its medicinal qualities, and
still holds a place as an anti-
spasmodic m the Materia
Medica. It was first, as we
learn, introduced into the
practice of medicine among
the Arabians, by whose wri-
ters the animal producing it
is first distinctly mentioned ;
having, as Daubenton states,
been described by Serapion,
in the eighth century : but we
know not the time when this
article first found its way to
Europe ; probably after the
early Crusades. In Boutan,
Tonquin, Thibet, &c., it ap-
pears, from time immemorial,
to have been used as a medi-
cine and perfume ; and to
have formed an article of
trade amongst the inhabitants
of those countries. Abusseid
Serafi describes the Musk-
Deer as an animal resembling the Roe, but erroneously assigns to it
horns, in which error he is followed by Aldrovandus. Among other
Arabian writers who notice this animal is Avicenna, who refers to
its musk-pouch and large bent canines. Kircher ("La Chine
lUustrfie," Transl. Franc;., 1610) gives an account of the Musk-Deer
which is found in the provinces of Xensi and Chiamsi : he quotes
several details respecting it from the Chinese Atlas, whence we
learn that the Chinese term it Xe, which means odour ; that its
flesh is accounted delicate ; and that it abounds in the provinces of
Suchuen and Junnan. In some districts the Musk-Deer is very
common, and multitudes are slaughtered for the sake of their costly
perfume ; which, however, is always greatly adulterated. To the
practice of adulterating it the celebrated merchant-traveller Taver-
nier alludes, adding that the odour of the substance when recent is
so powerful as to cause the blood to gush from the nose. Chardin
says, " It is commonly believed that when the musk-sac is cut from
the animal, so powerful is the odour it exhales, that the hunter is
obliged to have the mouth and nose stopped with folds of linen ; and
that often, in spite of this precaution, the pungency of the odour is
such as to produce so violent an haemorrhage as to end in death. I
have," he adds, " gained accurate information respecting this cir-
cumstance ; and as I have heard the same thing talked of by some
Armenians who had been to Boutan, I think that it is true. The
odour is so powerful in the East Indies, that I could never support
it ; and, when I trafficked for musk, I always kept in the open air,
with a handkerchief over my face, and at a distance from those who
handled the sacs, referring them to my broker ; and hence I knew,
by experience, that this musk is very apt to give headaches, and is
altogether insupportable when quite recent. I add, that no drug is
so easily adulterated, or more apt to be so."
These accounts must be taken with some allowance. Certain it
is that, when procured in Europe in the ordinary way of commerce,
it produces no such violent effects. It must be confessed, however,
that before arriving in Europe, not only much of its strength is lost,
but it has undergone several adulterations.
Tavernier states that the Musk-Deer is very numerous in the
sixtieth degree, north latitude, among the wooded mountains,
whence, in February and March, when the snows have deeply
covered the earth, hunger drives them southward into the lower
lands, to the forty-fourth or forty-fifth degree, in search of herbage.
At this season the peasants wait for them on their passages, and
catch them in snares, or kill them with clubs and arrows. At Pat-
Fig. 615. — Musk-Deer; Male and Female.
'^>\ mr,ii
CO
1=3
C3
C3
cj
MUSK-DEER.
ni
ana he bought, on one occasion, 1,673 rnusk-bags, weighing 2,557^
ounces ; and of pure musk, 452 ounces.
In size, the Musk-Dcer is about equal to our European Roebuck,
standing two feet in height at the shoulders ; the forehead is
arched, the eyes large, the ears rather ample, and very movable;
the tail is a mere rudiment, concealed by the long, harsh, and
almost spine-like hair with which the animal is almost universally
covered. The general contour is compact, and displays great
vigour, the limbs being robust, and well adapted for climbing and
leaping among the rocks of the mountain ranges. The hoofs are
since the former animals are shy and timid in the extreme while
m a state of natural freedom, but soon gain confidence, and fre-
quently breed in captivity in our uncongenial climate.
The Mkminna {Moscluts Mct)ii)nia).—'\\\\% elegant little species
IS a native of Ceylon and Java, and is also found in considerable
numbers in the dense woods of the Western Ghauts ^but never on
Fig. 616. — The Meminna.
strong, broad, and expanded ; and the posterior rudimentary hoofs
are so developed as to touch with their points the surface on
which the animal treads, so as to add to the security of its footing.
The general colour of the Musk-Deer is brown, washed with grey
and pale yellow, each hair being tipped and ferruginous; obscure
grey or whitish marks often occur on the sides, especially in imma-
ture individuals; the shoulders and limbs are of a deeper tint than
the body. The female is less than the male, and is destitute of
tusks, or long canine teeth, and
of a musk-sac. The teats are two
in number. In its manners the
Musk-Deer resembles the Cha-
mois : its favourite haunts are the
pine-forests on the mountains,
and its agility is very great, en-
abling it to spring from rock to
rock with great ease and address.
It is extremely wild and shy ; and
is said to be cautious and watch-
ful against surprise, taking refuge,
when pursued, among the crags
and precipices of the more elevated
peaks of the ranges it tenants ;
yet, in despite of all its vigour
and shyness, it falls a sacrifice to
the energy and the contrivances
of man.
In 1772, a male of this species
was living in the park of Mons.
de la VriUiere, at Versailles, in
France; and Daubenton, who
published a description of it, in-
forms us that the odour it exhaled,
and which was carried with the
wind, was quite sufficient to guide
to the spot where the animal was
kept enclosed. " When I first saw
it," he adds, "I recognised much
resemblance in its figure and atti-
tude to those of the Roe, the Ga-
zelle, and the Chcvrotain. No
animal of this (the Deer) tribe has
more activity, suppleness, and
vivacity in its movements." It
was extremely timid and wild ;
but like all the species of the
peculiar group to which it belongs,
it is gentle and inoffensive. The
Chevrotains, as we well know,
may be rendered very tame : and
it is probable, that if the Musk-
Deer were taken while young, it
might be easily domesticated,
Fig. 617.— N.ipu.
the plains), where it was seen by Colonel Sykcs, who observes, that
it readily reconciles itself to confinement : the flesh is excellent eat-
ing. In size it exceeds a large Hare, being about i foot 5 inches
long, and 8 inches high. Its colour is olive-grey, spotted and
streaked on the sides and .haunches with white ; tlie ears are large
and open ; the tail is very short. Fig. 6i6 represents this animal ;
its skeleton has been illustrated in Fig. 613, ante.
The Napu i^Moschus javanims).—T\vi species constituting the
little section of which the Napu is a representative, are character-
ised by having the hinder edge of the metatarsus bald and slightly
callous : the throat is provided with a somewhat naked concave'sub-
glandular callous disc, from which a band extends to the fore-part
of the chin ; and most of them have three diverging bands of white
on the chest. The animals of this group are distinguished by their
beauty and diminutive size, the largest not equalling a Hare. Their
limbs are very slender and delicate; their hoofs are long and
narrow; the muzzle is acute; the eyes large and dark; the ears
pointed. (See Fig. 617.)
Fig;. 61S.— K.nndiil.
234
MUSK-DEER.
The species are enveloped in some degree of confusion ; indeed,
they resemble each other so closely, that it requires some attention
to discriminate between them. Mr. Bennett, who investig^ated these
animals with the greatest care, considered that three species wore
definable — vxz., the Napu, the Kanchil, and the Pelandok ; the two
former of which are described by Sir T. S. Raffles, in the " Linn.
Trans." vol. xiii. Mr. Gray considers the Pelandok to be in all
probability identical with a species described by him under the
specific title of Rufiventer, and adds another species to the group
under the designation of S/aitleyanus.
The Napu is a native of Java and Sumatra, and is the largest of
this section ; its colour is ferruginous brown above and white be-
neath, the chest having two longitudinal dusky stripes, so as to pro-
duce a central and two diverging lateral lines of white, below which
passes a transverse band of pale yellowish fawn. The muzzle, which
is naked, is black, with a tinge of flesh-colour, as are the ears, which
are also nearly naked. The tail is rather short, and white at the
tip. In its native regions the Napu gives preference to thickets and
districts overgrown with brushwood, near the sea-shore, and feeds
principally on the berries of a species of Ardisia. It is said to be
inferior to the Kanchil in speed, activity, and cunning, and is, there-
fore, more exposed to danger from the assaults of wild beasts, which
abound in the forest ; and hence it prefers to lurk in coverts nearer
the vicinity of man, from whose observation it can more easily con-
ceal itself than from the watchful eyes of the Feline race.
In its manners the Napu is mild and gentle, and soon becomes re-
conciled to captivity : it bears our climate well, with care. Though
destitute of marked intelligence, its graceful form, agreeable colour-
ing, and full dark eyes render it an interesting object.
The KLiNXHlL [Tragitlus, or Moschus Kanchil, Raffles).— The
Kanchil is lighter in form and more spirited than the Napu, and
considerably smaller. Independent of the difference in size, it is
easily distinguished by its darker colour, by a broad stripe of dark
chestnut verging upon black, which runs down the back of the neck,
and by the width of the band across its chest. fSee Fig. 6i8.) Of
all the Chevrotains this is the most active and elegant ; indeed, its
address and resolution are the common theme of discourse in Java,
its native country ; and the most extraordinary instances are related
of its cunning. Unlike the Napu, it resides in the depths of the
mighty forests which cover so large a portion of the island, feeding
chiefly on the fruit of the Kayo-briang^6^wc//«<7 villosa): and though
it will live in confinement, it endures captivity with great impatience
and restlessness, availing itself of the first opportunity of escape that
offers, when it bounds away for the forest, the deep recesses of which
afford it a welcome refuge. Such are its cunning and alertness, and
so prompt is it with expedients when pressed by danger, that, as Sir
Stamford Raffles informs us, " it is a common Malay proverb, to
designate a great rogue to be as cunning as a Kanchil ; " and he
adds, of this cunning many instances are related by the natives.
" If taken in a noose laid for it, the Kanchil, when the hunter
arrives, will stretch itself out motionless, and feign to be dead ; and
if, deceived by this manoeuvre, he disengage the animal, it seizes
the moment to start on its legs, and disappears in an instant. A
still more singular expedient is mentioned — viz., that when closely
pursued by Dogs, the Kanchil will sometimes make a bound up-
wards, hook itself on the branch of a tree by means of its bent tusks,
and there remain suspended till the Dogs have passed beneath."
In vigilance, activity, and cunning, if these statements be but par-
tially true, the Kanchil surpasses the rest of the group ; none indeed,
excepting this, have gained a reputation for these qualities, though
all are light-limbed, free, and vigorous.
The African Musk-Deer [Moschus aqiiaticus') very much re-
sembles the Meminna, but is larger, being about midway in size
between that species and the Mosc/ius moschifcrus. Its general
colour is a deep rich brown, with white spots and markings, nearly
similar to those of the Meminna, but with the throat-marks as in the
Napu and Kanchil. This interesting species is a native of Sierra
Leone, where it lives on the borders of rivers, and takes freely to the
water. In the British Museum may be seen stuffed specimens of
the Musk-Deer family, placed among the Ruminantia.
THE DEER FAMILY.
235
CHAPTER XVII.
MAMMALIA.-ORDER, RUMINANTIA-FAMILY, CERVID/E; INCLUDING STAGS, Etc.
^^
H
^i-3
U
^ "S<^^"
'J^
"-^L^l^^y.
n^
NCLUDED among the Ricniinantia is the
family of Ccrvidcs, or Stags, &c., which in
some countries are as much a necessary of
" civilisation as the Ox and Sheep are witli us.
The species are very numerous, and distributed
in most parts of the world. The Rein- Deer,
f| one of tliis family, is of the utmost importance
; to the inhabitants of the Arctic Circle, where
it supplies food, conveyance, dress, and many
other necessities to the inhabitants of that
|S\' region.
To the almost universality of their distribution
there are, however, certain exceptions ; none are
found in Australia, and none in the southern and
central regions of Africa, their place in the latter
regions being supplied by the Giraffe and hosts
of Antelopes. Hills of moderate elevation, wide
plains and forests, are the localities to which these
fleet-limbed creatures give preference ; none tenant
the peaked ridges of the mountain-top, where the
Chamois and IVIusk-Deer find a congenial abode.
They delight in a wide range of country, and trust
; ( \ to their swiftness of flight for safety. Most herd
i^C together in troops ; some few live singly. It may be
j observed that, in general, their body is round and
stout ; their limbs long, sinewy, and powerful ; their
neck long, and very muscular ; their head small, and carried
high ; their eyes large and full ; their ears ample.
Many species have sub-orbital sinuses (or lachrymal sinu-
. ses), but not all. With respect to these sinuses, or fissures
' below the eyes, in so many both of the Deer and the Ante-
lopes, we may here remark that their use is not understood :
they have nothing to do with respiration, being mere follicles or
pits in the skin, having no communication with the interior of the
nasal passages. They secrete a peculiar unctuous fluid, exuding
more abundantly at certain seasons than at others, when their
edges become very tumid, and are incapable of being closed
together as at other times. The animals often apply them to objects
near them, widely opening them at the same moment, which they
do also when irritated or under excitement. In several species
they are greatly developed, and no doubt serve some important
purpose in the animal economy. In most species, the muzzle, which
is small, is flat and naked ; in some, as the Elk and Rein-Deer, it
is large and hairy, and the upper lip is prehensile. The females
have four teats.
Throughout all the species the males are furnished with antlers,
commonly called horns, which are lost and renewed yearly, increas-
ing in the size, and the number of their branches, at each renewal
until a certain period. They are seated upon an osseous peduncle,
or footstalk, rising from each frontal bone, at its central point of
ssification : these peduncles are enveloped in skin. It is' not till
the spring, or beginning of the second year, that the first pair of
horns begm to make their appearance. At this epoch a new pro-
■x
w
^t\
cess commences ; the skin enveloping the
.peduncles swells, its arteries enlarge, tides
of blood rush to the head, and the whole
system experiences a fresh stimulus. The
antlers are now budding, for on the top of
these footstalks the arteries arc depositing
layers of osseous matter, particle by particle,
with great rapidity ; as they increase the
skin increases in an equal ratio, still cover-
ing the budding antlers, and continues so
to do until they have acquired their due
development and solidity. This skin is a
tissue of blood-vessels, and the courses of
the large arteries, from the head to the end
of the antlers, are imprinted on the latter in
long furrows, which are never obliterated.
In ordinary language, the .skin investing the
antlers is termed velvet, being covered with
a fine pile of close short hair. Suppose,
then, the antlers of the young Deer now duly
grown, and still invested with this vascular
tissue ; but the process is not yet complete.
While this tender velvet remains, the Deer
can make no use of his newly-acquired
weapons, which are destined to bear the brunt of many a con-
flict with his compeers : it must therefore be removed, but without
giving a sudden check to the current of blood rolling through
this extent of skin, lest by directing the tide to the brain, or
some internal organ, death be the result. The process then is
this : — As soon as the antlers are complete (according to the age
of the individual), the arteries at their base, where they join the
permanent footstalk (always covered with skin), begin to deposit
around it a burr, or rough ring of bone, with notches, through which
the great arteries still pass. Gradually, however, the diameter of
these openings is contracted by the deposition of additional matter;
till at length the great arteries are compressed as by a ligature, and
the circulation is effectually stopped. The velvet now dies for want
of the vital fluid ; it shrivels, dries, and peels off in shreds, the ani-
mal assisting in getting rid of it by rubbing his antlers against the
trees. They are now firm, hard, and white ; and the Stag bears
them proudly, and brandishes them in defiance of his rivals. From
the burr upwards, these antlers are now no longer part and parcel of
the system ; they are extraneous, and held only by their mechanical
continuity with the footstalk on which they were placed ; hence tlieir
deciduous character, for it is a vital law that the system shall throw
off all parts no longer intrinsically entering into the integrity of the
whole. An absorptive process soon begins to take place just be-
neath the burr, removing particle after particle, till at length the
antlers are separated and fall by their own weight, or by the slightest
touch, leaving the living end of the footstalk exposed and slightly
bleeding. This is immediately covered with a pellicle of skin, which
soon thickens, and all is well. The return of spring brings with it a
renewal of the whole process with renewed energy, and a finer pair
of antlers branches forth. '
The common Stag begins to acquire his antlers in the spring, and
loses them early in the spring succeeding. His first antlers (second
spring) are straight, small, and simple : he is now termed a
Brocket. The next pair are larger, and have a brow-antler directed
forwards from the main stem, sometimes with one or two small
branches above. The third pair of antlers has two forward stem
branches besides the brow-antlers, and one or two snags at the top.
The fourth pair have the brow and stem antlers increased, and more
snags ; the fifth and sixth pairs exhibit still greater development,
and an increase in the number of snags. Any disturbance in the
system produces a corresponding deterioration in the form and pro-
portions of the horn. Our figures develop the progress of the suc-
cessive annual horns in the Stag or Red-Deer, and in the Fallow-
Deer. The horns are from the left side.
Fig. 619 (Stag) : — i, Horn of first growth ; 2, 3, 4, ditto of second;
5, 6, of third and fourth ; 7, of fifth ; 8, 9, of the sixth growth ; 10,
II, 12, the seventh and subsequent growths; the horns being at
their maximum. Fig. 621 represents horns of the Wapiti : a, horn
produced in unfavourable circumstances, in confinement ; b, horn of
the same animal the year afterwards, and finely branched. Fig.
620 (Fallow-Deer) : — I, Horn of the first growth ; 2, 3, 4, horn of the
second ; 5, 6, 7, horns of the third growth ; 8, 9, horns of the fourth ;
10, II, 12, 13, horns of the fifth and sixth growth. Fig. 6jo, p. 240,
23 b
ELKS.
shows the horns of a Fallow-Deer in an unnatural state, and not
shed at a proper time.
The species of the CervidcB are very numerous. By sorne zoolo-
gists they are considered as one genus, while others divide them
into several generic groups, characterised principally by differences
in the conformation of the antlers. They are divided by Colonel
Hamilton Smith into the following groups, which many naturalists
have adopted, and which seem to us very natural :— i. Alee, or the
Elk group; 2, Rangifer, or the Rein-Deer group; 3, Dama, or
the Fallow-Decr group ; 4, ElapliKS, or the Stag group; 5, Rusa,
or the Sambur-Deer group ; 6, Axis, or the Axis-Deer group ; 7,
Ca;preolus, or the Roebuck group ; 8, Mazama, or the American
eyes small and dull ; the muzzle elongated, thick, projectmg, pen-
dulous, and flexible— it is covered with hair. Two small pendulous
dewlaps of loose skin hang from the throat ; the neck is short and
thick the body strong and short ; the limbs are long and awkward ;
the toes are broad, and divided so high that they diverge as the
animal presses them to the ground ; the tail is extremely short ; the
hair is full, harsh, long, and produced on the neck, and shoulders
into a mane. (See Fig. 622.)
It has been considered, by manv naturalists, that the American
Elk and the European Elk are specifically identical ; it is probable,
however, that they are distinct. The European Elk is spread but
thinly through the wild forest-regions of Norway, Sweden, part of
Fig. 619. — Slag's Herns.
Fig. 621. — Ilovns of Wapiti.
-^V^
Fig. 620. — Horns of Fallow-Decr.
Fallow group; 9, Sahulo, or the Guazu, or Brocket group of
America ; lo, Styloceros, or the Muntjacs.
Group Alce, or Elks.
The American Elk, or Moose-Deer {Alces Americamis ;
A . -palDidtiis ; Ccrvus Alecs, Linn.)— The genus Alee includes the
Elks. They are the largest of the Cervidce, and arc distinguished
by the broad palmation of their antlers, furnished with numerous
digitations on their outer edge only ; a large isolated branch springs
from the stem, which latter is thick and short, and begins immedi-
ately to expand ; the head is heavy, the ears large and open, the
Fig. &22. —American Elk,
Prussia, Lithuania, and Russia, from the fifty-third to the sixty-
third degree of latitude. It extends also through Asiatic Tartary
to the north of China. Buffon supposes that the Greeks were un-
acquainted with this animal ; and it does not appear to have been
noticed by Aristotle. That it was the dXo;, Alce, or Alces, of P.iu-
sanias, Caesar, and Pliny, there can be no doubt. The word Alce,
or Alchis, is merely the Celtic Elch, or the Scandinavian vElg,
modified. In book viii. ch. xvi., Pliny gives an account of the Alce,
which he distinguishes from the Alchis, regarding them at the same
time as allied animals : but it is easy to see through his error ; his
account of it walking backwards while feeding, in consequence of its
overhanging lip, and his statement that there is no joint at the
hock, we need scarcely say are fabulous. According to Mr. Lloyd
(" Field Sports of the North of Europe"), the Elk is far less common
than formerly, and restricted only to certain districts. It frequently
attains the height of seven and even eight feet ; but does not attain
to full growth till about the fourteenth year. A young Elk, two
years old, in the possession of Mr. Wise, the Swedish consul-
general, measured upwards of six feet at the shoulder. " By
nature," says Mr. Lloyd, " the Elk is timorous, and he usually flies
at the sight of man. At certain seasons, however, like other
animals of the Deer kind, he is at times rather dangerous. His
weapons are his horns and hoofs ; he strikes so forcibly w-ith the
latter, as to annihilate a Wolf or other large animal at a single
blow. It is said that when the Elk is incensed, the hair on his neck
bristles up like the mane of a Lion, which gives him a wild and
frightful appearance. The usual pace of the Elk is a high sham-
bling trot, and his strides are immense ; but I have known him, when
frightened, to go at a tremendous gallop. In passing through
thick woods he carries his horns horizontally, to prevent them from
being entangled in the branches ; from the formation of his hoofs,
he makes great clattering, like the Rein-Deer when in rapid
motion. In the summer season the Elk usually resorts to morasses
and low situations ; for, like other animals of the Deer kind, he fre-
quently takes to the water in warm weather ; he is an admirable
swimmer. In the winter time he retires to the more sheltered parts
of the forest, where willow, ash, &c., are to be found, as from the
small boughs of these trees he obtains his sustenance during that
period of the year. In the summer and autumn the Elk is often to
THE REIN-DEER.
237
be met with in small herds, but in the winter there are seldom
more than two or three in company. At the latter season, indeed,
he is frequently alone. The flesh of the Elk, whether fresh or
smoked, is very e.xcellent : the young- are particularly delicious.
The tont,'ue and the nose are thoujjht to be great delicacies in
Scandinavia as well as in America. Great virtue was once placed
in the lioof of that animal : but this idle notion must by this time,
I should think, be nearly exploded. The skin is convertible to many
purposes, and is very valuable. Mr. Grieff says, ' It is not long
since that a regiment was clothed with waistcoats made from the
hides of those animals, which were so thick that a ball could
scarcely penetrate them.' The Elk is easily domesticated. For-
merly these animals were made use of in Sweden to draw sledges ;
but owing, as it was said, to their speed frequently accelerating the
escape of people who had been guilty of murders or other crimes,
the use of them was prohibited under great penalties. Though I
apprehend these ordinances, if not abrogated, are obsolete, I am not
aware that the Elk is ever made use of in that kingdom at the
present day, either to draw a sledge, or for other domestic pur-
poses. In Sweden, it is contrary to law, at this particular time, to
kill the Elk at any season of the year. This is not the case in Nor-
way ; for in that country these animals may be destroyed, with cer-
tain limitations as to numbers, from the 1st of July to the ist of
November, inclusive. The penalty, however, for killing an Elk out
of season in Norway, is very much heavier than in Sweden ; it
amounts indeed, including legal expenses, &c., to about £20.,
which is no inconsiderable sum in that kingdom." (Lloyd,
"Northern Field Sports," vol. ii., p. 329, etseg.)
Immediately following the passage above quoted there is a very
interesting account of the mode of huntmg the Elk in Scandinavia,
upon " skidor," or snow-skates, interspersed, as most of such
narratives are, with notices of the habits of the animal ; but as our
limits will not permit its insertion, we refer the reader to the work,
which is well worthy of his attention.
The American Elk, or Moose-Deer (Mousoa of the Crees : Mong-
soa of the Algonquins ; Denyai of the Chippewyans), presents the
same habits and manners as the Elk of Scandinavia. Formerly its
range was more e.xtensive than at present. Dr. Richardson, in his
" Fauna Boreali-Americana," says, " Du Pratz informs us, that in
his time the Moose-Deer were found as far south as at Ohio ; and
Denys says, that they were once plentiful in the island of Cape
Breton, though, at the time he wrote they had been extirpated. At
present, according to Dr. Godman, they are not known in the State
of Maine ; but they exist in considerable numbers in the Bay of
Fundy. They frequent the woody tracts in the fur countries, to
their most northern limit. Several were seen on Captain Franklin's
last expedition, at the mouth of the Mackenzie, feeding on the
willows, which, owing to the rich alluvial deposits on that great
river, extend to the shores of the Arctic Sea, lat. 69°. Farther to
the eastward, towards the Coppermine River, they are not found m
a higher latitude than 65^, on account of the scarcity on the barren
grounds of the aspen and willow, which constitute their food. Mac-
kenzie saw them high up on the eastern declivity of the Rocky
Mountains, but I suspect they are rarely, if ever, found to the west-
ward of the mountains." The Moose-Deer appears to be a solitary
animal, at least in the more northern latitudes ; the older writers
speak of it as being found in small herds ; but there is room for sus-
picion that the Moose and Wapiti are confounded together. From
its exquisite sense of hearing, and habitual wariness, the chase of
the Moose-Deer is very difficult: indeed, as Dr. Richardson states,
"The art of Moose-hunting is looked upon as the greatest of an
Indian's acquirements, particularly by the Crees, who take to them-
selves the credit of being able to instruct the hunters of every other
tribe." In summer, the Moose is so tormented by Mosquitoes, that
he becomes, to a certain degree, regardless of the approach of man ;
but in winter, when the ground is covered with snow, in which the
hunter tracks the animal by his foot-marks, it requires the greatest
caution to get within gun-shot. The slightest noise, the rustling of
a leaf, or the crackling of a twig, is sufficient to give the alarm, and
disappoint the hopes of the hunter. Nor is the chase always un-
attended with danger ; for if the animal be an old male, and the shot
does not bring him down, he will often turn infuriated on his enemy,
who is then obliged to shelter himself behind a tree ; and Dr.
Richardson observes, that he has heard of several instances in
which the enraged animal has completely stripped the bark from the
trunk of a large tree by striking with his fore-feet. On firm snow,
owing to the spread of its hoofs, which make a loud crackling noise
at each step, the Moose can sustain a lengthened pursuit. Captain
Franklin records an instance of a chase kept up by three hunters for
six successive days, until the track of the animal was marked with
blood. On the fourth day the chief hunter sprained his ankle, and
the others were tired out ; but one of them, after a rest of twelve
hours, followed up the game, which after a chase of two days more
be succeeded in killing. The Moose is often killed by the Indians
while crossing rivers ; and the young, as Heme says, are so simple
as to allow an Indian to paddle his canoe up to them : he has seen
an Indian take one by the poll without experiencing the least oppo-
sition, " the poor animal swimming, at the same time, alongside
the canoe as if swimming by the side of its dam, and looking up in
our faces with the same fearless innocence that a house-lamb
would, making use of its fore-foot almost every instant to clear its
eyes of Mosquitoes, which at that time were remarkably numerous.
The Moose is the easiest to tame and domesticate of any of the Deer
kind."
From the length of its limbs, and the shortness of its body, the
Moose shuffles or ambles along, and when it is at full speed the
hind-feet straddle to avoid treading on the fore-heels, which some-
times happens so as to trip it up. During its progress it raises its
head horizontally in order to'throw the horns upon the withers. The
Moose does not attempt to leap, but steps easily over a fallen tree
or any other obstacle. It swims with ease and rapidity, and is very
fond of the water, in which it often remains immersed for a whole
day in hot weather, in order to escape the attacks of the Mos-
quitoes, and leisurely browses upon the twigs within its reach.
The shortness of the neck, the length of the limtjs, and the formation
of the upper lip combine to render the Moose a browsing animal :
the shoots of the willow and birch are a favourite food ; it is par-
ticularly partial to the red willow {Cornis alba), and also, accord-
ing to Lewis and Clark, to the evergreen leaves of the Gualthcria
shallon. Its skin, when dressed, forms a soft and pliable leather, ex-
cellently adapted for moccassins.
Destitute as is the Elk of the grace and compactness of form
so conspicuous in the Stag, it is nevertheless a noble and striking
animal : those who have contemplated it amidst the wilds of its
native regions, describe the effect of its appearance as very imposing.
Group Rangifer— Rein-Deer.
The Rein-Deer {Ra7igifer tarandus, Cervus tarandus, Linn. ;
Cervics rangifer, Brissot). — The Rein-Deer presents the following'
characteristics, which form good grounds of separation from the
other sections. Both sexes possess horns and canine teeth ; the
muzzle is covered with hair, excepting that there is a small naked
space between the nostrils, the indication, as it were, of the naked
muzzle which we find in the succeeding groups. The nostrils are
oblique and oval. The head is somewhat large and long ; the neck
is short and thick, and carried horizontally. The horns, especially
in old males, are of great size, but present considerable variation of
figure. They may be described, in general terms, as consisting
each of a long, slender, compressed skin, inclined backwards, with an
outer and upward sweep ; a brow-antler, sometimes found only on one
horn, sometimes on both, advances forward, assuming a vertical
palmated form, and hanging over the muzzle ; this plate usually
terminates in digitations ; sometimes, however, it is plain. A second
antler rises at some distance above the brow-antler, and ascends up-
wards, assuming at its extremity either a palmated form, or dividing
into two or three small branches. Besides these, one or two snags
rise from the main stem, which generally terminates palmated with
deep digitations. (See Fig. 623.)
,^^t / '.
\ Y^ kc '^4.
")
Fig. 623. — The Rein-Deer,
£^
The feet are deeply fissured ; when pressed to the ground they
spread — when raised up they close together, and, if the animal be in
quick motion, with a smart snap (Fig. 624 represents the hoofs
closed; Fig. 625, the hoofs expanded). The hoofs are round and
very concave beneath, with sharp edges; the accessory toes are
much developed. The fur consists of two sorts— a soft close under-
wool, and an outer covering of close, harsh, brittle, erect hairs,
which are elongated beneath the neck so as to hang down like a
fringe. The limbs are short and muscular, the shoulders and neck
very powerful, the body firmly built, and the whole contour of the
frame is such as eminently quaVifies the animal for the service of the
Laplander.
The Rein-Deer is spread throughout the Arctic regions of Europe,
238
THE REIN-DEER.
Fig. 624. — Foot
of Rein-Deer.
Fig. 625.— Foot
of Rein-Deer.
Asia, and America, the wilds of the Polar Circle being its congenial
abode. The finest animals are those of Finmark, Lapland, and
especially Spitzbergen ; those of Norway and Sweden being inferior
in strength and stature. In Asia it extends farther to the south
than in Europe, ranging along the Ural chain to the foot of the
Caucasian mountains ; it is common through the northern latitudes
of Siberia, and abounds in
Kamtschatka. In America,
where it is termed the Caribou,
it is most numerous between the
sixty-third and sixty-sixth de-
grees of north latitude, its most
southern limit being about 50°.
It has been a question whe-
ther the Rein-Deer of Europe,
Asia, and America are specifi-
cally the same, or distinct : we
are inclined to regard them as
varieties of one species ; but
are aware that, in the opinion
of some zoologists, there are
two distinct species, as indi-
_cated by the form of the skull, in the Old World ; and that the
American Rein-Deer is again distinct ; indeed, it is a question
whether in America there be not two species ; certainly there are
two well-marked varieties. The decision of points like these is,
however, alien to our present object.
The Rein-Deer (we allude more expressly to the European ani-
mal, though the remarks apply to that of Asia and America) is
eminently migratory in its habits, and herds in troops, which travel
from the woods to the open hills and back again, according to the
season. The woods are their winter refuge ; here they subsist on
the long pendent lichens which hang in festoons from the trees, on
the white lichen which covers the ground (Cenomyce rangifcrina),
and on the twigs of the birch and willow. With the return of spring
they begin their migration from the forest to the mountain ranges,
partly to obtain their favourite food, but chiefly in order to escape
the myriads of Mosquitoes ; and especially from the Cad-Fly
{QLstrtis tarandi), which now begins to appear : the latter being
greatly dreaded by the Rein-Deer, the Fly not only tormenting it
with its sting (ovipositor), but placing its e.^^ in every wound it
makes. Fig. 626 represents this insect. So imperative is the
Fig. 626. — Insects which attack Rein-Deer.
instinct that impels the Lapland Rein-Deer to these migratory
movements, that it cannot be modified in the domestic race which
constitutes the sole wealth of the Laplander, and on which he
depends for existence : hence he is obliged to lead a semi-nomadic
life, taking periodical journeys of no ordinary toil, from the interior
of the country tc the mountains which overhang the Norway and
Lapland coasts,_and back to the interior. (See Fig. 627.)
Fig. 627. — Rein-Deer and Laplanders.
Lapland, says Hoffberg, is divided into two tracts, called the
Alpine and Woodland countiy. Those immense mountains, called
in Sweden Fjellen, divide that country from Norway, extending to-
wards the White Sea as far as Russia, and are frequently more than
twelve miles in breadth. The other, called the Woodland division,
lies to the east of this, and differs from the neighbouring provinces
of Norw.ay by its soil, which is exceedingly stony and barren, being
covered with one continued tract of wood, of old pine-trees. This
tract has a very singular appearance. The trees above are covered
over with great quantities of a black hanging lichen, growing in
filaments resembling locks of hair, while the ground beneath ap-
pears like snow, being totally covered with white lichens. Between
this wood and the Alps lies a region called the Woodland, or
Desert Lapmarc, of thirty or forty miles in breadth, of the most
savage and horrid appearance, consisting of scattered uncultivated
woods, and continued plains of dry barren sand, mixed with vast
lakes and mountains. When the mosses on part of this desert
tract have boon burnt, either by lightning or any accidental fire,
the barren soil immediately produces the white lichen which covers
the lower parts of the Alps. The Rein-Deer in summer seek their
highest parts, and there dwell amidst their storms and snows,
not to fly from the heat of the lower regions, but to avoid the
Gnat and Gad-Fly. In winter these intensely cold mountains,
whose tops reach high into the atmosphere, can no longer sup-
port them, and they are obliged to return to the desert and sub-
sist upon the lichens. Of these, its principal food is the Rein-Deer
lichen. There are, says Hoffberg, two varieties of this : the first is
called sylvestri's, which is extremely common in the barren deserts
of Lapland, and more particularly in its sandy and gravelly fields,
v/hich it whitens over like snow ; its vast marshes, full of tussocks
of turf, and its dry rocks, are quite grown over by it. The second
variety of this plant, which is less frequent than the former, is named
the Alpine ; this grows to a greater height, with its branches
matted together : it has this name because, when those mountains
are cleared of their wood, the whole surface of the earth is covered
with it ; yet it is seldom to be found on their tops. When the
woods become too luxuriant, the Laplander sets fire to them, as
experience has taught him, that when the vegetables are thus de-
stroyed, the lichen takes root in the barren soil and multiplies with
facility ; though it requires an interval of eight or ten years before
it comes to a proper height. The Laplander esteems himself opulent
who has extensive deserts producing this plant exuberantly ; when
it whitens over his fields, he is under no necessity of gathermg m a
crop of hay against the approach of winter, as the Rein-Deer eats
no dried vegetable, unless perhaps the river horsetail {Eqitisetiun
fluviatile). They rout for this lichen under the snow like Swine in
a pasture. It sometimes happens (but very rarely) that the winter
sets in with great rains, which the frost immediately congeals ; the
surface of the earth is then covered with a coating of ice before the
snow falls, and the lichen is entirely incrusted and buried in it.
Thus the Rein-Deer are sometimes starved, and famine attacks the
Laplanders. In such an exigence they have no other resource but
felling old fir-trees overgrown with the hairy liverworts. These
afford a very inadequate supply, even for a small herd ; but the greater
part of a large one, in such a case, is sure to perish with hunger.
With the approach of winter the coat of the Rein-Deer begins to
thicken, and, like that of most polar quadrupeds, to assume a
lighter hue. In a domesticated state the animal is subject to a great
variety of colour : many are white, and mottled individuals are by
no means uncommon. Sir Arthur Brooke and other writers notice
the strange propensity to devour the Lemming {Arvtcola Norvcgi-
ciis ; AJiis Lem/ii/s, Linn.) which this animal often exhibits : and
CaDtain Franklin observed, that the American Rein-Deer " are ac-
customed to gnaw their fallen antlers, and to devour Mice." We
cannot account for such an anomaly in the habits of a ruminating
animal, otherwise than by attributing it to a morbid appetite. To
the natives of Finmark, Lapland, and the shores of the Arctic Sea,
the Rein-Deer is, in every sense, important : not only is it a beast of
burden, but its flesh and milk are alike in requisition. In these
countries
" Their Rein-Deer form their riches : these their tents,
Their robes, their beds, and all their homely wealth
Supply — their wholesome fare, and cheerful cups ;
Obsequious to their call, the docile tribe
Yield to the sled their necks, and whirl them swift
O'er hill and dale."
M. de Broke says, "The number of Deer belonging to a herd is
from 300 to 500 ; with these a Laplander can do well, and live in
tolerable comfort. He can make in summer a sufficient quantity of
cheese for the year's consumption, and during the winter season can
afford to kill Deer enough to supply him and his family pretty con-
stantly with venison. With 200 Deer, a man, if his family be but
small, can manage to get on. If he have but 100, his subsistence is
very precarious, and he cannot rely entirely upon them for support.
Should he have but fifty, he is no longer independent or able to keep
a separate establishment, but generally joins his small herd with
that of some richer Laplander, being then considered more in the
light of a menial, undertaking the laborious oiBce of attending upon
and watching the herd, bringing them home to be milked, and other
similar oflices, in return for the subsistence aft'orded him."
THE FALLOW-DEER.
239
Early in September, the herds and their owners commence their
return from the coast in order to reach their winter quarters before
the fall of the snows ; and it is when the winter is fairly set in that
the peculiar value of the Rein-Deer is felt by the Laplander, and his
powers called into operation. Without him, communication would
be almost utterly suspended. Harnessed to a sledge, the Rein-Deer
will draw about 300 lbs.; but the Laplanders generally limit the bur-
den to 240 lbs. The trot of the Rein-Deer is about ten miles an
hour ; and the animal's power of endurance is such, that journeys of
150 miles in nineteen hours are not uncommon. There is a portrait
of a Rein-Deer in the palace of Drotningholm (Sweden), which is
represented, upon an occasion of emergency, to have drawn an
officer with important despatches, the incredible distance of 800
English miles in forty-eight hours. This event is stated to have hap-
pened in 1699, and the tradition adds, that the Deer dropped down
lifeless upon his arrival.
In America the Rein-Deer appears to be as migratory as its Old
World relative. Dr. Richardson describes two varieties of this ani-
mal inhabiting the northern regions of that continent ; the one under
the name of the Woodland Caribou i^Var. sykcslris); the other
under that of the Barren-ground Caribou ( Var. Arcfica).
The Woodland Caribou (Caribou of Theodat, La Hontan, Charle-
voix, &c. ; Rein-Deer of Drage, Dobbs, &c. ; Attekh of the Cree
Indians ; Tantseeah of the Copper Indians, Richardson). — This
variety is much larger than the Barren-ground Caribou, but inferior
as an article of food. Its proper country is a strip of low primitive
rocks, well clothed with wood, about 100 miles wide, and extending
at the distance of So or 100 miles from the shores of the Hudson's
Bay, from Lake Athapescow to Lake Superior. " Contrary to the
practice of the Barren-ground Caribou, the Woodland variety travels
to the southward in the spring. They cross the Nelson and Severn
rivers in immense herds in the month of May, pass the summer on
the low and marshy shores of James's Bay, and return to the north-
ward, and at the same time retire more inland in the month of Sep-
tember." The weight of the Woodland Caribou varies from 200 to
240 lbs.
The Barren-ground Caribou (Common Deer of Hearne ; Bedsee-
awseh of the Copper Indians and Dog-ribs ; Bedsee-choh (male),
Tsootai (female), Tampeh (female with a fawn), of the same ; Took-
too of the Esquimaux, Took-took dual, Took-toot plural (Richard-
son) ; Tukta of the Greenlanders (Pangnek, male ; Kollowak, female ;
Norak, young, Fabricius). — This variety is of small stature, the buck
weighing, exclusive of the offal, from 90 to 130 lbs., according to
the animal's condition. The herds of the Barren-ground Caribou
spend the summer on the coast of the Arctic Sea, and in winter re-
tire to the woods between the sixty-third and si.xty-sixth degrees of
latitude, where they feed on the Usnecs, Alectariiz, and other arbo-
real lichens, as well as on the long grass of the swamps. About the
end of April they make short excursions from the woods, in order to
obtain the terrestrial lichens {CctraricB, CornicidaricB, and Ce>w-
viyces), which, now that the snows are partially melted, are both
soft and easily to be collected. " In May, the females proceed to
the sea-coast; and towards the end of June, the males are in full
march in the same direction. At this period the sun has dried up
the lichens on the Barren-grounds, and the Caribou frequents the
moist pastures which cover the bottoms of the narrow valleys on the
coast and islands of the Arctic Sea, where they graze on the sprout-
ing carices, and on the withered grass or hay of the preceding year,
which at that period is still standing and retaining part of its sap.
The spring journey is performed partly on the snow, and partly, after
the snow has disappeared, on the ice covering the rivers and lakes,
which have in general a northerly direction." Soon after their arrival
on the coast, the females produce their young. In September the
herds begin their return southwards to the forests, which they reach
towards the end of October ; and are then joined by the males. This
retrograde journey is performed after the snows have fallen, but be-
fore the heavy frost has set in, so that they are able to procure the
lichens, which are still tender and pulpy, by scratching up the snow
with their feet, which are well adapted by the concavity of their
rounded sharp-edged hoofs for this important purpose. Fig. 628
illustrates copies of drawings, by Captain Back, of the horns of two
old Buck Caribous, killed on the Barren-grounds in the neighbour-
hood of Fort Enterprise. They are distinguished by their palma-
tions. Dr. Richardson states that he can confidently assert, after
having seen many thousands of the Barren-ground Caribou, "that
the horns of the old males are as much if not more palmated than
any antlers of the European Rein- Deer to be found in the British
museums ; " which is contrary to Colonel Smith's opinion, that the
horns of the Caribou are shorter, less concave, more robust, with a
narrower palm, and fewer processes than those of the Lapland Rein-
Deer. So numerous, however, are the varieties of form which the
horns of the Rein-Deer assume, that little stress can be laid upon
them as affording distinguishing characters.
It is not only the flesh of the Caribou that is sought after by the
Indians, its skin is of great value. Dr. Richardson informs us, that
the skin of the Caribou, dressed with the hair on it, is so impervious
to cold, that if clothed in a suit of this material, and wrapped in a
mantle of the same, a person may bivouac all night in the snow with
safety during the intensity of the Arctic winter. So closely indeed
are the hairs set, that it is impossible, by separating them, to dis-
cern the skin from which they arise. To the tribes of the Polar Circle
clothing of such material is inestimable.
The ilesh, when in high condition, has several inches of fat on the
Fig. 628. — Horns of Carabous.
haunches, and is equal to the best Fallow- Deer venison. The tongue
is highly esteemed. A preparation called Pemmican is made by
pouring one-third of melted fat over the pounded meat, and incor-
porating them well together. The Esquimaux and Greenlanders
consider the paunch, with its contents of lichen, a great delicacy ; and
in Boothia, as Captain James Ross affirms, these contents form the
only vegetable food which the natives ever taste.
Group D.\ma— Fallow-Deer.
The Fallow-Deer.— This well-known ornament of our parks is
the Hydd (Buck), Hyddes (Doe), Elain (Fawn), of the ancient
British ; Le Daim (Buck), La Daime (Doe), Faon (Fawn), of the
French ; Daino (Buck), Damma (Doe), Cerbietto, Cerbietta (Pawn),
of the Italians ; Gama, Corza (Buck), Venadito (Fawn), of the
Spanish; Corza (Buck); Veado (Fawn), of the Portuguese; Damh-
irsh of the Germans ; Dof, Dof Hjort, of the Swedes ; Daae, Djjr, of
the Danes ; Duma vulgaris of Gesner ; Cervus palinatus of Klem ;
Cervus j)latyceros of Ray ; Ccrvus Dama of Linnffius ; and Platy-
«^oi- fl?awa of other naturalists. , „, . r
Desmarest, who regards the Fallow-Deer as the Platyceros of
Pliny, and the 'EXaiJoc cu.oDnrpu. of Oppian (as did also Pennant), ob-
serves that it is less extensively spread in Europe than the Stag : it
does not exist in Russia, but it would seem that it inhabits Lithu-
ania Moldavia, and Greece, the north of Persia and China, and also
Abyssinia ; it is abundant in England, but of rarer occurrence in
France and Germany.
Cuvier, who remarks that the Fallow-Deer has become common in
all the countries of Europe, adds, " but it appears to be originally a
native of Barbary." And he subjoins in a note, that _" since the
publication of his last edition of the ' Ossemens tossilcs, he has re-
240
THE FALLOW-DEER.
ceived a wild Fallow-Deer, killed in the woods to the south of Tunis."
We have ourselves examined horns of the Fallow-Deer brout^ht from
the same territorj-. In Spain, according to Pennant, the breed is
very large ; and he goes on to state that, " in every country except-
ing our own, these Deer are in a state of nature, unconfined by man ;
The Fallow-Deer may be easily rendered tame and familiar, as we
have often seen. It is said, when thus tamed and brought up in the
stable-yard, to delight in the company of the Horse ; and in proof
thereof, it may be observed, that at Newmarket there was a Deer
which was accustomed regularly to exercise with the Racehorses,
Vl^'
Fig. 629. — Fallow-Deer.
but they are, and have been for some time, confined in the parks on
the Continent, as they are in England." We may observe, that in
England, at one period, before parks were enclosed and (as is neces-
s.-iry in our day) the herds were restricted within due bounds, the
Fallow-Deer wandered in freedom, like the Stag or Roe ; they ten-
anted the great forest, which in the time of Henry II. stretched
northwards from London, and which, as Fitz-Stephens says, was
the covert of Stags, Deer (damarum),
Boars, and Wild Bulls. Pennant in-
forms us that, in the old Welsh laws, a
Fallow-Deer was valued at the price
of a Cow, or, as some say, a He-Goat.
The Fallow-Deer is too well-known
to need describing in detail. Its veni-
son is far superior to that of the Stag
or Roe, and its horns and skin are
valuable. (See Fig. 629.) E.xcept
during the pairing season, when the
Bucks associate with the Does, and
during the winter, when the troops
mingle promiscuously together, the
males and females form separate
herds.
The female goes eight months with
young, and produces one, sometimes
two, at a birth, concealing them among
the tall fern or dense underwood of the
park ; they afterwards associate with
the herds of Does.
The Buck acquires a different name,
in the language of "venerie," every
year to the sixth. The first year he
is 3. fawn — the second, when the simple
horns appear, a pricket — the third, a
sorrel — the fourth, a soare — the fifth,
a buck of the first head — the sixth,
a buck coniplete. In Shakspeare's
play of " Love's Labour's Lost," the
" extemporal epitaph on the death of
the Deer," in which Holofernes " some-
thing affects the letter," and in which
three of the above terms are employed,
is familiar to all. During the pairing
season, which takes place at the end
of summer or in autumn, the males
utter a deep tremulous cry, and engage
vi-ith each other in obstinate battles,
which are continued day after day, till
the mastery is completely established.
We do not, however, believe that at
this season they are dangerous to per-
sons approaching them ; the Stag has
been known to make a furious attack,
but we never heard of similar instances
with respect to Fallow-Deer.
Fig. 630. — Horns of Fallow-Deer.
and the creature delighted to gallop round the course with them in
their morning training. Fig. 631 represents a group of Fallow-
Deer.
The Fossil Elk. — The Fossil Y-VtioWrAasiA^Cervus megaceros ;
C. giga?iteus, Goldf.) To the Platycerine or Dama group appears
to belong that noble species commonly called the Fossil Elk of
Ireland, from its abundance in that country, where its remains occur
rtc
Fig. 631. — Group of Fallow-Deer,
THE FOSSIL ELK.
in bogs and marl-pits, and that so abundantly,
that they have ceased to be regarded as objects
of curiosity. The huge antlers, indeed, have
been used as gates, as stop-gaps in the fields,
and for similar purposes. Though most frequent
in Ireland, the bones of this species are also
found in similar deposits in the Isle of Man, as
well as in England ; and have been dug up in
France, Germany, and Italy, where, according to
Cuvier, they occur in the same strata with bones
of Elephants. Ireland was, perhaps, the last
stronghold of the species, which appears to have
once thronged that island. It is very seldom,
however, that an entire skeleton has been dis-
covered, the remains consisting for the most part
of skulls, with the horns attached, and various
separate bones disposed without any order.
They generally occur in a deposit of shell-marl,
covered by a layer of peat, and resting on clay.
In this situation one of the few entire skeletons
discovered is stated to have occurred. " Most
of the bones," says Archdeacon Maunsell, "and
heads, eight in number, were found in the marl ;
many of them, however, appeared to rest on the
clay, and to be merely covered with the marl."
It is worthy of remark, that the fossil remains
of no other animals are mingled with them. Of
the skeleton to which we have alluded, and which
graces the museum of the Royal Dublin Society,
Mr. Hart drew up a memoir. " This magnificent
skeleton," he observes, " is perfect in every single
bone of the framework which contributes to form
a part of its general outline ; the spine, the chest,
the pelvis, and the extremities are all complete
in this respect ; and when surmounted by the
head and beautifully expanded antlers, which ex-
tend out to a distance of nearly six feet on either
side, forms a splendid display of the reliques
of the former grandeur of the animal kingdom,
and carries back the imagination to a period
when whole herds of this noble animal wandered
at large over the face of the country." The
following are a few points of its admeasure-
ment : —
Ft.
I
o
II
9
5
2
In.
Length of the head
Breadth between the orbits
Distance between the tips of the
horns, measured by the skull
Ditto, in a straight line across ...
Length of each horn
Greatest breadth of palm
Circumference of the beam at the
root of the brow-antler ... I o|
Length of spine ... ... ... lo lo
Height to the top of the back ... 6 6
Ditto, to the highest point of the
tip of the horn ... ... 10 4
None of the Deer tribe of the pre-
sent day, excepting the Scandi-
navian Elk, can at all be compared
for magnitude to this fossil species ;
and, until Cuvier pointed out the
differences, the antlers were gene-
rally regarded- as identical with
those of that animal, or of the Moose
of North America. Independently
of size, however, they differ in many
essential points : for example, in
the Moose- Deer the horn has two
palms, a lesser one growing forward
from the front of the beam where
the principal palm begins to ex-
pand: the palm of the Moose-Deer's
horn is directed backwards, and is
broadest next the beam. 'In the
fossil animal the palm increases in
breadth as it proceeds, which it
does in a lateral direction ; nor are
there fewer differential characters
in the skull and general skeleton.
Altogether, the remains of this
animal form one of the most inte-
resting additions to British fossil
history.
Of the habits of the Cerviis 7ne-
gaceros we can only form a conjee-
Fig. 632,— Skeleton of Fossil Elk.
Fig. 633._SkuIl and Horns of Fossil Elk of Iicland.
2 1
242
THE STAGS.
ture. The size and lateral direction of its spreading antlers must
have prevented its inhabiting the dense forest ; it must have dwelt
on the heath-clad hills ; there, armed with the most powerful wea-
pons of self-defence, it ranged secure from the assault of any single
aggressor, capable of dashing down the Wolf or Hyxna with a
blow. Did man exist coeval with this animal in its native land ?
Most probably — yes. A head of the Fossil Elk, together with several
urns and stone hatchets, was discovered in Germany in the same
Fig. 634.— Skull and Horns of Fossil Elk.
drain. " In the ' Archaiologia Britannica ' is a letter of the Countess
of Moira, giving an account of a human body in gravel under eleven
feet of peat, soaked in the bog- water : it was in good preservation,
and completely clothed in antique garments of hair," conjectured to
be that of the Fossil Elk. But what is still more conclusive, there
exists a rib in the museum of the Royal Dublin Society, bearing token
of having been wounded by some sharp instrument, which remained
long fixed in the wound, but had not penetrated so deep as to destroy
the creature's life : it was such a wound as the head of an arrow
would produce.
Of the causes which involved the Fossil Elk in destruction —
whether one general catastrophe universally affected the whole race
wherever existing — whether local causes, operating at different
epochs, have successively extinguished the species, which might
have lingered the longest in Ireland — or whether its extermination
has been effected by the hand of man, whose agency upon the
animal creation is everywhere apparent, no decided opinion can yet
be given. We know it existed, and that is all : its history and its
fate are buried beneath the shadow of years gone by.
Fig. 632 represents a perfect skeleton of this extinct species ;
Fig."63j, a figure of the skull and horns— the brow-antler on the left
Fig. 635. — Horns of Moose Deer.
horn is undeveloped ; Fig. 634, a, a direct front view of the skull ;
b, a palatal view of the skull ; c, profile of the skull ; d, a horn
somewhat differently shaped to the others ; (Fig 635), horns of the
Moose, given by way of comparison.
Group Elaphus, or Cervus— -The Stag.
The common Stag of Europe, with its allied species the Barbary
Stag and the Persian Stag, the Wapiti of America, and among
others the Cervus Elaphdidcs, Hodgson, and Cervus Wallichii,
Cuvier, both natives of Nepil, may be adduced as examples of this
section. The characters consist in the form of the horns, which
have three antlers produced
from the beam — viz., the brow-
antler, the bez-antler, and the
antler-royal, besides the snags,
or crown {surroyal), in which
the beam terminates ; in the
nakedness of the muzzle, and
in the possession of large sub-
orbital sinuses. The males
have canine teeth, and in old
animals the brow-antler is often
double. A fine specimen of
the horns of the Wapiti, in the
museum of the Zool. Soc, ex-
hibits this luxuriance of growth.
(Fig. 636.)
The Common Stag, or Red-
Deer [Ccrv?is elaphus). —
Carw(Stag), Ewig(Hind),Elain
(Young or Calf), of the ancient
British ; Le Cerf (Stag), La
Biche (Hind), Faon (Young or
Calf), of the French ; Cervio,
Cervia, of the Italians ; Ciervo,
Cierva, of the Spanish ; Cervo,
Ccrva, of the Portuguese ;
Hirtz, Hirsch, (Stag), Hind
(Hind), Hinde Kalb (Calf), of
the Germans ; Hart (Stag), and
Hinde, of the Dutch ; Hjort,
Kronhjort (Stag), and Hind, of
the Swedes ; Kronhjort, Hind,
Kid or Hind Kalv, of the Danes.
(See Fig. 637.)
The Red-Deer is a native of
our island and of the tempe-
rate portions of Europe, and
considerably exceeds the Fallow-Deer in size, standing about four
feet in height at the shoulders. The hind or female is smaller ;
the young is spotted with white on the back and sides. (See
Fig 638.) During the pairing season, which commences in August,
the Stags fight desperately with each other, and are even danger-
ous to persons venturing near their haunts. A beautiful illustration
Fig. 636. — Horns of Wapiti.
of this was painted by the late Sir E. Landscer. Formerly the
Stag was very abundant in the wild hills and in the extensive
forelits of our island, but the disforesting of vast woodland tracts,
and the extension of agriculture, have limited the range of this
noble animal to the larger parks and chases of our country, to the
Cheviot Hills, and to "the heath-covered mountains of Scotland.
Few or none are to be seen in the New Forest, nor in Woolmer
Forest, in Hampshire, where they were once numerous ; nor do .any
now remain in Epping Forest. In the central part of the Grampians
there are large herds of Red-Deer : they frequent the sourthern part
of the bleak and, generally speaking, naked ridge of Minigny, which
lies between the Glen of Athol on the south, and Badenoch on the
north ; and between the lofty summits of Ben-y-glac on the east,
and the pass of Dalnavardoch on the west. The greater part of
this ridge is the property of the Duke of Athol, although many Deer
are found on the lands of the Duke of Gordon, and of others towards
The Deer are seldom on the summits ; but generally in the glens
of the Tilt and Bruar. These Deer are often seen in herds of up-
THE STAGS.
243
wards of a thousand ; aud when, in a track where there is no human
abode for twenty or thirty miles, a long- line of Bucks appears on a
heio-ht, with their branching horns relieved upon a clear mountain
skyt the sight is very imposing (see Fig. 639), representing the Red-
Deer and Roebuck in their native haunts.
The forest of Athol, consisting of a hundred thousand acres, is de-
voted to Red-Deer ; they exist in Mar Forest and Glenartney, and in
thewestdistrictsof Ross and Sutherland. The chase of the Red-Deer
has ever been, from its excitement, a favourite diversion ; and formerly
also of a darker colour : his form is more heavy, and the limbs more
robust ; the neck is of vast thickness and strength.
The Wapiti docs not extend its range higher north than the fifty-
seventh parallel of latitude, nor is it found to the eastward of a line
drawn from the north end of Lake Winncpcg in long. 103°, and
from thence till it strikes the Elk River in the iiitli degree. It is
common among the clumps of wood tliat skirt the plains of the
Saskatchewan, where it lives in small herds of six or seven indivi-
duals. They feed, says Dr Richardson, on grass, on the young
Fig- 637.— The Stag, or Red-Deer.
was conducted in a style of great magnifi-
cence, vast herds being driven, "with hound
and horn," to where the hunters were
stationed witli guns (formerly bows and
arrows), and who dealt havoc among their
numbers. The Deer moved forwards in close
array, guided by a leader, and often in
despair broke through the circle of their foes,
and made their escape. We may imagine
the danger resulting from the rush of per-
haps a thousand Deer, determined to break
through the line of their assailants.
The spirited description of a similar scene
in Sir W. Scott's novel of " Waverley" is
familiar to all. This mode of driving the
Deer is now never practised, at least on
the great scale. The present plan, that
of Deer-stalking, is to proceed cautiously
within due distance of the herd, and, being
concealed, to bring them down with the
riile : when wounded and brought to bay,
the Stag often rushes on his assailant,
whose life is in imminent danger. The
Red-Deer is too well known to require a
detailed description. He swims vigorously,
and will cross lakes, and pass from islet to
islet at considerable distances apart.
In some of the old German castles, pairs
of the horns of this animal are preserved,
which far exceed, in dimensions, anything-
we ever now meet with in this country, or
even in the forests of Central Europe, where
the head still attains greater dimensions
than in Scotland.
The Wapiti fCervus Canadensis ; Cer-
vus Wapiti, Mitchell; C. strongyloceros,
Sehreber ; American Elk, Bewick ; Was-
keesews of Hutchins ; Wawaskeesho, Awas-
kees, and Moostosh of the Cree Indians). —
The Wapiti has been confounded with the
Elk, this name being given to it in Lewis
and Clark's voyages. It is the Red-Deer
of the Hudson's Bay traders.
This American representative of our
European Stag differs from the latter in
being much larger and more powerful, and
Fig. 639. — The Red-Deer, or Stag (a), and the Roebuck (/<).
244
THE DEER TRIBE.
shoots of willows and poplars, and are very fond of the hips of the
Rosa blarida, which forms much of the underwood of the districts
which they frequent. Their voice is a shrill, whistling, quivering
noise, nothing resembling the " bell" of our Stag. Hearne considers
the Wapiti as more stupid than any other species of the Deer tribe.
(See Fig. 640.)
5 K^-w^gS'CSs!^
Fig. 640. — The Wapiti.
The horns of this species (see Fig 636, ajite) attain to a vast size and
weight (fifty-three or fifty-four pounds the pair), and are most formid-
able weapons ; nor is the male, thus armed, to be approached with-
out caution ; his temper being vicious and irascible, and his strength
prodigious. A few years since, one of the male Wapitis in the
gardens of the Zoological Society, London, in a fit of rage, drove his
brow-antlers into the body of a female of the same species, lifted
her up, and threw her down dead.
The male Wapiti stand upwards of four feet and a-half at the
shoulders. The general colour is yellowish-brown, a black mark
extending from the angle of the mouth along the lower jaw ; the
tail is short and encircled (as in the Red-Deer and others of this
section) by a pale yellowish haunch-mark.
This magnificent Deer now breeds every year in the menagerie of
the Zoological Society, Regent's Park, London. Horns of the Wapiti
have been there shed, weighing thirty-two pounds the pair, notwith-
standing all the disadvantages of confinement and artificial food.
Group Rusa, or Asiatic Deer.
This group consists of Deer peculiar to India, several species
being large and formidable. The horns are rugged and cylindrical,
with a large sharp brow-antler, but no bez-antter, the beam bifur-
cating at the top into a sharp anterior and posterior snag : the
muzzle is broad and naked ; the sub-orbital sinuses are deep and large,
and the males possess canine teeth ; a mane of long coarse hairs
runs down the neck. Of six or seven species belonging to this
section, we may notice the Sambur.
The Sambur {Cervus Aristotelis and Hippelaphus).—Z&\&x2X
specimens of this Deer are in the gardens of the Zoological Society,
London ; and the males, when armed with their antlers, are noted
for their vicious temper. In size, the male Sambur exceeds our
common Stag, but is inferior to the huge and heavy Wapiti ; and
if less powerful, is more active and alert. The hair is close, harsh,
and of a dusky or greyish-brown ; a band of black surrounds the
muzzle, but the edges of the upper tip and the tip of the under are
white ; the hairs of the throat are long and bristly, forming a full
fringe ; a mane of similar hair runs along the back of the neck : the
crupper-mark round the tail is very circumscribed, and yellowish.
The Sambur is found in the Ghauts of Dukhun, in Kandeish, and
the lower hills of Nepal; It occurs also in other districts of India.
In common with the rest of the Rusa tribe it is fond of the waterj
and resides in wooded situations. It is hardy, and consequently
is quite capable of bearing the winter of our climate.
Of the other species to be referred to this group, and described
by various authors, we may mention the Cervus cquintis, Cuvier,
found in Sumatra and the lower hills of Nepal ; the C. imi-
color, Smith, a native of the dense forests of Ceylon ; the C.
Pero7iii, Cuvier, and the C. Mariannus, Quoy and Gaim'ard the
former a native of Timor, the latter of the Marianne Islands, or
Ladrones.
Mr. Hodgson observes, that a species of Deer, to which he has
given the name of C. Bahraiiija, serves, with C. IVallichii, to
connect the Elaphine and Rusan groups. Fig. 641 represents the
animal, and Fig. 642 the skull of the Sambur Deer.
Group Axis, or Hog Deer.
The characters of this group differ but little from those oi Rusa ;
the horns have a brow-antler, and bifurcate at the top; the sub-
orbital sinuses are moderate, and the males are destitute of canines.
It is, however, in size, contour, and disposition that the greatest
Fig. 641. — Sambur Deer.
Fig. 642. — Skull of Sambur Deer.
contrast exists between the Axine and Rusan groups. In the
Axine group the limbs are delicate, the general form is more grace-
ful than robust, and none, in size, much exceed our Fallow-Deer, to
which the common Axis especially (excepting as respects the
antlers) bears a near resemblance ; the females, indeed, of both
species being, on a superficial view, scarcely distinguishable. The
hair is short, smooth, and close ; the expression of the physiognomy
is gentle, yet animated, and agrees with the disposition. In cap-
tivity these Deer are quiet and inoffensive.
The Axis Deer, or Cheetal (Axis Macu^afa, Cervus Axis,
Erxl.) — The Spotted Axis is, perhaps, the best known of all the
Indian Deer ; it thrives well not only in our menageries, but even in
parks, and breeds in our climate. It is very abundant on the banks
of the Ganges and in Bengal, as well as in the larger islands of the
Indian Archipelago, where it lives in he^-ds, the luxuriant vegetation
of the jungles (its favourite localities) affording abundance of food.
The general colour of this species is fawn-yellow, a black strips
running down the spine of the back ; the sides are beautifully and
regularly spotted with white ; a row, forming an almost continuous
line, passes along each side of the belly. (See Fig. 643.)
The Hog Deer (C Porcinus) is another species belonging to this
section : it is lower on the limbs, and stouter in the body, than the
Spotted Axis : its colour is yellowish-grey, spotted slightly on the
back and flanks.
A species from the Ganges is described by Mr. Ogilby in the
" Zool. Proceeds.," 1831, page 136, under the title of C. Nudi;pal-
pebra.
Group Capreolus— The Roes.
The Roes, or Roebucks, are distinguished by the following cha-
racters : — The horns are small, cylindrical, and rugged ; and when
fully developed are divided above into three snags, of which the
THE ROES.
245
largest is seated anteriorly. The muzzle is naked, and there are
neither canines nor sub-orbital sinuses. The tail is extremely short,
the body compact, the limbs slender, but vigorous.
The Common Ko'E.w:cvi{Capreolus caprea, Cervns capreolus).
Xhis species is the Caprea, Caprcolus dorcas, of Genser; Capre-
olus, of Ray and of Sibbald ; Ccrvus capreolus, of Linnaus ;
%4 •^$/VV\, (jK
Fig. 643. — Axis Deer.
Cerints minimus, of Klein ; Iwrch (male), lyrcheli (female), of the
ancient British ; Le Chevreuil, of the French ; Capriolo of the
Italians ; Zorlito, Cabronzillo montes, of the Spanish ; Cabra
montes, of the Portugnese ; Rehbock (male), Rehgees, of the Ger-
mans ; Radiur, Rabock, of the Swedes ; Raaedijr, Raaebuk, of the
Danes.
The Roebuck was formerly common throughout the whole of our
island, but is now almost exclusively confined to the wooded hills of
Scotland, north of the Forth. South of that river it is very rare, one
or two wild parks only possessing a few ; but in the rugged woods of
Westmoreland and Cumberland it is tolerably abundant. It is
widely spread throughout the temperate latitudes of continental
Europe, wherever extensive forests and wild uncultivated districts
covered with brushwood, afford it an asylum.
The Roebuck is the least, and one of the most active and beauti-
ful, of our European Deer ; wild, shy, and cautious, it does not herd
in troops, but lives singly, or in small companies, consisting of the
male, female, and young ; the latter being generally two, sometimes
three, in number. These remain for eight or nine months with their
parents, which continue attached for lite. The Roe is more cunning
than the Stag, and when hunted will endeavour, by various subtle
Fig. 644.— Roebuck.
artifices, to elude its pursuers. It will wind and double on its track,
then take bounds of surprising extent, and lie close amongst the
herbage of its covert till the Dogs, having lost the scent, pass off
to a distance. The flesh of this animal is not in high estimation.
The Roe stands about 2 feet 3 inches in height at the shoulder.
In the wmter the hair on the body is long, the lower part of each
hair IS ash-coloured ; there is a narrow bar of black near the end
and the tip is yellow. On the face the hair is black, tipped with
yellow. The ears are long, of a pale yellow on the inside, and
covered with long hair. In summer the coat is short and smooth,
and of a bright reddish colour. The chest, belly, legs, and inside
of the thighs are yellowish-white ; the rump is pure white ; and the
tail very short. On the outside of the hind-leg, below the joint, is a
tuft of long hair. (See Fig. 644.) "■
A specimen of the Roe of Tartaty (C Pygargus, Pallas), the
tailless Roe of Pennant, once fell under our notice. In size it
equals the Fallow-Deer ; it inhabits the mountain districts of Hyr-
cania, and other parts of Northern Siberia, and also the snowy range
of Central Asia.
Group Mazam a— American Fali.ow-Deer.
The elegant Deer composing this group are all confined to the
American continent. The horns are rough, with a cylindrical stem,
and slightly compressed branches, which have a tendency to form
arches or segments of a circle. Of these an anterior branch projects
somewhat forwards ; the stem sweeps outwards, curving inwards
and forwards at its extremity, which divides into two or three
branches. There are no canines. The sub-orbital sinuses are small,
and appear like a fold of the skin. The ears are long and open ;
the tail is long, and inclining to be bushy; the muzzle is naked.
The species belonging to this section are numerous. The Virginian
Deer is the best known. This beautiful species is spread very ex-
tensively, ranging from Canada to Cayenne : it tenants the woods in
small herds, and its chase is everywhere followed with ardour, so
that in a few years the rifle will exterminate it in many districts
where it is still common. The three modes of " Still-hunting,"
" Fire light-hunting," and " Driving," are amusingly described by
Audubon in the first vol. of his "Ornithological Biography."
In the museum of the Zool. Soc, Lond., there is a fine specimen of
the Black-tailed Deer {Cerviis niacrotis. Say), which inhabits the
plains of the Missouri, Saskatchewan, and Columbia ; it is numerous
in the Quamash Fiats w'hich border the Kooskookee river. It is re-
markable for the size of its ears, and the length and fulness of the
tail, which is white, with a tinge of brown, and largely tipped with
black. The general colour is brownish-grey. It exceeds the Vir-
ginian Deer, its height at the shoulders being 2 feet 6 inches.
The Cervus le?icuriis is another allied species, which, from its
size, form, and habits, has obtained the name of Roebuck from the
Scottish Highlanders employed by the Hudson's Bay Company, and
that of Chevreuil from the French Canadians. It is common in the
districts adjoining the river Columbia, and especially the fertile
prairies of the Cowalidske and Multnomah rivers. The young are
spotted until the middle of the first winter, when they assume the
uniform colour of the adults.
Azara describes two species belonging to this section, under the
terms Gouazoupoucou {Cervus paludosiis, Desm.) and Gouazouti
{C. campesfris, F. Cuv.), both natives of Paraguay.
The Gouazouti (or Guazuti, Manama, or Cervus campestris) in-
habits the open Pampas, where it is more than a match for a
Horse in speed. It stands about 2 feet 6 inches in height at the
shoulder. The hair is rough, close, and of a reddish-bay, the space
round the eyes, and the under parts of the head and body being
white ; the hairs of the back are of a leaden grey colour at the base,
the tips only being red. The Fawns are spotted with white. A most
powerful and disgusting odour of garlic proceeds from the males,
especially when their horns are in perfection : this odour is not lost
in the preserved skin, as we can personally testify. " Frequently,"
says Mr. Darwin, "when passing at the distance of half a mile to
the leeward of a herd, I have perceived the whole air tainted with
the effluvium." "This deer," says the same talented author, "is
exceedingly abundant throughout the countries bordering on the
Plata. It is found in northern 'T'atagonia as far south as the Rio
Negro (lat. 41°), but farther southward none were seen by the
ofBcers employed in surveying the coast. It appears to prefer a
hilly country. I saw many small herds, containing from five to
seven animals each, near the Sierra Ventana, and among the hills
north of Maldonado. If a person crawling close along the ground
advances towards a herd, the Deer, frequently out of curiosity,
approach to reconnoitre him. I have by this means killed from one
spot three out of the same herd. Though so tame and inquisitive,
yet when approached oh horseback they are exceedingly wary. In
this country nobody goes on foot, and the Deer knows man as its
enemy only when he is mounted and armed with the bolas. At
Bahia Blanca, a recent establishment in northern Pat.agonia, I was
surprised to find how little the Deer cared for the noise of a gun :
one day I fired ten times from within eighty yards at one animal,
and it was much more startled at the ball cutting up the ground
than at the report of my rifle. My powder being exhausted, I was
obliged (to my shame as a sportsman be it spoken) to get up and
hoUoo till the Deer ran away."
Genus Coassus— Brocket Deer.
The Guazus, or Brockets, as they are termed, are distinguished
by the simplicity of their horns, which consist of a single slender
246
THE GUAZUS—THE MUNTJACS.
stem without snags ; the sub-orbital sinuses are small ; the nose is
pointed, and the naked muzzle small, extending' at the side of the
nostrils into a glandular spot. The species of this section are small,
and delicately formed ; they mhabit the swampy woods of South
America, in small families consisting of eight or ten females, in
company with a single male ; from which circumstance arose the
mistaken idea that this part of the globe possessed Deer entirely
destitute of horns, while their simple form in the few males seen (for
the females are far more numerous) led to the supposition that these
were young animals w-ith their first or brocket horns. Hence the
term Brocket, adopted as the descriptive appellation of the group.
In the museum of the Zool. Society is a specimen of the female of a
Deer which most probably belongs to the present section. It is de-
scribed in the " Proceeds." for 1831, p. 27, as the Cervus huinilis,
Bonn. It is about a foot and a-half in height at the shoulders, and
of a rufous colour, the fore-parts having a blackish tinge. The body
is stout ; the limbs short ; the face broad. Mr. Bennett, by whom
this species was characterised, "was informed by Captain P. P.
King, R. N., that a second skin of the same species had been
brought to England by him ; that the young was spotted with
yellow, and had a yellow stripe on each side of the back ; and that
the animal was plentiful at Concepcion, and found even as far south
as the archipelago of Chiloe, living, he believed, in small herds."
Until the horns of the male Ise known, this species stands only pro-
visionally where we have placed it.
The other known species of this section are the Guazu-pita
{Cervus rufus, F. Cuv.), the Guazu-bira [Cervjis iieinorivagiis, F.
Cuv.), and the Apara Brocket [Cervus simplicicornis, H. Smith).
The Gu.\zu-pita {Coassus rufus ; Cervus rufus). — The Guazu-
pita is somewhat larger than a Roebuck : its general colour is rufous,
with a dusky tint on the face and legs ; the lips and chin being
white. Azara states that the proportion of males to females in this
species is one to ten ; and that the Fawns are spotted with white. It
frequents dense forests, in which it remains concealed during the
day ; but at night, or during the dusk of the evening, it ventures into
the open lands bordering the woods, and often invades the cultivated
fields or gardens of the natives, for the sake of obtaining French-
beans, which are a favourite food. Although not destitute of acti-
vity, it is soon exhausted, and easily taken either by Dogs or by
means of the lasso. (See Fig. 645.)
Fig. 645. — Guazu-pita.
The Guazu-Bira {Coassus, or Cervus nemorivagus) is smaller
and more delicately formed than the preceding species, which, how-
ever, it resembles in general habits and manners, inhabiting also
the low moist woods of South America. The colour of this little
Deer is dusky-grey, passing into white on the under parts. The
Cervus simpUcicornis is a native of Brazil : its colour is rich
fulvous, with a dusky ring round the orbits, and a spot of the same
tint at the angle of the mouth. (See Fig. 646.)
Group Stvloceros— The Muntjacs.
The species of this group are natives of India and the Indian Is-
lands, and there is something so peculiar in their physiognomy and
appearance, that a glance serves to discriminate between them and
all others of the Deer tribe. Setting aside the horns, with which
the males only are furnished, they remind one strongly of the Musk-
Deer, or Chevrotains, though of larger stature. The body, as in the
Musk-Deer, is rounded ; the head triangular, and tapering to a fine
muzzle ; their limbs slender and delicately turned, and their tongue
long and flexible. The males, moreover, have long canines in the
upper jaw, which protrude beyond the lips. In manners they are
timid and gentle, but are easily domesticated, and soon become
familiar.
One remarkable character in the Muntjacs consists in the form of
the horns, and the manner in which they rise from the forehead,
supported on long slender peduncles covered with skin, and turned
obliquely outwards, with a tuft of hair along their anterior aspect.
Fig. 646. — Guazu-bira.
becoming very full round the burr of the horn ; the hair on the back
part and sides of these peduncles is close. These supports for the
small horns do not rise abruptly, but are continued from two pro-
minent ridges beginning below the angle of each eye, running ob-
liquely upwards, diverging as they proceed, and constituting an
abrupt outline to the flat triangular forehead. (See Fig. 647, the
Skull of the Muntjac.) These ridges are covered with the skin of
Fig. 647.— Skull of Muntjac.
the forehead, which for the space of nearly an inch on the inner side
of each ridge, parallel to the eyes, forms a narrow naked fold, or
kind of sinus, capable of being opened or closed at pleasure, and
evidently of a glandular nature. When closed these sinuses are
hidden by the hair. The horns scarcely, if at all, exceed the pe-
duncles in length ; they are pointed, converge at their points, and
have a small rudimentary snag at their base anteriorly. The sub-
orbital sinuses are large and deep, the muzzle is small and naked,
the eyes are large and animated, the ears large and open. The first
horns obtained are simple, and it is said that there is only one re-
newal, the second pair being permanent (a doubtful circumstance).
As the females want horns, the peduncles and their continuation as
ridges down the forehead are absent, but a tuft of hair indicates
their situation.
The species composing the present section are but imperfectly
known. The most familiar example of the group is the Muntjac of
Java and Sumatra, the Kidang of Horsfield.
The Kidang, or Common Muntjac -{Munfjacus vaginalis;
Cervtis Muntjac, &c.) — This most elegant and beautiful animal
equals a Roebuck in size. According to Dr. Horsfield, its favourite
haunts in Java are hills covered with brushwood, and elevated
grounds adjacent to wild forests, or shrubby districts between the
latter and the cultivated grounds. Its voice is so like the barking of
a Dog as to deceive the ears of persons not familiar to the sound.
The food of this species consists principally of the Saccliarutn spi-
HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS.
247
catum, the PhyUanthus emblica, and other malvaceous plants
abundant in the hilly districts. The Muntjac is eagerly hunted
both for the sake of its flesh, which is excellent, and for the sport
which the chase affords. Its flight is very rapid, but it generally
makes a circle, returning to the spot whence it started. When
brought to bay, the male defends itself against the Dogs with great
coura.'-e, using its horns and long sharp tusks with severe effect.
It is often taken in snares, and sometimes by ridmg it down on
horseback, and striking it with a sword. This mode is highly
dangerous, but is followed, nevertheless, with the utmost enthusiasm
Fig. 648. — Muntjac.
by daring hunters, mounted on the naked back of Horses trained to
the chase, which is conducted with frantic impetuosity. (See Fig.
648.)
The general colour of this species is bright reddish-brown, the
under parts being white.
Colonel Sykes observed a species of Muntjac in the Ghauts of
Dukhun, which he states to be never seen on the plains. It is
termed Baiker by the Mahrattas. Mr. Hodgson notices a species
called Katwa, proper to the central region of Nepal, but occasion-
ally occurring in the lower valleys of Kachar. A species from China
is described by Mr. Ogilby under the title of Cervus Reevesii.
In concluding our remarks on the CervidcB, we may add, that up-
wards of twenty species of Deer, perfectly capable of becoming ac-
climatised in England, have at various times been exhibited in the
collection of the Zoological Society of London, in their Gardens at
Regent's Park. The species usually living in the Vivarium arc as
follows : —
1. The Wapiti {Cervus canadensis). North America.
2. The Persian Deer (C. maral). Western Asia.
3. The Cashmeerian Deer (C. cashmecrianus), Cashmere.
4. The Red-Deer {C. elaphus), Europe.
5. The Barbarv Deer (C. barbarus), Algeria and Tunis.
6. The Mantchurian Deer (C. mantchurkus), Mantchurix
7. The Japanese Deer (C sika), Japan.
8. The Formosan Deer (C pseudaxis), Formosa.
9. The Barasingha Deer (C. duvaticcllH) Northern India.
10. The Sambur Deer (C aristotelis), India.
11. The Molucca Deer {C. ?noluccensis), Moluccas.
12. The Axis Deer [C. axis), India.
13. The Prince Alfred's Deer (C. Alfredi), Philippines.
14. The Hog Deer (C/or«'«z«), India.
15. The Virginian Deer (C wrg-Z^/awr^), North America.
16. The Pampas Deer (C. campcstris). South America.
Among the more recent additions of the Cervidcs in that collection
are the following : —
The Barbary Deer {Cervus barbarus) is the representative of
our Red-Deer on the southern shores of the Mediterranean. The
Stag possessed by the Society, in 1878, was presented by the Vis-
count Hill, having been selected from the fine herd of this Deer
which adorn the park at Hawkstone.
The Cashmeerian Deer, or Hungul {Cervus cashmecrianus').
— The only representative yet received by the Society of this fine
species of Deer, is a Stag presented by Captain Lloyd, of the 89th
Regiment, in November, 1865. Colonel Markham speaks of this
Deer as follows : —
" The Hungul is a noble animal, called by the natives ' burra-sing
wallah,' or the ' twelve-horned-fellow,' as he has six points on each
horn. • • • They inhabit the hills which form the valley of Cash-
mere, and are but rarely found in the valley itself, and there only in
winter. During the summer they are not often met with, from the
immense extent of country which they have to wander over ; but
when the rutting season commences, they may be heard bellow-
ing in the forests all day long, and are then easily found and shot.
* * * The antlers, which are shed early in spring, are picked up
in the forests by the villagers, and form an article of export traffic
with Ladak."
The Barasingha f Cervus duvaiiceUii). — This beautiful Deer
was first imported by the late Earl of Derby. It is a native of the
swampy valleys of Assam, from which country it was first obtained
for the Society by the Babu Rajendra Mullick in 1857. It occurs
also in the Sagur and Nerbudda territories, and in parts of the Ben-
gal Sonderbunds. The winter coat is of a dullish grey, but in
summer it changes to a brilliant golden hue, which would make the
Barasingha the most interesting addition which could possibly be
introduced into a heavily wooded park. The adult antlers are ex-
tremely elegant, and quite distinct in form from those of any of the
other species.
CHAPTER XVIII.
MAMMALIA.— ORDER, RUMINANTIA— FAMILY, BOVID^; INCLUDING ANTELOPES, CATTLE, AND SHEEP,
ALL HOLLOW-HORNED ANIMALS, OR CAVICORNIAs
F all the Ruminant animals, none are so
useful to man as those included in the family
BoviDTE, a term derived from the Latin Bos,
an Ox. They alike produce food, clothing,
leather, and a great variety of other neces-
saries of civilisation, and the Ox kind are
frequently employed as beasts of draught,
especially by agriculturists. They occur, in
some variety, in almost all parts of the
world. They live together in flocks ; are
strictly herbivorous, or, perhaps, more popularly,
vegetarians, their dentition being admirably adapted
for their food. In natural history they are divisible
into the ANTELOPE, Cattle, and Sheep.
Antelopes.
The word Antelope {Antilope), now so generally
used, is of very uncertain origin. It appears first to
have been adopted as the designation of a species,
but was subsequently given by Pallas as the title of a
genus. The first occurrence of the word AvBoXo^ is
in the " Hexameron " of Eustathius (fourth century), as the name of
an apparently fabulous animal. Bochart supposes it to be derived
from the Coptic Panthalops, which signifies the Unicorn ; but it
may be derived from the Greek AvBog, a flower, and ii\l/, the eye,
or oTrTofiai, to see, in allusion to the brightness and beauty of the
full beaming eyes, which are so remarkable in most of these animals,
Fig, 649.— Gazelle caught in lasso (Egyptian).
248
THE ANTELOPES.
and which have often rendered the Gazelle the theme of the Persian
and Arabian poets. The name of the Gazelle, dorcas, from (ftpicw,
or SepKoitai, to see, was a common name for women among the
Greeks and Romans.
It is interesting to trace the acquaintance which the ancients had
with objects of natural history, as demonstrated by their drawings
or sculptured representations : nor is the examination of them un-
important ; they often supply us with a hint as to the ancient geo-
graphical distribution of animals, or as to facts connected with their
the remark, that " the genus Antelope has become a kind of zoolo-
gical refuge for the destitute, and forms an incongruous assemblage
of all the hollow-horned Ruminants, which the mere shape of the
horns excluded from the genera JBos, Oin's, and Capra ; thus it has
come to contain nearly four times as many species as all the rest of
the hollow-horned Ruminants together. So diversified are its forms,
and so incongruous its materials, that it presents not a single cha-
racter which will either apply to all its species, or suffice to differen-
tiate it from conterminous genera."
Fig. 650. — Animals from Egyptian Sculptures.
histori", and prove that many hundred years ago the species existed,
with the same forms and characters as at the present time. It is,
therefore, not out of place to draw our readers' attention to some
figures in outline from the Egyptian sculptures. Fig. 649 represents
a Gazelle caught by the noose, or lasso, an instrument used by the
ancient Egyptians, and by the modern Gauchos of South America.
Fig. 650 : a. Ibex ; b, Antelope Icucoryx ; c. Gazelle ; d, a species
of Stag. Fig. 651: a, Antelope ; 5, Goat ; c, Aoudad, or Kebsch
Fig. 651. — Animals from Egyptian Sculptures.
In analysing and re-arranging the Antelopes, Mr. Ogilby draws
his characters from the horns, the form of the upper lip, whether
modified for grazing or browsing, the existence of lachrymal sinuses,
inguinal sacs, and interdigital pores, and the number of the teats in
the female. With respect to interdigital pores, he observes that
their existence or non-existence is an important point, as their use
appears to be to lubricate the hoofs by a fluid secretion : hence are
they connected with the geographical distribution of the species,
Fig. 652. — Antelopes with depressed Horns.
{Ovis TragelapiJms, Desm.), found in the mountains along the Nile,
and on the northern coast of Africa.
The section or family to which the title of Antelope {Aniilopc) is
ordinarily given, embraces, it must be confessed, a somewhat ill-
assorted assemblage, requiring to be distributed into several distinct
genera. The fact is, that every hollow-horned Ruminant, which is
neither one of the Sheep, Goats, nor Oxen, has been assigned to the
Antelopes, and hence the diversities of form and habits which we
see among the members of this e.xtensive group. Mr. Ogilby made
confining them to the rich savannah, or the moist forest, or enabling
them to roam over the arid mountain, the parched karroo, and the
burning desert. Among the Antelopes, then, there are, on the one
hand, species allied to the Goats and Sheep ; on the other, to the
Oxen ; and as widely differing in form and appearance from the
Gazelle or the Indian Antelope as does the Wild Bull or the Ibex.
But we must not forget, nor do we forget, that our object is not to
enter into the minutise of scientific disquisitions, fit only for the
pages of works devoted to the more abstruse departments of ZoO'
THE ANTELOPES.
249
logy. We shall therefore forbear ; and, allowing the family termed
Antelope to remain as it docs, we shall merely divide it for the sake
of perspicuity into four sub-divisions, namely : — True Antelopes,
Bush Antelopes, Capriform Antelopes, and Boviform Antelopes.
The Antelopes differ essentially from the Deer in the structure of
the horns. In the Deer, the horns, or more properly antlers, are
deciduous ; but in the Antelopes (and the same obser\'ation applies
to the Goat and Ox), these organs consist of a horny sheath, invest-
ing a conical support of bone ; their increase is gradual, and they
are not yearly shed and renewed. The bony central support, or
core, is a process from the frontal bone : in most Antelopes it is
solid, or nearly so ; it commences small at first, and assumes various
directions in the various species. One Antelope has four horns.
The homy sheath consists of fibres analogous to those of whalebone,
or rather hair, running longitudinally or spirally, and agglutinated
into one uniform mass. If this sheath be stripped from its bony
core, the latter will be found covered by a highly vascular perios-
teum, from which the fibres in question are secreted. They are
formed in regular succession as the bone grows, so that the horn
which covered the whole process or core in the young animal will in
due time be thrown to its summit. The outermost layer was once in
contact with the core, but was gradually pushed outwards and up-
wards. In some groups of Antelopes both sexes are furnished with
horns ; in others only the male ; and it is difficult in many cases to
discriminate between the hornless females of one of the Antelope
and of one of the Deer tribe. It is chiefly to the warmer latitudes that
the Antelopes are confined, and Africa may be regarded as their
great nursery ; many, however, are Asiatic ; the Saiga and the
Chamois are natives of Europe ; the Prongbuck and a closely-allied
species (if they can be called Antelopes) are natives of America.
And of sixty-nine species of Antelopes, recorded by Wagner, no less
than fifty-four are inhabitants of Africa ; and of these, twenty-five
occur, most of them, exclusively in the southern extremity of that
continent. In all, about eighty species of Antelope are known.
Fig. 652 represents the Antilo^e dejtiresstcornis.
The True Antelopes.
Genus GazeUa. Horns in both sexes, lachrymal sinuses distinct
and movable. Interdigital pits and inguinal pores large. Female
with two teats. Horns lyrate.
The Ariel Gazelle (Gazella cora ; Antilope arabica). — This
I^'g- 653.— Ariel Gazelles.
beautiful species inhabits Arabia and Syria, where it is seen in
large herds, bounding over the desert with amazing fleetness. Its
eyes are peculiarly large, dark, and lustrous, and have supplied a
simile to the Oriental poets and orators ; indeed, to say of a woman
" she has the eyes of a Gazelle," is a most flattering commendation.
The Ariel Antelope is an object of the chase in Arabia, as it was
among the ancient Egyptians, whose delineations of it are abundant.
Its flesh is said to be excellent, So swift are these animals, that the
Greyhound unaided cannot overtake them ; the Falcon, therefore, is
brought into service. The huntsman advances as near as possible
to the herd, the Dogs are then slipped, and the Falcon thrown off;
the individual which the Dogs have singled is attacked by the
Falcon, which is trained to strike at the head and eyes, so as to
confuse the game, and check its speed, thereby enabling the Dogs
to come up to it. It is a common practice to shoot the Gazelle.
Burckhardt informs us that on the eastern frontier of Syria are
several places allotted for the hunting of this animal, or rather for its
entrapment and destruction. An open space on the plain, about one
mile and a-half square, is enclosed on three sides by a wall of loose
stones, too high for the Gazelle to leap over. Gaps are left in dif-
ferent parts of the wall, and at each gap a deep ditch is sunk on the
outside. The inclosure is situated near some rivulet or spring to
which the Gazelles resort in summer. When the sport is to begin,
many peasants assemble and watch till they see a herd of Gazelles
advancing from a distance towards the enclosure, into which they
drive them. The Gazelles, frightened by the shouts of the people
and the discharge of the fire-arms, endeavour to leap over the wall,
but can only effect this at the gaps, where they fall into the ditch
outside, and are easily taken, sometimes by hundreds. The chief of
the herd always leaps first, and the others follow him one by one.
The Gazelles thus captured are immediately killed, and their flesh
sold to the Arabs and neighbouring Fellahs. Of tlie skin a kind of
parchment is made, and used to cover the small drum with which
the Syrians accompany some musical instruments or the voice.
When taken young, wild and timid as the Gazelle is, it is readily
tamed, and becomes familiar and quite at ease. Tame Gazelles are
frequently seen at large in the court -yards of houses in Syria, and
their beauty, exquisite form, and playfulness render them great
favourites. The Ariel Gazelle is about i foot 9 inches high at the
shoulder ; its limbs are slender, but vigorous ; and all its actions
are light and spirited. In full flight it lays the horns back, almost
on the shoulders, and seems to skim over the level plain, almost with-
out touching it. (See Fig. 653.)
The general colour above is dark fawn or yellowish-brown ; the
under parts are white, divided from the colour of the upper parts by
a black or deep brown band along the flanks ; the nose has a broad
mark of dark brown, and on each side of the face a broad stripe
of white passes from the horns over
the eyes to the nose, while a nar-
row stripe of black, from the inner
angle of the eye to the nose, separates
the white streak from the fawn-colour
of the cheeks ; the knees are fur-
nished with dark brushes of hair.
A closely allied species, the Ahu
or Tseyran {A . subguttiirosd) is com-
mon in Persia and the country round
Lake Baikal. Whether it be truly a
distinct species, or only a mere variety
of the Ariel Gazelle, remains to be
decided. It is hunted in Persia with
Greyhounds and Falcons.
The Dorcas Gazelle {Gazella
dorcas). — This species differs from
the Ariel Gazelle chiefly in being of
a much lighter colour, presenting,
however, the same markings and
arrangement of tints. It is a native
, of Northern Africa, and lives in large
herds upon the borders of the Tell,
or cultivated country, and the Sahara,
or desert. When a troop of these
Gazelles are pursued, they fly to
some distance, then stop, turn round
and gaze at the hunter, and again
take to flight. If hard pressed they
disperse in different directions, but
soon re-unite ; and when surrounded
and brought to bay, they defend
themselves with spirit and obstinacy,
uniting in a close circle, with the
females and fawns in the centre, and
presenting their horns at all points
to their enemies. This Gazelle is the
common prey of the Lion and Panther.
(See Fig. 654.) , ,
Another Gazelle (perhaps a va-
riety), called the Kevel {A. Kevella, Pallas), resides in vast flocks
on the open stony plains of Senegal.
The Blessbok {Damalis albifrons ; Gazella albi/rons) : the:
Bontebok [Damalispygarga: Gazella /^^ar^a).— Southern Africa
is the native place of these fine Antelopes. One of the Blessboks
' 2 K
250
THE ANTELOPES.
now in the Zoological Society's Gardens, London, arrived in 1861.
The species bred (numerous additions having- been made by pur-
chase) for the first time in 1866. In size the Blcssbok is superior to
the Stag- of Europe, exceeding, when adult, three and a-half feet in
height at the shoulder. The horns arc sixteen inches long, large,
and regularly lyrated.
Fig, 654. — Doicas Gazelle.
The Blessbok was once very common within the districts of the
Cape Colony, where in some parts it still exists, but not in such
multitudes as formerly, when it was said to cover the plains in troops
of thousands. In the country beyond the Colonial borders it is
tolerably abundant. The Blessbok is fleet and active ; and its
markings are very ornamental. The colours of the head and body
are most singularly disposed ; the whole animal appears as if it had
been artificially painted with different shades, laid in separate
masses. The head and neck are of a brillant brownish-bay, so deep
as to resemble the colour of arterial blood ; this is particularly visible
upon the cheeks and about the root of the horns, from the central
point between which descends a narrow stripe of the purest white
as far as the orbits, immediately above which it expands and covers
the whole face and nose down to the muzzle, forming a broad mark,
or, as it is called in Horses, a blaze, and giving origin to the name
of Blessbok, or Blazebuck, by which this species is known among
the Cape colonists. The back is of a brownish-bay, thickly overlaid.
Fig. 655. — Blesbbok.
or, as it were glazed or japanned with dull purplish-white, and there
is a very broad purplish-brown band on the flanks passing from the
fore-arm backwards, and extending obliquely over the outer face of
the thighs. The breast, belly, and interior of the fore-arms and
thighs are white, and this colour also shows itself on the posterior
face of the hips and thighs, and passes in a small crescent over the
rear of the croup, forming a white disc around the tail, and giving
origin to the specific name of ^ygarga, which has been rather
arbitrarily bestowed upon this animal, the real Pygarga of the
ancients being certainly a different species, and an inhabitant of
Northern Africa. The tail is long and switched, nearly naked at
the root, and terminated by a tuft of very long black hair. The
knees are without brushes. The young are at first of a brownish-
red colour on the body, partially glazed, as in the adults ; but what
is most remarkable of all is, that the face, instead of being white as
in the grown animal, is of a very deep brownish-black colour, slightly
mixed with scattered grey hairs.
It was from a young animal that our engraving (Fig. 655) was
taken.
Scemmering's Antelope {Gazella Soemmeringii). — This light
and graceful Antelope, which exceeds the Ariel Gazelle in size, is a
native of Abyssinia, where it was discovered by Riippel during his
journey through the nortliern provinces of that country, and after-
wards described by Cretzchraar in the zoological portion of Riippel's
account of his travels.
It frequents hilly districts, but is not gregarious like the common
Gazelle : it lives in pairs, and is fleet and vigorous. Beyond these
points we know nothing of its history. The horns of this elegant Ante-
lope are regularly lyrated, bending boldly outwards towards the points,
and then suddenly turning inwards towards one another, with a very
sharp and well-defined curve ; they are annulated with fifteen or six-
teen prominent and complete rings, which reach from the base to the
inward curvature within about two inches and a quarter of the points.
The general colour is a beautiful clear yellowish-dun, the hair being
extremely short, and appearing almost as if it had been clipped or
shorn. It does not lie close and smooth upon the hide, nor does it
all follow the same direction, as in the generality of animals, but is
disposed in innumerable small waves, pointing in dift'erent directions,
as if it had been regularly shaded and parted on each side, and ap-
pearing glossy or glazed along their ridges with a shining dun
shade, more or less intense according to the light by which it is ob-
served. All the under-parts of the body are abruptly of the most
pure and brilliant white, and a large disc of the same colour sur-
rounds the tail and passes over the rump and croup. The tail is
Fig. 656. — Sosmmering's Antelope,
small and slender, nearly naked at the root, and furnished at the ex-
tremity with a tuft of mixed brown and grey hairs. The outsides of
the legs are very pale fawn-colour, the insides white, and the knee-
brushes white and fawn mixed. The ears are pretty long, and
brown, with a narrow black border surrounding their outer edge.
The face is dark brown in some specimens, and pure black in others,
curiously mixed with wavy red on the forehead ; on each side of this
a broad white band passes from the root of the horns over the eyes
to the nose, and there is an indication of a small black one from
the anterior angle of the eye to the corner of the mouth, separating
this white band from the cheeks and sides of the lower jaw,
which are of a uniform fawn-colour. The horns of the female have
nearly the same curvature as those of the male, and are felly a?
long, but they are much more slender, and have not such prominenc
annuli. (See Fig. 656.)
The M'horr {Gazell A. Mhorr, Bennett).— The M'horr is a
native of Wednoon, twelve days' journey inland from Mogadore,
whence some years since two living specimens were sent to the gar-
dens of the Zool. Soc, Lond. The species is described and figured
by Mr. Bennett in the " Zool. Transactions." Its general colour is
deep fulvous or reddish-brown, becoming paler on the sides of the
THE SPRINGBUCK.
2SI
face, and passing into white about the eyes, nose, lips, and lower
law • an irresrular black mark between the eyes and the mouth. A
square mark midway on the front of the neck ; the under-parts,
croup back of the thii^hs, tail, and inside the hmbs are abruptly
white- the tail has a fringe of black hairs at its termmation ; tlie
horns are somewhat lyrate, and strongly annulated, and after bend-
ino- back, suddenly curve forwards, the pomts bemg hooked. Height
at^the shoulder, 2 feet 6 inches. (See Fig. 657.)
Fig. 657. — Jil'horr.
The Springbuck, or Springbok {Gazella et/chore).—kvaox\g
the true Antelopes this species is one of the most graceful and beau-
tiful ; and its movements are light and rapid. It is a native of the
wild karroos of South Africa, where it lives in vast troops, which are
irregularly migratory. Its name Springbuck (Springbok) is given m
allusion to its singular habit of leaping perpendicularly when
alarmed, or as it scours the plain, and that to the height of several feet.
Mr. Burchell well describes the effect produced by large herds of these
interesting creatures spread over an extensive plain, intermingled
with troops of Gnus and Quaggas. Two thousand Springbucks seen
at one view must, indeed, have been a noble spectacle. The plain,
he says, " afforded no other object to fix the attention ; and even if
it had presented many, I should not readily have ceased admiring
these elegant animals, or have been diverted from watching their
manners. It was only occasionally that they took those remarkable
leaps which have been the origin of their name ; but when grazing
or moving at leisure, they walked and trotted like other Antelopes or
the common Deer. When pursued or hastening their pace, they
frequently took an extraordinary bound, rising, with curved or
elevated backs, high into the air, generally to the height of eight
feet, and appearing as if about to take flight. Some of the herds
moved by us almost within musket-shot, and I observed, that in cross-
ing the beaten road, the greater number cleared it by one of those
flying leaps." The most remarkable point in the history of the
Soringbuck, relates to its habits of migration. The karroos, or vast
w'ilds in the interior of Southern Africa, where this animal resides in
almost incredible multitudes, are subject to seasons of drought, in
which the pools are dried up, the pasturage burnt by excessive heat,
and every green leaf or blade withered. Driven by necessity, all the
animals hu"rr)' from this scene of barrenness ; and of these the Spring-
bucks are in myriads. They literally inundate the fertile districts,
over which swarm after swarm passes like wave after wave, destroy-
ino- the hopes of the colonists. The grazier drives his flocks and
he'rds to a distant pasturage, dispossessed of his lands till the heavy
rains set in : the corn-lands are ruined for the season, and the line
of their march is one broad track of desolation. It is nnt with
impunity, however, that the Springbucks make these forced incur-
sions The gun of the colonists thins their numbers ; and Lions,
Hyenas, and Jackals follow in their train, andprey incessantly upon
them When the rains begin to fall, the horde, thinned by man and
beast, begins to return to the interior, and in a fe\y days the whole
have disappeared. The migratory swarms are called by the Dutch
colonist Trek-bok-ken. Mr. Pringle once passed through one of
them near the Little Fish river ; he could not profess to estimate
their numbers : they whitened, or rather speckled, the country as far
as the eve could reach ; there could not have been less in view than
twenty-five or thirty thousand, The Springbuck is shot in great
numbers by the Dutch boors. This sport is usually on horseback
and in the heat of the day. The animal is then lying in its habitual
lair and on being disturbed by the sportsman, springs aw^ay with
Fig. 658.— Hunting the Springbuck."
a succession of bounds, than
which nothing can be more
beautiful or graceful. The
Dutch boor is generally an
unerring shot ; but in case
the Antelope should be only
wounded, the Buck-Dog (a
species of large Mongrel) is
always at the heels of his
master's Horse, and, at the
report of his gun, darts for-
ward and secures the animal.
It is then placed behind the
saddle, in the way shown in
Fig. 658.
The general colour of the
Springbuck is light cinna-
mon-red, a band of deep red-
dish-brown passing along the
sides, and edging the pure
white of the under surface.
On the croup is a large patch
of long white hairs, enclosed
uy a fold of skin on each
side, the edges of which ap-
proximate when the animal is
quiet, so as to reduce the
white to a mere line. In the
act of leaping these folds are
widely opened, and the long
white hairs spread beauti-
fully out, so as to cover the
whole of the haunch, produc-
ing a striking effect. When
taken young, the Springbuck
is easily tamed, and becomes
playful and familiar, display-
ing the confidence and even
petulance of the Goat, and
using its horns in butting,
either sportively or in earnest.
The Indian Antelope
(Gaze I la, or A?! t Hope cervi-
cap-aj.—l^e. Saism, or com-
252
INDIAN ANTELOPES.
mon Antelope of India, is spread over almost every part of that
country, residing on the open plains in large herds of females
and young, under the guidance of a single old male. They arc
extremely wary and cautious, and when feeding or lying down to
ruminate are guarded by sentinels (young Bucks), who give the
alarm on the slightest appearance of danger. Their fleetness and
activity are such, that Greyhounds are useless in the chase. Captain
Williamson assures us that he has seen a Buck Antelope lead a
herd of females over a net at least eleven feet high, and that they
frequently vault to the height of twelve or thirteen feet, and pass
over ten or twelve yards at a single bound. The flesh of this species
is dry and unsavoury, but the animal is often hunted, for the sake of
the sport, by means of trained Chetahs, as described in the history
of the latter, under the head of Cariirjora, in this work.
The Indian Antelope is about two feet and a-half in height at the
shoulder, and is lightly formed, but endowed with great vigour.
The adult males are of a blackish-brown above, and white beneath,
the nose, lips, and a large circle round each eye being likewise
white ; the hair is short and close ; the knees are furnished with
tufts or brushes. The horns have two or more spiral turns, and are
4\%>^.
rig. 659. — Indian Antelope.
strongly annulated ; the Fakirs and Dervishes polish them, and form
them into offensive weapons by uniting them at the base, so that
they are pointed at each end ; these they wear in their girdles,
instead of swords and daggers, which their vows and religious
character prevent them from using. The young males, and also
the females, are of a tawny-brown, with a streak of silvery grey along
each side. (See Fig. 659.)
The Pallah {Antihpemelampiis). — This magnificent Antelope
is a native of South Africa, where it was discovered by Lichtenstein.
It inhabits Caffraria and the country of the Bachapins, never
descending farther south than the Koosges valley in one direction,
Fig. 660.— The PaUah.
and the Kamhanni mountains in the other. This species associates
in families of six or eight individuals, always residing on the open
plains : their swiftness is astonishing, and they leap with great
vigour, and much in the manner of the Springbuck. They are very
numerous on the elevated plains in the neighbourhood of Lattakoo,
where the natives choose them for the sake of their flesh, which,
though deficient in fat, is much esteemed. The Pallah (as it is
called by the Bachapins) stands three feet high at the shoulder.
The general colour is deep rufous ; the lips, eyebrows, interior of the
ears, all the undcr-parts, the inside of the limbs, and the region
below the tail are white ; a black crescentic mark on the croup
separates the white from the rufous colour on the back ; the outside
of the heel and knee are marked by black spots ; the horns have an
irregular lyrate tendency, bending first forwards and very much out-
wards, then with a large circular sweep inwards, and finally point-
ing forward again, approaching within three inches of one another
at the tips, after being nearly a foot distant in the middle ; they are
about twenty inches long in adult anima.ls, and surrounded for two-
thirds of their length with irregular rings, often splitting into two,
and forming prominent knobs on the front of the horn, but frequently
obliterated, and always less strongly marked on the sides, which are
slightly compressed. (See Fig. 660.)
The Madoqua Antelope [lladoqtta saltia)ia).—'VMs beautiful
little Antelope, which scarcely equals a Hare in magnitude, is a
native of Abyssinia, where it was first discovered by Bruce about
the sources of the Abawi, or eastern branch of the Nile. Of its
habits little is known : it is said to live in pairs in mountainous dis-
tricts ; and Pearce informs us that many of the Abyssinians object to
eat its flesh, from superstitious motives, because, as they assert, it is
often found in the society of Monkeys and Baboons.
The height of this species at the shoulder is about fourteen
inches ; the horns are sharp, and slightly bent outwards and for-
wards ; the face, forehead, and legs, as well as the tuft of long hair
between the horns, are of a bright and deep red, as are likewise the
backs of the ears ; the neck, shoulders, flanks, rump, and outsides
of the thighs are of _a clear grey colour, like that of the American
Fig. 661.— The Madoqua.
Grey Squirrels, each hair being annulated with alternate rings of
black and white ; the back, from the shoulders to the rump, is a
deep reddish-brown, and the breast, belly, interior of the fore-arms
and thighs, and hinder surface of the hips, of the most pure un-
mixed white, forming altogether a variety, clearness, and brilliancy
of colouring rarely met with among quadrupeds ; the tail is very
short, being in fact little more than a mere stump ; the ears are
round and nearly the length of the horns; the hoofs small, well-
formed, and, like the horns, of a deep black colour ; the forehead is
perfectly flat, and the head is compressed suddenly below the eyes,
and tapers to a small and attenuated snout ; the legs are long in
proportion to the weight of the body, and so small that they scarcely
equal the little finger in thickness. (See Fig. 661.)
The Reitbok, or Reedbuck {GazeHa, or Antilope elotragus).
The interior of South Africa is the abode of the Reitbok, where it
is by no means uncommon, living in pairs or small families, and fre-
quenting the reedy banks of mountain-streams which are dried up
during the heat of summer. Sometimes it is found along the borders
of the rivers in dense woodland solitudes : plants growing in humid
or marshy situations are its food.
The Reitbok is about 2 feet 10 inches high at the shoulder. The
hair over the neck and body is long and rough, and of a dull ashy-
grey, sometimes tinged with red ; the under-parts and inside of the
limbs are silvery grey. The tail is long and bushy. Beneath the
THE CHAMOIS.
25.1
ears, on each side of the head, is a naked oval space of a shining
blaclc colour. The horns curve forwards very boldly, and are annu-
iated at the base with prominent rings. (See Fig. 662.)
Bush Antelopes.
The animals so termed arc of a compact form and low in the
limbs, which are slender but vigorous. The hair is smooth and
usually close ; the neck is short, and held almost horizontally, and
Fig. 662.— The Reitbok.
the back is arched. The horns are straight and short, and situated
high on the head, at a considerable distance from the eyes ; in one
sub-genus they are possessed by females as well as males. There
is no sub-orbital sinus; but its absence is compensated for by a long
maxillary gland running down each side of the face, between the
angle of the eye and the muzzle, indicated by a naked space on the
skin, of a black colour, and moistened by a peculiar secretion.
These animals live singly, or in pairs, frequenting jungles, dense
reed-beds, and the underwoods of forests, mostly preferring hills or
mountain-districts of moderate elevation. When pursued, they dive
through the thicket, and quickly disappear.
The Bush Antelope [Cephaloloplms sylvicuUrix, Fig. 663) is
of a more compact form than the generality of Antelopes. Its legs
are shorter and thicker, and it is far less active than its fellows. It
Fig. 663. — The Bu.sh Antelope.
lives solitary on the bushy plateaux of the mountains of Sierra
Leone, concealing itself in the thickets during the day, and feeding
only in the dusk. It is about three feet high at the shoulders, and
of a brown colour, with a streak of fawn-colour on the hinder part
of the back. Its flesh is considered good, although at certain
seasons it has a musky odour. The hunters watch for it about
dawn, concealing themselves in the trees.
The Kleenbok {Ccphalolophus pyg/tiams ; A7itilope per-
p2cs ilia). —This little Anielope is a native of South Africa, and lives
singly, or in pairs, among the bushes, in the covert of which it hides
itself so completely, that it is not often to be seen even where it is
abundant. It is very active, shy, wary, and timid, and displays
great address and cunning in eluding pursuit. When domesticated
it becomes very famiUar, will distinguish persons about it, and
answer to its name when called. This species is the A. pygmisa
of Desmarest, who confounds it with the Guevi of Senegal : it is also
the A. ccerulea of Col. H. Smith.
The height of the Kleenbok at the shoulder is about a foot ; the
head is long and pointed. The general colour is dark slaty brown,
passing in the under-parts to ashy-grey ; the forehead and nose are
brown, bordered on each side by a line of sandy red ; the legs are
reddish-brown ; the horns arc small and straight, not more than an
inch and a-half long in the male ; nearly an inch in the female. (Sec
Fig. 664.)
Fig. 664. — The Kleenbok.
A still smaller species is the Neotragus spinigera. a native of
Guinea, which is usually about eleven inches ia height at the
shoulder.
Capriform Antelopes.
The characters of the Capriform Antelopes are : — Head heavy ;
neck short ; contour robust ; limbs strong ; hoofs adapted for rocky
or mountain situations ; horns small, or moderate ; hair coarse and
deep, or harsh and wiry.
Genus Rupicapra.—B.oxns common to both sexes, rising imme-
diately above the orbits, at first vertically, then looking abruptly
backwards, small and smooth, with sharp points ; lips hairy and at-
tenuated ; sub-orbital sinuses wanting; inguinal pores and post-
auditory sinuses ; teats of females two.
The Chamois {Rupicapra tragus: Antilope rupicapra).—
This celebrated animal is found in all the Alpine chains of Europe
and Western Asia, in the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Carpathian and
Grecian mountains, and the ranges of the Caucasus and Taurus.
Everywhere it tenants the loftiest ridges, displaying the most as-
tonishing activity. During the summer it is only to be found on the
mountain-tops, or in sequestered rock-girt glens, where the snow
lies unmelted throughout the year ; but in winter it descends below
the line of perpetual snows to the grassy slopes, where it becomes
doubly cautious and wary. Its senses of hearing, sight, and smell
are extremely acute, and it scents the approaching hunter at the
distance of half a league. When its fears are once excited, it
bounds from rock to rock, as if to gain a view of the surrounding
district, uttering at the same time a singular hissing sound ; but no
sooner has it caught sight of its enemy, than off it bounds, scaling
the most fearful rocks, clearing chasms, and leaping from crag to
crag with amazing rapidity. Its course is not stopped by a perpen-
dicular precipice of twenty or thirty feet in depth : with astonishing
boldness it takes the leap, striking the face of the rock repeatedly
with its feet, for the purpose both of breaking the fall, and of direct-
ing itself more steadily to the point it aims at. It pitches on the
smallest ledge, where the eye_^of man scarcely discerns room for its
foot ; and it "traverses with security the beetling shelf that overhangs
the deepest abyss. The perils of the Chamois-hunter have been too
often narrated to need repetition ; his life is one of perpetual
jeopardy : he is like a man infatuated by a spell ; and though he
knows the awful risk he runs, yet to the chase is he impelled by the
same feelings which urge the gamester in a career of ruin. (See
Fig. 665.)
The food of the Chamois consists of mountain herbs and flowers,
and the tender shoots of shrubs ; it seldom drinks, but is extremely
partial to salt ; and many stones are met with in the Alps hollowed
out by the continual licking of the Chamois, on account «f the salt-
petre with which they abound.
At the root of each horn on the back of the head there is a sinus,
or opening of the skin, which does not seem to be connected with
any gland, nor is its use understood. The females produce one,
rarely two kids in March or April. The Chamois exceeds two feet
in height : the whole body is covered with long hair of a deep brown
in winter, and brownish fawn-colour in summer; the chaffron,
muzzle, and sides of the lower jaw are white or straw-coloured; the
tail is very short.
Genus Mazama. — Yiom?. in the male only, compressed laterally
at the base, diverging as they rise upwards, then hookmg backwards
and inwards, rough and scabrous, and giving off above their base a
bold, compressed, pointed prong, directed forwards; lips hairy;
254
THE PRONGBUCK.
neither inguinal pits nor lachrymal sinuses ; interdigital pits dis-
tinct ; teats in the female, four ; knee-brushes large ; accessory hoofs
wanting.
The Prongbuck, or Cabrit {Antilocapra furcifera ; Amaiilo
capra amencana ; Anti/opc furcifer). —''^hc Prongbuck is a
native of the western parts of North America, from the 53° of north
latitude to the plains of Mexico and California ; presuming that it is
identical with the animal described by Hernandez as the Mazama
Fig. 665. — Hunlins the Chamois.
{Mazama amcricajia). It is gregarious in its habits, frequenting
wide open plains, or hills of modemte height, but is never found to
inhabit forests or closely-wooded districts. It migrates from north
to south, according to the season. On the banks of the southern
branch of the Saskatchewan, and on the upper plains of the Columbia
river it is very numerous. The Prongbuck is compactly formed,
active, and vigorous ; and, on firm ground, will outstrip most ani-
mals; but after a slight fall of snow a good Horse will easily overtake
Fig. 666.— The Prongbuck.
it. These animals, like many other Ruminants, display a sort of
stupid curiosity at the sight of novel objects, which, as Dr. Godman
states, the Indians, and even the Wolves, turn to their own advan-
tage. If they crouch down, assume strange postures, now move
forwards, now stop, or play antics, the Prongbucks wheel round and
round the object of their attention, decreasing their distance at every
turn, till at last they approach near enough to be killed by the In-
dian, or sprung upon by the Wolf. Their flesh, however, is not in
any estimation, and it is
only in times of scarcity that
the Indian will take the
trouble of hunting them.
The females produce one,
or even two kids early in the
month of June. The Prong-
buck stands three feet in
height at the shoulder : its
body is covered with closely
compacted hair, standing
out from the skin, and of a
most singular te.xture ; it is
tubular, or hollow, like a
quill, but so brittle and de-
void of elasticity that it
snaps with the smallest
effort, and when pressed
between the thumb and fin-
ger crushes like a dry reed,
and never regains its origi-
nal form ; on the head, ears,
and legs the fur is close,
and of the ordinary quality ;
that on the body is two
inches long, but down the
back of the neck it is six
inches in length, and forms
a mane. The general colour
is pale fawn, the hairs being
of a bluish tint at the roots ;
the under-parts and inner
aspect of the limbs are
white ; a broad disc of white
surrounds the tail, and
passes over the croup ; and
the throat is marked also
with two transverse white
bands. This, it must be
observed, is the winter dress
of the animal ; in summer,
the new coat, which it then
acquires, consists of hair of the ordinary quality, which as the winter
comes on gives place to the covering described. (See Fig. 666.)
BoTiFORM Antelopes.
As the Antelopes of the last section approximate to the true
Goats, so, on the other hand, do the animals of this section ap-
proach the Oxen. They do not, however, all display an equal de-
gree of proximity : some, indeed, as the Nyl-Ghau, are closely allied
to groups among the true Antelopes, while others have nothing of
the Antelope in form or appearance. In general they are distin-
guished by their massive contour, large size, and powerful limbs,
conjoined with a heavy head, short neck, and elevated withers.
The horns are large, often very thick and solid, and the eyes
small ; they are, in fact. Bovine in their contour and habits, and
gradually approximate to the genus Bos. In those which approach
the nearest to this genus there are horns in both sexes.
The Nyl-Ghau, or Nylgai {Porfax picta ; Boselaphus
pictiis). — This magnificent species, which stands upwards of four
feet in height at the shoulder, is a native of the dense forests of
India, where it resides alone, or in pairs; it is extremely vicious,
resolute, and powerful; and will turn upon its pursuers with great
fury. Even in confinement it is not to be approached without cau-
tion. Previous to making its attack, it drops upon its fore-knees,
and, in that attitude, gradually advances till within a certain dis-
tance of its foe, when it darts suddenly forward witli amazing force
and velocity. Bold and spirited, however, as it is, it is the most
common prey of the Tiger. During the day the Nyl-Ghau lurks in
the covert of the forest, whence, early in the morning, or during the
night, it wanders forth to feed, invading the adjacent corn-fields
and cultivated lands.
The male considerably exceeds the female in size. The general
colour is slaty-blue ; in the female, tawny-red. The lips, chin, and
under-parts are white ; there is a large white spot on the throat,
two smaller ones on the cheeks, and one in the front and two in the
rear of each pastern-joint. The young males resemble the females
ia their colour, which is exchanged for slaty-blue on arriving at
THE NYL-GHAU.
^I'i
maturity. A bunch of long: pendant hair hangs from the fore-part
of the neck, and a similar tuft terminates the tail. (See Fig-. 667.)
The hmbs of the Nyl-(jhau are well-formed, but when the animal
is standing, are gathered close under the body, and the tail is drawn
in between the liind-legs, Mr. Ogilby regards this animal as the
Hippdaphus of Aristotle.
The female Nyl-Ghau breeds in the Zoological Gardens yearly,
producing two calves at a birth. The Indian name, as above used,
Fig. 667.— The Nyl-Ghau, or Nylgai.
signifies " Blue Cow," and indicates, that even in its native country
the strong resemblance which it presents to the true Cattle has not
escaped notice.
The Sing-Sing, or Koba {Antilopc koba, Ogilby).— This
species is the " grande vache brune " of the Frenclr of Senegal, of
which country it is a native. It equals the common Stag in stature,
and is covered with a coat of long rough hair ; a rough bristly mane
runs down the back of the neck. The general colour is dark sandy-
red, passing into grey on the under-parts ; the face and limbs are
dark brown, or black ; the lips, chin, and a stripe over each eye, are
white. Of the native habits of the Koba little is known ; in cap-
tivity, judging from the specimens we have seen, it is a gentle and
quiet animal. When at rest, its attitude resembles that of the Nyl-
Fig. 668.— The Koba.
Ghau. An allied, but smaller species, the Kob, or " petite vache
brune" of the French, inhabits Western Africa. The figure (668) of
the Ivoba represents the female.
Genus Oryx. — Horns, in both sexes, long, erect, annulated ;
muzzle, nearly naked, or quite ; inlerdigital pits large ; neither sub-
orbital sinuses nor inguinal pores ; teats of female, four.
The Addax {Oryx naso-maculata ; Addax naso-tnaculaius ;
Antilope addax, Licht.)— This animal is the Strepsiceros of Pliny,
which he states is termed by the Africans Addax, or Addas ; and
according to Riippel and Hemprich, and Ehrenberg, who may be
said to have re-discovered this species in Dongola, it is denomi-
nated Akasch, or Akas, or Addas, by the Arabs, with the additional
prefix of Abu, " father "—thus, Abu-Addas— a title they bestow on
many other animals, as, for example, the sacred Ibis, which they
call Abu Ilanncs, or Father John. The Addax appears to be widely
spread in Northern and Central Africa, tenanting the deserts in
pairs, or, perhaps, small groups. It is met with sparingly in the in-
terior of the Algerian Sahara, as well as in Nubia and'Soudan. It
stands three feet in height at the shoulder, and is heavily made ;
the head is large, the neck thick, and the legs robust. The horns
are long and round, rather slender in proportion to their length,
twisted outwards, and describing two turns of a wide spiral, annu-
lated to w'ithin five or six inches of the points, which are smooth and
sharp ; the form of the horns of the female docs not differ from that
of the male ; but in the young they are almost straight. The ears
are pretty long, and proportionably broader than in most of the
smaller Antelopes, and the tail reaches almost to the hough, and is
terminated by a switch of long, coarse, grey hair. The whole head
and neck, both above and below, are of a deep reddish-brown
Fig. 669.— The Addax.
colour, except a transverse mark of pure white across the lower part
of the forehead, between the orbits, which expands on the cheeks
and half surrounds the eyes ; a patch of black curly hair surrounds
the root of the horns, and there is a scanty beard of the same colour
on the larynx ; all the rest of the animal, including the entire body,
from the neck backwards, as well as the legs and tail, is greyish-
white ; the hoofs are black, and remarkably broad, to enable the
animal to pass more easily over the fine and loose sand of the
desert in which it lives. (See Fig. 669.)
The Blauwbok {Antilope leiicophcca). — This Antelope is a
native of South Africa, and was formerly common within the boun-
daries of the Cape Colony, where it is now never seen. It occurs in
the extensive open plains north of the Gariep, living in pairs, or
Fig. 670.— The Blauwbok.
£S6
THE ELAND.
small families of five or six. It is a bold and fierce animal, and,
when wounded, will turn upon the hunter with g'reat resolution.
At certain seasons it is reported to attack, indiscriminately, every
animal that approaches near it. The Blauwbok stands 3 feet 7
inches in height at the shoulder : the horns exceed two feet in
length, and are formidable weapons ; they are round, uniformly
curved backwards, and marked with from twenty to thirty prominent
rings ; the points, for the extent of six inches, are smooth, and ter-
minate very acute. The term Blauwbok, or Blue-Buck, has been
given to this animal by the Dutch colonists from its peculiar hue,
resulting from the colour of the hide, which is deep black, being re-
flected through the ashy-grey hair that covers it, giving it a general
dark-blue tone. (See Fig. 670.)
The Abu-Harb {Oryx leucoryx ; Antilope leucoryx). — This
species is the Oryx of the ancients, a term now given to an allied
South African species, but which of right belongs to the Abu-Harb,
which lives in large herds in Sennaar and Kordofan, feeding princi-
pally on the leaves of various species of acacia. It is represented
in abundance on the monuments of Egypt and Nubia, and in par-
ticular in the inner chamber of the great pyramid at I\Iemphis,
where a whole group of these Antelopes are represented, some
driven forward, others dragged along by the horns, or by a cord
around their neck, apparently as trophies brought from a con-
quered country, or a tribute or present from some subjugated na-
tion. (See Fig. 671.)
This animal nearly equals the Addax in size. The horns are long
and slender, arched gently backwards, annulated at the base, and
very sharp at the points. The tail is long, and tufted at the ex-
Fig. 671.— The Abu-IIarb.
tremity with black and grey hairs mixed together. The hair on the
head, body, and extremities is universally short, and lies smoothly
along the hide, except upon the ridge of the back, where it is
rather longer and reversed, or turned towards the head in a direc-
tion contrary to that on the other parts of the body, and forming a
short, reversed mane, from the middle of the back to the occiput.
The head is white, with a brown mark descending perpendicularly
from each orbit, and expanding over the cheek, and a similar stripe
passing down the centre of the face, from the horns to the muzzle ;
the whole neck also, on the throat as well as on the upper part, is of
a uniform rusty-brown colour ; but, with these exceptions, all the
rest of the body, as well as the legs and tail, is milk-white.
The Oryx {Antilope Oryx). — The Oryx is a native of South
Africa, and differs from the Abu-Harb in having the horns straight :
there is a large black mark on the forehead, united with a broad
stripe across each cheek.
This powerful Antelope is found in the karroo, south of the
Orange River, and is resolute and dangerous when hard pressed,
using its long sharp horns with amazing energy and address, often
transfixing several of the hunter's dogs before he can get within
shot. Tl'ie horns measure three feet in length. (See Fig. 672.)
The Eland, or Canna {Oreas can7ia; Boselaphus areas). —
Among the numerous species of Antelopes, there is none more im-
posing from its size, or more interesting in an economic point of
view, than this animal.
" In shape and general aspect," says Sir Comwallis Harris, "he
resembles a Guzerat Ox, not unfrequently attaining the height of
nineteen hands at the withers, and absolutely weighing from 1,500
to 2,000 pounds ! By all classes in Africa the flesh of the Eland is
deservedly esteemed over that of any other animal. Both in grain
and colour it resembles beef, but is far better tasted and more deli-
cate, possessing a pure game flavour, and exhibiting the most
tempting-looking layers of fat and lean, the surprising quantity of
the former ingredient, witli which it is interlarded, exceeding that of
any other game quadruped with which I am acquainted. The veni-
son fairly melts in the mouth ; and as for the brisket, that is abso-
lutely a cut for a monarch 1 * • • During the greater part of our
journey it was to the flesh of this goodly boast that we principally
Fig. 672. — The Oiyx.
looked for our daily rations, both on account of its vast superiority
over all other wild flesh, and from the circumstance of its being
obtainable in larger quantities with comparatively less labour."
The Eland breeds readily in confinement, and has been proved, by
actual experiment, to be perfectly capable of enduring all the
vicissitudes of the English climate, with very little more protection
than is usually bestowed upon valuable cattle. (See Fig. 673.)
" In its natural condition," continues Sir Cornwallis Harris, "the
Eland frequents the open prairies and the low rocky hills, inter-
spersed with clumps of wood, but is never to be met with in a con-
tinuously wooded country. Rejoicing especially in low belts of
shaded hillocks, and in the isolated groves of acacia capensis,
which, like islands in the ocean, are scattered over many of the
Fig. 673.— The Eland.
stony and gravelly plains of the interior, large herds of them are
also to be seen grazing like droves of Oxen on the more verdant
meadows, through which some silver rivulet winds in rainbow
brightness, betwixt fringes of sighing bulrushes."
Elands were first imported into England by the late Earl of
Derby, in the year 1840. Accidental circumstances prevented that
herd from multiplying to any extent, and a second importation was
made in 1850, which, upon the earl's death, was bequeathed to the
Zoological 'Society of London, and became the foundation of the
present stock at their Gardens in Regent's Park.
The Koodoo {Streps iceros koodoo; Antilope strepsiceros).—
This magnificent Antelope is about four feet in height at_ the shoul-
der, and is heavily and robustly made, more resembling in external
appearance an Ox than an Antelope. The muzzle is broad and
naked ; the ears large and slouching ; the limbs thick and muscular.
THE ARABIAN WILD OX.
257
The horns of the male are about four feet in leng-th, very thick at
the base, and beautifully twisted into a wide sweeping spiral of two
turns and a-half, surrounded by a prominent wreath, or rather keel,
which follows their flexure ; they spread boldly outwards, and the
animal generally carries them thrown back on the shoulders, partly
for the sake of keeping them from striking against branches or be-
coming entangled in brushwood, and partly on account of their
great weight. (See Fig. 674.) According to Sir W. C. Harris, the
Fig. 674. — The Koodoo.
twisting of the horns is so true, that a spear might be thrust down
the centre of them into the temple of the animal.
The Koodoo is a native of South Africa, and is found along the
wooded borders of the rivers of Caffraria, living in small families of
five or six individuals, and feeding on the shoots and leaves of trees
and bushes. Desmarest says it leads a solitary life in mountain
districts ; but in these respects he is in error ; it dwells neither on the
hills nor the open plains, but in the wooded tracts following the
.course of rivers ; nor is it solitary. When chased it takes to the
water, and swims vigorously ; and though heavy, it leaps with won-
derful agility. Desmarest says it takes bounds of surprising extent,
and it has been seen to clear the bars of a gate of the height of ten
feet, though it had but a very limited space for gaining the impetus
necessary for the leap. When hard pressed, the males are formid-
able, from their immense strength and determination, and from
their formidable horns, which they wield with great address. The
Koodoo, however, when taken young, is easily tamed, and becomes
quiet and gentle.
The general ground-colour of the Koodoo on the back and sides
is a light fallow-brown, with a narrow white ribbon along the spine,
and eight or ten similar bands descending from the back, and
passing obliquely down the sides and hips ; the belly and under-
parts are pale silvery-brown. On the neck and withers is a thin
spare mane of a brown colour, and the chin, throat, and breast are
furnished with similar long hairs, forming a species of beard. The
cheeks are marked with two or three round white spots, and a nar-
row grey line passes from the anterior angle of the eye down towards
the muzzle. The tail is moderately long, and equally covered with
short hair. A species, supposed to be nearly allied to the Koodoo,
is found in Sierra Leone. It is remarkable from its bright reddish-
tawny colour, adorned with broad transverse stripes, a colouration
very unlike that of any other Antelope. It has received the name
of A ntilope doria.
The Bekr-el-Wash, or Wild Ox of the Arabs {Antilo;pe
bubalus). — This animal is the Bubalus of the ancients ; the
" animal Africa proprium, vituli cervive quadam similitudine " of
Pliny. Its representation occurs among the figures on the monu-
ments of Upper Egypt. This animal is spread throughout a great
e.xtent of Northern Africa, living in numerous herds on the confines
of the Tell, or cultivated district, and the Sahara, or Great Desert.
Accoraing to Captain Lyon, it is found on the mountains south of
Tripoli. Though Barbary may be regarded as its real habitat, yet
it is not altogether limited to that extent of country, for it sometimes
crosses the Libyan desert, and gains the banks of the Nile ; and was
once probably common in Upper Egypt.
The Bubalus, or Bekr-el-Wash, is as large as a Heifer, and very
bovine in appearance ; the head is singularly long and narrow, with
a straight flat chaffron ; hence the eyes appear as if placed high in
the head. The shoulders are elevated, and the neck resembles that
of the Ox ; the general colour is red-brown, a black tuft of long
hair terminating the tail. fSee Fig. 675.)
The Bubalus is easily tamed, and, according to Dr. Shaw, of so
familiar a disposition, that the young Calves frequently mix with
domestic cattle, and soon learn to attach themselves to the licrd
without attempting to escape afterwards. The male Bubalus, in its
mode of combat, resembles the Bull ; he lowers his muzzle to the
ground, and striking upwards, or from side to side, endeavours to
Fig. 675.— Wild Ox of the Arabs.
gore and toss his antagonist with his horns, which are very formid-
able weapons.
There is in South Africa a species very nearly allied to the Bekr-
el-Wash of Barbary, termed by the Dutch the Hartebeest {A.
Caama, F. Cuvier). It resides in large herds, and is an object of
the chase, its fl"sh being very finely flavoured, and more nearly re-
sembling the beef of the Ox than that of any other animal, except
the Eland. It is moderately fleet, its pace when at full speed re-
sembling a heavp gallop ; but when at some distance from its pur-
suer, it will stop and turn to gaze, as if to ascertain whether he be
followed or not — a habit which operates to its disadvantage. It is
mild and tractable ; but when hard pressed, and infuriated by
wounds, it uses its powerful horns with great effect, dropping on its
fore-knees, and in this position advancing towards its enemy, and
then suddenly darting forwards with great force and rapidity. The
Hartebeest has rather an extensive range, being found in the Cape
Colony, as well as almost everj'where between it and the tropic of
Capricorn. In the former locality, however, it is now only found on
the extensive flats bordering upon the Caffre frontier. Another
allied species is the Sassaby, or Bastard Hartebeest {A. luita/a).
Though this species (as it is stated in the catalogue of the South
African Museum) is not known to occur so far south as the Colony,
yet it is tolerably abundant in the neighbourhood of Lattakoo, and
very much more so between 26° and the tropic of Capricorn. In the
latter locality especially it is found, like the Hartebeest, in herds of
from six to ten, or even more individuals, and chiefly frequents flat
and wooded districts. Where fire-arms are used, or where the
necessities of natives have madfe them indefatigable in the chase,
this animal is vigilant and shy ; but in situations where it has been
left in comparative peace, it regards the approach of man with
curiosity, almost unmixed with fear ; just discontinuing to feed, and
raising its head to gaze, but never attempting to fly unless he ap-
proach very close. Its flesh is fully as valuable as that of the
Hartebeest.
Genus Catoblepas. — Horns in both sexes commencing in a dense
mass, covering the top of the forehead, whence they sweep down-
wards over the eyes, and then turn boldly upwards, terminating in
sharp round points. Head heavy and Ox-like ; muzzle very broad
and muscular ; and the nostrils covered by a large movable lid,
continued from the skin of the muzzle, and capable of being opened
or shut at pleasure. Sub-orbital sinus reduced to a small gland in
the skin, concealed in a tuft of hair. No inguinal pores. Females
with two teats. A full mane runs down the neck. Tail furnished
with long hairs and bushy.
The animals belonging to this generic group are remarkable for
the singularity of their form, which partakes of that of the Horse
and Buffalo. The head and horns are those of a Buffalo ; the eyes
are large, wild, and expressive of a savage and vindictive disposi-
tion. The neck, with its mane, the tail, and the general contour of
the body are those of the Horse ; the legs are well turned and
vigorous, resembling those of the Stag. The action and gallop of
2 L
THE GNU.
these animals (the Gnus) are so much like those of a Horse, that a
troop of them seen scouring the plain at a distance might easily be
mistaken for Zebras or Quaggas, were it not for the "difference of
colour. Besides the mane down the back of the neck, the chaffron
above the muzzle is furnished with a tuft of long, diverging, bristly
hairs, and the chin and throat are also covered with hairs of a simi-
lar character, forming a shaggy beard, while a full mane flows
down from the chest between the fore-limbs.
The Gnu {Aiiti/ope gnu), T'Gnu of the Hottentots.— The Gnu
equals a well-grown Ass in size, exceeding four feet in height, and
is a native of the wild karroos of South Africa and the hilly districts,
Fig. 676. — Herd of Gnus.
where it roams mostly in large herds, which migrate according to
the season. The extent of its range in the interior regions is not
known ; as far, however, as travellers have penetrated, herds have
been met and chased, for its flesh is prized as food, both by the
natives and the colonists. They are, however, extremely wild, and
not to be approached without difficulty.
Mr. Pringle assures us that the Gnu taken young will become as
domesticated as the cattle of the farm, with which it associates
harmlessly, going and returning to pasture ; it appears, however,
that few farmers like to domesticate it, as it
is liable to a cutaneous eruption, which it
communicates to the cattle, and which is
invariably fatal. In confinement the Gnu
often becomes ferocious, and is not to be
approached without caution ; the females are
less dangerous than the males, and more
easily manageable.
The general colour of the Gnu is deep
umber-brown, verging upon black ; the tail
and mane are grey ; the latter, indeed, is
nearly white. Fig. 676 represents a herd of
Gnus on the karroo ; Fig. 677, a front view
of the head of the animal, which may be
compared with the characters we have de-
tailed. Besides the common Gnu, other Fig. 677.— Head of Gnu.
species of this genus are known.
The following is a vivid description of the habits of a species of
Gnu in its state of nature : —
" Instantly after crossing the Orange River, the Kokoon, or
Brindled Gnu, usurps the place of the white-tailed species {Caioble-
^as gnu) ; and, although herds of the former may actually be seen
grazing on the northern bank, not a single individual has ever been
known to pass the barrier. * * * By the Dutch boors the
present species is termed the Bastaard, or Blauw Wilde Beest :
throughout the country of the Bechuana, as far as the Tropic, it is
recognised as the Kokoon, and the Hottentot tribes designate it the
Kaop, or Baas, both of which terms, signifying master, vehi in all
probability to its bold and terrific bearing. When excited by the
appearance of any suspicious object, or aroused by any unusual
noise, the Kokoon is wont to appear much more grim and ferocious
than it actually proves— not unfrequently approaching with an air
of defiance, as if resolved to do battle with the hunter, but decamp-
ing on the first exhibition of
hostility on his part. On be-
ing pursued, the herd bring
their aquiline noses low be-
tween their knees, and flourish-
ing their streaming black tails
(see Fig. 678), tear away in
long regular files at a furi-
ous gallop, wheeling curiously
about at the distance of two
or three hundred yards, ad-
vancing boldly towards the
danger, tossing their shaggy
heads in a threatening manner
— presently making a sudden
stop, presenting an impenetra-
ble front of horns, and staring
■wildly at the object of their
mistrust. • * • When en-
gaged in grazing they have an
extremely dull and clumsy ap-
pearance, and at a little dis-
tance might often be mistaken
for wild Buffaloes ; but their
manner is sportive — atone mo-
ment standing to gaze at no-
thing, and at the next scamper-
ing over tlie plain without any
apparent object in view, making
grotesque curvets and plunges,
with their preposterous Bonas-
sus-looking heads held down
between the fore -legs." —
"Harris's Portraits," ch. 4.
The Sable Antelope {ffi'ip-
^otragus nigcr). — This splen-
did Antelope is excessively rare
in captivity, and is one of the
finest and largest of the whole
group. The adult male attains
horns of enormous dimensions
— the treasured prizes of the
African sportsman The Sable
Antelope was one of the dis-
coveries of the late Sir W.
Harris, the author of a well-known work on the game-animals of the
Cape. It is found in Natal and throughout Eastern Africa up to
the Lake-region, where examples were obtained by Speke and Grant.
The male in the Gardens of the Zoolc»gical Society, London, in 1878,
was received in July, 1873. Only one other individual had been pre-
Fig. 678.— The Gnu.
viously in that collection. A stuffed specimen may be seen in the
British Museum.
So far have we endeavoured to give a sketch of the Antelopes, a
family which, as it usually stands in systematic works, consists of a
THE GOATS.
259
number of distinct forms of g-enera, ill-assorted under one head, and
exhibiting- very different degrees of relationship to eacli other.
When we compare the Eland on the one side, and the Pronghorn on
the other, with the Gazelle of the desert, we see few points of
affinity, and are forced to the conviction that the division-line be-
tween the family "Antelope" of most writers, and that of the Ox
and the Goat, is purely arbitrary. Our object has been, without
departing from our plan of clothing science in a popular dress, to
convey some idea of the principal groups, as illustrated by our pic-
torial specimens, into which the Antelopes are resolvable, and to
delineate succinctly the habits and manners pervading each group,
or displayed by the more remarkable species, which, in all, amount
to over eighty in number. Though we have given generic titles and
definitions, yet w^e have used the term "Antelope," as being more
familiar to general readers than such words as Catoblepas, &c. In
the British Museum a very large collection of the Antelope and
Stag families may be seen, the study of which may be left to those
who desire a deeper acquaintance with these branches of the
Ruminants. As already stated, the collection of the Zoological
Society of London, at Regent's Park, generally contains abundant
illustrations of both Stags and Antelopes alive.
The Goats— Genus CaJ>ra.
Next in order of the order Ruminantia to which we have to direct
attention is the genus Capra, or Goats, with which the Sheep g-enus
Ovis is usually included ; but, for distinction's sake, we shall keep
them, as far as possible, separate. The Goats and Sheep have the
horns compressed, usually angulated, rugose, and turned more or
less backward. Except in some of the domesticated varieties, both
sexes are furnished with horns ; thus making an exception with
other members of the Ruminant order already referred to in the
case of the Ccrvidcc, at page 237, ante, in w'hich family horns are
possessed by the males only, with the exception of the Rein-Deer.
In the Goats and Sheep, however, the horns of the female are con-
siderably smaller than those of the male. The habits of the Goats
differ greatly from those of the Sheep. The latter chiefly occupy
the pastures of the plain, while the Goats prefer rocky places.
Illustrations of this may be noticed in our country, where splendid
pasture for Sheep is found in the midland counties, where the finest
wool and mutton are produced ; while the Goat is more at home in
such countries as Switzerland, on the Continent, &c., and Wales,
in the United Kingdom. In this we see another and striking evi-
dence of the circumstances of existence being adapted to the re-
quirements of animal life in different countries.
Though the domestic races of Goats and Sheep, as we are accus-
tomed to see them in Europe, exhibit marked distinctive features,
yet the diagnostics fail us in a great measure when w'e turn to the
breeds of Sheep in other countries, which exhibit a greater length of
limb, or more Goat-like form of body, and a clothing of hair ; and
it is from paying attention to domestic breeds, rather than to truly
w'ild species, that naturalists have been inclined to consider both
Goats and Sheep as generically the same, seeing that it is for the
most part in countries where the domestic Sheep is woolly that its
difference from the Goat is at once palpable.
The Coil.MON Goat {Capra hirctcs, Linn.) — aV? (o koX i/, but
generally used for the female), 7-payoc, x^apoQ (the male), tpi^oe
(yoimg male Kid of three or four months), x'ltatpa (young female,
before its first winter), of the Greeks ; Caper and Hircus (male).
Fig. 679. — The Common Goat.
Capra (female), Hcedus, or Ha;dus (a young male Kid^, Hoedulus,
or Hcedillus (a very young male Kid, or Kidling, ipiqioq), Capella
(female Kid), of the ancient Italians ; Becco (male), Capra (female),
Capretto, and Caprettino (Kid and Kidling), of the modern Italians ;
Bouc (male), Chevre (female), Chevreau (Kid), of the French ;
Cabron (male), Cabra (female), Cabrito (Kid), of the Spanish ; Cab-
ram (male), Cabra (female), Cabrito (Kid), of the Portusruese ; Bock
mae, Geisz (female), Bocklein (Kid), of the Germans; Bok
i"^ „ ^',T?'^' (female), of the Dutch ; Bock (male), Geet (female),
Kudh (Kid), of the Swedes ; Buk, Geedebuk (male), Gecd (female).
Kid (Kid), of the Danes ; Bwch (male), Gafr (female), Mynn (Kid),
of the ancient Britons. (See Fig. 679.) 1 j \ n
As is the case with almost every domesticated quadruped, great
uncertainty hangs over the origin of the Goat. Some n.aturalists
refer it to the Ibex of the European mountain-ranges, others regard
it as descended from the Paseng of Persia (Capra a-gatrrusj—
which IS also called the Bezoar Goat, from the peculiar concretion
called bezoar, found in its intestines— or from the Caucasian Ibex
{Capra caucasica), Giildenst.) Cuvier says that the Ibex of the
European Alps, as well as that of the Caucasus, breeds freely with
the common Goat, producing a fertile progeny ; and there were, in
the Garden of Plants, at Paris, Goats of very large stature, taken
wild on the Alps and Pyrenees, the produce, as asserted, of the Ibex
with the common Goat. After all, however, nothing positive can
be ascertained on the point in question ; it is one of those which
must beleft in abeyance. The subjugation of the Goat, whatever
may be its primitive stock, took place at a very early epoch, and it
is evident that the flesh of the Kid was accounted a delicacy.
There was, formerly, in Syria, as there is at the present day, a
breed of Goats with long pendent ears, and fine long hair, fit for the
manufacture of some kinds of stuffs. In this respect they perhaps
resemble the Angora Goat (Angora is in Anatolia, Asiatic Turkey).
We read that the Israelites made curtains of Goats' hair as a
covering for the Tabernacle ; and the modern Arabs manufacture
the cloth of their tents from the hair of the long-eared breed, which
is generally of a black colour, and which they prefer to the 'hair of
the Camel. The females of this breed yield excellent milk in pro-
fuse quantity, and are, therefore, much esteemed. Burckhardt
notices a very fine breed of Goats of this race in the valley of
Baalbec, which, he says, are not common in other parts of Syria ;
they have very long ears, large horns, and long hair ; but not silky
like that of the Goats of Anatolia. The hair of the Goats of Italy,
in the time of Virgil, was long, but of coarse quality. In the
" Georgics " (lib. iii.) the shepherds are directed to shear the beards
and long hair of the Cinyphian Goats for the service of the camp,
and for garments for the mariner. Varro also observes that Goats
were shorn for the use of sailors, for coverings to engines of war,
and to workmen's instruments. From the earliest "antiquity the
milk of the Goat has been in requisition, and in the present day the
Goat and Sheep in Syria take the place of the Cow, if not exclusively,
to a great extent.
From the beginning of April to the beginning of September, the
towns are supplied with milk by large herds of Goats, which pass
through the streets every morning, and are milked before the houses
of the customers. The products of the milk are furnished in abun-
dance at the same season. In Switzerland, flocks of Goats are
kept for the sake of their milk, and our classical read will remember
the lines in Virgil (" Georgics," lib. iii.) which are still applicable,
" Pascuntur vero sylvas," &c. Besides the long-eared and long-
haired race of Syria, of which Fig. 680 is a representation, there is
also a breed closely resembling that common in Europe : among
other races, we may here notice the Dwarf African, with close hair,
almost beardless, and with a little pendulous tassel-like excrescence
of skin hanging from each side of the throat.
The most celebrated variety of the domestic race is the Goat of
Cashmir (Fig. 681), which produces a wool of exquisite fineness,
from which are manufactured the costly Cashmir shawls, not to be
purchased, even in the country where they are wrought, but at a
great price. This Goat is spread through Thibet, and in the
country of the Kirghiz, at the bend of the Ural, north of the
Caspian Sea ; it is covered with silky hair : long, fine, flat, and
falling, and with an under-vest in winter, of delicate greyish wool ;
and it is this wool which constitutes the fabric of the shawls. The
average weight of wool produced by a single Goat is about three
ounces, and it sells in Thibet for about five shillings a pound ; ten
Goats are required to furnish sufficient wool for a shawl a yard and
a-half square. It appears that in Thibet the wool is first combed
from the Goats in the mountains, and sent to Cashmir, where it
pays a duty on entry. It is there bleached with rice-flour, spun into
thread, and taken to the bazaar, where another tax is paid upon
it ; the thread is then dyed, and the shawl is woven, and the border
sewed on ; but the weaver has now to carry it to the custom-house,
where a collector puts on it any tax he pleases, and in this he is only
limited by the fear of ruining the weaver, and consequently losing
future profit. All the shawls intended for Europe are packed up
and sent to Peshawur, across the Indus : this part of the journey is
generally performed upon men's backs, for the road is, in many
parts, impassable even by Mules, being across deep precipices,
which must be traversed by swinging bridges of ropes, and perpen-
dicular rocks, which are climbed by wooden ladders. At each
station of this toilsome journey, which lasts twenty days, a tax is
paid, amounting to about £,2, sterling for the whole journey. From
this point, till they come near the confines of Europe, in addition to
26o
THE GOATS.
the many custom-houses at which they must pay tribute, these valued
articles of merchandise are exposed to the marauders of Afghanis-
tan and Persia, and to the Turkoraanic hordes, whose forbearance
must be purchased at a high price. After leaving Persia, many
shawls get to Europe over the Caucasus, and through Russia ;
but the largest number reach Constantinople, through the Turkish
provinces.
In April, 1819, M. Jaubert, under the French government, suc-
ceeded in bringing a flock of Thibet Goats, with great loss and
difficulty, from the Kirghiz territory to France ; but the small pro-
duce of wool obtained from each animal precluded all hope of
">"T=»"^r7r'^
Fig. 680. — Long-eared Syrian Goat
Fig. 681.— Casbmir Goats.
making a profit by rearing these animals ; and the scheme would
have failed, had it not occurred to M. Polonceau that a cross be-
tween the Thibet and Angora Goat, remarkable for the length and
silkiness of its hair, might be an improvement on both. The experi-
ment was tried, and succeeded ; and, instead of three ounces,
several of the mixed races produced thirty ounces of down in one
season, and of a superior quality, being of finer and longer staple,
while the animals themselves were more hardy and docile.
In 1824, some of the pure Thibet Goats were imported from France
into England by Mr. Tower, and located at Weald Hall, Essex ;
but their limited produce militated against the extension of the
breed with advantage. In 1831, Mr.
Riley, an enterprising proprietor of
New South Wales, purchased, from
M. Polonceau, ten females and three
males, which he conveyed safely to
London, and thence to New South
Wales. Other attempts have been
made to acclimatise these animals.
To describe the common Goat is
superfluous ; its habits, its boldness,
and its activity are well known. It
climbs rocks and rugged mountains
with great agility, "and will stand
secure wherever it can manage to get
the most limited footing. In Egypt
and Syria Goats are often taught vari-
ous feats of dexterity, for the perform-
ance of which their natural address
and activity peculiarly qualify them,
but to execute which, nevertheless,
requires considerable practice. Dr.
Clarke, in his "Travels" (vol. ii.),
notices an instance of this kind, which
he describes as follows : — " Upon our
road we met an Arab with a Goat,
which he led about the country for ex-
hibition, in order to gain a livelihood
for itself and owner. He had taught
this animal, while he accompanied its
movements with a song, to mount upon
little cylindrical blocks of wood, placed
successively one above the other, and,
in shape, resembling the dice-boxes
belonging to a backgammon-table.
In this manner the Goat stood, first,
upon the top of one cylinder, then
upon the top of two, and afterwards of
three, four, five, and six, until it re-
mained balanced upon the top
of them all, elevated several feet
from the ground, and with its
four feet collected upon a single
point, without throwing down the
disjointed fabric upon which it
stood. The practice is very
ancient. It is also noticed by
Sandys. Nothing can show more
strikingly the tenacious footing
possessed by this quadruped
upon the jutty points and crags
of rocks ; and the circumstance
of its ability to remain thus
poised, may render its appear-
ance less surprising, as it is
sometimes seen in the Alps, and
in all mountainous countries,
with hardly any place for its
feet, upon the sides, and by the
brink of most tremendous pre-
cipices. The diameter of the
upper cylinder, on which its
feet ultimately remained until
the Arab had ended his ditty,
was only two inches, and the
length of each cylinder was six
inches."
During the rutting season the
males have most violent con-
tests with each other, butting
furiously with their horns. To
give full effect to their strike,
the animal rises on his hind-legs
when close to his adversary, and
then descends with his "whole
force and weight. The period
of gestation with the Goat is five
THE IBEX— THE PA SENG.
261
months, and the female usually produces two, sometimes three
young at a birth.
The use of the Goat "n England, compared with other countries,
is very limited; the demand for its milk is only occasional, and the
flesh, even of the Kid, is not in much request. Few stable-yards,
however, are without a Goat or two, the peculiar odour of the animal
(especially stronsj in th'i male) bcmg supposed to be both salutary
and grateful to Horses. While doubting this, we can well imagine
that the presence of the active, familiar, and playful Goat may not
be unproductive of benefit to the Horse confined in his stall, as the
latter, like most animals, delights in society, and instances of
attachment between Goats and Horses are far from being uncom-
mon.
From the domestic Goat we must pass to consider the specimens
of some of its wild representatives.
The Ibex, Bouquetin, or Steinbok {Capra Z(5ff.r).— This bold
and powerful animal, 'armed with huge sweeping horns, inhabits the
Alpine heights of Europe and Western Asia. It associates in small
troops, consisting of a male and a few females. The horns of the
male curve boldly over the back, their anterior surface presenting a
series of regular protuberances or partial rings : their length is often
three feet. In the female they are smaller. The hair of the Ibex in
summer is short and close, in winter long and thick ; its colour is
yellowish-grey, a black streak extending along the spine ; the croup
is white, as are also the undcr-parts of the body, a dark tint ab-
ruptly dividing the white from the general colour above. The chin
is bearded. The Ibex stands 2 feet 6 or 8 inches in height, and is
extremely active and vigorous. The chase of the Ibex is as arduous
as that of the Chamois, the animal leading its pursuer, unless he
can steal upon it unawares with his rifle, a dangerous track over
steep and rugged mountain pinnacles, along the brink of preci-
pices, and over fearful chasms ; when at last hard pressed, the
Ibex will often turn upon its foe with impetuous rapidity, and hurl
him headlong down the steep rocks or abrupt precipice.
The Ibex is vigilant and wary ; and it is only during the night
that it descends to pasture in the woods, but at sunrise again re-
pairs to the bleak mountain summits. Like the Chamois, it is
satisfied with a frugal fare and a scanty supply of water. It is said
that the old males seek more elevated spots than the females and
younger males, which are more easily to be obtained. The only
sound which the animal makes is a short whistle, and when irri-
tated, a snorting noise. In Europe its favourite haunts are the
Alps, the Apennines, the Pyrenees, where is found the Ca^ra
fyrciiaicus, on the Spanish side of the mountains, and the moun-
tains of Tyrol. In Asia it is found in the mountain-chain of the
Taurus. (See Fig. 682.)
The Paseng \Capra agagrus). — The Pascng is found in the
mountains which traverse the north of Persia and India, as far as
Fig. 682.— The Ibex.
Fig. 6S3.— The Faseng.
China, and especially the Caucasian chain, and that of Taurus. It
is known to the Turkomans, Kirghiz, and other nomadic people to
the north of Persia, and also to the natives of the Persian provinces at
the southern base of the mountains. The Paseng exceeds the
largest domestic Goat in size, and is very
strong and active, precisely resembling the
Ibex in habits and manners. The general
colour is grey, shaded with rusty brown :
the forehead is blackish-brown, whence a
line of the same colour extends down the
spine, crossed by a similar band over the
withers ; the beard is long and of a dark
brown, which is the colour of the limbs ; a
white patch occupies the crupper. The
horns of the male are very large, com-
pressed, and diverging as they arch back-
wards ; their anterior edge is narrow, and
marked by a series of protuberances, with
deep notches between. (See Fig. 683.)
A species of Ibex, distinct, it is believed,
from the European, inhabits the Caucasian
range, and especially the neighbourhood
of the sources of the rivers Terek and Ca-
ban. It is the Capra caucasica of Giil-
deifstet. (See Fig. 684.)
Riippell, in his " Zoological Atlas," de-
scribes and figures an Ibex from the moun-
tains of Abyssinia, under the native name
of Walie {Capra Walie, Riipp.) It is of a
dark-yellowish umber, the under-surface
and inside of the limbs being white.
The Jemlah Goat (Capra Jem la hica).
— Another distinct species is the Jemlah
Ibex, or Goat, described by Col. H. Smith,
with horns peculiarly massive at the base.
It is an inhabitant of the range of the
Himal.aya mountains. This species would
appear to be the Jh.aral {Capra jharal)
of Mr. Hodgson. Its height is thirty-three
inches : the head is finely formed, full of
beauty and expression, clad in close short
hair, and without the least vestige of a
beard. This animal is of compact and
powerful make, with a spare, short, and
bowed neck ; deep barrel and chest ; long-
ish, very strong and rigid limbs, supported
on perpendicular pasterns and high com-
pact hoofs. The fur is of two sorts, an outer
262
THE AOUDAD—THE SHEEP TRIBE.
coat of straisrht and somewhat harsh hair, and an inner vest of soft
fine wool. The fore-quarters are superb, and wholly invested in a
long, flowing-, straight, Lion-like mane, feathered vertically from the
top of the withers, and sweeping down below the knees. {See Fig.
685.) The horns are nine inches long, sub-triangular, wrinkled
across, and gently recurved. The colour is deep brown superficially,
but under the outer coat hoary blue, which is the prevailing tint of
the mane ; chin and lips hoary, with a blackish mark below the angle
Fig. 6S4. — The Caucasian Ibex.
Fig. 6S5.— The Jomlah Goat.
of the mouth. This fine species is found in the Kachar region of
Nepal, solitary or in small herds : it is bold, capricious, active, and
pugnacious, but easily tamed, and breeds, as does the Ibex, with
the common Goat.
An Ibex from Nubia and Arabia is described by Fred. Cuvier,
under the title of Capra mibiana. It is more slightly built than
the common Ibex, with slender elongated horns two and a-half feet
in length. A specimen is preserved in the museum of the Zool. Soc,
Lend. How far the species of Ibex we have noticed arc truly dis-
tinct from each other, or mere varieties resulting from climate and
other causes, we will not attempt to decide. It is perhaps the Cau-
casian Ibex that exists in Palestine, Edom, and Sinai, and which is
stated closely to resemble the Ibex, or the Bouquetin, of the Alps.
It is called in Arabic, Beden and Taytal. The former appellation is
exclusively applied to the male, which is readily distinguished by a
beard and large knotted horns curving backwards over the body.
The horns of the female are very much smaller, scarcely exceeding
in size those of the Gazelle.
The AOUDAD {Capra tragelapJms ; Ovis iragdnp/niStVaWdLs;
Ammotragiis tragelaphtis, Blyth).— This species is in some re-
spects intermediate between the Goat and Sheep, with which latter
it is associated in most systematic works. It differs from the Sheep
in having a concave chaffron, and in the absence of sub-orbital
sinuses, but in the form of its horns it resembles them more than it
does the Ibex or Wild Goat. These horns are stout, sub-quadran-
gular, and ringed ; they diverge more laterally than those of Goats
in general, and curl as in the Sheep. There is no beard, but a
pendent mane of long coarse hairs begins under the lower jaw, and
runs along the under-side of the neck and chest. The fore-legs
above the knee are also covered with long hair, which hangs round
the leg below the knee like a ruffle, whence the French term this
species " mouflon d manchettes." The rest of the body is clothed
with short hair ; the general colour is dull yellowish-brown. The
male attains a large size, exceeding a Fallow-Deer, and measuring-
more tlian three feet at the shoulder. The horns are sometimes
two feet in length, following the curve. The female is a third
smaller than the male.
The Aoudad, as it is called by the Moors of Barbary, is found in
Sinai, and in the mountains which border the Nile to Ethiopia and
Abyssinia. In Egypt it is termed Kebsch by the modern Arabians.
It is also spread throughout the whole of North Africa, about 18°,
frequenting in small families the steepest and most inaccessible
crags. It is abundant in the range of the Atlas, tenanting the
Fig. 6S6. — The Aoudad, or Kebsch.
woods at a high elevation, and the precipitous rugged heights
usually clothed with forests at their base. The Aoudad is wonder-
fully agile, and leaps with amazing precision to great distances,
from ledge to ledge, and from point to point, over the most elevated
ridges. The old ones are not unfrequently shot by the Moors of
Tunis, Tripoli, and other places, and the young are occasionally
captured alive. It is, however, very rarely seen in European
menageries. Fine preserved specimens are both in the British
Museum and that of the Zool. Soc. This species is clearly de-
lineated on the monuments of ancient Egypt. (See Fig. 686.)
The Markhore {Capra megaceros). — A male of this scarce
species of Wild Goat, which inhabits the Sulimani range of Afghan-
istan, was in the Society's menagerie some years since, and is cor-
rectly figured in the second series of " Zoological Sketches." The
pair at present (1878) belonging to the collection were presented in
the autumn of 1866, by Sir R. Pollock, Commissioner at Pcshawur.
They have bred several times in the Society's gardens, and may be
frequently seen, accompanied by their Kids.
The Sheep— Genus Ovis.
Of all our domestic animals, the Sheep is that of which we have
the earliest notice: "Abel was a keeper of Sheep." It was re-
claimed in the primordial era of man's existence on the globe, and
we must look to Western Asia as its original habitat. From this
centre it has more or less gradually spread by the agency of man,
and, influenced by climate, food, and treatment, has ramified into
numerous varieties. Naturalists have amused themselves with con-
jectures as to the wild stock whence the domestic Sheep has de-
scended ; some asserting the Mouflon of Crete, Corsica, and the
islands of the Grecian Archipelago to be its origin ; others the
Argali of Siberia : others, again, that the European Sheep are the
descendants of the Mouflon, the Asiatic of the Argali. Mr. Blyth
considers it likely "that more than one wild species have com-
mingled to form the numerous domestic races, though," as he adds,
" certainly none as yet described ; " and though so many decidedly
distinct wild species have been added to the genus, we are far from
having ascertained the complete number existing, several more yet
remaining to be discovered, upon the lofty table-lands and snowy
mountains of Middle Asia, from the Caucasus and Taurus to the
Altai ; and among them it is probable there may be some much
more nearly allied to the domestic races than any at present known.
He believes that a Wild Sheep, or Argali, in Central Persia, noticed
by Sir John MacNeill, will prove, upon further investigation, to be the
wild stock, or one at least of the wild stocks of the domestic Sheep.
When we consider that for several thousand years the domestic
Sheep has been subject to man, and undergone many modifications,
we cannot help doubting as to the recognition of its primitive type ;
THE SHEEP TRIBE.
263
nav we even doubt whether that tj-pe be extant. Hector Boethius
describes a wild breed of Sheep in the Island of St. Kilda exceeding
the larjrest Goat in size, with heavy massive horns, longer than
those of the Ox, and as bulky, and with a tail hanging to the
crround. Skulls of Sheep, perhaps belonging to this race, occur in
peat-bo"-s ; two of these crania, one probably that of a male, the
other ofa female, which were obtained in Ireland from the peat,
were some time ago exhibited to the Geological Society. Pennant
remarks that such an animal as Boethius has described is figured
on a bas-relief taken out of the wall of Antoninus, near Glasgow.
These animals, whether they ever existed or not, were distinct not
only from the Mouflon of Corsica, but from any other of the wild
species as far as we know them.
In the " Zool. Proceeds.," 1840, is a paper by Mr. BIyth, entitled,
" An amended list of the genus Ovis," which is too full of informa-
tion to be altogether passed over We may premise by observing
Fig. 6S7. — Head of Armenian Argali.
Fig. 688.— The Mouflon of Corsica.
that Fig. 687 is a sketch of the head of the Armenian Argali {Ovis
gmelinii, Blyth) ; Fig. 688 is a drawing of the Mouflon of Corsica
XOvi's imisimon).
The species (granting that they are all distinct from each other)
enumerated by Mr. Blyth are the following: —
The Pamir Sheep, or Rass {Ovis ;polii, Blyth). " In the narra-
tive of the celebrated Venetian traveller Marco Polo, we read that
upon the elevated plain of Pamir, eastward of Bokhara, and 16,000
feet above the sea-level, wild animals are met with in great num-
bers, particularly Sheep, of a large size, having horns three, four,
and even six palms in length. The shepherds form ladles and ves-
sels from them for holding their victuals. They also construct
fences for enclosing their cattle, and securing them against the
Wolves, and which likewise destroy many of the Wild Sheep.
More recently an animal called the Rass was indicated, from re-
port, in Sir A. Burnes's 'Travels in Bokhara,' and its horns have
been since transmitted to the Royal Asiatic Society, by Lieut. Wood,
of Sir A. Burnes's party, through the medium of G. I. Vigne, Esq."'
This pair of horns was labelled Rass, or Roosh. Sir A..Burnes
writes : " I have heard of an animal called Ross by the Kirghises,
and Kooshgar by the natives of the low countries ; but Lieut. Wood,
in the narrative of his recent journey to the source of the Oxus, dis-
tinguishes between the Ross and the Kutchgar, the former having
straight spiral horns, and its dun-colour being of a reddish tinge.
Both are said to be peculiar to the Pamir. The same writer, speak-
ing of the Kutchgar, says it was a noble animal, standing as high
as a two-year-old colt, with a venerable beard, and two splendid
curling horns, which, with the head, were so heavy as to require
considerable exertion to lift them. Though poor in condition, the
carcass divested of its offal was a load for a baggage pony. The
Kutchgar is gregarious, congregating in herds of several hundreds :
they are of a dun-colour." This traveller confirms Marco Polo's
narrative: " We saw," he writes, "numbers of the horns strewed
about in every direction, the spoils of the Kirghise hunter." " The
ends of the horns projecting over the snow often indicated the
direction of the road, and wherever they were heaped in large quan-
tities, there our escort recognised the site of a Kirghise encamp-
ment." The flesh is much prized by these people, who shoot the
animal with arrows. " The Rass is said to delight in the coldest
districts ; a common-sized individual will require two Horses to bear
its flesh from the field." The horns, following their curvature, are
nearly five feet in length.
The Siberian Argali {Oms ammon).— This noble Sheep is de-
scribed by Pallas.
The Kamtschatkan Argali (Ovis nivicola). — M. Eschscholtz, who
describes this species, states it to be very numerous on the moun-
tains of Kamtschatka ; in summer it resides upon the snow-clad
heights, but in winter it descends to the lower regions. Kotzebue
notices its agility.
America presents us with two species, vety closely allied to the
Siberian Argali — The Rocky-Mountain Argali (Ow montatia), and
the Californian Argali (O. californiana, Douglas).
The Nahoor, or Sna, of Thibet {Ovis Nahoor, Hodgson), a native
of the Kachar region of Nepal and the glaciers of the Himalaya.
The Burrhel {Ovis hurrhel, Blyth), a species allied to the latter,
and inhabiting the highest ridges of the Himalayan chain, where it
"bounds lightly over the encrusted snows, at an altitude where its
human pursuers find it difficult to breathe. It has the bleat of the
domestic species, as indeed they all have, and is very shy and diffi-
cult of approach. Flocks of ten or twenty have been observed con-
ducted by an old male, which make for the snowy peaks upon
alarm, while their leader scrambles up some crag to reconnoitre,
and, if shot at, bounds off a few paces, and again stops to gaze.
They pasture in deep and hollow grassy glens." A specimen, in
the Museum of the Zoological Society, was shot near the Boorendo
Pass, at an altitude of about 17,000 feet.
The Caucasian Argali (Ovis cylitidricornis, Blyth), hitherto con-
founded with the Siberian Argali.
The Armenian Argali {Ovis gmelinii, BI)rth). — Specimens of this
Sheep, from Erzeroum, have lived in the gardens of the Zoological
Society. " According to Gmelin, this species is found only in the
highest mountains in Persia. The males, he informs us, are very
quarrelsome amongst each other, insomuch that he had been at one
place where the ground had been strewed with horns that had been
knocked off in their contests." It is allied to the Corsican Mouflon.
(See ante, Fig. 688.) "Sir John MacNeill informed me that ' it ap-
pears to be the common species of the mountains of Armenia ; oc-
curring likewise on the north-west of Persia ; ' but the Wild Sheep of
the central parts of Persia is evidently distinct, ' having horns much
more resembling those of the domestic Ram, being spiral, and com-
pleting more than one spiral circle. I think I am not mistaken in
supposing,' continues Sir John, 'that I have also had females of
this species brought to me by the huntsman with small horns, re-
sembling those of the Ewes of some of our domestic Sheep ; but, on
reflection, I find that I cannot assert this positively, though I retain
the general impression.' IHs highly probable that a vyild type of
O. aries is here adverted to, which would thus inhabit the same
ranges of mountains as the wild common Goat {€. JEgagrus ; see
ante, Fig. 683) ; and with respect to the circumstance of horns in
the female sex, I may here remark that this character is very apt
to be inconstant throughout the present group."
The Sha {Ovis vignei, Blyth), a Mouflon inhabiting the moun-
tains of Little Thibet and the Sulimani range, between India and
Khorassan. " Vast numbers of this species are driven down by the
snow in winter to the branches of the Indus, where the river breaks
through the chain of the Himalaya." The Wild Sheep of the Hin-
doo Koosh mountains, described in the "Journal Asiatic Soc,
Beng.," for 1840, is either this or a closely allied species. Its
climbing powers are extraordinary.
The Corsican Mouflon {Ovis musimon; see ante. Fig. 688), a
native of Corsica and Sardinia. Speaking of this Sheep, Mr. Blyth
remarks—" It has always appeared to me', however, that the speci-
fical distinctness of the Mouilon is very obvious, and I doubt
whether it has contributed at all to the origin of any tame race.
That it interbreeds freely with the latter, under circumstances of
restraint, is well known ; but we have no information ol hybrids, or
Umbri, as they are caUed, being ever raised from Wild Mouflons,
though the flocks of the latter will occasionally graze in the same
pasture with domestic Sheep ; and all but mingle among them. The
2()4
THE SHEEP TRIBE.
male of this animal is denominated in Corsica Mufro, and the female
Mufra, from which Buffon, as is well known, formed the word
Mouflon ; and in Sardinia the male is called Murvoni, and the
female Murva, thoug-h it is not unusual to hear the peasants style
both indiscriminateiy Mufion, which (as Mr. Smyth remarks, in his
description of that island) is a palpable corruption of the Greek
Ophion. It is sometimes stated, but I do not know upon what
authority, that a few of these animals are still found upon the
mountains of Murcia." Living specimens of this species maybe
seen in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London.
The Cyprian Mouflon, probably different from the preceding, and
termed by Mr. Blyth O. aphwn.
In this review of Mr. Blyth's paper we have omitted the Ixalas
Probation, Ogilby (of which a unique specimen exists in the museum
of the Zool. Soc, London, the history of which is obscure), and the
Aoudad {Ovis tragelaphus), which we have included with the Goats.
From none of the species here enumerated can we confidently
select the type of the domestic Sheep {Ovis aries, Linn.), nor from
any other known species exclusively.
The Mouflons and Argalis— that is, the wild species of the genus
Ovis — are covered with "a harsh kind of hair, having beneath it at its
roots a short spiral wool, which in winter becomes longer and fuller.
Mr. Bell, indeed, considers the harsh hair as essentially wool in its
structure, presenting the imbrications which the microscope shows
to be the characteristic of wool, and on which its felting property
depends ; and he regards the short under-coat as composed of hair,
and not of wool. Mr. Youatt makes the contrary statement, and
notwithstanding the appearances noticed by Mr. Bell, we incline to
Mr. Youatt's opinion ; for, be it observed, in the Cashmir and the
Angora Goats the long outer garment is hair ; the short under-coat
exquisitely fine wool. In other wool-bearing animals, as the Beaver
The causes which have rendered the fleece of the European Sheep
what we now find it, arc involved in obscurity. We attribute mucli
in the first instance, to the effects of temperature ; for though the
merino Sheep of Spain (a race originally imported from England),
Fig. 689.— Cretan, or Wallachian Sheep.
and Otter, the same arrangement prevails ; and we know, moreover,
that in some neglected breeds of common Sheep the wool becomes
mixed with long hairs (not short and fine), which more or less ob-
scure the wool., The Sheep's wool of India, now largely imported
into England for various purposes, presents similar characters. We
have also seen specimens of like character in the fleece of some
brown Spanish Sheep.
Fig. 690. — Guinea Sheep.
and the flocks of Australia and Southern Africa, are pre-eminent as
wool-bearers, yet it would seem that the predisposition to develop
wool at the expense of hair is acquired only in temperate, elevated,
or even cold climates. For instance, we learn from Mr. Hodgson
that the wool of the Bhotean
domesticated^ 'Sheep, called
Huniah, is superb, and, he
adds, the animal is suited only
to the northern district of Ne-
p41, suffering much from the
heat of the central district.
On the other hand, it is clear
that, in the early ages of man's
history, the shepherds must
have selected, for breeding,
those individuals on which the
wool predominated, and that,
by following up this system,
the Sheep gradually attained
its present condition, so that
a wool-bearing breed became
at length permanently estab-
lished. Originally, perhaps,
the Sheep, then a wonl-bcarer,
and long domesticated, was of
a brown or rusty-black colour,
a hue still lingering on the
faces and limbs of many of our
breeds, and sometimes appear-
ing as the general tint of in-
dividuals, thus conspicuous in
the midst of their white-fleeced
companions.
As the primitive fleece of the
Sheep was a mixture of hair
and wool, we cannot be sur-
prised to find races domesti-
cated in which the hair pre-
dominates over the wool, and
that so greatly, that they may
with propriety be termed hairy.
Sometimes the hair is like that
of a Spaniel, long and silky,
and many of the flocks of the
Buchanan Tartars are thus
clothed. To this breed may be
referred the Cretan or Walla-
chian Sheep (Ovis aries,
var. Strepsiceros'), common in
Crete, Wallachia, Hungary,
and the western parts of
Asia. (Fig. 689.) Of this va-
riety a splendid Ram from
Mount Parnassus was presented by Dr. Bowring to the Zool. Soc. ,
Lond. It was vicious, unruly, and of amazing strength. Its horns
were very large, and spirally contorted, adding greatly to its striking
and picturesque appearance. Its fleece consisted of hair and wool,
the former being of great length, perfectly straight, close-set, and
beautifully fine, falling from the middle of the back on each side of
the animal, almost to the ground. On the face the hair was short,
CHEVIOT RAM, AND HEATH RAM,
THE SHEEP TRIBE.
265
and of a rusty-black ; on the body it was white. In q-eneral, the
horns in the male rise almost perpendicularly from the skull, making
a scries of spiral turns in their ascent, the first turn being the
largest, while in the female they diverge, taking a lateral direction.
In the specimen, however, to which we have alluded, they extended
laterally from the skull, and, after the first turn, took a downward
sweep : variations in these points may be expected in domestic
animals. In some varieties of the Guinea Sheep, the hair is coarse
and often shaggy. In the specimens of Guinea Sheep figured (Fig.
6;o), the limbs are long, the body gaunt, the ears pendulous, the
forehead arched, and two fleshy excrescences hang from the throat.
A smaller hair-clad breed extends along the Slave Coast. The
Fezzan Sheep closely resemble the Guinea Sheep, but have a pen-
dulous dewlap instead of the tassels of skin on the throat. They
are gaunt, coarse-haired, ill-formed animals, with high withers like
a Buffalo. The males have small horns. In Madagascar the
Sheep are covered with short hair. In Persia, Tartary, and other
Fig. 691. — Fat-tailed Sheep of Syria.
parts of the East, there has long existed a singu'ar variety, with a
great deposit of fat on the tail and croup, giving an unsightly ap-
pearance to the animal : the tail itself is short, and seems buried in
the mass on each side ; the body is generally white, the head and
neck black : of the variety {Ovis aries, var. Steatopygiis), speci-
mens have been kept in the gardens of the Zool. Soc, Lend.
Among other strange varieties of Sheep may be here noticed those
of Syria and Egypt, with a long tail loaded
with fat, which sometimes even trails on
the ground. This race (Ovi's aries, var.
Macrocerciis) is closely allied to the pre-
ceding. (See Fig. 6gi.) In the Egyptian
animals the tail is broad throughout, but
in the Syrian it narrows to a point. The
ordinary weight of the tail is fifteen
pounds ; but in some of the larger kinds,
well-fattened, the tail will weigh seventy,
eighty, and, it is said, even 150 pounds.
Ludolph saw in Egypt a Sheep's tail of
eighty pounds' weight. This overgrown
tail is a great inconvenience to the ani-
mal, and in order to prevent injury to it,
the shepherds are often obliged to fix a
thin piece of board to the under-surface
of the part that trails on the ground, to
which small wheels are sometimes added.
Our figure exhibits the Syrian variety with
only a moderate caudal development.
The caudal deposit of fat in the varieties
of Sheep is oleaginous, being of a con-
sistence between fat and marrow, and is
often used in the place of butter : when
the animal is young, this fat is stated to
be little inferior to the best marrow. The
long-tailed, breed (var. Macrocercus) is
not only found in Arabia, Syria, and
Egypt, but is very numerous in the in-
terior and southern parts of Africa —
especially near the Cape of Good Hope —
and is covered with a mixture of coarse
short wool and hair.
Before we proceed to take a general
survey of the more important breeds of
our British Sheep, we may observe, that besides the variations to
which we have alluded, respecting fleece and general form, the
horns are subject to great difference of size and curvature, and
are sometimes wanting in both sexes, sometimes only in the female ;
while, on the contrary, in some breeds, the number of horns is in-
creased beyond the natural allotment.
In Iceland and the Feroe Islands there arc two races of Sheep;
one of a small size, and of a dun, or rust-black colour ; the other of
larger size, and white. Botli these races arc remarkable for the
number of their horns, varying from three to eight. Four, however,
is the usual number, as in the drawing of the head, Fig. 692. Of
the larger race we have seen many individuals : they are strongly-
built animals, with a coarse fleece, consisting of long hair cxter-
Ml^
Fig. 692. — Head of Four-homed Ram.
nally, and an under-layer of close wool, impenetrable by the heaviest
rain. The wool, however, is of little value, being fit only for Horse-
cloths and common rugs. These Sheep yield an extraordinary
quantity of milk, far superior to that of any of the southern breeds.
Von Troil, in his " Letters on Iceland," states that a single Ewe
will yield from two to six quarts a-day. In the Feroe Islands is .a
■^ild race of Sheep, of great antiquity. They are covered with
Fig. 693. — Merino Sheep, Male and Fem.ile.
black, short, curled wool, and their flesh has a peculiarly dark ap-
pearance and venison-like flavour.
In 1 82 1, Mr. Trevelyan visited the Feroe Islands, and found the
remnants of this wild race, in no way dependent upon or under
2 U
266
THE SHEEP TRIBE.
the control of man. They are sometimes caught by Dogs, but can
seldom be obtained except by being shot, or intercepted in a narrow
space, and driven over the cliffs.
Among the breeds of Europe which h.ive attained to the highest
celebrity, and by means of wliich, through judicious crossing, the
Sheep of Saxony, Prussia, Austria, and England, have been greatly
improved, as respects the quality of the fleece, is the far-famed
Merino, of Spain (Fig. 693). The term "Merino" alludes to the
over-sea origin of the race ; and there are good grounds for believing
that these Spanish Sheep were originally of British extraction, being
of the old Ryland or Cotswold stock. Stowe and Baker, in their
Chronicles, say, "This yere (1464) King Edward IV. gave a licence
to pass over certain Cotteswolde Sheep into Spain." Baker adds,
" King Edward IV. enters into a league with King John of Arra-
Sfon, to whom he sent a score of Costal Ewes and four Lambs."
Fig. 694.— British Middle-woolled Sheep.
There are other breeds of Sheep in Spain besides the Merinos,
more or less intermixed with them ; but of the pure race it is cal-
culated that there are several millions, which, excepting, perhaps,
the flocks of Leon and Estremadura, are migratory, and termed
Transhumantes, being periodically conducted from one part of the
country to another, and back again.
These Transhumantes are divided into flocks, which, under the
care of the mayoral, or chief shepherd, and assistants, migrate from
the mountains of the north to the plains of the south in the winter,
and return back to the mountains in summer. The flocks follow
the shepherds, who lead the way, and direct the length and speed
of the journey : a few Wethers, perfectly tamed, tread in the foot-
steps of the conductor, and the rest follow in due order ; a power-
ful breed of Dogs accompany the shepherds in order to defend the
flock from Wolves ; and a few Mules carry their provision, and
other necessaries, as well as materials for making up the fold at
night.
This migratory system is regulated by a tribunal termed Mesta,
which has been of old standing ; it can be traced back to the
middle of the 14th century, at which period, definite laws, with res-
pect to it, were enacted, by which persons were prohibited from
travelling along the course of the route pursued by the flocks while
the Sheep were in motion ; it also established a rig^ht to graze on all
the open and common land that lay in the way ; and, moreover, it
claimed a path, ninety yards wide, through all the enclosed and
cultivated country. The journey taken by the Merino flocks is up-
wards of 400 miles, which they accomplish in six or seven weeks,
and the same time is spent in retracing
the route, so that in every year about
fourteen weeks (or nearly a quarter) are
spent in these toilsome journeys. Popu-
lar prejudice in Spain attributes the supe-
riority of the Merino wool to this practice
— a practice injurious to the agricultu-
rist, through whose corn-lands and vine-
yards the flocks pass, and injurious to the
keepers of stationary Sheep ; inasmuch as
the common and pasture lands are com-
pletely eaten bare by the multitudes that
slowly pass over them, while wilfully, or
through carelessness, serious damage is
done to farms, plantations, fields, and
vineyards, for which no redress can be
obtained.
It is, however, much to be doubted that
the Merino wool owes its superiority, as
is asserted by the Spaniards, to this
system. The stationary Merinos in Leon
and Estremadura produce wool equal in
quality to that of the migratory flocks ;
and these are again exceeded by some of
the German Merinos, which never travel ;
so that, at least, the advantages of the
Mesta system have been over-rated, while
the evils resulting to the flocks from
fatigue, and the injury done to the lands
in their course, have been treated with
indifference.
In Spain, as in the East, from the
earliest times, the shepherd leads his
flock. In Italy, in Greece, and some
parts of France, it is still the custom ;
and the reed-pipe of the shepherd may be
heard calling the flock together, or the
troop seen following him as he leads them
to their evening folding-place.
In Greece it is usual, as formerly, to give
names to the Sheep, which they know,
and will answer, coming to the shepherd
when called. The same practice is com-
mon in the north of England and in Scot-
land.
Reverting from foreign Sheep to those
of our own island, we may remind the
reader that we possess several different
breeds, distinguished by different quali-
ties, both as regards form and size, and
the characters of the wool. These breeds,
or varieties, are the result of skilful treat-
ment, of pasturage, and judicious cross-
ings.
We may divide them into three groups :
the short-wooUed, the middle-woolled,
and the long-woolled breeds.
The short-woolled breed formerly in-
cluded many varieties, now, from the im-
provement of their fleece, to be ranked
under the second division, as the South-Down, Norfolk, and Cheviot
Sheep. It is at present, however, represented by the Anglo-Merino
race, to which the Sheep of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, the
Cape, &c., also belong. The average length of the wool is about
two inches and a-half, and its texture is peculiarly fine, soft, and
even silky. Short wool is used in the manufacture of delicate and
beautiful fabrics ; it is, however, generally mixed with wool of a
longer staple. The Saxony wool, so valued for its fineness, comes
under the present division : it is shorter and finer than the Australian
wool, but less silky, the serrations of the fibre being more numerous,
and disposing it to felt more closely. Hence Saxony wool is the
most valuable for the manufacture of fine broad-cloth.
THE SHEEP TRIBE.
267
The average weight of the fleece of the Australian short-woolled
Sheep is from three pounds to three and a-half ; sometimes it
amounts to five.
It has been the object of the British wool-grower to convert the
short-woolled breeds into a race with wool which, while its length is
increased, preserves its original fineness and delicacy Thus we
have now, in place of the old short-woolled breeds, a middlc-wooUed
race of great value, and of which the fleece is in the higliest re-
quest. Fig. 694 represents several examples of breeds of this race :
a, the Welsh Sheep ; b, the South-Down Sheep ; c, the Dorset
Sheep ; d, the Black-faced Cheviot Sheep ; c, the Norfolk Sheep ;
f, the Ryland Sheep.
The middle-woollcd Sheep include the South-Down, the Dorset,
the Norfolk, the Suffolk, and the Cheviot breeds, together with
several others, and w^hich were formerly short-woolled. The length
of the staple is, on the average, three and a-half to four inches.
That the improvement of the old short-woolled Sheep in a middle-
woolled race is an advantage in every sense, especially as the short
wool, used exclusively in the manufacture of fine cloths, is abun-
dantly supplied from foreign " growers " (as the term is), no one
can doubt. Of this race, one of the first is the improved South-
Down breed, depasturing on the long range of chalky hills, extend-
ing from the sea-coast of the Isle of Thanet, and the cliffs of Dover,
through Kent and Sussex. Formerly, this breed was a small size,
far from possessing a good shape, and late before they were capable
of being fattened ; now, however, they are greatly improved, both
in shape and constitution. "They are'
smaller in bone, equally hard, with a
greater disposition to fatten, and much -:.•«.•,.:;;, ^_V.:J_, _
heavier in carcass when fat. They used
seldom to fatten till they were four years
old ; but it would be a rare sight to see
a pen of South-Down Wethers at market
more than two years old, and many are
killed before they reach that age." The
South-Down Sheep is, in fact, the model
of what a hill Sheep ought to be ; and the
flesh, in fineness, of grain and flavour, is
peculiarly excellent. The wool is of a
very useful quality ; but is both larger in
fibre and less numerously serrated than
the short Saxony, and does not, therefore,
possess such a felting power ; hence it
is rarely used in the manufacture of fine
broad-cloths. Still, from its fineness and
felting powers, compared with the wool of
many other middle-woolled breeds, it is
highly esteemed ; and, for flannels and
worsted goods in general, it is extensively
emploj'ed. In Surrey, Hampshire, and
Berkshire, the South-Downs have either
superseded or been blended with the old
short-woolled Sheep.
Dorsetshire possesses its own breed,
encroached upon, however, by the South-
Downs. The males have large, spirally-
twisted horns, and the females have also
horns, but much smaller than those of the
male. Neither the wool nor the flesh
equals that of the South-Down breed.
The old Norfolk breed of middle-woolled
Sheep is very valuable ; but it is rapidly giving way to the South-
Down. The Rams are distinguished by long spiral horns, those of
the Ewes and Wethers being smaller ; the flesh is remarkably fine,
and the wool delicate, and felts well. The figure of these Sheep is
tall and slender ; the legs are long, and the face and limbs black or
mottled. The general aspect is wild and animated. This breed
thrives on the coarsest pasturage. The wool is not used in fine
broad-cloths, but is used in such as are of inferior quality, and in
woollen stuffs generally.
In Suffolk, the South-Down breed prevails. The black-faced and
liorncd Sheep of Westmoreland, Cumberland, and various parts of
Scotland, as Lanarkshire, belong to the middle-woolled section.
With respect to their wool, these Sheep do not rank high ; it ex-
ceeds in length that of the middle-woolled breeds generally, but is
harsh and coarse ; to compensate for this these Sheep are very
hardy, have an admirable contour, and the flesh, in fineness of grain
and delicacy of flavour, equals either the South-Down or the Welsh
mutton.
The Cheviot breed is very distinct from the common mountain or
black-faced race, with which it is, on all sides, immediately sur-
rounded, these two races dividing the north between them.
The Cheviot breed is hornless ; and the general contour is ex-
cellent ; the shoulders are full, the body round and long, and the
limbs small-boned. The mutton is in great esteem ; and the
Wethers average sixteen, eighteen, or even twenty pounds weight
per quarter. It appears from the testimony of practical farmers.
that the attention paid to the improvement of this breed, in reference
to the condition of the carcass, has been followed by a deterioration
m the quality of the wool, which is said to have been formerly
capable of entcrmg into the manufacture of fine cloths. Still, how-
ever, the wool is good, thougli inferior to that of the South-Downs.
It far surpasses that of the black-faced breed ; and as the Cheviot
race is equally hardy, and as capable of sustaining cold as the
former, and is content with the Alpine plants of the bleak hills and
mountains, it will soon supersede the black-faced breed, as it has
already done in the forest of Ettrick, and the whole of Selkirkshire,
and even Sutherland. The foreknowledge which these Sheep
possess of approaching storms, and the assiduity with which, while
the shepherd dreams of no impending evil, they will seek a place of
shelter and security, are curious traits in their history. It is thus
that they often warn the shepherd, by the display of this instinct,
wisely implanted within them, and lead him to add his precautions
to those which they have themselves adopted. In spite, however,
of the vigilance of the shepherd, and the instinct of the Sheep,
many often perish, buried beneath towering snow-drifts, and some-
times whole flocks are lost. It often happens that sufficient shelter
cannot be obtained ; the flock crowd together for the purpose of
mutual warmth, and are soon covered beneath the snow. If this
docs not occur, the Lambs, unable to endure the severity of the
storm, perish, and the mothers, bewildered, wander about seeking
their oftspring, till they themselves sink exhausted with their efforts
and distress. With but little food Sheep can remain for many days
_ j.^g^^^kMs^^mMm
Fig. 695. — British Long-woolled Sheep.
buried beneath the snow ; but where this cannot be obtained, the
period of endurance is proportioned to the strength of the animal's
constitution, and the intensity of the cold. In the winter of 1800, a
Sheep, near Kendal, was buried in the snow for thirty-three days
and nights, without the possibility of moving, and yet survived ; and
a Sheep in Cumberland was buried for thirty-eight days. When
extricated, it was found to have eaten the wool off both its shoulders,
and its frame was reduced almost to a skeleton. By due attention,
however, it gradually recovered.
Having thus specified some of the more important of the middle-
woolled breeds of Sheep in our island, most of them, or all,
derived from the old short-woolled breeds by a system of judicious
management, we shall now take a hasty survey of the long-woolled
breeds. (Fig. 695.) . .
As we have already stated, the middle-wool vanes in different
breeds, in fineness, and in its power of felting. Long wool is much
more uniform, and for this reason, that it is the produce of the
Leicester race, and of races with which the Leicester race has be-
come completely intermingled. '• All long-woolled Sheep, says
Mr. Youatt, " both in appearance and in fleece, are becoming one
family." Long wool, which has lately very much improved--it
beino- the aim of the breeder to render it finer (at the expense of its
lenn-di, which it will bear)— is characterised by strength and trans-
parency, but it is deficient in the power of felting. Its average
I lenn-th is about eight inches. This applies more particularly to that
i sort called the long-combing wool ; there is, however, a variety of
268
THE SHEEP TRIBE.
long wool which approximates to the middle wool, and termed the
short-combing wool, which is somewhat shorter than the other, finer,
and more disposed to felt. The long-combing wool is used in the
manufacture of hard yarn, and for purposes in which length and
firmness are essential ; the other for stuffs of a softer texture, and
for hosiery goods. We have alluded to the Leicester breed as the
typical example of the long-fleeced races ; but it is to be observed
that this breed is an improvement upon the heaxy, ill-made, and
coarse-woolled race, formerly spread over all our midland counties.
Lincolnshire, also, had a breed of Sheep celebrated for their fine
long wool ; but this breed, defective in form, and yielding mutton of
inferior quality, is now greatly improved, and, in fact, is blended
with the new Leicester Sheep.
It is not within our province to follow out the changes which
have already taken and are still taking place among the long-
woolled breeds of Sheep, for which our island is expressly cele-
brated, and in which neither France nor Belgium can at all corn-
pete with the English Sheep-graziers. To those who wish to gain
an acquaintance with this part of the subject, we recommend Mr.
Fig. 696. — Sheep-washing.
Youatt's valuable work on Sheep, where they will find much in-
formation, and abundant reference to various writers on agricultural
topics.
There is, however, one question which suggests itself, and which
we cannot omit to notice. As far as records serve us, it would seem
that a long-woolled and a short-woolled (now middle-woolled) race
of Sheep have tenanted our island from the earhest times. Now.
to what are we to attribute this original diilerence ? Are the two
races descended from different primitive sources, or have food and
soil gradually produced the differences which have been so long
maintained ? No one, we think, will hesitate to say the latter ; im-
possible as it may be to follow, step by step, the progress of the
change, or to determine^ the fnodus operandi of the causes con-
tributing to effect it. It is, however, very remarkable, that it is only
in animals which have been so long domesticated that we cannot
tell their primeval origin, and which, there is reason to think, are
factitious beings (that is, the produce of different, but still closely-
allied species commingling together), that these extreme variations
as to size, figure, and length and quaHty of fur are most decidedly
observable. We see these varieties in the Dog — from the silky
long-haired Spaniel of Spanish race, to the close-haired old Setter
of the same country ; from the woolly French Poodle to the Matin ;
from the rough English Water-Dog to the Mastiff: so in the Sheep
we find a short-fleeced breed, with the filaments of the wool pecu-
liarly fine and numerously serrated ; a still longer-fleeced breed,
again sub-divided into many minor varieties, and having the wool
fine, and more or less capable of felting, or, in other words, more or
less numerously serrated ; and a long-woolled race of old standing,
in which the wool, but thinly serrated, is inferior in felting proper-
ties, but of great value to the wool-comber. But further, as the
mixture of a long and silky-haired breed of Dogs with one of close
hair does not improve the coat, the young resembling some the male
some the female, but not equalling them in their excellences ; so
the crossing of long-woolled and short-woolled Sheep leads to no
good results ; and, as with Dogs, the improvement of each breed
depends on a judicious and careful selection of the best and purest
of that breed, by which the properties distinguishing it may be de-
veloped to their maximum in their progeny.
In England the Sheep is
now only valuable for the
sake of its wool and flesh ;
but in various parts of both
Europe and Asia the milk
of the Ewe has been used
from the earliest times,
either pure or curdled, as
an article of diet. Formerly,
in many parts of England,
cheese was made from the
milk of the Ewe, and the
Ewes, to the injury of the
Lambs, were milked regu-
larly, as described in the
"Odyssey," and, at a later
era, by Virgil.
To the process of shear-
ing we need scarcely allude ;
all are familiar with the
manner in which the removal
of the fleece is effected, and
it would seem that in the
earliest patriarchal ages
the same process was in
use. Among the Romans,
however (and the practice
has been but lately dis-
continued in the Orkney
Islands, and is, perhaps,
still prevalent in Iceland),
the wool was torn off the
animals, and, as Pliny
states, they were kept for
three days previously with-
out food, in order that the
wool might be more easily
detached, their bodies be-
ing exhausted. In his time,
however, the practice of
shearing had begun to
supersede this cruel and
unjustifiable method. It
gave, however, origin to
the word vellus (fleece), from
vello (to pull away), and
the hill termed Velleia was
the ancient spot on which
this cruelty was perpetrated.
With us the season of Sheep-shearing is a season of rejoicing;
and the manner in which the important work is conducted, and the
dexterity of the shearers, are, to those not accustomed to rural life,
replete with interest and amusement. It is, indeed, a pleasing
spectacle to see a large flock of snow-white Sheep collected to-
gether, and, in turn, losing their soft fleece, rolled into an unbroken
and well-arranged whole, beneath the shears of the shearer : the
picture is full of poetry, and he must be destitute alike of taste
and patriotism that can look coldly upon it. Our sketch (Fig. 696)
IS a spirited representation of Sheep-washing for the purpose of
cleansing the fleece preparatory to shearing.
To enter into a disquisition on the commercial importance of the
Sheep, its connection with national prosperity and international re-
lationships, is not our place. We leave this to the political econo-
mist. We may, however, here state, as showing the great extent
to which the wool of Sheep, Lambs, Alpaca, or the Llama tribes,
influence our manufactures, that the total weight of all these im-
ported into England in l877-'78 was about 400,000,000 lbs., of an
estimated value of ;^24,ooo,ooo.
THE OX TRIBE.
269
The Ox Tribe— Genus Bos.
The Ox tribe, perhaps, holds the highest place among the ani-
als reared for the purpose of civilised life. There is not a part of
from the hoof to the horn, which is not utilised by man.
mill<. butter, and
mals reare
the anima-.
The flesh affords food. From the female we get
cheese. The skin affords the best leather when tanned ; and even
the offal is devoted to some useful purpose. During life, the Bovine
tribe are frequently used as beasts of burden, and generally for
agricultural labour ; so that, living or dead, the 0.x claims our re-
gard.
The following are the leading characteristics of the Ox tribe, or
genus Bns .-—Horns in both sexes. Neither sub-orbital sinus, inter-
diijital foss;e, nor inguinal pores. Teats in females four. The
ammals of this genus are, with some few exceptions, the largest and
osseous structure of the fore-foot («) and of the hind-foot (i) of the
Ox. All the Ox group are gregarious in their habits, and no
portion of the globe is destitute of its indigenous species, existing
in a state of freedom, tenanting the deep glades of the forest, or
roaming over hills and plains, excepting Australia.
The bx {Bos 2'aiiriis) is now only known as a domesticated ani-
mal, spread far and wide through almost every region of the globe,
contributing, by its services and products, to the well-being of man.
Although referred to as a domestic animal in the earliest ages by
the author of the Mosaic record,
impenetrable darkness hangs over
its primeval history, nor know we
what is its wild origin, nor whether
that origin is in existence. ' .
Temperature, soil, food, a thou- f /
"^ - J
sand circumstances operating
Fig. 697. — Dentition of the Ox.
most massive of the hollow-horned Ruminants ; their limbs are low
and strong, their body heavy, with wide haunches, and thick and
often elevated shoulders ; the head is large, and furnished with
horns common to both sexes ; their progressive increase being
marked by annuli at the base. They sheathe a hollow or cancel-
lous bony core, continued from the sides of a bold frontal ridge.
The forehead, or chaffron, is expanded ; the muzzle, except in the
sub-genus Ovibos, is broad, naked, and moist ; the neck is thick,
Fig. 698. — Skeleton of the Cow.
deep, compressed laterally, carried horizontally, and furnished with a
pendent dewlap. The spinous processes of the anterior dorsal verte-
bra:, at the withers, are very long and stout. Fig. 697 represents the
dentition of the Ox, in two views, of the upper and under jaw ; Fig.
698 is a very characteristic delineation of the skeleton of the Eng-
lish short-homed Cow ; and Fig. 699 is a representative of the
Fig. 699. — Feet of the O.'C.
through the revolutions of years, have combined to effect a series of
modifications in the Ox. Every country possesses its peculiar races,
and these races, by their intermixture, are perpetually producing
others, so that it is impossible to say to what extent these changes
may be carried, and how far the original type has become already
modified. Certain it is that we are acquainted with no animal, in a
state of original independence, to which we can refer as the primi-
tive type of the Ox. It is true, however, that within the period
of authentic history, certain wild Oxen existed in
Europe ; but it is not to Europe that we jnust look
as the cradle of the domestic Ox ; nor, indeed, are
the accounts left us of these Oxen reconcilable
with any of them, being specifically identical with
our domestic race, which, indeed, when we look at
the Zebu breeds, seems to claim more than one
source. One of these wild animals was termed by
the ancients Urus {laiis corinbiis), and another,
Bison (jttb^tus, or villosus) ; we have also an ani-
mal described under the name of Bonasus (BwacTtrof
or Boi<aiTof, Aristotle). A few observations on these
animals may not be uninteresting. The Urus,
which existed in the Hercynian forest, is thus de-
scribed by Ca:sar: — " These Uri are little inferior to
Elephants in size, but are Bulls in their nature,
colour, and figure. Great is their strength, and
great their swiftness ; nor do they spare man or
beast when they have caught sight of them. These,
when trapped in pitfalls, the hunters unsparingly
kill. The youths, exercising themselves by this sort
of hunting, are hardened by the toil, and those
among them who have killed most, bringing with
them the horns as testimonials, acquire great praise.
But these Uri cannot be habituated to man, or made
tractable, not even when young. The great size of
the horns, as well as the form and quality of them,
differs much from the horns of our Oxen. These, when carefully
selected, they ring round the edge with silver, and use them for
drinking at their ample feasts." Perhaps the Wild Bulls with horns
of extraordinary size, which Herodotus assures us mhabited Ma-
cedonia, as well as did the Lion, were Uri.
Fossil bones have been found in different places in this country,
270
THE OX TRIBE.
which asrree so closely with those of our domestic breeds, as to
leave little or no doubt of tlieir identity.
The Bisoji juhatiis of Pliny has been rcjj'arded by Cuvier and
most naturalists as identical with the Bonasus of Aristotle, and con-
sidered, perhaps with reason, as referable to the Aurochs, or Zubr
{Bos urns of modern naturalists, not Urns of C.xsar), still existing
in the wild forests of Lithuania. In Europe and Siberia the fossil
crania of an Aurochs arc not uncommon ; and these skulls, though
they scarcely differ in anything from the Lithuanian animal, Cuvier
inclines to believe may be of a different, though closely-allied species.
He gives the figures of a skull in the Pans museum, here copied
Fig. 700. — Skull of the Aurochs : a, front ; i5, lateral view.
(Fig. 700, a, front view; b, lateral view), so like, as he observes,
to the living Aurochs, that the most practised eye can scarcely dis-
tinguish it ; and also so fresh, that he is in doubt whether it be
really a fossil relic, or, on the contrary, recent, owing its fossil ap-
pearance to having been much weathered. Lyell stated, that the
bones of the Aurochs (or Bison) have been found in the North Cliff
in the county of York, in a lacustrine formation, in wliich all the
land and fresh-water shells, thirteen in number, can be identified
with species and varieties now existing in that county. To return
to the Urus of Cajsar and the ancients. We have stated this animal
to be characterised by the immensity of its horns, and its vast
stature, in which former particular it differs materially from the
ancient full-maned Bison, or Lithuanian Aurochs. This Urus no
longer, as it would appear, exists ; but fossil skulls of a species far
Fig. 701.
exceeding the largest domestic Ox in magnitude, with the core of
massive horns, are abundant in the superficial strata of Europe.
This species is termed by Cuvier Bos primigenius (primeval Ox) ;
and he carefully distinguishes the skull from that of the fossil
Aurochs. In a specimen found at Melksham, and described by Mr.
Woods, the cores of the horns measured, at their widest expansion,
upwards of four feet ; we may easily conceive what must have been
the expansion of the horns themselves : the skull, destitute of the
lower jaw, and not perfect otherwise, weighed sixty-three pounds.
Larger specimens, however, have been discovered. Fig 701 repre-
sents a front view of the skull oi Bos priniigenhis ; Fig. 702, a pala-
tal view ; Fig. 703, a back view ; Fig. 704, a profile.
This extinct species Cuvier regards as the type of the domestic
Ox, in which opinion Mr. Bell and most naturalists coincide, at the
same time that they consider the " celebrated White Wild Oxen of
Craven, of Chillingham Park, and Scotland, as specifically the same
with the Common Ox ; on the contrary, Col. Hamilton Smith and
Mr. Swainson regard the White Ox of Chillingham Park (Bos Sco-
tictis of some authors) as distinct from the Common Ox. The former
regards the Chillingham Ox as a white variety of the fossil species
Bos prii)i!gc7iius ; while Mr. Swainson believes it to be the descen-
dant of a smaller species, belonging to the same genus as the Bos
j>rimigc7iius, or ancient Urus, of which " the skulls exhibit the type
of a form essentially different from that of the domestic Ox."
All these skulls are nearly one-third larger than those of the Bos
Fig. 702
Fig. 703-
Fig. 704.
Taurus ; they are square from the orbits to the occipital crest, and
somewhat hollow at the forehead. The horns, placed at the side of
the above crest, show a peculiar rise from their roots upwards ; then
bending outwards, and then forwards and inwards. No domestic
races show this turn ; but numerous specimens of inferior sizes, found
fossil in the Cornish mines, have this shape ; and the Wild Bull of
Scotland, the only example of this type now known to exist, retains
it. The domestic Oxen, on the contrary, of whatsoever country or
breed they may be, have the square concave forehead, with the horns
rising from the ends of the frontal ridge. It appears then that the an-
cient Urus, or Wild Bull, was a perfectly wild, savage, anduntame-
able animal : not only does every account handed down from remote
antiquity assure us of this, but it is even verified by the only living
example of this form we possess, the Bos Scoticus, still preserved in
THE OX TRIBE.
271
one or two of the northern parks. Althoufjh domesticated so far as
to live within such precincts without absolute unprovoked violence to
its keepers, it retains essentially all the savage characters ascribed
to the more powerful species mentioned by the ancients.
Now, as to the specific identity of the White O.xen of Chilling-ham
with our ordinary breed. In size, form, and aspect they resemble
the finer breeds of black Cattle ; and the query is, not — Are they dis-
tinct ? but — Are they the descendants of a wild breed, or, on the
contrar}', the descendants of domesticated individuals, which have
resumed their wild character, " from having ceased to feel, through
many generations, the effects of human domination ? " Possibly the
latter. With regard to Cuvier's Bos ;priiiiige>iius, granting it to be
the Urus of C;esar, we are not quite so sure that it was the wild type
of the domestic 0.\. Its vast size, and the extraordinary magnitude
of the horns, to say nothing of its ferocity, and the probability that
it is to Central Asia, rather than to the wild forests of Central Europe,
that we ought to look for the type of the domestic race, or races, are
sufficient to induce a doubt.
The term Urus is evidently identical with the terms Auer, Ur,
Auerochs, Ure-Ox, the root also of the word Taurus; and we agree
with Mr. Woods in the belief
that the Aurochs, or Ure-Ox, of
the ancient Germans, was the
Urus of Csesar, but that the
word, on the extinction of that
animal, became transferred to
the Bison of the ancients, now
known as the Aurochs, and
also under names derived from
a different root, as Zubr (Li-
thuanian), Zimbr (Moldavian),
Bison, Vison, Wisont, and
Wisant, whence Bonasus, Mo- ~ —
nasus, <S:c. "^^
Besides the Bos ■prhnigenitts,
the following fossil species of Ox
have been named: — Bos tro-
clioceriis (Hermann von Meyer),
subapennine beds ; Bos (Bison)
j»-iscus (I3onjanus), BufBe fos-
sile de Siberie (Cuv.), Bos lati-
frons (Harlan), Broad-headed
"fossil Bison and Bison fossilis,
"diluvium" of Europe and
North America, bone-caves and
bone breccias ; Bos (Bison ?)
hombifrons (Harlan), Big-
bone-lick, North America ; Bos
Pallasii (Dekay), Bos mos-
chatusfossilis ? Bos ca7ialicu-
latiis (Fischer) ? Siberia and
North America ? Bosvelaumts
(Robert), Cussac, Haute Loire.
Abundant remains of the Ox
were found by Sir P. Cautley
in the Sewalik Mountains, at
the southern foot of the Hima-
layas, between the Sutlej and
the Ganges, partly lying on
. the slopes among the ruins of
fallen cliffs, and partly in situ,
in the sandstone, in company
with the bones of Mastodon,
Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippo-
potamus, Hog, Horse (com-
paratively scarce), Elk, Deer,
several varieties ; Carnivora,
canine and feline (comparatively scarce) ; Crocodile, Gavial, Emys,
Trionyx, and Fishes. There were also portions of undescribed
Mammalia.
The Wild White Cattle of Chillingham Park (Bos
Taurus, van Scoticus).- — Having thus introduced this beautiful
breed of cattle to our readers' notice, we shall proceed to a few
interesting details respecting its history.
Mr. Youatt, in his admirable work on Cattle, clearly expresses his
belief in the identity of the wild breed with our domestic races, and
adds that the slightest observation will convince us that the Cattle
in Devon, Sussex, Wales, and Scotland are essentially the same
breed, changed by soil and climate, yet little changed by the inter-
meddling of man. " Every one who has had opportunities of com-
paring the Devon Cattle with the wild breed of Chatelherault Park,
or Chillingham Castle, has been struck with the great resemblance
in many points, notwithstanding the difference in colour." In
another place the same writer says — " To the Principality-we na-
turally look for some trace of the native breed of cattle, for the Welsh
were never entirely subdued by any of the early invaders. The
Komans possessed merely a portion of the country ; the Saxons
scarcely penetrated into Wales, or not beyond the county of Mon-
mouth. The \Velsh long resisted the superior power of the English
under the Norman kings, and it was not till late in the 13th
century that the Principality was annexed to the crown of England.
We therefore expect to find more decided specimens of the native
productions of our own island ; nor are we altogether disappointed.
Howell Dha, or Howell the Good, describes some of the Cattle in
the loth century as being white with red cars, resembling the Wild
Cattle of Chillingham Castle. An early record speaks of 100 white
Cows with red ears being demanded as a compensation for certain
offences against the princes both of North and South Wales. If
the Cattle were of a dark or black colour, 1 50 were to be presented.
When the Cambrian princes did homage to the King of England,
the same number of Cattle, and of the same description, were ren-
dered in acknowledgment of sovereignty. Speed tells us that
Maud de Breos, in order to appease King John, whom her husband
had offended, sent to his queen a present from Brecknockshire of
400 Cows and a Bull, all white with red ears. Whether this was
the usual colour of the.ancient breed of Welsh and British Cattle, or
a rare variety, esteemed on account of its beauty, and chiefly pre-
Fig. 705.— Wild White Cattle of Chillingham Park.
served in the parks of the nobles, we are unable to determine. The
latter is the most probable supposition ; and the same records that
describe the white Cattle with red ears, speak also of the dark, or
black-coloured breed, which now exists, and which is general
throughout the Principality." As a further point in favour of the
probability of the White Wild Cattle being specifically the same
as our domestic races, we select the following quotation from the
work above referred to : — " The colours of the improved short-horns
are red or white, or a mixture of the two, combining in endless
variety, and producing, very frequently, a most brilliant effect.
The white, it is very probable, they obtained from an early cross
with the wild breed, and, whenever this colour shows itself, it is
accompanied, more or less, with a red tinge on the extremity of the
ear, a distinctive character, also, of the Wild Cattle."
Are, then, the Wild Cattle of Chdtelhcrault Park, Lanarkshire, or
Chillingham Park, Lime Hall, Cheshire, and other places, the
descendants, as Mr. Youatt seems to infer, of these white Cattle of
ancient race, so valued in early times ; or are they descendants of
the wild breed, which, at an early period, tenanted the great forests
of our island, and which as the forests became cleared and the land
272
THE OX TRIBE.
cultivated, were gradually thinned, till, at length, their remnant
found in the chase or park of the nobleman that safety which as old
denizens of the soil they might well claim, and but for wliich the
breed would long since have been utterly extirpated ? Again, was
the wild breed which roamed the Caledonian forest, and the great
forest north of London, so late as the latter part of the 12th century,
and mentioned by Fitzstephen, identical with the white Cambrian
breed ? These are questions more easily asked than solved. One
thing is certain : the Wild Cattle of Chillingham will breed with the
domestic race, but the progeny has never been preserved, the Calves
having been always killed at an early age, from a pardonable desire
to keep this ancient race in all its purity ; we firmly believe, how-
ever, that the cross-breed would be as fertile as any of our domestic
varieties.
Another authority is of opinion that the white Cattle in question
are domesticated Oxen, which have run wild ; and, moreover, that
they are not descended from an aboriginal stock, but that the race
was originally imported by the ecclesiastics from Italy, where herds
of wild Cattle, much resembling them, still exist. In this, as in all
other theories, authenticated facts as our basis are wanting.
The Chillingham Wild Cattle are invariably of a creamy-white
colour, with a black muzzle ; the whole of the inside of the ears,
and the tip externally, are red ; the horns are white, with black tips,
very fine, and bent upwards. Some of the Bulls have a thin up-
706.— Head of a Bull.
right mane, an inch and a-half or two inches long. The weight of
the Oxen is from 35 to 45 stone the four quarters (14 lbs. to the
stone) ; that of the Cows, from 25 to 35 stone. The beef is finely
marbled, and of excellent flavour.
These Cattle are fleet and active. At the first appearance of any
person, they set off in full gallop ; and, at the distance of about 200
yards, make a wheel round and come boldly up again, tossing their
heads in a menacing manner ; on a sudden they make a full stop
at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of
their surprise ; but, upon the least motion being made, they all
again turn round and fly off with equal speed, but not to the same
distance, forming a shorter circle ; and, again returning, with a
bolder and more threatening aspect than before, they approach
much nearer, probably within thirty yards, when they again make
another stand, and then fly off ; this thej' do several times, shorten-
ing their distance, and advancing nearer and nearer till they come
within such a short distance that most people think it proper to leave
them, not choosing to provoke them further.
The females hide their Calves for a week or ten days after 1 rth
in some sequestered situation, and visit them two or three tnnes
a-day. If any person approach the Calves, they crouch close, like
a Hare in form, and endeavour to hide themselves, bur, w';en
roused, exhibit great fury, pawing, bellowing, and butting at t^e jur
trader ; the females are resolute in the defence of their young, and
attack persons discovered near their lair with impetuous ferocity.
Formerly, the hunting of these animals was conducted with great
parade, many scores assembling on horseback, and hundreds on
foot, to witness the sport ; but from the number of accidents that
happened, and perhaps from the disturbance created among the
game, this practice has been long discontinued. The keeper now
uses a rifle, and steals upon the animal selected until within range,
and drops it at a single shot.
British Domestic Cattle {Bos Taiirus).—l.o describe the
form, contour, and colour of the domestic Ox is superfluous ; and
all know that, within the precincts of our fertile island, affording
unequalled pasturage, the animal has ramified into many breeds,
which it has been the care of the farmer to improve and modify to
his own advantage. Excepting in a few districts, the Ox is not em-
ployed in our country as a beast of draught, or for the labour of
the plough, which it was in ancient times on the continent, and still
is in many countries ; on the contrary, it is for its flesh on the one
hand, and its milk on the other, that this animal is so valuable ;
indeed, everywhere the true importance of the Ox is in itself, and
not its labour, though in many parts of the world it is used both as
a beast of burden and draught. Restricting our present observa-
tions to British Cattle, we may observe that there are two parties
immediately, and we may say professional!}', interested in the
culture of Cattle — the grazier and the dairy-farmer ;
and both require different, and, to a certain degree,
incompatible excellences. With the grazier, round-
ness of form, a moderate smallness of bone, depth of
chest, and aptitude to acquire external fat upon a
small consumption of food, are among the points of
excellence aimed at and expected. On the contrary,
the supply of a large quantity of rich milk is the
desideratum of the dairy-farmer ; and it very seldom
happens that the qualities prized by the one party are
combined with those required by the other : both,
therefore, attend to their exclusive interests, agree-
ing only in the care bestowed upon the animals sub-
servient to their respective purposes. To note every
variety and enter into minutia; — the part rather of the
farmer than the naturalist — is far from being our
object ; a sketch, however, with illustrations of some
of the principal breeds, will not be uninteresting.
Among the older breeds was a long-horned race,
now greatly modified, of which Lancashire, and the
West Riding of Yorkshire, might be considered as
the central district ; whence it extended, not to the ex-
clusion of other races, through the midland counties,
and even into Ireland. This breed was termed the
Craven, from a district of that name in Yorkshire,
bordering on Lancashire, where it is said to have
originally appeared. This breed was large, coarse-
boned, and apt to be long in the body, wliich, besides,
was destitute of roundness. The milk, if not abun-
dant in quantity, was extremely rich, and suited the
purpose of the dairy-farmer. The horns were of
enormous length ; sometimes they projected horizon-
tally on each Side of the head ; generally, however,
they swept downwards, with an inward flexure, often
reaching below the level of the muzzle, or even meet-
ing before it, so as to interfere with the facility of
grazing : we have, indeed, often seen the points
press against the sides of the muzzle, rendering it
necessary to shorten them. In the beginning of the
1 8th century various agriculturists commenced a series
of attempts towards the improvement of this old breed, which re-
sulted in the establishment of the Dishley, or new Leicester long-
horn. To the grazier, the improvement was most immediately bene-
ficial, but the dairyman preferred the old stock. In process of time,
however, the new breed extended, improving the Cattle of the
middle and northern counties, and especially of Ireland.
In its turn, however, this breed has almost everywhere yielded to
a middle, or short-horned race, and, even in Leicestershire, the
stronghold of the Dishley breed, few are now to be seen. In
Cheshire also — which, till recently, retained a long-horned breed,
derived chiefly from the old Lancashire and new Dishley stocks —
the Durham, or short-horned race, has made decided inroads, but
with doubtful advantage as respects the quality of the cheese for
which that county is celebrated.
Among the long-horned race must be reckoned the old Shrop-
shire breed, a large-boned and hardy race, well fitted to serve the '
dairy. It would appear that this breed is seldom to be seen pure,
having been crossed with advantage by the short-horned Holder-
ness. In Staffordshire the old long-horned breed has been in most
parts superseded by short-horned Cattle ; it still, however, maintains
its ground in the north of that county, more particularly along the
banks of the Trent and the Dove, close to the borders of Derby-
shire. Between the long-horned and the short-horned races of our
THE OX TRIBE.
'7i
Cattle intervenes a race termed " middle-homs," represented by the
North Devonshire, Somersetshire, Herefordshire, Gloucestershire,
and Sussex Cattle.
The Devonshire breed is of great antiquity, and has lonpf been
celebrated for beauty ; like most of our other breeds it has become
improved during the last fifty or sixty years, and has, perhaps, now
attained to its perfection. The head of the Devon Ox is small, but
broad across the forehead, and narrow at the muzzle ; the horns
curve gracefully upwards, the chest is deep, and the back straight.
The Cow is small compared with the Bull.
The system of ploughing with Oxen is very generally practised in
Devonshire ; and where the land is not too heavy, no teams of Oxen
are superior, if equal, to these in this kind of work. It is, however,
to the grazier that this breed is more especially valuable, few Oxen
rivalling the Devonshire in disposition
to fatten, and in the quality of the flesh.
Generally speaking, this breed is in-
ferior to many others for the dairy, not,
indeed, as respects the quality of the
milk — for it yields a more than average
proportion of cream and butter — but the
quantity. Some farmers, however, have
found the North Devons to vield even
a large produce of milk, so that in this
particular much may depend on choice
of pasturage.
In Somersetshire the Devon breed pre-
vails, or, at least, the original breed has
been greatly crossed by the Devon, of
which it presents most of the excellences.
The Somersetshire Cattle are alike valu-
able for " the pail, the plough, and graz-
ing." The tract of country between
Bridgewater and Cross produces cheese
of well-known excellence ; the best
Cheddar cheese is made either in that
tract or the marshes round Glaston-
bury.
The Hereford improved breed, with
white faces, is valuable as fattening
rapidly, and that on inferior fare ; the
flesh is fine-grained, and highly prized
in the market : the Cows, however,
yield but a scanty portion of milk. In
Gloucestershire the Herefords are pre-
ferred for the team, and by graziers for
fattening ; but the old Gloucester breed
for milk. This old breed is of mixed
origin, consisting of a race of Welsh
descent, as is supposed, crossed by vari-
ous others, and among them the Alder-
ney. The rich Vale of Berkeley pro-
duces the finest Gloucester cheese.
The breed of Cattle in Sussex closely
resembles that of Devonshire : accord-
ing to judges, it is intermediate between
the Devon and Hereford, "having the
activity of the first, the strength of the
second, and the propensity to fatten
and the beautiful fine-grained flesh of
both." Its colour is deep chestnut-red,
or blood-bay, and a deviation from these
colours indicates a cross. In the Weald
of Sussex, Oxen of this valuable stock
are generally used for team-work ; and
so great is their strength and quick-
ness, that many teams have been known
to travel, with heavy loads, fifteen miles
a-day for several successive weeks, and
that without distress. The Sussex Cow,
as is the case with the Devon and Here-
ford, is very inferior in size to the Bull ,
and though the milk yielded is good, it
is of trifling quantity.
A valuable breed of middle-homed Cattle extends through South
Wales, and of this the Glamorganshire variety is highly celebrated.
The Oxen are readily fattened, and the Cows yield a fair quantity
of milk.
Fig. 707 presents specimens of the following breeds : — a, the old
Craven Bull ; b, the Shropshire Ox ; c, the new Leicester Bull ; d,
the Devon Cow ; e, the Hereford Bull , /, the Hereford Cow ; g, the
Sussex Cow.
The most extensively diffused breed of Cattle on our island, and
by far the most valuable, is that termed, by way of distinction, the
short-homed, they presenting every point in the highest excellency.
Of this breed England may justly be proud ; in it is united, as far as
possible, every good quality The form is admirable ; the Oxen
fatten quickly, and often attain to an enormous weight, and the Cows
are excellent as milkers.
It would appear that Durham and some parts of Yorkshire had
long possessed a breed of short-horned Cattle of Kirge size, and
celibratcd for the quantity of milk yielded bv the Cows; but this
breed, not only m figure, but in aptitude to fatten, and in the quality
of the flesh, required great improvement, other races far excelling it
m these points, so important to the grazier. This stock still
lingers, and is certainly valuable to the dain'-farmcr, who might,
however, substitute the improved breed for it with advantage. It is
about 100 years since the improved stock of this old but really fine
breed began to be established on the banks of the Tees, owing to
the judgment and care of the intelligent breeders of that district.
It differs from the old short-homs in possessing a well-developed
Fig. 707. — English Doiucslic CaUle.
figure, and in aptitude to acquire fat. The first step of improve-
m'cnt, resulting from the practical knowledge of Mr. Milbank and
other coadjutors, opened the way for the successful exertions of sub-
sequent spirited breeders, who, by pursuing a judicious plan in
crossing, have brought the breed to the highest pitch of perfec-
tion. Among these crosses it is supposed that the white wild
breed has contributed a share, and to this circumstance is at-
tributed the prevalence of white as characteristic of the stock.
It must not be supposed that every breed of short-horned Cattle is
endowed with the qualities characteristic of the improved stock,
which render it so valuable. There is. for example, a breed of
short-horned Cattle in Lincolnshire, with which the London market
is abundantly supplied; but the Cattle of this stock are by no
2 N
274
THE OX TRIBE.
means first-rate animals ; the head is not finely modelled, the bone
is comparatively larse, the limbs and the hips wide. In many in-
stances the stock has been improved by admixture with more highly-
bred animals, and rendered valuable, but the tlesh is not fine-
grained. On the whole, these Cattle are better adapted for the
dairj'-farmer than the grazier, as the Cows yield a fair quantity of
milk.
Among the short-horned race must be enumerated that singular
breed of Cattle called Alderneys, which has gained, and deserves,
a degree of celebrity, from the peculiar richness of the milk afforded
bv the Cows. These Cattle were originally from Normandy and the
islands on the French coast, from one of which (Alderney) they take
their name. They are small in size, awkwardly shaped, with a
Fig. 708. — English Short-horned Cattle.
peculiar bend in the back, and in every point more or less defective.
The milk yielded is not great in quantity, but abounds with butter ;
and it is from its richness that these animals are favourites. Ira-
probable as it might seem from the appearance of the Alderney, its
aptitude to fatten is remarkable ; even the Cows, when dried, soon
gain flesh, and even acquire considerable weight. It is chiefly in
pleasure-grounds, and the paddocks attached to the houses of per-
sons not engaged in farming for profit, that Cows of this breed are
to be seen. In Hampshire alone the Alderney breed is general,
constituting the stock of the farmer. It would appear that it is more
suited to the pasturage of that county than others which require
richer grazing-grounds, consume a large quantity of food, and return
a disproportionate supply of milk.
Fig. 708 represents the following :— a, Cow of the Alderney
breed ; b. Bull of the same breed ; c, a Cow of the Alloy breed,
formerly belonging to the Rev. Mr. Berry ; d, a celebrated short-
horned Bull, Firby, once belonging to Lord Althorp ; c, a Cow of
the same stock ; f, a polled, or hornless Cow ; g, a short-horned
Cow, of the West Highland breed ; h, a Glamorganshire Cow ; i,
improved Lincolnshire 0.x ; j. Bull of the Alloy breed ; k. Yorkshire
Cow. With respect to other breeds of which we have as yet said
nothing, we may observe, that in the Highlands of Scotland a race
of small black Cattle prevails, of which large herds are driven
southwards, and depastured in the grazing-lands of England. Of
these, numbers are brought to the London market. Of this race
many varieties exist. We may particularise the Kyloes of the
Western Islands and the Hebrides :
they are small, but hardy and well-
formed, thriving on coarse fare, and
producing fine-grained and high-
flavoured meat.
In the north of Argyleshire the Cattle
are larger than those of the Hebrides,
and are bred to the full size which
the pasturage will admit and the good
qualities of the animal bear without
deterioration. It is in this district that
the most perfect Highland Cattle are
oftenest seen. The animals are com-
pactly built, short, and rather strong
in the shank ; straight in the back,
with a fine muzzle, and small sharp
horns. As they wander over a wild
country, they are wild, and often fierce,
and their e)'e expresses energy and
spirit. It is solely for their flesh that
herds of these Cattle are reared ;
"every effort," says Mr. Youatt, "to
qualify them for the dairy will not only
lessen their hardiness of constitution
and propensity to fatten, but will fail
in rendering them valuable for the
purpose at which the farmer foolishly
aims." In the stewartry of Kirkcud-
bright, together with part of Ayrshire
and Dumfries, forming the old pro-
vince of Galloway, a beautiful polled,
or hornless breed of Cattle exists,
highly esteemed for their many excel-
lences. In figure they are admirable,
excepting that the neck of the Bull is
almost too thick ; but the chest is deep,
the limbs clean and short, the back
straight, and the body round. Black
is the prevailing colour. These Cattle
exceed the Argyle breed in size ; they
fatten well and quickly, and their flesh
is excellent. " Few Cattle sell so high
in the London market, and it is no
uncommon thing to see one of these
little Bullocks outsell a coarse Lincoln-
shire Bullock, although the latter is
heavier by several stones."
The Galloway Cattle are remarkable
for gentleness ; and robust and mus-
cular as the Bulls are, one of mis-
chievous habits and bad temper is sel-
dom met with. Ayrshire, Aberdeen-
shire, Perthshire, and other districts
have their peculiar breeds. In Wales,
several breeds of Cattle are found ; in
the Isle of Anglesey there is a fine
race of middle-horned Black Cattle,
with a deep chest, heavy shoulders,
enormous dewlap, and round body.
The appearance of the Bulls of this
breed is very noble and imposing; the
expression of the head is animated, bold, and even fierce ; and this
character is not lost altogether in the Oxen and Cows. The flesh
of these Cattle is of first-rate quality. The numerous inferior
crosses, or mongrel breeds of doubtful origin, into which the Cattle
of our island have ramified, need no especial notice.
The annual exhibition, by the Smithfield Cattle Club, at the Agri-
cultural Hall, Islington, in the north of London, in the first week of
December, is interesting, not only to those immediately engaged in
agricultural pursuits, but to every one who reflects upon the import-
ance of the Ox in a commercial sense, independently of every other
consideration. Here are to be seen the results of exertions princi-
pally carried on during the last eighty years, to unite and bring to
perfection the most desirable points in the various breeds of domestic
CO
CZ3
cc
THE OX TRIBE.
»7S
animals, -nhich were once peculiar to different parts of Great
Britain, but are now spread, in their improved form, over every part
of the country. In the gallery, a portion of which overlooks the
show-yard, are to be seen agricultural implements and machinery,
driven by steam, or other power, of the latest and most improved
construction ; roots and plants adapted to our climate, but which
are, as yet, comparatively unknown ; specimens of artificial manures,
and of the soils of districts differing from each other in their geo-
logical formation. In spite of all the advances which agriculture
has made during the present century, how slowly do improvements
e.xtend beyond the intelligent circle in which they are first adopted ;
and it is one of the great advantages of institutions such as the
Smithfield Club, and other agricultural societies, now held in
almost every part of the kingdom, at intervals, to spread them
more rapidly and widely, by drawing the agriculturist from the
secluded scenes in which he carries on his occupations, and bringing
them before him in the manner best calculated to demonstrate their
utility.
A prize O.x or Sheep is fatter than the ordinary market requires,
and hence it is often supposed that the stimulus of prizes for bring-
ing an animal into a state of unnecessary fatness is altogether a
work of supererogation. But the power of reaching an e.\cessive
size is simply a test. A piece of artillery is tried by a charge
greater than is ever required in ordinary practice ; and an 0.x is
fattened for exhibition beyond a useful marketable condition, simply
to show the capacity of the breed for acquiring, at the least expense
of food, and at the earliest age, such a condition as the public de-
mand really renders necessary.
We must now leave the subject of British Cattle, and comment
upon their analogues in other portions of the globe.
Fig. 709 presents us with an uncouth, savage, half-wild breed of
Cattle, spread through the Maremma of Italy. The Maremma is a flat
stripe of country, except in a few places where hills intervene, ex-
by these men, called Vaccari, to the fairs held in the towns, for
sale.
Some of the Bulls procured in the Campagna of Rome are very
noble and spirited animals, of fine figure and great strength. Fig.
710 represents one of them.
In Spain and Portugal, where extensive wilds and forest-lands
afford ample pasturage, large herds of Oxen, born in freedom,
Fig. 709. — Driving Wild Cattle in the Maremma.
tending from the mountains of Genoa to the extremity of Calabria,
a length of about 700 miles. Its breadth is from the base of the
lower range of the Apennine chain to the shore of the Mediter-
ranean. This sweep of country is pestilential in the extreme in
summer, and, though it yields the most luxuriant harvests, is only
partially brought into cultivation, the greater portion being left for
pasture. Here, besides the Cattle used as beasts of burden, or
draught, and employed in the work of the farms, large herds roam
unmolested under the care of keepers, which, together with the
Buffalo-keepers, and forest-rangers, are the only stationary popula-
tion in the wild Maremma. The former, as wild and savage as the
animals under their charge, are always mounted on fleet Horses,
and armed with a long lance, which they use in driving the Cattle,
and in defending themselves against the fierce Bulls, which, as well
as the Buffaloes, are extremely dangerous. These men are often
criminals who have fled from justice into the Maremma, where
they are obliged to sojourn, and are often employed by the pro-
prietors of the farms and Cattle, as rangers or drivers. Those who
are not. fugitives, adopt their occupation from choice, which,
dangerous and laborious as it is, is one of independence and free-
dom ; they are the analogues of the Arab of the desert, or the
Gauchos of the Pampas. Besides being paid for their services,
they rear Cattle of their own, which they are allowed to feed with
the rest. In the summer months they retire to the shady forests
along the sea-shore, where the air is not so unwholesome as in the
open plains. The Cattle are collected at various times, and driven
Fig. 710. — Bull of the Campagna of Rome.
wander uncontrolled, and untroubled, excepting by man, from whom
they flee with precipitation, till roused to fury by his assaults, when
they attack in turn, and bear upon him with resistless impetuosity.
It is from these herds that the Spaniards and Portuguese select the
fiercest and boldest for the revolting contests of the arena ; while
others are tamed, and broken-in for the ordi-
nary purposes of husbandry.
We may easily imagine the excitement pro-
duced by the chase and capture of a herd of
these fierce animals, and the danger to man
and Horse. The engraving (Fig. 711) repre-
sents such a scene in the great forest of
Alemtejo.
The chase is thus described by an ej'e-wit-
ness, who was engaged in it : — " I had re-
ceived," he says, " intimation that the village
of Alcoxete, on the Tagus, was to be the scene
of a Bull-fight, and that the villagers for many
miles were invited to join in the hunt, which
was to take place the following day. I ac-
cordingly crossed the river in the company of
about twenty persons, each being provided
with a long pole, having a small spike fixed
in one end, and mounted as inclination or
ability suited. When we arrived at the oppo-
site bank, a little before daybreak, we found
about 250 or 300 persons assembled, some
mounted on different sorts of quadrupeds, from
the noble Andalusian Horse to the humble
Donkey ; and many were on foot. All were
armed in a similar manner to ourselves. We
divided into two parties, one stretching in a
long line to the right, the other to the left ;
not far had we advanced in this manner, when we fell in with
a herd of Cattle, having twelve Bulls with it, which no sooner
descried us, than they bounded off with the speed of lightning.
The sport had now begun ; we put our Horses to the utmost
speed, threading our way among the tall pine-trees as well as we
could, and endeavouring, by wild cries, to drive the Bulls towards
the other party. At length, after about an hour's chase, some
half-dozen of us, who were better mounted than the rest, came
up with them, and commenced the attack with our long poles.
The manner was this :— one person, riding at full speed, gave
the Bull nearest him a sharp prick with the goad, which it no
sooner felt than it turned upon its assailant, and gave chase ;
another Horseman then coming up attacked it on the other side,
when, leaving the first assailant, it turned upon the second ; he, in
like manner was rescued by a third, and so on. The attention of
the infuriated animal was thus so distracted as to prevent his es-
cape, and give time for the other hunters to come up. The Bulls
were thus, at length, separated from the herd ; and a sufllicient
number of persons having arrived to form a circle round them, we
commenced operations for the purpose of driving them towards the
town. All the skill of the riders was now necessary, and all the
activity possessed by both man and Horse, to keep clear from the
pointed horns which were presented against him, as well as to pre-
vent the herd from breaking through the livmg net with which it
was surrounded. This was, perhaps, the most difBcult part, and
was attained by keeping each Bull separately engaged, and thus
THE OX TRIBE.
preventing united action : for what line was sufficcnt to resist the
simultaneous rush of these powerful animals ? The continued ex-
ertion had knocked up many of the Horses which had started in
the morning, and the circle became smaller and smaller as the day
advanced ; several persons, indeed, had been carried off severely
wounded by the horns and feet of the Bulls. Redoubling our efforts,
however, we at length, about four o'clock in the afternoon, suc-
ceeded in driving them into an inclosure, where a number of Oxen
(all at one time \vild) were quietly grazing. Here they were kept
till required for the next day's sport."
The Bull-fights, as conducted in the amphitheatres of Spain, the
lingering relics of those contests in which Rome so much delighted,
and which prevailed, more or less, throughout the Roman empire,
have been often described. These sanguinary spectacles are the
delight of the Spanish people, and are not only tolerated, but en-
couraged by the higher classes of both sexes, who find great satis-
faction in the torme'nts which the Bull endures from the lance of the
cavalier, or the Horse from the horns of the Bull.
One of the most imposing sights of the kind, during the present
century, was that presented at the Bull-fights given in honour of the
marriage of the King of Spain, in January, 1878, when several Bulls
were slain at Madrid. We give the following account as afforded
by an eye-witness : —
" Every part of the ring was full, when the band struck up the
royal anthem, and King Alfonso appeared with his queen. The
young queen looked round the amphitheatre, and the Alcalde
Fig. 711.— Wild Eull-hunting in the Alemtejo.
Marquis of Tomeros gave the signal. As soon as the people caught |
sight of the trumpeters and alguazils heading the splendid cortege a
cheer rose, clear and enthusiastic, such as no other festivity had yet
called forth. On came the servants in magnificent liveries ; out- '
riders preceding four coaches, in which rode the noble patrons of
the caballeros in plaza, the amateur horsemen destined to take the
place of the picadores. The cortege closed with the largest array
of Bull-fighters yet seen in the Madrid ring. Ten toreros, includ-
ing several famous espadas, who had retired from active life ; forty-
eight picadores, with their yellow leggings, and covered with
armour under their gilt and silk jackets, their heads covered with
the broad beaver of which Goya can give us the best idea. Behind,
some seventeen fellows on foot, dressed in every imaginable hue,
from pale blue to deep scarlet, are the banderilleros, who fix the
sharp dart behind the shoulder to infuriate the Bull. Lastly, the
Mules, gaily caparisoned, who drag away the slaughtered animal,
when the band plays to herald in another doomed victim of national
sport.
_" When all these worthies had formed in the ring to salute the
king and queen, it was a very fine scene, and they left by another
gate, leaving only, in the circus, two of the amateur picadores, and
the toreros who accompanied them. These young horsemen were
attired in the costume ot the days of Philip II., and a cloak of
bright scarlet and deep violet hung on their shoulders gracefully.
The plurhed cap was that of courtiers in the pictures of Velasquez ;
the lance, a long weapon with sharp steel point, which remained
fixed in the Bull's back. These caballeros in plaza pranced about
very nicely on spirited steeds, and their object was to hit the Bull
just as they passed him from left to right. Most of them did so
without much harm, and only four, indeed, lost their steeds,
besides getting a severe tumble in one case. When the poor
animal had been enough worried, a torero would advance to the line
of halberdiers, below the royal box, and make a little speech to his
majesty, who stood uncovered to hear it. Then, after many
manoeuvres witli caj>a and Toledo blade, a Frascuelo, or a Currito,
would despatch the Bull with a stroke behind the shoulder. This
might be the time-honoured ceremonial of royal Bull-fights, but it
only seemed child's play to the real public, who cheered loudly when
the picadores replaced the caballeros in plaza. Real work begins.
A peal of music, and the thick door is opened, ushering in a large
brown Bull of Miura. The noble beast stops short, dazzled with
light, and surprised to see this scene, when he expected from his
dark den to dash forth on to the green sward of his Andalusian
pasture-ground. He espies the picadores, and away he goes at
them, tumbling over four, in rapid succession, with a single blow
right in the breast of the Horse, whose life-blood pours forth. The
chulos and toreros barely have time on each occasion to save the
rider, and the people raise deafening
roars for more Horses. Others are
brought in as the Miura Bull is chasing
the fleet toreros with red capas. At
the four Horses goes the Bull again,
and in a minute they lie lifeless on
the ground, with their riders sprawling
away in mortal fright. ' Bravo, Toro,'
yells the audience ; and it is a curious
sight to turn round and look at them.
Some are standing and gesticulating
with animation. Others swear and curse
the cowardly toreros, who leap over the
barrier to save their lives. Many ap-
plaud, and on every face you can read
intense excitement. It is sad to say,
but a glance up above will show you
that the lovely occupants of the boxes
have flashing eyes, and flushed counte-
nances, which denote that the Castilian
blood does not curdle at the sight of
cruel and useless bloodshed. We need
not mince the matter. They love the
sport and the excitement, which are not
to be found in the tameness of social
amusements. They forget, in the Bull-
ring, the prejudices of society and the
barriers of station, so far, that proud
nobles display as much enthusiasm as
the humble workman, whose week's
salary purchased his seat.
" To return to our Miura Bull, he has
got weary of Horses, and he wants
better opponents, so he charges straight
at the halberdiers. They lower their
pikes to receive him, and he breaks
through, putting them to a sad rout.
Three-cornered hats, broken halberds,
and swords strew the ground ; and, but
for the toreros, his majesty's body-
guard would have fared badly. The Miura, not content with this
little performance, which caused intense excitement, jumped over
the barrier, and charged at the motley crowd of guards, servants,
police, and toreros who assembled there. It was a ludicrous rout,
helter-skelter, until Senor Bull returned to the ring. There he met
his fate at the hands of Frascuelo. The pet of Madrid amateurs
never looked better than in his red satin breeches and jacket,
embroidered with gold and silver. His graceful figure and small
head denote much vigour and energy, whilst the feet are small,
like a Creole's. He advances coolly to the Bull, shaking a red
cloth, whilst in his right hand flashes the blade. The Bull charges
several times, and Frascuelo glides lightly away. The whole ring
is in feverish expectation ; and a shudder runs through many at
the recollection that Frascuelo was so terribly wounded there a
few months ago. Suddenly he pauses, and poises the cloth in his
left hand. He looks at the Bull fixedly, and raises the blade
rather high, advancing slowly. The animal charges madly at him,
and the audience cry out instinctively. But Frascuelo, with won-
derful intrepidity, has awaited the charge, planting his sword be-
hind the head, full in the deadly spot. The Bull reels and falls,
whilst a deafening cheer rings through every part of the circus.
RUM TN A NT ANIMALS.
:R9
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS-LIVE SPECIMENS.
East African Buffalo
Hybrid Gayal
Cape Buffalo
Gayal
Zebu
Bless Bok . .
Indian Antelope
Anoa
Addax
Bubaline Antelope
Tora Antelope
Sing-Sing . .
Nyigliai
White-tailed Gnu
Beisa Antelope
Leucoryx . .
Sable Antelope
Bohor Antelope
Eland
Rein-deer . .
Wapiti
Fallow Deer
Axis Deer . .
Molucca Deer
Philippine Deer
Red Deer . .
Barbary Deer
Sambur Deer
Schomburg-k's Deer
Mesopotamian Fallow
Moose
Oxen.
Bichalus aquinoctiaUs.
( Between Bos indicus atid bos-
\ fro)! fall's.
Biibalis caffer.
Bos frniitalis.
Z. indicus.
Antelopes.
Damalis albifrons.
Antelope cervicapra.
Anoa deprcssicornis.
Addax 7iasomaculatus.
Alcelaphtis bubal us.
Alcclaphus tora.
Kobiis sing-sing (Ben)i.)
Portax picta.
Catoblepas gnu.
Oryx beisa.
Oryx leucoryx.
Hippotragus nigir.
Ccr-jicapra bolior.
Oreas canna.
Rangifer tara}idus.
Deer — Continued.
Deer.
Cervus caitadcnsis.
Dama vulgaris.
Cervus axis.
Cervus moluccensis.
Cervus philippinus.
Cervus elephas.
Cervus barbarus.^
Cervus aristotelis.
Cervus scho?nbcrgki-
Dama niesopotamicus.
A Ices machiis.
Rusa Doer
Cervus rusa.
Mexican Deer
Cervus mexicalius.
Virginian Deer . .
Cervus virgianus.
Large-eyed Deer . .
Cervus enopis.
Formosan Deer . .
Cc7~vus pscudaxis.
Mantchurian Deer
Cervus mantchuricus.
Japanese Deer . .
Cervus sika.
Axis Deer . .
Cervus axis.
Spotted Porcine Deer .
Cervus -minor.
Hog Deer . .
Cervus porci?tus.
Prince Alfred's Deer
Cervus alfredi.
Naked-eared Deer
Cervus gyrnnotis.
Sheep.
Mouflon . • Ovis musimon.
Grecian Ibex Capra cegragrus.
Barbary Wild Sheep . . . . Ovis barbarus.
Aden Sheep Ovisarics.
Gazelles.
Philantomba Antelope . .
Ceplialopltus maxzvcllii.
Bay Antelope . .
Ceplialopltus dorsalis.
Duyker Boc
Cephalophus mergens.
Brown Indian Antelope .
Tetracerus subquadricornutus
Gazelle
Gazella dorcas.
Chinese Water Deer
Hydrypotes iiiermis.
Wood Brocket . .
Cervus nemioragm.
Egyptian Gazelle. .
Gazella dorcas.
Bennett's Gazelle
Gazella bctinetti.
Persian Gazella . .
Gazella subgutturosa.
Arabian Gazelle . .
Gazella arabica.
Spring Bok
Gazella euchore.
Sclater's Muntjac
Cervulus sclateri.
Reeve's Muntjac . .
Cervulus reevesii.
Indian Muntjac . .
Cervulus fnuntjac.
2 P
ago
THE HORSE TRIBE.
CHAPTER XIX.
MAMMALIA.— ORDER, SOLIDUNGULA— THE HORSE, Etc.
!?i^ ERHAPS it IS not too much to say that the
Horse tribe, including the Horse, Ass, and
Mule, are the most necessary of all animals to
man. They are generally employed as beasts
of burden ; but, recently, societies have been
formed in Paris, &c., for the purpose of
converting the Horse into use as food for
, t man ; while the hide, hoofs, bones, and
J fat are variously used in manufactures. It
I is no wonder, therefore, that the Horse,
especially, has had great attention paid to
its breed, whether for the purpose of securing
speed for traffic, or strength for drawing loads.
The Ass has, in this country, lately become much
improved through careful culture, and in many
parts the breeding of Mules has been similarly
attended to.
Mr. Dallas remarks that the order Solidun
GULA has been established for the reception of th
Horse and its allies, forming the single family
the Equidm. Their most striking character con-
sists in the structure of the feet, which are com-
posed only of a single toe, inclosed at its extremity
in an entire hoof. The structure of the leg bones
is much the same as in the generality of the Mafn-
mah'a, except that the humerus and femur are compara-
tively short ; and the bones of the fore-arm and shank, which
are much longer, are partially anchylosed together, so that no
rotatory motion of these bones can take place. The bones of
the carpus and tarsus are large and solid, and resemble those of
the other Mammalia in their general arrangement. Beyond
these we find a single elongated metatarsal bone, the repre-
sentative of the middle toe ; the remainder of the metatarsal
bones are either entirely deficient, or represented by slender
bones, called splint bones ; but the whole weight of the animal is
supported by the middle toe. This is completed by three phalanges,
of which the last bears the single horny hoof.
The skull (Fig. 745) is of an elongated form, the jaws being much
produced, and the lower one especially of great size and power.
Both the jaws are furnished with six well-developed incisor teeth ;
small canines are also present in both jaws in the males ; but in the
females these teeth are usually quite deficient, or rudimentary. The
molars are six on each side in each jaw ; their worn surface is flat,
and exhibits a complicated pattern of enamel, generally in lunate
ensiform cartilage. The neural arches of the last five cervical ver-
tebrae expand above into flattened, sub-quadrate, horizontal plates of
bone, wnh a rough tubercle in place of a spine : the zygapophyses,
z, are unusually large. The perforated transverse process sends a
plcurapophysis, //, downwards and forwards, and a diapophysis, d,
Fig. 745. — Skull of the Horse ; oc, occipital bone ; /, temporal ;
y, frontal; «, nasal; m, superior maxillary; im, intermax-
illary ; >/ii, inferior maxillary ; 0, orbit ; i, incisor teeth ;
c, canines ; j/ia, molars.
forms. Between the molars and the canines there is always a great
interval ; and it is this space that receives the bit, by which that
powerful and valuable animal, the Horse, is subjected to the will of
his human master.
The skin is clothed with hair, which is short on the general sur-
face of the body, but usually attains a considerable length on the
ridge of the neck, forming the flowing mane, which adds so much
to the beauty of the Horse ; the tail also, which is rather short, is
furnished with a tuft of long hairs. The eye is rather large and full,
and the external ears elongated, upright, and pointed.
The following remarks in respect to the skeleton, teeth, &c., of
the Horse are quoted from Professor Owen. (See Fig. 746.)
The vertebral formula of the Horse is — 7 cervical, c ; 19 dorsal,
D; 5 lumbar, L; 5 sacral, S; and 17 caudal. Eigh't pairs of ribs
directly join the sternum, 60; which consists of seven bones, and an
Fig. 746. — Skeleton of the Horse.
backwards and outwards, in the third to the sixth cervicals, in-
clusive : in the seventh the diapophysial part alone is developed, and
is imperforate. The spinous processes suddenly and considerably
increase in length in the first three dorsals, and attain the greatest
length in the fifth and sixth, after which they gradually shorten to
the thirteenth, and continue of the same length to the last lumbar.
The lumbar diapophyses are long, broad, and in close juxtaposition ;
the last presents an articular concavity adapted to a corresponding
convexity on the fore-part of the diapophysis of the first sacral. The
scapula, 51, is long and narrow, and according to its length and
obliquity of position the muscles attached to it, which act upon the
humerus, operate with more vigour, and to this bone the attention
of the buyer should be directed, as indicative of one of the good
points in a Horse. The coracoid is reduced to a mere confluent
knob. The spine of the scapula, 51, has no acromion. The hume-
rus, 53, is remarkable for the size and strength of the proximal
tuberosities, in which the scapular muscles are implanted. The
joint between it and the scapula is not fettered by any bony bar con-
necting the blade-bone with the breast-bone ; in other words, there
is no clavicle. The ulna, represented by its olecranal extremity, 54,
is confiuent with the radius, 55. The os magnum, in the second
series of carpal bones, 56, is remarkable for its great breadth, cor-
responding to the enormous development of the metacarpal bone of
the middle toe, which forms the chief part of the foot. Splint-
shaped rudiments of the metacarpals, answering to the second, it,
and fourth, iv, of the pentadactyle foot, are articulated respectively
to the trapezoides and the reduced homologue of the unciforme.
The mid-digit. Hi, consists of the metacarpal, called " cannon-
bone," and of the three phalanges, which have likewise received
special names in veterinary anatomy, for the same reason as other
bones have received them in human anatomy. " Phalanges " is the
" general " term of these bones, as being indicative of the class to
which they belong, and " ha;mapophyses " is the "general" term
of parts of the inferior arches of the head-segments. Just as, from
the modifications of these hzemapophyses, they have come to be
called "maxilla," "mandibula," " ceratohyal," &c.,so the pha-
langes of the Horse's foot are called — the first, " great pastern
bone," the second, " small pastern bone," and the third, which sup-
ports the hoof, the " coffin bone ; " a sesamoid ossicle between this
and the second is called the " coronary." The ilium, 62, is long,
oblique, and narrow, like its homotype, the scapula ; the ischium,
63, is unusually produced backwards. The extreme points of these
two bones show the extent to which the bending muscles and ex-
THE HORSE TRIBE.
291
tending muscles of the log arc attached ; and according to the dis-
tance of these points from the thigh-bone, the angle, at which they
are therein inserted, becomes more favourable for their force; the
longer, therefore, and the more horizontal the pelvis, the better the
hind-quarter of the Horse. Its qualities for swiftness and mainte-
nance of speed depend much on the " good point" due to the de-
velopment of this part of the skeleton. The femur, 65, is charac-
terised by a third trochanter springing from the outer part of the
shaft before the great trochanter. There is a splint-shaped rudi-
ment of the proximal eni of the fibula, 67, but not any rudiment of
the distal end. The tibia, 66, is the chief bone of the leg. The
heel-bone, " calcaneuni," is much jjroduced, and forms what is
called the " hock." The astragalus is characterised by the depth
and obliquity of the superior trochlea, and by the extensive and un-
divided anterior surface, which is almost entirely appropriated by
the naviculare. The external cuneiform is the largest of the second
scries of tarsals, being in proportion to the metatarsal of the large
middle digit. Hi, which it mainly supports. The diminished
cuboides articulates partly with this, and partly with the rudiment
of the metatarsal corresponding with that of the fourth toe, iv. A
similar rudiment of the metatarsal of the toe, corresponding with
that of the second, zV, articulates with a cuneiforme medium — here,
however, the innermost of the second series of tarsal bones.
In respect to dentition. Professor Owen remarks that no food is
more remote or distinct from flesh than grass. Extremities en-
veloped in hoofs are incapacitated from seizing and retaining a
living prey, therefore all hoofed INIammals are necessarily herbivo-
rous : hence the complexity of their grinding teeth, the concomitant
strength of their grinding muscles, and weakness of the biting
muscles ; the length of the neck, to enable the head to reach the
verdant earth, and the length and slenderness of the jaws. The
absence of a clavicle, and of any power of rotating the bones of
the fore-leg and fore-foot, are also constant characteristics of both
great divisions of the Urigulata, or hoofed quadrupeds.
The Horse is an example of such herbivorous dentition. The
grinding teeth are six in number, on each side of both upper and
lower jaws, with thick square crowns of great length, and deeply
implanted in the sockets, those of the upper jaw being slightly
curved. When the summits or exposed ends of these teeth begin
to be worn down by mastication, the interblended enamel, dentine,
and cement afford the pattern shown in Fig. 747 ; it is penetrated
Fig. 747- — Grinding surfaces of the upper and lower Molars of a Horse.
from within by a valley, entering obliquely from behind, forwards,
and dividing into or crossed by the two cresentic valleys, which soon
become insulated. There is a large lobe at the end of the valley.
The outer surface of the crown is impressed by two deep longitudinal
channels. In the lower jaw the teeth are narrower, transversely,
than in the upper jaw, and are divided externally into two convex
lobes, by a median longitudinal fissure; internally they present
three principal unequal convex ridges, and an anterior and posterior
narrower ridge. All the valleys, fissures, and folds in both upper
and lower grinders are lined by enamel, which also coats the whole
exterior surface of the crown. Of the series of six teeth in each
jaw, the first three, ^ 2, 3, 4, are premolars ; the rest, 7n i, 2, 3, are
true molars.
The canines are small in the Horse, and are rudimental in the
mare ; the unworn crown is remarkable for the folding-in of the an-
terior and posterior margins of enamel. The upper canine is
situated in the middle of the long interspace between the incisors
and molars; the lower canine is close to the outer incisor, but is
distinguished by its more pointed form. The incisors are six in
number in both jaws ; they are arranged close together in a curve,
at the end of the jaw ; the crown is broad, and the contour of the
biting surface, before it is much worn, approaches an ellipse. The
incisors of the Horse are distinguished from those of Ruminants by
their greater length and curvature, and from those of all other
animals by the fold of enamel (Fig. 748), e, which penetrates the
crown from its flat summit, like the inverted finger of a tjlove.
When the tooth begins to be worn, the fold becomes an island of
enamel, inclosing a cavity partly filled by cement, and partly by the
substances of the food, and is called the "mark." In aged Horses
the incisors are worn down below the extent of the fold, and the
" mark'' disappears. This cavity is usually obliterated in the first
or mid incisors at the sixth year, in the second incisors at the
seventh year, and in the third or outer incisors
at the eighth year, in the lower jaw. The mark
remains somewhat longer in the incisors of the
upper jaw.
Fig. 748 is a longitudinal section of the in-
cisor of a Horse ; d is tlie dentine, c the enamel,
and c the cement, a layer of which is reflected
into the deep central depression of the crown ;
s indicates the coloured mass of tartar and
particles of food which fill up the cavity, form-
ing the " mark " of the Horse-dealer.
The following is the average course of de-
velopment and succession of the teeth in the
Horse : — -The summits of the first functional de-
ciduous molar, (^ 2, "first grinder" of veteri-
nary authors, are usually apparent at birth ;
the succeeding grinder, d 3, sometimes arises
a day or two later, sometimes together with the
first. Their appearance is speedily followed by
that of the first deciduous incisor — "centre
nipper " of veterinarians — which usually cuts
the gum between the third and sixth days.
Fig- 74s. — Section of The second deciduous incisor appears between
Horse's Incisor. the twentieth and fortieth days ; and about this
time the rudimental grinder, p i, comes into
place, and the last deciduous molar, d 4, begins to cut the gum ;
about the sixth month the inferior lateral, or third incisors, with
the deciduous canine, make their appearance. The minute canine
is shed about the time that the contiguous incisor is in place,
and is not retained beyond the first year. The upper deciduous
canine is shed in the course of the second year. The first true
molar, 711 i, appears between the eleventh and thirteenth months.
The second molar follows before the twentieth month. The first
functional premolar, -p 2, displaces the deciduous molar, d 2, at
from two years to two years and a-half old. The first permanent
incisor protrudes from the gum at between two years and a-half
and three. At the same period, the penultimate premolar,
/ 3, pushes out the penultimate milk molar, d 3, and the
penultimate true molar comes into place. The last premolar dis-
places the last deciduous molar at between three years and a-half
and four years ; the appearance above the gum, of the last true
molar, m 3, is usually somewhat earlier. The second incisor
pushes out its deciduous predecessor about the same period. The
permanent canine, or "tusk," next follows; its appearance indi-
cates the age of four years, but it sometimes comes earlier. The
third, or outer incisor, pushes out the deciduous incisor about the
fifth year, but is seldom in full place before the Horse is five-and-a-
half years old. Upon the rising of the third permanent incisor, or
"corner nipper" of the veterinarians, the "Colt" becomes a
"Horse," and the "Filly," a "Mare," in the language of the
Horse-dealer. After the disappearance of the "mark" in the in-
cisors, at the eighth or ninth year, the Horse becomes " aged."
The following is the dental formula of the Horse : —
Incisors — , canines in male -^^, premolars 5jll3, molars 1^3^. .q
In the Horse there are warty callosities on the inner aspect of the
fore and hind legs ; in the other species on the fore-legs only. The
lips are muscular and prehensile, and the muzzle hairy. We next
refer to the species and varieties of the Eqiiida:, or Horse family.
Genus Equus — The Horse.
The Horse {Equus caballiis). — We present at one view a group
of British Horses, which cannot fail to interest those who admire
this noble animal, and are aware (and who is not?) of the excellence
of our breeds. Fig. 749 ; a represents the Welsh Pony ; b, the
Shetland Pony ; c, the Cart Horse ; d, the Hunter ; c, the Racer.
Fig. 750 is the copy of a Horse's head, from a fragment in the Elgin
marbles, British Museum, which will serve to give an idea of the
characters of the War-Horse of .ancient Greece, and which forcibly
calls to mind the splendid description in the Book of Job — " Thou
hast given the Horse strength, thou hast clothed his neck with
thunder" (Job xxxix. 19 — 25); or that of Virgil — "Turn siqua sonum
procul arma dedere," &c. ("Georg." lib. iii., line 83, ctseq.)
A natural question at the outset of our description of the Horse
suggests itself; it is one, however, which has been often asked, but
which is not easy of solution. What is the origin cf our domestic
Horse; and at what period, and by what people, was it first re-
claimed ? We may at once state that the origin of the domestic
Horse is unknown, and probably does not exist. The troops of wild
Horses which scour the deserts of Tartary are regarded by natural-
292
THE HORSE TRIBE.
ists, and with justice, as the descendants of a domesticated stock ;
and the herds of Horses which roam over the plains of South America
are confessedly derived from Horses introduced by the Spaniards,
according to Azara, in 1535. It is a hazardous opinion, but some
have been disposed to entertain it, that the Horse as now existing is
not the pure descendant of a single species, but a factitious being,
the result of a mixture of closely-allied primitive species, whose
hybrid offsprings, possessing prolific powers, have again and again
blended together, till, by care, climate, and soil, the distinct breeds
have been formed which are now spread over different parts of the
globe. How far the hypothesis, which was entertained by Pallas
and others, approximates to the truth it is impossible to say ; certain
it is that no primitive species of Horse, no wild descendant of the
original stock, is now existing. Whatever it once was, it exists no
. . Fig. 749. — Group of Horses.
longer ; nor know we when or under what circumstances it vanished
from the face of the earth. Of what country is the Horse originally
a native ? According to Mr. Bell, who considers it "at least highly
probable that the Egyptians first reduced the Horse under human
subjugation, it is to the same country, or at least to those parts of
Africa which were in close relationship to it, that we may reasonably
look for its native locality before that event." It may be so ; but we
cannot help thinking that the wild Horse (if specifically the same) was
spread over many countries : nor is it perhaps too much to suspect
that the bones found so abundantly in superficial gravels, sands, and
clays, &c., may be, some of them at least, the relics of the primitive
race, from which the modern stock has descended ; but which has,
after giving to man a reclaimed progeny, passed utterly away. With
respect to the Ox, Cuvier maintains a similar theory, and ^Ir. Bell
leans to the same opinion. " In this country," he observes, " and
in many parts of the continent, have occurred numerous fossil bones
of Oxen, with large horns," &c. ; and he adds, " I cannot but con-
sider it as extremely probable that these fossil remains belonged to
the original wild condition of our domestic Ox— an opinion which
Cuvier appears to have entertained, who calls the skulls 'crA)ics
scmblablcs d ccux d'u?t bcEuf domcstique.' They are found only in
very recent deposits, mingled with the remains of various other
animals."
It is generally supposed that the Egyptians were the first who re-
claimed the Horse ; and this opinion is founded on the circumstance
that in Scripture the first notice of the Horse is in connection with
Etrypt, when Joseph attained to power and dignity, and that at a
subsequent period Egypt supplied Solomon with Horses. Certainly
the Horse was at an early period domesti-
cated in Egypt, and used as an arm of
war, and on state occasions : " And he
(Pharaoh) made him (Joseph) ride in the
second chariot which he had" (Gen. xli.
43) ; and during the seven years' famine
Joseph not only sold corn out of the royal
granaries for money, but " gave them bread
in exchange for Horses" (Gen. xlvii. 17);
and no doubt Egypt had a noble breed.
In their contests, however, for the Promised
Land, we find the Israelites brought in col-
lision with the Canaanites, Amorites, and
others, in whose armies were " Horses and
chariots very many" (Joshua xi. 4); and
we read that " he houghed their Horses,
and burned their chariots with fire" — so
that other nations of that period, besides the
Egyptians, employed this animal, and in
the same manner. As far back as the re-
cords of history conduct us, we find the
Scythians possessed of Horses, and cele-
brated as horsemen. Was the Scythian
breed anciently obtained from Egypt ? The
Babylonians possessed vast numbers of
Horses : Tritantoechmes, a Satrap of Baby-
lonia, possessed, in addition to his War-
Horscs, 800 for private use, and 16,000
brood mares. India possessed Horses, and
assisted Xerxes with cavalry and chariots
of war : some drawn by Horses, others by
wild Asses. The Bactrians and Caspians
also brought cavalry and infantry: (Hero-
dotus.) The same author, speaking of the
products of India, viz., quadrupeds and
birds, which are larger than those of any
other country, excepts the Horse, which is
surpassed in size by the NisoL;an Horse of
the Medes, of which ten gorgeously capari-
soned added to the splendour of Xerxes'
array ; and Strabo expressly asserts that
there was a dispute as to whether the
Nisoean Horse was a native of Media or
Armenia, as specimens of the breed were
to be found in both countries. Leaving
undecided, as it ever must be, the origin
and original country of the Horse, we may
observe, that at an early period the Horse
was used in our island. When Julius Caesar
invaded our shores, he was opposed not
only by infantry, but by horsemen and
charioteers ; and the skill with which the
Horses and chariots were managed excited
the great warrior's admiration — a circum-
stance sufficient to prove a long acquaint-
~~^ ance with the animal, as well as that the
Britons in Cssar's time were more advanced
in social refinement than some historians
have admitted. We do not know with cer-
tainty the characters of the ancient British Horse ; yet, from the
rapid movements of the cavalry, and the manner in which the
charioteers dashed along, we may readily infer that the Horses
were light, strong, docile, and spirited ; probably they much re-
sembled those used by the Cossacks of the Don and Volga at the
present day. They were, at all events, highly valued, and were
exported, together with British Mastiffs, to Rome.
We know that the Romans possessed an excellent breed of
Horses, and paid great attention to them. In modern Italy the
breed is crossed with the Barb, from the north of Africa ; at least,
the Horses used for light work, the saddle, and trials of speed, are
of this mixture, and the term Barbari is given to them. These Bar-
bari are small, generally rather under than over fourteen hands,
clean limbed, well formed, compact, and spirited, giving evidence of
THE HORSE TRIBE.
293
good blood. The Barb is an offset of the Arab race, and is greatly
mixed with the best Andalusian stock in Spain.
The Persian Horse closely resembles the Arab, but is generally
taller. M. Huzard states that in the north of P^sia a race of
Horses e.xists stronger than the Normandy Horse, and which are
fed on the vast plains of Chirvan and Mazenderan. He adds that
these Horses are in great request for the Persian cavalry.
The best Horses in India are of Arabic or Persian descent. In
Moore's " Notices of the Indian Archipelago," we are assured that
in every country lying east of the Burrampooter and south of the
tropic, the Horse, however diversified, is little better than a Pony.
This fact, after quitting Bengal, is first noticed in the countries of
Cassay, Ava, and Pegu. Here the Horse seldom equals thirteen
hands high, but is active, spirited, and well formed. As we pro-
ceed to the south and east, the Horse becomes more diminutive, and
those of Lao, Siam, and the southern provinces of China are in-
ferior in size and beauty to those of Ava and Pegu. The Siamese
and Cochin-Chinese have no cavalry, and make no use of their
Ponies, except for riding on ordinary occasions. Even for this last
purpose they are not esteemed, the Elephant being always pre-
ferred as a more respectable and dignified mode of conveyance. In
the Malayan Peninsula there are no plains or roads, and the inha-
bitants, living almost exclusively on the low and woody banks of the
rivers, naturally substitute their canoes and boats for beasts of car-
riage and burden, and hence the Horse has not yet been naturalised
amongst them. Proceeding eastward
in the Malayan Islands, the Horse first
occurs in the interior of Sumatra ; and
here we have tw-o of the best breeds
known in those countries, the Achin and
Batta, both very spirited, but small, and
better suited for draught than the saddle.
Of all the countries of the Archi-
pelago, the Horse is most frequent in
the island of Java. The Javanese Pony
is generally larger than that of Sumatra,
and has more the form of a Horse, is
more temperate, but less gay and hand-
some. Two distinct races may be de-
scribed — that of the plains, and that of
the mountains. The first of these is
somewhat coarse, somewhat sluggish in
disposition, and so large as occasionally
to reach the height of thirteen hands
and an inch. The second is small and
hardy, and, as in the case of the Kunin-
gan, a breed in the interior of Cheri-
bon, sometimes very handsome. The
Horse is used in Java for the saddle,
and as a beast of burden, but never by
the natives in agricultural labour or
any species of draught. Europeans use
them extensively in their carriages ; and
on the level and w-ell-constructed roads
of Java, the traveller is conveyed at the
rate of twelve, and even fifteen miles
an hour in a carriage drawn by four of
these little animals. We must take this
opportunity, however, to remark that
there is no advantage whatever in the
employment of this diminutive breed of
Horses. A pair of good English Post-Horses will go a stage of
fifteen miles on such roads as those of Java without difficulty. To
perform the same distance in a carriage of the same weight re-
quires twelve Java Ponies. One Horse, therefore, is equal to six
Ponies; and as, at the utmost, a full-grown Horse will not consume
above double the food of a Pony, the charge of maintaining him, in
proportion to the work he is capable of performing, is no more than
one-third.
The Horse, but of a very inferior breed, is found on the islands of
Bali and Lombok. Passing over these, we come to the island of
Sambawa, which produces two different races — those of Tamboro
and Bima. The last, especially those of Gunong Api, are by far
the handsomest breed of the Archipelago, and are extensively ex-
ported. The Bima Ponies possess strength, symmetry, and beauty ;
and at first appearance bear some resemblance to the Arab. Upon
a closer examination, however, it does not appear that they are en-
titled to be considered as possessed of the qualities designated
blood in the language of the turf, and which is only to be found in
the Arab, and his descendant— the English Race-Horse. The
limbs indeed exhibit this character, but it is wanting in the skin and
coat, which are thick and harsh, and it is not even present in the
shape and expression of the head, although very pretty.
After passing Sambawa, the Horse is traced to Flores, Sandal-
wood Island, and Timor ; but nowhere farther to the east, being un-
known in the Moluccas, New Guinea, and the neighbouring islands.
Next to Java, the Horse is found in the greatest abundance on the
island of Celebes. Upon the whole, we consider this to be the best
breed of the Archipelago. In the great island of Borneo the Horse
is found only in its north-eastern extremity, opposite to the Suluk
cluster, where, also, as well as in the group of the Philippine islands,
it is frequent. The Philippine Pony bears some resemblance to that
of Celebes ; but, judging from the specimens we have seen, is some-
what larger than this, and in figure and beauty inferior to the breeds
of Sambawa, Java, and Sumatra. We do not imagine that it con-
tains any admixture of the Spanish blood, although this has been
suspected.
Within the Archipelago, as in other parts of the world, the colour
of the Horse is singularly connected with quality, temper, and
locality. The prevailing colour of the Achin Ponies is piebald,
which becomes rarer and rarer as we proceed eastward. A Bima
Pony of this colour is as rarely seen as a black Arab. The prevail-
ing colour of the Batta Pony is bay and mouse-colour. In Java the
best Horses are those of the most prevalent colours — viz., bays and
greys ; the roan and mouse-coloured Horses are very generally good.
The worst colours are black and chestnut. The Javanese have
such a dislike to the latter colour, that chestnut Horses are not per-
mitted to appear at their public tournaments. Bays, greys, and
duns are the best and most frequent colours in the Bima Ponies.
Blacks and chestnuts are not frequent, but they are not considered
inferior. Greys and bays prevail amongst the Ponies of Celebes
and the Philippines, nearly to the e.xclusion of all others.
Fig. 750. — Horse's Head.
In the plains of Celebes wild herds of Horses exist, doubtless the
descendants of a domesticated stock.
During the dominion ofthe Romans in Britain, it is very probable
that some modification in the characters of the British Horse would
result from its admixture with other breeds imported by the con-
querors from Italy, Gaul, and Spain ; but to what extent this took
place we have no means. of ascertaining. At a subsequent pcrio 1,
during the Saxon sway, it would appear that a fine breed existed in
our island : for we find that Athelstan (A.D. 930) forbade the ex-
portation of Horses under any circumstances, except as presents to
monarchs, whence it may be concluded that the English Horse was
then valued on the continent. Besides endeavouring to preserve
the native breed, Athelstan endeavoured to improve it, and received
several German Running- Horses— that is, Horses formed for speed
—from Hugh Capet, of France. .
The Norman Conquest was productive of changes m the bnglisH
breed resulting from the introduction of the Spanish Horse by some
of the barons on the estates they had acquired by the right of the
sword. The Crusades brought the English into contact with the
spirited Horses of Arabia and Syria ; and there is httle doubt that
some were brought to our country. Two Horses of Eastern origin,
and purchased at Cyprus, were possessed by Richard Coeur-de-Lion,
and are celebrated as unequalled for speed : most probably they
were not adapted for the tournament, or the shock of battle, or the
wciti-ht of a knight cased in a heavy mail.
In the reign 01 John, who, as Rapin observes, scarcely possessed
2(54
THE HORSE TRIBE.
one valuable qualification, chosen Horses were introduced by his
direction from Flanders, for the purpose of improving the breed of
draught Horses ; and that monarch himself accumulated a stud of
the most superb Horses to be found.
During subsequent reigns, Spanish Barbs, Lombardy War-Horses,
and heavy Flanders Horses, were obtained ; and thus gradually three
sets or breeds of Horses became established, exclusive of the Pen)',
■which, time immemorial, has inhabited the mountains of Wales and
Scotland, and the Shetland Islands.
Of these breeds, one was the War-Horse, fitted to bear a warrior
clad in heavy armour, oppressive to the wearer, but more to the
Horse, which was also, to a great degree, protected in the same man-
ner. Its principal requisite was strength and endurance, not, how-
ever, to the exclusion of a certain degree of fleetness : it probably
resembled the Coach-Horse of this century, and w-as a powerful
animal, of high action and great spirit. Besides this stalwart
breed, there was evidently a lighter race, fitted for ordinary pur-
poses, of moderate stature, fleet, yet strong, and capable of under-
going fatigue. Horses of this kind were termed Running-Horses :
they were used as hackneys, for travelling, and also for running
races, a sport practised at Smithfield as early as the time of Henry
II., though racing cannot be said to have been then in its palmy
days. It was in the reign of Henry "VIII., and especially of Eliza-
beth, that regular race-meetings were established at Chester, Stam-
ford, and elsewhere ; gradually a passion for the sport increased,
and in the reign of James I., who encouraged racing both in Eng-
land and Scotland, it assumed a more definite character, and be-
came conducted according to fi.xed regulations. The breed appro-
priated to this sport, originally selected for speed, now became im-
proved by Arab, Turkish, and Barbary admixture. James I. intro-
duced the Arab, and purchased one of great celebrity for the then
enormous sum of ;^5oo. In the time of Charles I., Turkish and
Barbary Horses were obtained, and also in the reign of Charles II.
It was in the reign of Queen Anne that the celebrated Darley
A.rabian, bred in the deserts of Palmyra, was introduced, and which
may be regarded as the progenitor of the most celebrated of our
modem racing stock. (See Fig. 751.) He was the sire of Flying
rig. 751. — An Anglo-Arab Horse.
Childers. At a subsequent period. Lord Godolphin's Barb, gene-
rally called the Godolphin Arabian, contributed to the celebrity of
the English racer. From these and from other Eastern Horses,
which might also be enumerated, have descended a stock unequalled
by any in the world for spirit and fleetness. Such, then, is the
more than half Oriental oriqin of our racer ; but while this stock was
thus rising out of the old English Running-Horse, that breed itself
partook of the improvement, and we have now the half-blood
Saddle-Horse and the three-parts-blood Hunter.
The third breed of the olden days was heavier and slower than
the War-Horse, and used for the purposes of draught. This breed,
overlooked by the nobles, would necessarily vary in qualities as cir-
cumstances might influence it ; but in proportion as the War-Horse
and hackney improved, so, indirectly, would the old Cart-Horse be-
come elevated into the Cleveland bay, the Suffolk punch, and the
huge Lincolnshire black.
The Suffolk punch is now seldom seen pure, being much crossed
■with other breeds. The Cleveland bay is confined principally to
Durham and Yorkshire. The Lincolnshire black exceeds all in size,
and is a noble and massive animal. Its perfection is to be attributed
to the Flanders Horse ; and it is of this admirable mixed breed that
the teams in the brewers' and distillers' carts in London are chiefly
composed. No one can behold them without being struck with their
appearance. Their strength is prodigious, and many stand seven-
teen hands in height.
From the varied stocks of Horses which we now possess within
the limits of our own island, by selection and judicious admixture,
may be acquired breeds modified to suit every purpose of use or
luxury, from the racer to the serviceable roadster, from the splendid
Carriage-Horse to the farmer's hard-working servant.
When we look at the elephantine Dray-Horse, and the Welsh
and Shetland Ponies, the transition with respect to size is so great,
that we are almost startled by the comparison, and wonder that
such a difference can exist between two individuals of the same
species.
Wales and the Shetland Isles have been ever celebrated for minia-
ture Horses of great beauty, spirit, strength, and hardiness. The
Welsh Pony is often a model : a small head, high withers, a deep
yet round body, short joints, flat legs, and small'round hoofs, cha-
racterise him ; his ears are small, his eyes full and animated, and
his actions are free and vigorous. (See Fig. 752.)
Fig. 752.— The Welsh Pony.
The Shetland Pony is still less in size than the Welsh, and is
often very handsome, but the shoulders are usually low and thick ;
the limbs, however, are well knit, and the strength of the animal in
proportion to its size is astonishing. Some years ago w'e measured
a Pony of the Shetland breed of very small dimensions, but of
great beauty. Its height at the withers was only thirty-four
inches ; its length, from between the ears to the insertion of the
tail, following the curve of the neck and back, 4 feet 2 inches.
Ponies of different degrees of value range the New Forest, Ex-
moor, and the Highlands of Scotland, but much attention is not paid
to their breeding.
We have already stated that, at a very early period, the Horse was
employed in Egypt, both for the saddle and in dra^v\'ing chariots.
Among the very interesting series of Egyptian paintings in the
British Museum, is one (see Fig. 753) representing in the upper
compartment a pair of Horses yoked to a light chariot, of ■n-hich one
(the foreground Horse) is black ; the other, of which the head,
limbs, and tail are partially shown, is red. In the lower compart-
ment are also a pair of Horses, as most suppose, of a pale milk
colour, attached to a chariot : one is about to eat or drink from a
vessel before it. This chariot or car is perhaps intended to carry
the sheaves of corn which a reaper is cutting. It has been observed
that the tails of these Horses appear as if shaved, with a tuft left
at the end ; but we are inclined to think the animals are intended as
Mules, not Horses, both from this appearance of the tail, and from
the marked difference in the contour between them and the Horses
of the upper compartment, which cannot be mistaken. The chariot
they are yoked to is a war-chariot, the form of •which is more defi-
nitely given at Fig. 754, and which will convey a clear idea of the
chariots with which Pharaoh pursued the Israelites, or of that to
which Achilles lashed the body of Hector before the walls of Troy.
It is remarkable that though there was a mounted cavalry in Egj'pt,
and that Solomon's horsemen were mounted on trained Egyptian
Horses, there is but one representation of a man on horseback in
the whole range of the sculptured and painted antiquities of that
country.
At what period the Arabs began to employ the Horse is not very
clear ; certainly not till a comparatively late era ; nor, as far as we
are aware, is it known whence they obtained their breed. May it
not be descended from the stock of Egj'pt, with which Solomon re-
plenished his stables ? According to Burckhardt, there are three
breeds of Horses at the present day in Syria — the true Arab breed,
the Turkman, and the Kourdy, which last is a mixture of the two
former. The Turkman Horses, from their superior size and more
martial appearance, displaying when dressed the Turkish trappings
to the greatest advantage, are preferred by the Osnianlis to tlie
THE HORSE TRIBE.
295
Arab Horses. They are trained to walk gracefully, to set off sud-
denly at full speed, to turn with the gentlest touch, and to stop
short instantaneously.
The Arabian Horses are of more slender make, and less showy in
appearance than the Turkman, but they are beautifully limbed,
more hardy, and much fleeter. The esteem in which the Arabs hold
them, the scrupulous care taken to preserve the purity of the breeds,
and the reluctance with which the Arabs part with their mares, are
circumstances frequently noticed by travellers. The Rev. V. Monro,
■-.nillilW'
//
»
F'S- 753- — Egyptian Painting, in the British Museum.
in his " Summer's Ramble in Syria," relates that on the visit to the
river Jordan, one of the Arab escort, " a great ruffian, was mounted
on a white mare of great beauty ; her large fiery eye gleamed from
the edge of an open forehead, and her exquisite little head was
finished with a pouting lip and expanded nostrils ; her ribs, thighs,
and shoulders were models of make, with more bone than commonly
belongs to the Syrian Arab, and her stately step received additional
dignity from that aristocratic set on, and carriage of the tail, which
is the infallible indication of good family. Having inquired her
^'g- 754- — Egyptian War-chariot.
price, I offered the sum, whereon the dragoon asked one-third more.
After much abating and debating, I acceded, and he immediately
stepped back in the same proportion as before. This is invariably
the practice with the Arabs. I therefore discontinued my attempts
to deal. The Arab said he loved his mare better than his own life ;
that money was of no use to him, and that when mounted upon her
he felt rich as a pasha. Shoes and stockings he had none, and the
net value of his dress and accoutrements might be calculated at
something under seventeen-pence sterling."
The fondness for their Horses which the Ar.ibs manifest partakes
of the extravagance of Oriental feelings : they rear them up in their
tents, among their children and family : they caress them and apply
to them the most endearing epithets ; witness the lamentations of an
Arab, Ibrahim Abou Vouasses, over a favourite mare of noble race,
which he had parted with ; but which he frequently went to Rama
to see: "He would embrace her," says D'Arvicux, "and wipe
her eyes with his handkerchief, and rub her with his shirt-
sleeves, and would give her a thousand blessings during whole
hours that he would be talking to her. ' My
eyes, my heart, my soul,' would he exclaim ;
' must I be so unfortunate as to have thee
sold to many masters, and not be able to
keep thee myself ? I am poor, my gazelle.
You know well enough, my sweet, that I
have brought thee up like a child ; I never
boat thee, never chid thee, but did cherish
thee as the apple of mine eye ; God pre-
serve thee, my dearest ; thou art beautiful,
thou art sweet, thou art lovely ; God defend
thee from the evil eye : ' and so he would
go on saying a thousand things like these ;
he then embraced her, kissed her eyes,
and went backwards, bidding her the most
tender adieus."
The Arab Horses seldom exceed fourteen
hands in height, but have all certain cha-
racteristic beauties which distinguish their
breed from any other. Five noble breeds
are counted, each, as is said, deduced from
one of the five favourite mares of Mo-
hammed. But these five races diverge into
infinite ramifications ; and any mare of
superlative excellence may give origin to a
new breed, the descendants of which are
called after her. " On the birth of a Colt
of noble breed, it is usual to assemble wit-
nesses to write an account of its distinctive marks, with the name of
its sire and dam. These genealogical tables never ascend to the
grand-dam, because it is presumed that every Arab of his tribe
knows by tradition the purity of the whole breed. Nor is it always
necessary to have such certificates ; for many Horses and mares
are of such illustrious descent that thousands might attest the purity
of their blood. The pedigree is often put into a small piece of
leather, covered with a waxed cloth, and hung by a leather thong
round the Horse's neck."
In Syria and elsewhere in Western Asia the Horse is
fed upon chopped straw and barley, and of this proven-
der a certain quantity is given morning and evening,
none being supplied in the interim. In the spring season
the Horses are fed from forty to fifty days on green barley,
cut as soon as the corn begins to ear. This is termed
tying down to grass, during which time the animals re-
main constantly exposed in the open air, and for the first
eight or ten days are neither curried, mounted, nor led
about. After this they are dressed as usual and rode out
gently, but are never much worked during the grass
season. Some feed the Horses with cut barley in the
stable-yards, but the general practice is to confine them
to a certain circuit, by means of a long tether in the
barley-field. This grazing is considered of great service
to the health of the Horses, and gives a beautiful gloss
to their skin. Fig. 755 is an illustration of the Arabian
War-Horse. '
Some Arab tribes.
however, do not thus give their
Horses green barley, but allow them to feed on the herbs
of the desert, and give them a paste made of dates and
water, and Camel's milk to drink. " Even flesh, raw as
well as boiled, is given to the Horses in some quarters,
together with the fragments of their owner's meals." An
inhabitant of Hamah assured Burckhardt that he had
often given his Horses roasted meat before the com-
mencement of a fatiguing journey, that they might be
better able to endure it ; and the same person, fearing
lest the governor should take him from his favourite
Horse, fed him for a fortnight exclusively on roasted
pork, which so excited its spirit and mettle, that it
became unmanageable, and no longer an object of desire
to the governor. That the Horse should, under any circumstances,
be brought to eat animal food is very startling ; but Burckhardt's
authority induces us to believe it. It serves to show how domesti-
cation may modify animal instincts ; nor is it perhaps more strange
than that the carnivorous Dog and Cat should be brought to eat
bread, biscuits, and even boiled greens, to which latter we have
known Cats apparently partial, feedmg upon them when even meat
was at hand. Horses will drink ale with great relish ; and the
taste in this instance is apparently an acquired one.
296
THE HORSE TRIBE.
With respect to the wild Horses in the countries bordering the
Volga and the Oural, little is accurately established. They are
said to associate in troops, headed by a leader ; but from all accounts
to be depended upon, they are by no means remarkable for beauty,
though they appear to be fleet and hardy. In the museum at Paris
is the specimen of a wild Horse from the country of the Bashkirs :
it has a heavy, clumsy head, and short limbs ; and the hair, of a
dirty greyish-white, is long and shaggy, and hangs in a beard-like
Fig. 755. — Ar.abian War-IIorse.
manner under the lower jaw. Pallas describes a young mare,
caught in the country between the Jaik and the Volga, which be-
came very docile : its limbs were strong, the head large, the ears
long and lying back upon the occiput ; the hoofs small and some-
what pointed ; the colour light bay, with a black mane and tail. In
South America, the rich plains extending from La Plata to Paraguay
are tenanted by herds of Horses in a wild condition, the descend-
ants of those originally introduced by the Spaniards. These
Horses are caught and broke in, and the singular mode in which
their subjugation is effected is thus described by Captain Head : —
"A man, mounted on a strong steady Horse, threw his lasso over
the neck of a young Horse, and dragged him to the gate. For
some time he was very unwilling to leave his comrades, but the
moment he was forced from them, his first idea was to gallop away ;
however, the jerk of the lasso checked him in the most effectual
manner. The Peons now ran after him on foot and threw the lasso
over his four legs, just above the fetlocks, and, twitching it, they
pulled his legs from under him so suddenly that I really thought the
fall he had got had killed him. In an instant a Gaucho was seated
on his head, and, with his long knife, in a few seconds cut off the
■whole of the Horse's mane, while another cut the hair from the end
of the tail. This they told me is a mark that the animal has been
once mounted. They then put a piece of hide into his mouth to
serve as a bit, and a strong hide-halter on his head. The Gaucho
who was to mount arranged his spurs, w-hich were unusually lono-
and sharp ; and while two men held the animal by his ears he put
on the saddle, which he girthed extremely tight ; he then caught
hold of the Horse's ears, and in an instant vaulted into the saddle ;
upon which the man who was holding the Horse by the halter threw
the end of it to the rider, and from that moment no one seemed to
take any further notice of him. The Horse instantly began to
jump in a manner which made it very difficult for the rider to keep
his seat, and quite different from the kick or plunge of an English
Horse ; however, the Gaucho's spurs soon set him going, and off he
galloped, doing everything in his power to throw his rider. Another
Horse was immediately seized ; and so quick was the operation that
twelve Gauchos were mounted in a space which I think hardly ex-
ceeded an hour."
The following original anecdotes, given some years ago, will
serve to illustrate the well-known sagacity of the Horse. They
refer to Horses bred and reared in North America : —
" A short distance below Fort Erie, and about a mile from where
the river Niagara escapes over a barrier of rock from the depths of
Lake Erie, a ferry has long been established across that broad and
there exceedingly rapid river, the distance from shore to shore being
a little over one-third of a mile. On the Canada side of the river is
the village of Waterloo, and opposite thereto, on the United States
side, is the large village of Blackrock— distant from the flourishing
city of Buffalo two miles. In completing the Erie Canal, a pier or
dam was erected — up and down the river, and opposite to Black-
rock, at no great distance from the shore, for the purpose of raising
the waters of the Niagara to such a height that they might be made
to supply an adjoining section of the Erie canal. This pier was a
great obstruction to the ferry-boats ; for previous to its erection pas-
sengers embarked from ierra firina on one side of the river, and
were landed without any difficulty on the other : but after this dam
was constructed it became necessary to employ two sets of boats —
one to navigate the river and the other the basin ; so that all pas-
sengers, as well as goods or luggage, had to be landed upon this
narrow wall, and re-shipped. Shortly after the erection of the pier-
dam, a boat propelled by Horses was established between this pier
and the Canada shore. The Horses moved upon a circular plat-
form, which consequently was put in motion, to which other ma-
chinery was connected, that acted upon paddle-wheels attached to
the sides of the boat. The boat belonged to persons connected
with the ferry on the American side of the river ; but owing to the
barrier formed by the pier, the Horses employed on the boat were
stabled at night in the village of Waterloo. I well recollect the first
day this boat began to ply, — for the introduction of a boat of that
description, in those days, and in such a situation, was considered
an event of some magnitude. The two Horses (for the boat had but
two) worked admirably, considering the very few lessons they had
had previous to their introduction upon the main river. One of
the Horses employed on the new ferry-boat had once been a dapple-
grey, but at the period I am speaking of he had become white. He
was still hale and hearty, for he had a kind and indulgent master.
The first evening after the Horses had been a short time in the
stable, to which they were strangers, they were brought out for the
purpose of being watered at the river, the common custom at this
place. The attendant was mounted upon the bay Horse — the white
one was known to be so gentle and docile that he was allowed to
drink where he pleased. I happened to be standing close by, in
company with my friend ^V n, the ferry contractor on the Canada
side, and thus had an opportunity of witnessing the whole proceed-
ings of Old Grizzle, the name that the white Horse still went by.
The moment he got round the corner of the building, so as to have
a view of his home on the opposite side, he stopped and gazed in-
tently. He then advanced to the brink of the river, when he again
stopped and looked earnestly across for a short time — then waded
into the water until it had reached hi.'; chest, drank a little, lifted
his head, and, with his lips closed and his eyes fixed upon some
object upon the further shore, remained for a short time perfectly
motionless. Apparently having made up his mind to the task, he
then waded farther into the river until the water reached his ribs,
when off he shot into the deep water without hesitation. The cur-
rent being so strong and rapid, the river boiling and turmoiling over
a rocky bed at the rate of six miles the hour, it was impossible for
the courageous and attached animal to keep a direct course across,
although he breasted the waves heroically, and swam with remark-
able vigour. Had he been able to steer his way directly across, the
pier-wall would have proved an insurmountable barrier. As it was,
the strength of the current forced him down to below where the
lower extremity of this long pier abuts upon an island, the shore of
which being low and shelving, he was enabled to effect a landing
with comparative ease. Having regained tcr>-a _fi?-?iia, he shook
the water from his dripping flanks, but he did not halt over a few
minutes, when he plunged into the basin, and soon regained his
native shore. The distance from where Grizzle took the water to
where he effected a landing on the island was about 700 yards ; but
the effotts made to swim directly across, against the powerful cur-
rent, must have rendered the undertaking a much more laborious
one. At the commencement of his voyage his arched neck and
withers were above the surface, but before he reached the island his
head only was visible. He reached his own stable-door, that home
for which he had risked so much, to the no small astonishment of
his owner. This unexpected visit evidently made a favourable im-
pression upon his master, for he was heard to vow, that if Old Grizzle
performed the same feat a second time, for the future he should re-
main on his own side of the river, and never be sent to the mill
again. Grizzle was sent back to work the boat on the following
day, but he embraced the very first opportunity that occurred of es-
caping, swam back in the way he had done before, and his owner,
not being a person to break the promise he had once made, never
afterwards dispossessed him of the stall he had long been accus-
tomed to, but treated him with marked kindness and attention."
" During my residence on the head waters of the Susquehanna, I
owned a small American Horse, of the name of Charlie, that was
very remarkable lor his attachment to my own person, as well as for
his general good qualities. He was a great favourite with all the
family ; and being a favourite, he was frequently indulged with less
work and more to eat than any of the other Horses on the farm. At
THE OX TRIBE.
277
Even royalty applauds. All sorts of complimentary presents are
thrown at Frascuelo's feet. He bows in every direction, amidst
thundering- applause ; and the jinglins;- of bells announces the Mules
canteringin to drag away the poor Bull.
" In succession, every Bull gave more or less sport. That word
is synonymous of ferocity and Horse-slaughter, varying from ten to
forty animals killed by the Bulls on the two days. Eighteen Bulls
were despatched, and several toreros displayed as much agility and
daring as Frascuelo or Currito. It was nearly five when the king
rose to return to Madrid ; and it so happened that, after the fight
on the second day, his majesty and the queen, princesses, and court
went to Atocha, to hear the ordinary Salve of every Saturday The
crowd on the route back was as great as on the first occasion, and
it is a marvel that no accidents happened as the innumerable
vehicles raced home. The talk of every class of society, the same
evening, was nothing else than the Bull-fight. The papers related
its inciiients and its glory in several columns. The only person
saddened by this bold vindication of the national sport must have
been the gallant Marquis of San Carlos, who proposed, last year, a
bill for the suppression of the fights in the Cortes. ' 'Tis a far cry
to Loch Awe,' might his opponents say after the scene of these two
days. It was not even marred by the weather, as a splendid sun-
shine, on the second occasion, added to the striking features of
national customs that unrivalled beauty of light and blue sky which
the south alone can give in January."
Within the Arctic circle the Ox gives place to the Rein-Deer (see
p. 237, ante) ; but in Iceland Cattle are
i^red in great numbers, and are valu-
able. In size and appearance, except-
ing that they are seldom horned, they
resemble the breeds of the Scotti'^h
Islands. It would appear that the Ice-
landish farmers conduct the breeding
of their stock on no principles ; conse-
quently there is great room for im-
provement ; nevertheless, the Cattle on
the whole are handsome, and the Cows
yield a considerable quantity of milk. In
Norway and Sweden Cattle are numer-
ous, and also in Russia; as is well
known, some of the chief exports from
Russia to England are tallow and hides.
In that extensive empire vast numbers
are reared, principally in the southern
provinces ; and the markets of St.
Petersburg and other towns are sup-
plied by Cattle sent from distant parts
of the country. The herdsmen live in
a state of barbaric simplicity, and are
nomadic in their habits ; they travel
with their herds to Moscow, St. Peters-
burg, and other places, which depend
more upon them for a supply than upon
the farmers of the adjacent districts.
In Wallachia and Moldavia Cattle
are abundant ; in the latter district, in-
deed, the people continue, in a great
measure, their ancient nomadic habits,
making use of the services of the Ox as
a beast of draught or burden : united in
immense caravans, they roam over an
immense extent of territory, transport-
ing, in tall vehicles of singular construction, various articles of pro-
duce, provisions, and other things, to the towns scattered at wide
distances about the vast plains of Moldavia. Day by day they move
cheerfully on, to the slow and measured sound of the footsteps of
their Oxen, and are often an entire month without seeing a single
human habitation. At the approach of evening the caravan halts,
the numerous waggons are disposed in the form of a square, and
fne Oxen are turned out to graze at large, under the watchful care
of intrepid Dogs, who accompany the caravan. In the middle of the
square a fire is now lighted, at which the conductor prepares his
simple repast, and afterwards disposes himself for sleep, sheltered
by a warm and heavy coverlid, that completely enwraps him.
These indefatigable walkers are no less excellent riders ; they
possess a fine race of Horses, which are employed for drawing
lighter vehicles, while the heavier waggons are drawn by the slow
Oxen. There are few high-roads in Moldavia; the plain is open,
and each traveller chooses his own track, and it is often with diffi-
culty that the Oxen can drag their way through heavy ground ;
storms of wind, rain, or snow, make the matter worse, so that a
passage can only be achieved by great patience, labour, and re-
solution. The sketch (Fig. 712) represents a Bullock-caravan, of Mol-
davia, wending its weary way over the vast plains of Moldavia, while
lighter vehicles, drawn by swift Horses, are seen in the distance.
In Switzerland there is an excellent breed of Cattle, and in no
country are these animals more carefully attended to, or held in
greater esteem for their utility, as far as the dairy is concerned
Travellers have frequently noticed their docility and intelligence,
which they have, at the same time, not a little exaggerated. It is
customary to hang bells round the necks of the Cattle, Sheep, and
Goats, m order that if they stray among the hills and mountains,
the herdsman may be directed by the sound in his pursuit of them,
the slightest tinkle being heard at a great distance in those lofty
and still regions. The Cows selected to bear the bell become ac-
customed to it from habit, and often, we doubt not, betray signs of
uneasiness when deprived of it ; but the account given by some
writers respecting their feelings borders on the ludicrous.
The pastoral economy of Switzerland, which is common to Savoy
and other Alpine countries, and the annual progress of the shep-
herds and cowherds with their flocks and cattle to and from the
mountains, are interesting. The richer proprietors and breeders in
the Alps possess tracks of pasturages, and sometimes houses, at
different heights. In winter they live at the foot of the moun-
tain, in some sheltered valley ; but this they quit in the spring, and
ascend gradually, as the heat brings out vegetation, on the higher
lands. In autumn they descend, by the same gradations, to the
valley. Those who are less rich, have a resource in certain com-
mon pastures, to which they send a number of Cows, proportionate
to their means of keeping them during the winter. Eight days after
the Cows have been driven up to these common pastures, all their
owners assemble, and the quantity of milk each Cow produces is
accurately weighed. This operation of weighing is repeated one
Fig. 712. — Bullock Caravan in Moldavia.
day in the middle of summer, and again at the end of the season.
The milk of all the Cow^has, in the meanwhile, been put together
and made into butter and cheese, and this common product is
divided into shares, according to the quantity of milk each owner's
Cows yielded on the days of trial.
In some parts of Switzerland, and more particularly in the retired
parts of the forest cantons, the peasants make use of the Alp-horn
for the purpose of collecting their herds. This primitive instru-
ment is a tube of wood, about five feet in length, of very simple con-
struction ; it produces a deep, mellow, and prolonged note, resound-
ing to a great distance, floating over the upland pastures, and
echoing from crag to crag and from rock to rock. On hearing the
well-known summons, which is regularly given at sunset, the Cattle
bestir themselves, and wend their way to the chilet, where the
peasants are waiting their arrival. The deep note of the Alp-horn
heard among the mountains, and multiplied by echoes till the last
tone dies away, produces a pleasing impression on the traveller,
which he long remembers.
Fig. 713 represents a scene on the banks of the Vial river, South
Africa, illustrative of the uses of the Ox in that country', where its
services as a beast of draught and burden are of the greatest im-
portance. Waggons drawn by Oxen, often cruelly overtasked, are
the ordinary travelling vehicles of South Africa, and are admirably
adapted for the country, which is rugged and mountainous, and
generally destitute of any other roads than the rude tracks origi-
278
THE OX TRIBE.
nally struck across the wilderness by the first European adventurers.
Each wag:gon is provided with a canvas tilt, to protect the traveller
from sun and rain, and is drawn by a team of six, eight, or even
twelve Oxen, fastened with wooden frames to a strong central trace,
or trek-tow, formed of twisted thongs of Bullock's hide. The
driver, who sits in front, has a whip of enormous length, which he
uses with unsparing severity. Livingstone, Stanley, and other
African explorers of the present day, adopted this plan of travelling
in Central Africa.
When the Dutch took possession of the Cape of Good Hope, they
found the Hottentots a pastoral people, possessed of flocks and
herds ; the Oxen were of large size, with the horns long, and sweep-
ing forwards and upwards ; and they were not only trained for
riding, but even as guardians of the flocks and Cattle, and as in-
struments of destruction in battle. "The Hottentots," says Kol-
ben, who visited them while they yet retained their name and inde-
pendence as a nation, " have Oxen, which they use with success in
battle ; they call them Bake-leys : every army is provided with a
large troop of these War-Oxen, which permit themselves to be
governed without trouble, and which their leader lets loose at the
appointed moment. The instant they are set free, they throw
themselves, with impetuosity, on the opposing army ; they strike
with their horns, they kick w'ith their heels, they overthrow, they rip
F'S- 713.— Bullock Waggon of South Africa.
up, and trample beneath their feet, with frightful ferocity, all that
opposes them ; they plunge with fury into the midst of the ranks,
and thus prepare for their masters an easy victory. The manner in
which these Oxen are trained and disciplined certainly does great
honour to the talent of these people."
The Ox was one of the first of the domestic animals carried over
to America by the early Spanish settlers ; there it has multiplied and
spread, and, indeed, in some degree, has recovered its original inde-
pendence. Herds of Wild Oxen roam the Pampas, where they are
hunted and slain fur their hides, which form an important article of
commerce. These wild herds are, in some districts, exceedingly
numerous ; they differ in no respect from their domestic relatives,
and are themselves rendered tame without much difficulty. Accord-
ing to Azara, " Captain John de Salazar, born in the city of Pomar
in Arragon, transported from Andalusia seven Cows and a Bull to
the coist of Brazil ; from thence he conducted them overland to the
rivir Parana, at the place opposite to where it receives the river
Mondai. He there constructed a raft, placed the Cattle on it, and
gave them in charge to a certain GaSte, whilst he himself went by
land to Paraguay. Gaete descended the Parana to its union with
the river of Paraguay, and steering up this, he safely arrived at the
city of Assumption in 1546. He spent many months in this voyage ;
and as he had only one Cow given him for payment, the saying has
hence arisen in allusion to the great value of anything, ' It is dearer
than Gaete's Cow.' The second founders of Buenos Ayres took, in
1580, some Cows from Paraguay, which multiplied in the neighbour-
hood ; and, from want of due care, many of them became wild, and
bent their course towards Rio Negro. The Indians of the Cordillera,
of Chili, became acquainted with these animals, which had already
attained their boundaries, and they commenced to carry from them
herds of tamed Cattle to Chili, where the presidents of this settle-
ment purchased them from these Indians. Those Indians, who
could not live in their country without some resource, established
themselves in the plains which were occupied by these Cattle, and
some even mixed with the Pampas Indians. In the meantime, the
Indians, who were unsubdued, destroyed the Cattle to the south of
Buenos Ayres ; the Spaniards of those parts, however, did not neg-
lect to take a portion, which they conducted to Cordova and Men-
doza, whilst the Spaniards of Buenos Ayres made up entire cargoes
of the hides of Bulls and Cows; for at that time the animal itself
was not considered of value, its skin being all that was sought afler.
The result of all this here at Monte Video, &c., was, that towards
the middle of the century. Wild Cattle no longer existed in the
Pampas ; and the unsubdued Indians saw themselves under the ne-
cessity of stealing the domestic animals, or of making incursions
into the estancias of the Pampas.
This was the commerfcement
and cause of the bloody war
which the Spaniards had with
the Indians. The herds of these
revolted or Wild Cattle, which
are also called Oreillards in the
plains of Monte Video, do not
pass to the north of the southern
establishments of the Guaranis
Missions. The following is the
account which I have collected
of their origin : — The city au-
thorities of Buenos Ayres, in the
name of certain of its inhabit-
ants, as is proved by its archives,
made, at the commencement of
the century, contracts, on the
one part, with the English, for
the acquisition of negroes, and,
on the other part, with certain
Spaniards, who were thus au-
thorised to procure the hides of
the animals on the plains situate
to the north of the Rio de la
Plata, on payment to the city of
a certain tax, of which the sum
total was shared between these
Spanish inhabitants, who, from
this circumstance, were called
Actionnaires. The primitive
source of this right or this pro-
ceeding is not known ; but, cer-
tain it is, that all the inhabitants
did not participate in it, and
that its produce was the exclu-
sive share of these Actionnaires,
who were the descendants of the
earliest of the original settlers.
Such is the origin of the horned
Cattle of these countries, where
they prodigiously multiplied."
It is a singular feature in the history of the New World, that so
many of our domestic animals there imported should have returned
to their primitive independence : the Ox, the Horse, the Hog, the
Ass, the Rabbit, the Cat, and the Dog, have thus estranged them-
selves from the control of man. Individuals have, at different times,
escaped from confinement or been neglected ; a vast region lay
before them, presenting abundance of food ; they multiplied, and
their offspring in turn ; and thus, within a brief period, have the
plains of the New World been peopled by alien races of animals,
which claim Asia or Europe as their starting-point.
America is not the only portion of the globe to which, by the
agency of man, in modern times, the Ox has been introduced. We
allude to Australia and New Zealand, from which we now obtain
immense supplies of wool, tallow, hides, preserved meat, &c., and
the groups of islands which sprinkle the Pacific Ocean. " With the
appearance of Vancouver," says Otho von Kotzebue, speaking of
the Sandwich Islands, "arose the fortunate star of these islands.
Among the innumerable benefits he conferred upon them, they are
indebted to him for the possession of Sheep and Cattle ; Tameamea
(the native king) declared these animals under a tabu for ten years,
which allovi'ed time for so large an increase, that they now run wild
in the forests." Of the benefits resulting from the introduction of
CO
C3
THE OX TRIBE.
279
the Ox into a country naturally destitute of it, nothing need be said ;
but the p-ift of Cattle to a people who, though yot uncivilised, are
capable of appreciating their value, is to commence a revolution
in their state and condition immeasurably for the better : for the
possession of nroperty is one of the bonds of society, and tlie desire
of acquirinjr ft the great stimulus to industry. With the introduc-
tion of the Ox, the condition of the people of these islands was gra-
dually improved. Not only so, but the moral character of the people
has become entirely changed. In the case of the Fiji Islands, for
example, where, forty years ago, the inhabitants were cannibals, they
are now in a state of civilisation equal to Europe ; and the same may
be said of most of the other islands in the Pacific Ocean — a change
that had never previously been seen in the history of man, whether
in respect to rapidity or perfection of result.
To Asia, and its border-lands, let us turn our attention — regions
in which the Ox, from the earliest epoch, has been in a state of
domestication, and where this animal, with Sheep and Goats, con-
stituted the riches of patriarchs, and chiefs or princes, who deemed
it not beneath them to take an active interest in the management of
their flocks and herds. In that age of patriarchal simplicity, such
scenes as that (Fig. 714) delineated by the pencil of Berghem were
not imaginary ; and the pastoral poetry of classical antiquity has
not only rendered them familiar, but
thrown an air of grace and even
dignity over them.
In the fourth chapter of the Book
of Genesis (ver. 20), we read of Jabal,
that "he was the father of such as
dwell in tents, and of such as have
Cattle." In the thirteenth chapter
of the same book. Cattle are enume-
rated as forming part of the riches
of Abraham, and also of Lot ; and in
the previous chapter we read that
Oxen were presented by the Pharaoh
of Egypt, together with Sheep, Asses,
and Camels, to Abram, during his
sojourn in that land. In the eigh-
teenth chapter, veal, or the flesh of
the Calf, and butter and milk, are
mentioned as articles of food. Subse-
quently, abundant mention is made
of all these domestic animals, while
at the same time we glean that a
wild race of Oxen long continued to
exist in Syria and the adjacent re-
gions ; for instance, in the Mosaic
injunctions regarding animals to be
used as food(Deut. xiv. 5), the Wild
Ox is expressly noticed ; and Isaiah
alludes also to the Wild Bull (" as
a Wild Bull in a net.") Hence it
would appear, that though a domes-
tic breed, established at a period an-
tecedent to historic record, the
Scripture outline excepted, formed
part of the wealth of man in the
primeval ages of his history, that a
wild race still tenanted their aborigi-
nal pasture-lands. Wild Oxen are
exhibited in the Egyptian sculptures,
and the chase of them is often
represented : they were sometimes
hunted with Dogs, the huntsmen
bearing bows and arrows, and sometimes they were caught with the
noose or lasso, as is now done in South America.
The utility of the Ox was well appreciated in ancient times, inso-
much that it became an emblematic object of worship among most
of the nations of antiquity. The traditions of every Celtic nation
enrol the Cow among the earliest productions, and represent it as a
kind of divinity. Among the Egyptians, the god Apis was wor-
shipped in the form of a Bull, and Herodotus describes the ceremo-
nies attendant upon the choice of this Bovine deity, to whose honour
other Bulls chosen by the priests were sacrificed. The goddess Isis
was represented by the same people under the figure of a woman
with the horns of a Cow, as the Grecians represented lo ; and the
sacrificial offering was a Bullock ; the Cow was never sacrificed,
being sacred to Isis. The veneration of the Cow was equally preva-
lent in Lybia. The Lybians, says Herodotus, from Egypt to the
Lake Tritonis, are breeders of Cattle, eat flesh, and drink milk, but
abstain from the flesh of Cows, as do also the Egyptians, and will
not keep Swine. Nay, among the women of Syrene, to strike a Cow
is accounted a crime, because they celebrate the feasts and festivals
of the Egyptian Isis. Neither will the Barca;an women taste the
flesh either of a Hog or of a Cow.
In India, where in many points the practice and worship of the
ancient nations were the same as those of the Egyptians, the Ox
was held sacred, and still is so by the Brahmins. The religions
writings of India say that the Cow was the first animal created by
the three gods, who were directed by the supreme lord to furnish the
earth with animated beings. In the sculptures of the cave-temples
of Ellora. the sacred Bull is represented with great truth and spirit.
Colonel Tod ("Trans. Royal Asiatic Soc.," vol. ii. p. 560) says,
" In Hindu mythology the Bull Nanda is at once the guardian of
one of the two gates of heaven, of Iswaro or Bal-Siva, and his
steed. The astronomic allusion thus blended with mythology is evi-
dent— viz., the entrance of the sun into the sign Taurus, liie equi-
noctial festival of remote antiquity, and regarded as a jubilee by the
Indo-Scythic nations hemming the shores of the Mediterranean to
the Indian Ocean." We need not say how the idolatry of the Egyp-
tians affected the Israelites, and mingled itself with the reli'Mous
ceremonies of other nations, whose worship required the Ox as a
sacrifice to imaginary deities.
The estimation in which the Ox was held, and which led to its
consecration, did not arise from the circumstance alone of the Cow
yielding milk, nor from the value of the flesh of the animal as food,
but from its services in agricultural labour. It was employed as a
beast of burden, for the cart, for the plough, and for treading out
the grain from the ear.
Fig. 714. — Oriental Landscape and Cattle.
The Mosaic ritual lays down several rules respecting the treatment
of the Ox : one forbids the yoking together of the Ass and the Ox in
the same plough (Fig. 715), perhaps from the inequality of their size
and strength, which would render the draught irregular, and oppress
both animals. Another injunction is, "Thou shalt not muzzle the
Ox when he treadeth out the corn." The first idea suggested by
this passage is, that the operation of threshing was effected simply
by the feet of the Cattle passing over the sheaves ; and such, indeed,
was the case in the times of patriarchal simplicity. Afterwards, as
other passages show, rollers and wheels of wood, and threshing in-
struments with teeth, were used : these were drawn over the sheaves
by Oxen, and greatly facilitated the process. With respect to the
primitive mode of threshing by means of the feet of Oxen, there is
express allusion to it by Homer, which proves that the practice was
common in his time and country : —
" As with autumnal harvests covered o'er.
And thick bestrewn, lies Ceres' sacred floor,
Where round and round with never-wearied p.iin.
The trampling steers breik out th' unnumber'd grain."
Pope's Tr. IliaJ, xx., lines of Grig. 495—498.
The ancient Arabs, Egyptians, and Romans, as well as the ancient
Greeks, threshed their corn in this manner: Virgil ("Georg.,"
28o
THE OX TRIBE.
lib. i.) describes the manner in which the threshing-floor is to be laid
down, showing- that nothing like our modern mode of threshing
could have been practised. In Syria, Egypt, and Nubia, at the pre-
sent day, t||e grain is, as formerly, either trodden out by the feet of
Oxen qr Mules, or partly trodden out, and partly crushed out by
Fig. 715. — Ploughing 'OTth Ox and Ass.
means of a roller, or other machine, which the Oxen drag after them,
and which more or less destroys the straw, and even injures the
grain. Figs. 716 and 717 represent two modes of threshing — viz., by
the drag, and by the sledge upon rollers, still practised in Egypt,
Syria, and Western Asia.
In respect to the employment of Oxen in Egypt, Fig. 718 illus-
trates the use of them in ploughing; and Fig. 719 illustrates the
modern Syrian cart drawn by Oxen.
Figs. 720 and 721, are illustrations of the Zebu {Bos indicus)
breed of Oxen, which claims a few observations. Whether the
Zebu breed of Oxen be derived, as some contend, from a distinct
origin from that of the ordinary Ox, we will not attempt to de-
termine : suffice it to sajf, that it presents marked peculiarities
which clearly characterise it. Narrow high withers, surmounted by
a large fatty hump, an arched back rising at the haunches, and
suddenly falling to the tail, slender limbs, a large pendulous dewlap
falling in folds, long pendent ears, and a peculiarly mild expression
of the eye, proclaim the Zebu race — a
race varj'ing in size from that of our
largest Cattle to that of a young Calf.
This breed is spread over India, China,
and the Indian Islands ; it is also found
in Madagascar and on the eastern coast
of Africa, in the interior regions, and
parts of the western coast, and is used
for the ordinary purposes of draught and
burden. India appears to be its parent
country; and we may readily believe that
in remote ages, when an extensive com-
merce existed between that country and
Egypt, it was introduced into the land
of the Pharaohs. In Upper Egypt,
Abyssinia, and Ethiopia, it is now almost
exclusively prevalent ; but in Lower
Egypt, as we learn from Burckhardt,
the Zebu or humped race is unknown.
In the ancient Egyptian representations
of animals, both the humped race and
the ordinary Ox, with long horns, are
clearly depicted. It is the Zebu Ox
which is sculptured in the cave-temples
of EUora, and the seven pagodas, as
they are commonly called, at'Mahama-
laipur on the Coromandel coast. We have thus proofs of the ex-
treme antiquity of this breed, and of its distinctness at a remote era
from the ordinary Ox, and that its peculiar characters were what we
now see
With respect to the Ox represented on the Greek and Roman
sculptures, which is not of the true Zebu race, it must be confessed
that in many points, and more particularly in the pendulous folded
dewlap, it resembled the Zebu, and may probably have been the
Fig. 716. — Oriental Threshing with the Drag.
Fig. 7 iS. — Modem Egyptian Ploughing.
fig. 7 1 7. —Oriental Threshing with the Sledge.
Fig. 719. — Modem Splan Cart.
THE OX TRIBE.
281
ultimate product of a mixture of the Zebu race, introduced at an
early date from India, with the ordinary Cattle of Greece and Italy.
This, however, is a mere sugsjestion. In the Greek sculptures the
Ox is represented without any hump, but ihe withers are high and
the crupper rounded. " To the classical antiquary," says a talented
writer " we beg to suggest that the dewlap of the Brahmin Bull
offers an object of much attention and interest, by reason of its
sharp and decided outline, and perpendicular creases, or folds,
wonderfully verifying the correctness of those Greek sculptures on
bronze and marble, in medals and statuary, in which we see repre-
sentations of Victory sacrificing a Bull, of the Oxen of Ceres ^"-
the heavy rains and the splashy cultivation of rice than the Bullock.
The female is also infinitely more valuable than the Cow, from the
very much greater quantity of milk she yields." In point of beauty
and docility there is no comparison between the heavy, savage
Buffalo and the "Sacred Bull of Bram.ah." Nor is the former
ever devoted to Bal-Siva as a meritorious offering. On the con-
trary, it is common to meet with Brahmin Bulls thus devoted, which
wander at their pleasure, exempt from the servitude of the yoke, and
cr:^^
Fig. 720. — The Indi.in Zebu.
These representations will no longer be considered out of drawing
by those who may have an opportunity of examining the Sacred
Bull of India, nor exaggerated in their fore-quarters, although
critics of the last century (less fortunate in this respect than the
visitors of the Zoological Society's Gardens) have determined them,
without hesitation, to be altogether incorrect." Several beautiful
specimens of the Zebu Ox, both of the large-sized variety, and also
of the dwarf caste, have lived in the Zoological Gardens. They
were remarkable for their docility and quiet temper.
Of the extensive use, and consequent value of the Brahmin, or
large Zebu breed in their native climate, we can scarcely form an
adequate idea. In some parts of India the dwarf races are un-
Im!
-Zebu and Lion fighting.
Fig. 721.— The Brahmin Zebu Bull.
known, and this is bred exclusively. According to an obsprvation
of Colonel Sykes, in the " Proceeds. Zool. Soc," the Brinjarees, a
singular erratic people, possess vast herds, and breed the Brahmin
tattle on an extensive scale ; "and an army rarely moves in the
teld without 15,000 or 20,000 Bullocks to carry its grain. Dwarf
Cattle are not met in Dukhun." The Buffalo, however, divides
the palm of usefulness with the Zebu in the agricultural labours of
India, and is preferred for many purposes, on 'account of his more
robust constitution. In the Mawals, or hilly tracts amorig the
Uhauts this animal supersedes the Zebu. " In those tracts,''' says
t-olonel Sykes, " much rice is planted, and the male Buffalo, from
nis superior hardihood, is much better suited to resist the effects of
which are regarded as endowed with a sacred character. The
beautiful form and sleek appearance of these fortunate creatures
particularly engaged the notice of Bishop Heber. The first which
the bishop met in his journey was grazing in a green paddy-field,
and was branded on the haunches with the emblem of Siva. He
crossed their path tame and fearless, and seeing some grass in one of
the European's hands, coolly walked up and smelt it. These privi-
leged Bulls are turned out when Calves, on certain solemn occa-
sions, by wealthy Hindoos, as acceptable offerings to the divinity
Siva. To strike, or any way injure or molest one of them is held as
a mortal sin. " They feed," he observes, " where they choose, and
devout persons take great delight in pampering them. They are
exceeding pests in the villages near Cal-
cutta, breaking into gardens, thrusting
_,_,_-_^-._' their noses intothe stalls of fruiterers' and
i-Wfi^W®- pastrycooks' shops, and helping them-
selves without ceremony. Like other petted
animals they are sometimes mischievous,
and are said to resent, with a push of
their horns, any delay in gratifying their
wishes."
Between this absurd reverence for con-
secrated Bulls, and the ordinary treatment
of the working Ox, there is a vast dis-
tinction ; the latter is harshly and often
severely treated. The Cow, however, has
more forbearance exercised towards her
than from the treatment of the Ox might be
Expected.
Recedin* westward from India to Persia
we gradually lose the Zebu race, or, at
least, find it intermingled with that of
another type. Chardin (vol. ii.) observes :
— " The Oxen of Persia are like ours,
excepting towards the frontiers of India,
where they have the hunch on the back.
Throughout the whole country the Ox is
seldom eaten as food ; it is only reared as
a beast of burden, or for tillage. Such as
are used for burdens are shod with iron,
in consequence of the stony mountains over which they have to
travel." The shoeing of Oxen, where the country is rugged and
the roads hard or stony, is also practised in India, as Thevenot
relates, but is not a general custom. The shoes are light, and two
are placed on each foot, as the cloven character of the hoof neces-
sarily requires, so that the natural freedom of each part is not
impeded. In Persia the Bull is often made to fight with the Lion,
and sometimes comes oif victorious, though dreadfully lacerated.
(Fig. 722.) , , ,.
Thus much respecting the distinction between the Zebu race of
Cattle and the ordinary breeds of Europe, and their apparently
natural distribution. Whichever breed or race wo contemplate, we
2 o
j8s
THE OX TRIBE.
shall find it adapted to the service and necessities of man, its value
being in proportion. It will readily be admitted, however, that the
interest which attaches to the Ox docs not arise from its intelli-
gence, but from its absolute utility. The pleasure which the mind
experiences when we gaze on peaceful herds, feeding in tranquil
security, is of a complex origin, the result of an association of ideas
more or less remotely connected with the presence of these
creatures, which, time immemorial, have formed the wealth of man,
and which have, therefore, engaged alike the attention of the states-
man, the poet, and the philosopher.
The Gayal (Bos Gavcsi/s, or Bos frontalis). — Gavaya, Sansc. ;
Gavai, or Gaydl, Hind. ; Gobaygoru, Bang. ; Gaujangalf, Pers. ;
Methana, Mountaineers (Ciicfs, &c.) east of Silhet ; Shial, Moun-
taineers (Cuci's) east of Chatgaon ; J'hongnua, Mugs ; Nunec, Bur-
mas ; Gauvera, Ceylon.
India presents us with several species of Wild Oxen, independent of
such as belong to the Buffalo tribe, some of which are domesticated
in certain districts, beyond which they are not dispersed ; such is
the Gaydl. According to Mr. Macrae, the Gayal is found wild in
the range of mountains that form the eastern boundary of the
province's of Arracan, Chittagong (Chatgaon), Tipura, and Silhet.
The Cuci's, or Lunetas, a people inhabiting the hills immediately to
the eastward of Chatgaon, have herds of them in a domesticated
state. This animal is called Gabay in the Hindu Sastra, but, as it
would appear, is little known beyond the limits of its native moun-
tains, except to the inhabitants of the provinces above mentioned.
We learn from the same author that the Gayal is of a dull heavy
appearance, but that its form, at the same time, indicates great
strength and activity, like that of the Wild Buffalo. Its disposition
is gentle ; and in a wild state, on its native hills, it is not considered
dangerous, never standing the approach of man, much less sustain-
ing his attack. The Ciicfs hunt the wild animals for the sake of
their flesh. The Gayal is a tenant of the forest, and prefers the
tender shoots and leaves of shrubs to grass : it never wallows in the
mud like the Buffalo. In a state of domestication among the Cucis,
it does not undergo any labour, nor is the milk of the female, which,
though small in quantity, is extremely rich, held in any request ; the
animals are bred and reared solely for the sake of their flesh and
hides, of which latter the Cucfs form strong shields. These domes-
ticated herds roam at large in their forests during the day, and re-
turn home to their villages in the evening, being taught to do this
very early by being fed, when young, every night with salt, of which
these animals are very fond. Though the Cucis slaughter the do-
mestic Gayal, the Hindus in the province of Chatgaon will not kill
this animal (their Gabay), which they hold in equal veneration with
the Cow ; but they hunt and kill another Gayal (as Tgaval, or Seloi),
as they do the Wild Buffalo.
A specimen, in the Gardens of the Zoological Society in 1878, was
one of several pairs obtained from the forests on the eastern side of
the Bay of Bengal, the rest having died on the voyage to this
country. A hybrid Gayal was born in these Gardens in 1869.
The cry of the Gayal is a kind of lowing, shriller, but not so loud
as that of the European Ox, without any resemblance to the grunt
of the Buffalo.
The Gayal is nearly of the size and shape of the English Bull ; it
has short horns, which are distant at their bases, and rise in a gentle
curve upwards and outwards, their transverse section near the base
Fig. 723. — The Gayul.
ovate; the forehead is broad, and crowned with a tuft of lighter-
coloured, long-curved hair ; the dewlap is deep and pendent ; there
is no mane or hump as in the Zebu ; but the withers rise to a con-
siderable elevation. The tail is short, the body covered with a
tolerable coat of straight dark-brown hair ; on the belly it is lighter
coloured, and the legs and face are sometimes white. The form of
the animal, and the way in which it carries its head, will be under-
stood from the cut (Fig. 723), which is reduced from that by a native
artist, prefixed to Mr. Colebrnoke's paper on this species in the
"Asiatic Researches" (vol. viii.)
From various experiments it is proved that the domestic Gayal will
breed with the ordinary Zebu Cattle of India ; but whether the off.
spring will interbreed with each other is yet to be ascertained.
Fig. 724 is the head of the true Wild Gayal, or, as the natives
term it, Asecl Gayal, from a drawing by General Hardwicke : the
specimen was a female from the south-east frontier of Bengal.
Fig. 724. — Head of Wild Gayal.
The Gyall {Bos frontalis, Lambert). — In the seventh volume of
the " Linnsan Transactions," will be found the figure and descrip-
tion of a Gyall (which died in London in 1842), by A. B. Lambert,
Esq. Fig. 725 represents its head.
Some authorities seem to regard the Gayal and the Gyall as dis-
tinct ; from the descriptions, however, which are given, it is quite
evident that they relate to one and the same species, as F"ischer, in
his " Synopsis Mammalium," considers them to be. The title
frontalis, therefore, must be retained by right of priority over
Gavaus. Among the synonyms, given by Fischer, are, " Bos Bu-
balus Gauvera, Pennant, ' Quadr. :' Gauvera, Knox, Ceylon : Ban-
tinger favatt, a.x\ABos Sylhetanus, F. Cuvier." The Bos Syllieta-
nus, the Jungly Ghau, and the Aseel Gayal, are then identical.
F'g- 725.— IleaJ of Gyall.
Fig. 726. — Jungly Ghau.
THE OX TRIBE.
283
Fig-. 726 is a representation of the male Jungly Ghau, or Aseel
Gayal {Bos frontalis, Lambert ; Bos Gavcciis, Colebrooke ; Bos
Sylhctamis, F. Cuv.)
Duvaucel, who hunted this animal at the foot of the Silhet Moun-
tains, describes it as very wild, but easily domesticated : he states,
that until he had opportunities of seeing it in a state of nature, he
entertained the opinion that it did not differ essentially frorn our
domestic Ox, his impression being received from an inspection of
specimens living tame in the menagerie at Barracpore : subse-
quently, he regarded it as distinct.
The Gour {Bos Gour, Traill, in " Edinb. Phil. Journ.," Oct.
Ig2^). — Of this noble species of Wild O.x, we are able only to give
a figure of the liorns from a drawing by General Hardwicke. (See
i.-jg, 727.) The Gour to which they belonged was killed, as General
Fig. 727. — Hoins ofGour.
Hardwicke believed, by the same hunting-party described by Cap-
tain Rogers, and the horns were presented to the general by the
princip.-il member of that party, the late Major Roughsedge. These
liorns were fifteen inches between the tips : their colour horn-grey,
with black and solid tips, which are extremely sharp. A fine pair
are in the museum of the Zool. Soc, Lend.
According to Captain Rogers, the Gour occurs in several of the
mountain districts of Central India ; but is chiefly found in Myn
Pat, or Mine-Paut, a high insulated mountain, with a tabular sum-
mit, in the province of Sergojah, in South Bahar.
The Gour attains to a very large size. Dr. Traill gives the dimen-
sions of one not fully grown, which measured, from the nose to the
end of the tail, nearly twelve feet, and stood nearly six feet high at
the withers ; the limbs vigorous, clean-made, and more Deer-like
than Bovine ; the back strongly arched ; and when the animal stands
still, the line from the nose to the base of the tail, along the spine,
presents a nearly uniform curve. This appearance is partly owing
to the curved form of the chaffron, and still more to a remarkable
ridge, of no great thickness, which rises six or seven inches above
the general line of the back, from the last of the cervical to the
middle of the dorsal vertebra;, where it gradually declines, and
becomes lost. This elevation is very conspicuous in Gours of all
ages, although they were loaded with fat, and has no resemblance
to the hunch found on the withers of the Zebu breed of Cattle.
There is not a trace of the dewlap, which is well-marked in the
Gayal. The hair of the skin generally is short and sleek, having
somewhat the oily appearance of a fresh Seal skin. The colour is
deep brownish-black, almost approaching to bluish-black ; between
the horns is a tuft of curling, dirty-white hair, and over each hoof is
a ring of the same colour.
The Yak {PoVphagus, or Bos gncnn!ens).—\<fe may here briefly
notice a species of the Bovine race, the Yak of Tartary and Thibet,
too remarkable to be altogether omitted in our sketch of the Ox
tribe. Whether the Yak belongs to the restricted genus Bos is very
doubtful ; in some points it certainly is related to the Musk Ox
{Ovibos Moschatiis), which will be subsequently described — at least,
if we are tojudge from the skins, more or less imperfect, which we
have had opportunities of examining.
The animal has the nostrils narrow, converging below, with a
small naked space between them, and a narrow naked border round
them, so that there is no true broad naked muzzle, as in the common
Ox ; the ears are small and pointed ; the forehead is covered with
black, curling locks; but its degree of convexity cannot be accu-
rately determined, owing to the absence of the skull. The back
IS covered with smooth hair, of a deep chocolate-brown, a w^hite
stripe occupying the ridge of the withers, and another the centre
of the croup, trom the shoulders, sides, and under-surface of the
body, and also from the inside of the thighs, hangs a pendent
mane of long hair, falling in huge masses, so as to cover the
hmbs, and almost touch the ground. This mane is grizzled black,
except a central line along the belly of pure white. The tail is
tufted, with a huge mass of glossy white, and rather coarse
hairs, eighteen or twenty inches in length. In size, the animal
is about that of the small Scotch breed of Cattle. (See ante,
p. 274.)
On the authority of Gmelin and Turner, the horns are round,
small, pointed, and bent in a semicircle forwards. The withers are
elevated, and the colour is said to vary. We have seen an example
in which the tail was black.
The Yak is a native of the mountains of Thibet, and when wild,
is said to be savage and dangerous ; it is, however, reclaimed, and
a domestic breed is kept by the natives of the range tenanted by the
animal in its wild condition. The Yak is most likely the Poi'-pliagus
described by yElian : from an early period its tail was used as a
standard by the Mongols and Tartars, being one of the distinguish-
ing insignia of superior officers. In India these tails are mounted
on ivory or silver handles, and, under the name of chowries, are
used to brush away the flies. Elephants of state are taught to carry
a splendidly mounted chowrie in their proboscis, and wave it back-
wards and forwards.
Of the habits of the Yak in a state of freedom little is known.
As regards the domestic Yak, Turner, in his "Account of an Em-
bassy to China," after giving a description of it, obser\'es that " these
Cattle, though not large-boned, seem, from the profuse quantity of
hair with which they are provided, to be of great bulk ; they have a
downcast heavy look, and appear, what indeed they are, sullen and
suspicious, discovering much impatience at the near approach of
strangers. They do not lozv loud, like the Cattle of England, any
more than those of Hindostan ; but make a low grunting noise,
scarcely audible, and that but seldom, when under some impression
of uneasiness. These Cattle are pastured in the coldest parts of
Thibet upon the short herbage peculiar to the mountains and bleak
plains. The chain of mountains, situated between the latitudes 27"
and 28°, which divides Thibet from Bootan, and whose summits are
mostly clothed with snow, is their favourite haunt. In this vicinity
the southern glens afford them food and shelter during the severity
of winter ; in milder seasons the northern aspect is more congenial
to their nature, and admits a wider range. They are a very valu-
able property to the tribes of itinerant Tartars called Duckba, who
live in tents, and tend them from place to place ; they at the same
time afford their herdsmen an easy mode of conveyance, a good
covering, and wholesome subsistence. They are never employed in
agriculture, but are extremely useful as beasts of burden, for they
are strong, sure-footed, and carry a great weight. Tents and ropes
are manufactured of their hair, and amongst the humbler ranks of
herdsmen I have seen caps and jackets made of their skins. The
best requital with which the care of their keepers is at length re-
warded for selecting them good pastures, is in the abundant quan-
tity of rich milk which th.ey give, and in the butter produced from it,
which is most excellent. It is their custom to preserve this in skins
or bladders, and the air being thus excluded from it, it will keep in
this cold climate throughout the year ; so that after some time tend-
ing their herds, when a sufficient store is accumulated, it remains
only to load their Cattle and drive them to a proper market with
their own produce, which constitutes, to the utmost verge of Tartary,
a most material article of commerce."
The Anoa {Anoa deprcssicorm's). — Our figure represents the
horns of this rare animal, which has been considered by some natu-
ralists as belonging to the Antelopes, by others to the Ox tribe.
(See Fig. 728 )
Fig. 72S. — Iloins of Anoa.
The horns are erect, perfectly straight, and in the plane of the
forehead : they are about the same length as the head ; that is, about
nine or ten inches, strongly depressed or flattened in front, of nearly
the same breadth till within three inches of the extremities, whence
they are rather attenuated to the tips, which are bluntly pointed, and
irregularly wrinkled, or rather crumbled throughout the greater part
of their length. The head is long and narrow, terminating in a
broad muzzle. . , , .
Mr. Pennant was the first naturalist who has mentioned this
animal; but he has given no account of its characters, and merely
relates, that it is about the size of a middling Sheep, is wild and
fierce, and resides in large herds among the rocky mountains °[^]]'\
island of Celebes. He considers it as a small species of Wild
Buffalo, and adds, that it is captured only with great difficulty, and
is so fierce in confinement, that some of these animals, belonging to
Governor Loten, in one night ripped up the bellies of fourteen stags
which were kept in the same paddock with them. The next author,
who mentions the Anoa from original documents or personal obser-
284
THE OX TRIBE.
vation, is Colonel Hamilton Smith, who, in the fourth volume of
Griffith's translation of the " Regne Animal," describes the head
and horns, and considers the animal as a species of Antelope.
Colonel Smith's fras^ment was broujjht from Celebes by Dr. Clarke
Abel, who obtained it on his return from China in the suite of Lord
Amherst ; but since that period various other heads have been
brought to Europe, some of which are deposited in the British
Museum, where there is a stuffed specimen, and in the collection of
the London Zoological Society, where also a living animal may be
seen. (See also Fig. 652, p, 248, anfe.)
The Arnee, or Urna [Bos Ar>iz of Shaw and others). — The
Arnee is, by some naturalists, regarded as nothing more than the
ordinary Wild Buffalo ; but we are inclined to the opinion that it is
a distinct species, as we think is clearly evidenced by the characters
deed, renders it difficult to tame, and difficult to manage, while its
prodigious strength and adaptation for certain localities render it a
valuable acquisition. Tlie hot morass, teeming with pestilence, is
the genial abode of the Buffalo, and its delight is to wallow in the
stagnant water, where it will luxuriate for hours during the heat of
the day, with its black muzzle just elevated above the surface. Its
flesh is hard and unsavoury, but the milk of the Buffalo-Cow is of
peculiar richness, and in the East a considerable quantity of butter
Fig. 729. — Horns of Arnee.
of the horns, which are not uncommon in museums. It tenants the
high lands of Hindostan, and is known in Bengal and the neigh-
bouring provinces by the name of Arna. It is described as a large
and formidable beast, conspicuous for strength, courage, and fero-
city. The horns of this animal, which we have figured (Fig. 729),
are remarkable for their enormous size, often measuring from four
to six feet in length. They rise upwards, first inclining outwards
and backwards, and then, arching gradually towards each other as
they proceed to the points, form together
a bold crescent : they are compressed on
their anterior and posterior surfaces, and
rough with numerous transverse furrows
and ridges. The chaffron is narrow and _^_=
convex. -=^~
The Common Buffalo {Bos bubalus). — _ -_ ^_
— The Buffalo has been long domesticated —=^^ _ z»=,
in India, where its services, as a beast of
draught and burden, render it extremely
valuable. From India it has spread into
Egypt, Greece, Italy, Spain, &c.
The Buffalo differs materially in its form
and general aspect from the Ox, being a
heavier and more clumsy animal, as well
as more powerful. Though lower in stature
than the Bull, it is more massive in the
body, which is supported on short, thick,
solid limbs ; the hide is coarse and dense,
covered rather sparingly with black wiry
hair. The head is large, and carried with
the muzzle projecting ; the forehead is
convex, the muzzle large; the horns are
compressed, and lie back, turning up late-
rally, and often attaining to a large size;
but the direction seldom allows the points
to be used for goring ; the ears are large
and pendulous; the dewlap is small; the
eyes are wild, savage, and malicious in e.xpression ; the tail is long
and slender. (See Fig. 730.)
In its native regions the Buffalo is a formidable animal, and
capable of contending with the Tiger, which is often foiled in the
deadly strife. When excited, the beast rushes desperately on its
foe, strikes him down with the horns or forehead, kneels upon him,
crushing in his chest, and then tramples on the lifeless body, as if to
satiate its vindictive fuiy. (See Fig. 731.) Its natural temper, in-
Fig. 730. — The Common Buffalo.
is procured from it. The hide is greatly esteemed for its solidity
and toughness. Colonel Sykes states that the long-horned variety
of the Buffalo is bred in great numbers in the Mawals, or hilly tracts
along the Ghauts : "in those tracts much rice is planted, and the
male Buffalo, from his superior hardihood, is much better suited to
resist the effects of the heavy rains and the splashy cultivation of
the rice than the Bullock. The female is also infinitely more valu-
able than the Cow, from the very much greater quantity of milk she
yields." (See also p. 281.)
From India the Buffalo is distributed throughout Siam, Cochin-
China, Malacca, and the adjacent islands, as Sumatra, Java,
Borneo, &c., together with the Philippines; it is also common in
China, where it is used in the various labours of agriculture.
In Africa it is abundant along the Nile, and in other districts,
existing in a wild or emancipated state, as well as in a state of do-
mestication. In Abyssinia, more particularly in the forests of Ras
el Fil, the Buffalo is very common ; its skin is chiefly employed in
that country for the making of shields, in which considerable art is
displayed.
In the middle ages the Buffalo was introduced into Spain and
Italy, where, in course of time, the animal became naturalised,
and in some districts may be regarded as in a state of nature.
We have already alluded to the Maremma of Italy. In the worst
parts of that pestilential tract of country, there the savage Buffalo
Fig' 73 1 .—Tiger and Buflalo Fight.
may be seen, roaming at will, under the care of wild keepers,
Buffalari, whose lives are passed in this dangerous employment.
Wherever large herds of Buffaloes occur, they may be taken as the
sure index of malaria. In the wild provinces of the Calabrias, where
most of the plains and valleys are always partially swamped by the
Laino, the Chratis, the Amato, and numerous other rivers and tor-
rents, they are very common ; they range, almost the only occupants,
over the plains of Piestum, and the still wilder and more extensive
THE OX TRIBE.
flats of Apulia. The Pontine Marshes offer them a favourite re-
treat, and in the pestilential Maremme, both of Rome and Tuscany,
scarcely any other animals, except Wild Boars, arc ever seen. In
Northern Italy, where there is infinitely less malaria than in the
south, they occur in greatest numbers where the causes of that
pest exist, and where its effects are often felt, in the inundated
rice-grounds of Lombardy, in the marshes formed by the over-
flowing of the Po, the Tanaro, the Ticino, or of some other rivers
or lakes.
In every part of Italy, but especially in the south, are Buffaloes
used as beasts of burden, and their strength and perseverance
render them available in many emergencies when Oxen or Horses
would fail. In some of the marshy plains of Calabria communication
would be almost impracticable were it not for the Buffalo. There
are not only morasses, swamps, and bogs in every direction, but
rivers suddenly swollen to torrents in rainy weather, and unprovided
with bridges of any sort, frequently occur. Here Horses, Mules, or
Oxen are useless ; but a pair of good Buffaloes, working chest-deep
in the mud, will slowly, indeed, but surely, drag a large carro, with
its goods or passengers, through them. Yoked to a high cart with
wheels of prodigious diameter, they will fearlessly take to the
swollen torrent, and, provided the w-ater does not entirely cover
them, drag it safely to the opposite bank. On the great plain of
Apulia the Buffalo is the ordinary beast of draught ; and at the
annual fair held at Foggia at the end of May, immense droves of
almost Wild Buffaloes are brought to the town for sale. Fearful
accidents occasionally happen, enraged animals breaking from the
dense mass, in spite of all the exertions of the Buffalari, and rush-
ing upon some object of their vengeance, W'hom they strike down
and trample to death. It is dangerous to over-work or irritate the
Buffalo ; and instances are known in which, when released by the
brutal driver from the cart, they have turned instantly upon the man,
and killed him before any assistance could be rendered.
The Cape Buff.\lo {Bos caffer).—T)^\s ferocious animal is a
native of Southern Africa, associating generally in troops, frequent-
ing the watered glens and ravines among the hills. Like the
common Buffalo, it is fond of wallowing in pools or swamps, where
it sometimes passes the greater part of the day. Its temper is
depicted in its lowering eye, and the malevolent expression of the
countenance, to which the position of the horns, overshadowing its
fiery eyes, not a little contributes. These weapons form at their
base a solid rugged mass, covering the forehead, from which they
bend downwards and somewhat outwards, gradually diminishing to
the points, which suddenly curve upwards. The distance between
the points of the horns is frequently five feet ; but the rugose massive
base of each is in contact, forming an impenetrable helmet ; their
colour is black. The ears are a foot in length, pendent, and, in a great
measure, defended by the horns ; yet it is observed that they are
always torn and jagged, either from the wounds received in their
Fis
-The Cape Buffalo.
combats with each other, or from the laceration of thorns and spines,
the animals continually forcing their way through the dense thickets.
Though not taller than an ordinary Ox, the Cape Buffalo is a far
stouter, heavier, and more powerful beast ; its limbs are short and
thick, its body bulky, and its head ponderous. The hide is thick
and tough, and sparingly covered with harsh blackish hairs, those
on the under-lip and about the corners of the mouth being elongated
so as to form a scanty beard. (See Fig. ']},2,')
Considering the massive proportions of this fierce tenant of the
wilds of Southern Africa, it possesses no inconsiderable share of
fleetness, and when pursued by the hunter it tears through the
thicket and up the mountain-side with surprising impetuosity. ■ Not
unfrequently, however, it returns to the attack"; so that it is not to
be encountered without the utmost caution, and the means of escape
at hand. Many are the fatal accidents and the narrow escapes from
death recorded by the various travellers who have penetrated the
country of the Cape Buffalo.
The bellowing of the Cape Buffalo when wounded, his fury as he
tears up the earth with his horns, and his efforts to revenge himself
upon his foes before he sinks expiring, are terrific.
It is the general opinion of the natives of South Africa, that,
though the Lion frequently attacks the Buffalo, he cannot overcome
it by dint of strength, but has recourse to stratagem, lying in am-
bush near some stream where the beast comes to drink. They say
that the Lion springs upon its back, drives its tremendous claws into
the victim's sides and the nape of the neck, tearing and mangling
till the Buffalo falls and dies. At other times they affirm that the
Lion darts suddenly upon the Buffalo, fastens on its chest and neck,
lacerating and squeezing the mouth and nose with its fore-paws,
till, half suffocated, and exhausted by vain efforts and loss of blood
from deep wounds, it expires. The Lion, however, does not always
make these attacks with impunity, for his carcass is sometimes found
gored and trampled, evidently by Buffaloes, the herd having come to
the rescue of their companion. An allied species {Bos pcgasus, H.
Smith) is found in Western Africa.
Fig. 733 represents the skull of the Cape Buffalo.
Fig. 733.— Skull of the Cape Buffalo.
The Aurochs, or Zubr {Bonasiis bison; Bison europaeus;
Bos zincs, Gmelin). — This noble species exists in the great forest of
Bialowicza (pronounced Bealawezha in Poland), in Lithuania, where
it is protected by stringent laws. In its proportions the Aurochs is
robust, and its withers are massive and elevated. The largest mates
stand above six feet high at the shoulders. The hair is of two
sorts : one is soft, woolly and short, covering the whole trunk and
limbs ; the other is long and rough, covering the upper part and
sides of the head, the neck, and shoulders, where it forms a mane ;
under the lower jaw and along the throat to the chest it is length-
ened into a sort of beard. In old bulls the mane is often a foot in
length, and is thickest in November. The eyes are small, but fierce
and sparkling when the animal is irritated. The tongue, lips, and
Fig. 734.— The Aurochs.
palate are blue. The tail, which is short, is furnished with a tuft of
stiff hairs at its extremity. An odour, described as between that of
musk and violets, is exhaled from the skin, especially from that part
of the skin covering the convexity of the forehead ; it is stronger in
the male than the female, and may be perceived at the distance of
100 yards from the herd. (See Fig. 734.)
The flesh of this animal is highly esteemed ; but when roasted, is
said to have a bluish tinge. Thickets near the swampy banks of
286
THE OX TRIBE.
rivers are the favourite resorts of the Aurochs ; but in summer, and
during the warmer portion of autumn, according- to Dr. Wcissen-
born, the herds select sandy spots : in winter thev keep quiet by day
in the thickest part of the fir-wood, only browsing at night, and
finding sustenance in the bark
of young trees : in spring they
visit spots where the herbace-
ous plants they relish begin to
sprout. They are fond of tree-
lichens. The voice of the
Aurochs is a deep, short grunt,
which may be heard at a con-
siderable distance.
" The strength," says Dr.
Weissenborn, " of the Zubr is
enormous, and trees of five or
six inches in diameter, cannot
withstand the thrusts of old
bulls. It is neither afraid of
the Wolf nor Bear, and assails
its enemies both with its horns
and hoofs. An old Zubr is a
match for four Wolves ; packs
of the latter animal, however,
sometimes hunt down even
old bulls when alone ; but a
herd of Zubrs has nothing to
fear from any rapacious ani-
mal.
"Notwithstanding the great
bulk of its body, the Zubr can
run very swiftly. In gallop-
ing its hoofs are raised above
its head, which it carries very
low. The animal has, how-
ever, but little bottom, and
seldom runs farther than one
or two English miles. It
swims with great agility, and
is very fond of bathing.
" The Zubr is generally ex-
ceedingly shy, and avoids the
approach of man. They can only be approached from the leeward, as
their smell is extremely acute. But when accidentally and suddenly
fallen-in with, they will passionately assail the intruder. In such fits
of passion the animal thrusts out its tongue repeatedly, lashes its sides
Fig- 735-— Skull ofthe
Young Aurochs.
rig. 736.— Skull ofthe
Young Aurochs.
Fie
737. — Skull of an old
Male Aurochs.
l'"'g- 73S.— Skull of an old
Male Aurochs.
Fig. 739. — The American Eison,
with its tail, and the reddened and sparkling eyes project from their
sockets, and roll furiously. Such is ihoir innate wildness, that none
of them have ever been completely tamed. When taken young they
become, it is true, accustomed to their keepers ; but the approach
of other persons renders them furious, and even their keepers must
be careful always to wear the same sort of dress when going near
them. Their great antipathy to the Bos taurus, which they cither
avoid or kill, would render their domestication, if it were practicable,
but little desirable. The experiments made with a view of obtaining
a mixed breed from the Zubr and Bos taurus have all failed, and
are now strictly prohibited."
F'gs. 735, 736, represent the skull, in front and profile, of a young
Aurochs ; Figs. 737 and 738, of an old male.
The American Bison {Bonasus or Bison amcrkanus ; Bos
amcricaiitts). — The American Bison, formerly spread more exten-
sively than at present, still exists in vast numbers in Louisiana,
roaming in countless herds over the prairies that arc watered by the
Arkansas, Platte, Missouri, and upper branches of the Saskatchewan
and Peace rivers. Like its congener the Aurochs, the American
Bison is of powerful frame, and exceeds in bulk the ordinary race of
Cattle, its height at the fore-quarters being upwards of six feet, and
its weight from twelve to fifteen hundredweight, and sometimes
much more. The head is huge, ponderous, and carried low ; the
withers are massive and elevated ; the eyes are small, and their
expression is ferocious ; the horns are small and black. The neck,
withers, and chest are covered with a profusion of long, shaggy
hair, contributing to render the appearance of the animal wild and
terrific ; the hinder quarters are clothed with shorter wool. The
general colour is umber brown, acquiring a rusty tint in winter.
Endowed with the sense of smell in great perfection, wary, and
fierce, the Bison associates in large herds conducted by one or two
old bulls, whose motions the rest appear to follow ; but herds of
bulls also live separately. Their food consists of grass and rank
herbage, to obtain which in winter they scrape away'the snow with
their feet. On the approach of an enemy the herd immediately
takes to flight; but if one be wounded, the life of the hunter is
placed in great jeopardy, for turning in a moment, it rushes on its
assailant with headlong impetuosity, and with determined resolution.
Several fatal instances might be cited in which the hunter has
perished from want of caution in attacking this formidable beast,
and many hair-breadth escapes are on record.
In defending itself from a Dog the Bison strikes violently with
its fore-feet, and easily keeps its annoying foe at bay.
THE OX TRIBE.
287
The flesh of this animal is accounted excellent, the tongue and
hump, or flesh on the top of the withers, being especial delicacies.
The chase of tlie Bison is, therefore, assiduously carried on, both by
the natives and the Europeans.
The Bison swims well, and during the heats of summer vast herds
make their way to shady rivulets, streams, and pools, in which they
delight to plunge and bathe. Herds of 20,000, crossing rivers up-
wards of a mile in breadth, have been seen, or darkening the plains
on their passage to fresh feeding-grounds.
Fig. 740. — SkuU of the young
Female Bison.
Fig. 741. — Skull of the j'oung
Female Bison.
Salt-springs, or saline morasses, or salt-licks, are great attractions
to this animal, and at all seasons are visited by numerous herds.
These, however, are incessantly thinned by the hunters ; and the time
is probably not far distant when the American Bison will be as rare
and as limited in its extent of range as the Aurochs of Lithuania.
At certain seasons of the year the bulls engage in terrible con-
flicts, and rush furiously upon man, or any other animal which ven-
tures near them. With the exception of man, the most formidable
enemy against which the Bison has to contend, is the huge grisly
Bear, and before this dreaded monster the strongest bull goes
down.
It appears that the Bison will breed with the ordinary race of
domestic Cattle, against which the Aurochs displays the greatest
antipathy, though, in one respect, the latter approaches nearer to
the common Ox than does the Bison; we allude to the number of
ribs, which are thirteen in the Ox on each side, fourteen in the
Aurochs, and fifteen in the Bi^on.
Fig. 742. — Skull of an old
Male Bison.
Fig. 743. — Skull of an old
Male Bison,
Figs. 740, 741, represent the skull, front view and in profile, of a
young female Bison ; Figs. 742, 743, of an old male Bison.
The IVIuskOx {Ovibos moschatus). — The characters of the genus
Ovibos, as exhibited by the only known species, are as follows : —
The horns are expanded at their base, forming a helmet-like mass,
covering the forehead, where their hedges are in contact with each
!■ ig. 744. — Musk (.)xeu.
288
RUMINANT ANIMALS.
other ; from this mass they emerge roand and tapering, first bending
down between the eye and ear, and then sweeping suddenly up-
wards. The ears and tail arc short ; the eyes moderate ; the nos-
trils oblong, and inclined to each other from above downwards ;
there is no true naked muzzle, but a very narrow naked line sur-
rounds each nostril, the rest being covered with hair; there is no
iurrow in the upper lip.
The Musk-O.K is a native of the high latitudes of North America,
from the sixty-first to the seventy-fifth degree of latitude. In size it
scarcely equals the smallest of the Highland breed of Cattle, already
described ; but appears larger than it really is from the profusion
of long-matted woolly hair with which it is covered, and \vhich
hangs on each side almost to the ground, almost concealing the
limbs to the pasterns; the tail is entirely hidden. Beneath the
lower jaw, throat, and chest the hair flows full, long, and mane-like.
The general colour is dull, grizzled umber brown, darker on the
sides and under-surface : on the centre of the back is a brownish-
white mark or saddle.
The districts inhabited by the ISIusk-Ox, says Dr. Richardson,
are the proper lands of the Esquimaux, and their name for it is
Oomingmak. It frequents wild and rocky situations, mostly desti-
tute of wood, feeding on grass during one season of the year, and
on lichens during the other. When fat, its flesh is tolerable ; but at
certain times both that of the bulls and cows smell strongly of musk.
Though the limbs of the Musk-Ox are short, they are very vigorous,
and the animal is fleet and active. Dr. Richardson mentions one
pursued on the banks of the Coppermine, which scaled a lofty sand-
cliff so steep that the party were obliged to crawl up it on their
hands and knees.
In September these animals assemble in herds, and arc then much
harassed by the hunters. The sport, however, is not free from
danger, for the bulls are very irascible, and, when wounded, will
dart furiously upon the hunter, who requires both practice and pre-
sence of mind in order to escape. If, however, the hunters re-
mained concealed when they fire upon a herd of Musk-Oxen, the
poor animals mistake the noise for thunder, and forming themselves
into a group, crowd nearer and nearer together as their companions
fall around them ; but should they discover their enemies by sight,
or by their sense of smell, which is very acute, the whole herd seek
for safety by instant flight.
The wool of this animal is fine, and some stockings which were
made from it in France, are said to have been equal to those made
from silk. If it could be obtained in suf&cient quantity, it might
doubtless be employed advantageously as an article for manufacture.
From the appearance of the hair, resembling that of a Goat, the
name of the genus, Ovis-bos, or Ovibos, is derived. (See Fig. 774. J
The importance of the Iiutnt7ia!itia to man, in relation to food,
clothing, trade, &c., has been already alluded to. In the following
tables some of the most interesting specimens of the tribe are named
as they may be seen stuffed in the British Museum or alive in the.
Gardens of the Zoological Society at Regent's Park, London.
Wapiti
Rein-deer . .
Chinese Munfjac . .
Kijang or Muntjac
Roebuck . .
Sclater's JVIuntjac
Venada
Long-tailed Deer
Ahu
Guamel or Peruvian Roebuck
Guazuti
FormosanAxis ..
White Hart
Mantchurian Deer
Woodland Deer . .
Fallow Deer
Swinhoe's Deer . .
Venados. .
iapanese Deer
Irocket Deer
Cuguacu, etc.
Kuhl's Stag
Eyebrowed Brocket
Axis or Cheetul . .
Lugna, Parr, or Shgariah
Brazilian Brocket
Sing-Sing
Hodgson's Rusa . .
Rusa
Stag or Red Deer
Barbary Deer
Bara Singa or Mori
Bahrainga . .
Elk
Rusa Deer. .
Licaraa or Hartebeest
Carcajou .
Cabrit or Pronghorn
Mazama or Spring Buck
Capricornis
Goral
Thaar or Thar
Ariel
Colus or Saiga
Jairou
Senegal Gazelle . .
Gazella
Red-fronted Gazelle
Chiru
Gutturoso Antelope
Dr. Scemmering's Antelope
Spring Buck or Tsebe . .
Red Antelope or Nagor . .
Madoqua . .
Isabella Gazelle . .
BRITISH MUSEUM.
CER'FID^E, &c.; Stuffed Specimens.
Cervus canadensis.
Rangifcr tarandus.
Ccrvuhis reevesii.
Mil nfjacus vagin all's.
Capreolus caprcsa.
Cerviilus sclfiteri.
Pudu hiimilis.
Cariacus liicurtis.
Capreolus pygargus.
Xcnelaphiis chilensis.
Mazama ca?iipestris.
Pseudaxis taivafius.
Cervus elaphas.
Cervus nianfchuriciis.
Cariacus neiitoralis.
Dama vulgaris.
Rusa sivinhoii.
Coassus peruviatius.
Pseudaxis si lea.
Coassus rufinus.
Coassus rufus.
Rusa kuhlii.
Coassus sitperciliaris.
Axis jnaculata.
Hyelaphus porcinus.
Coassus simplicicornis.
Kobus sing-sing.
Rusa dcmorpha.
Rusa hippclaphus.
Cervus elaphas.
Cervus barbarus.
Cervus wallichii.
Cervus duvaucelli.
A Ices pahnatus.
Cervus equinus.
Acronotus caama.
Cariacus virginiis.
Antilocapra america?ta.
Mazatna americatia.
C. caiidata.
Nemorrhedus goral.
Capricornis bubalina.
Gazella cor a.
Saiga tartarica.
Gazella subgutturosa.
Gazella rufifrons.
G. cuvierii.
Gazella rufifro7is.
Keinas hodgso?iii.
Gazella gutturosa .
Gazella sammeringii
Gazella euchore.
Eleotragus reduncas.
Madoqua salliana.
Gazella Isabella.
Indian Gazelle or Chikara
Grys Boo . .
Nasotragus
Steinboc
Nasotragus
Bay Bush . .
Abyssinian Bush Goat . .
Bay Bush Buck . .
Jungle Burka
Roode Bock
Coquetoon , .
Duyker Bock
White-backed Bush Buck
Black-striped Bush Buck
Black Antelope . .
Cephalophus
Ourebi
Chouka or Chousinga . .
Whitfield's Cephalophus
Blanco Bockje
Cephalophus
Gazella bennetlii.
Calotragus melanosis.
N. nioschafus.
Calotragus tragulus.
N. nigricaudatus.
Cephalophus dorsalis.
Cephalophus madoqua.
Cephalophus dorsalis.
Tetracerus subquadricornis .
Cephalophus natalensis.
Cephalophus rufilafus.
Cephalophus tnergens.
Cephalophus sylvicultris.
Cephalophus ogilbyii.
Cephalophus jiiger.
C. nigri/rons.
Oreostragus scoparius.
Tretracerus quadricornts.
Cephalophus whitfieldii.
Cephalophus cceruleus.
C. bicolur.
B0VID.5:.
Sable Antelope . .
Oryx .
Gorgon or Brindled Gnu
Gour or Kokoon . .
Kob
Sassayby . .
Taye or Big Horn
Aoudad
Argali
Moufflon
Wild Sheep of the Thian Shan
Yac
Aurochs or Lithuanian Bison
American Bison . .
Anoa
The Decula Antelope
Bosch- Bock
Takin
Musk Ox . .
Speke's Bosh-Boch
Guib or Bontebock
Gour
Javan Ox . .
Buffalo ..
Gayal
Nunni or Bonte Bock
Straight-horned Oryx
White Scotch Bull
Addax
Wild Buffalo of Central .^.frica. .
Hippofragus 7iiger.
Ory.v leucuryx.
Con nochetes gorgon .
Connochctes gnu.
Adenota kob.
Dama lis lutiatus.
Caprovis canadetisis.
A nmotragus fragclaphus.
Caprovis argali.
Caprovis, or ovis musimon.
Ovis rarelitii.
Poephagus grunniens.
Bison urus.
Bison americanus.
A noa depressicornis.
Tragelaphus decula.
Tragelaphus sylvaticus,
Budorcas taxicola.
Ovibos nioschatus.
Tragelaphus spekii.
Tragelaphus script us.
Bibos gaurus.
Bibos bantiger.
Bubalus buffelus.
Bibos frontalis.
Damalis pygarga.
Oryx beatrix.
Bos taunts.
Oryx ?zasomaculata.
Bubalis centralis.
THE ASS.
2n'/
a short distance from the dwelling-house was a small but luxuriant
pasture, where, during the summer, Charlie was often permitted to
graze. When this pasture had been originally reclaimed from its
wild forest state, about ten years previous to the period of which I
am speaking, four or five large trees of the sugar-maple species had
been left standing when the rest were cut down, and means had
afterwards been found to prevent their being scorched by the fire at
the time the rest of the timber had been consumed. Though re-
markably fine trees of their kind, they
were, however, no great ornament, their
stems being long and bare, their heads
small, and by no means full of leaves —
the case generally with trees that have
grown up in close contact with each other
in the American forests. But if they were
no ornament, they might serve as shade-
trees. Beneath one of these trees Charlie
used to seek shelter, as well from the
heat of the meridian sun, as from the
severe thunder-gusts that occasionally
ravage that part of the country. On an
occasion of this son Charlie had taken
his stand close to his favourite tree, his
tail actually pressing against it, his head
and body in an exact line with the course
of the wind ; apparently understanding
the most advantageous position to escape
the violence of the storm, and quite at
home, as it were, for he had stood in the
same place some scores of times. The
storm came on, and raged with such
violence that the tree under which the
Horse had sought shelter was literally
torn up by the roots. I happened to be
standing at a window, from whence I
witnessed the whole scene. The moment
Charlie heard the roots giving way be-
hind him, that is, on the contrary side of
the tree from where he stood, and pro-
bably feeling the uprooted tree pressing
against his tail, he sprang forward, and
barely cleared the ground upon which, at
the next moment, the top of the huge
forest-tree fell with such a force that the crash was tremendous, for
ever)' limb and branch were actually riven asunder. I have many a
time seen Horses alarmed, nay, exceedingly frightened ; but never in
ni}' life did I witness anything of the sort that bore the slightest com-
parison to Charlie's extreme terror; and yet Charlie, on ordinary
occasions, was by no means a coward. He galloped, he reared his
mane and tossed his head, he stopped short, and snorted wildly,
and then darted off at the top of his speed in a contrary direction,
and then as suddenly stopped and set off in another, until long
after the storm had considerably abated, and it was not until after
the lapse of some hours that he ventured to reconnoitre — but that at
a considerable distance — the scene of his narrow escape. For that\
day, at least, his appetite had been completely spoiled, for he never
offered to stoop his head to the ground while daylight continued.
The next day his apprehensions seemed somewhat abated, but his
curiosity had been excited to such a pitch that he kept pacing from
place to place, never failing to halt as he passed within a moderate
distance of the prostrate tree, gazing thereat in utter bewilderment,
as if wholly unable to comprehend the scene he had witnessed the
preceding day. After this occurrence took place I kept this favour-
ite Horse several years, and during the summer months he usually
enjoyed the benefit of his old pasture. But it was quite clear that
he never forgot, on any occasion, the narrow escape he had had;
for neither the burning rays of the noontide summer sun, nor the
furious raging of the thunder-storm, could compel Charlie to seek
shelter under one of the trees that still remained standing in his
small pasture."
At the end of this chapter will be found some remarks in regard
to the fossil remains of the Horse tribe, from which it will appear
that the era of the Horse seems coeval with that of man.
The Ass {Equiis asimts, Linn.) — It would appear, from various
evidence, that the Ass was domesticated at an earlier period than
the Horse : it was the beast of civil life, in contradistinction to the
Horse, which was used almost exclusively for war. In the East the
Ass is treated with care and attention, and there its appearance is
very different from that of the serviceable but neglected and under-
valued beast of Western Europe. According to Chardin, " the Asses
of Arabia are among the finest in the world ; their coat is smooth
and clean ; they carry their head elevated, and have fine well-
formed legs, which they throw out gracefully in walking or gallop-
ing. They are used only for the saddle, and are imported m vast
numbers into Persia, where they are frequently sold for 400 livres,
and being taught a kind of easy ambling pace, are richly capari-
soned, and used only by the. rich and luxurious nobles."
White Asses are not uncommon, and appear anciently to have
been selected for the use of persons of distinction, as illustrated in
Fig. 756. In Syria there are several distinct breeds of Asses, of
which the most valued is that of Arabia.
Domesticated as the Ass has been from the remotest antiquity,
and valued as it has ever been in Western Asia, it was long before
the animal became introduced into Western Europe. Aristotle
states, that in his time there were no Asses in Pontus, Scyihia, or
Fig. 756. — Asiatic Asses.
in the country of the Celts (modem Germany and France) : and we
know that even as late as the time of Queen Elizabeth the Ass was
extremely rare in our country. During the last few years the con-
dition of the domestic Ass has been greatly improved'through better
treatment, food, &c. In 18-7 an Ass Show was held in London, and
one animal was exhibited capable of drawing a ton weight. Fit'.
757 represents the domestic Ass.
Fig. 757. — The Ass,
It is a mistake to suppose that in every part of the East the Ass is
large ; there is a small but spirited breed in Syria, upon which the
Syrian ladies are accustomed to ride, and in Western India we are
assured that the Asses are not much larger than good-sized New-
foundland Dogs. They are used in droves to carry small loads of
salt or grain ; they are also used by the potmakers to carry their
clay, and are always seen, as in Europe, associated with gipsies.
It is, in fact, principally in Western Asia, the genial climate of the
Ass, that it is held in esteem, and carefully bred and reared.
From the accounts of travellers there would appear to be several
species of Wild Ass, or Onager {Equus oaai^cr) of the ancients.
Bruce talks of Wild Asses, which he saw in Abyssinia ; but he is of
little authority on matters of natural histor)'. Bell, in his " Travels
in Tartary," notices a species of Wild Ass resembling the ordinary
kind, excepting that their hair is waved white and brown, like that
of a Tiger — an indefinite description, and if applicable to a species
2 Q
2grt
THE WILD ASS.
in the deserts of Tartar}', naturalists are unacquainted with it.
There is the Wild Ass, or Koulan, as it is called by the Tartars,
which is said to be of a uniform silvery-grey, with a broad coffee-
coloured stripe extending down the spine, and crossed on the shoul-
ders by a transverse band, as in the domestic variety. (See Fig.
758.) This species is req-arded as the oriijin of the ordinary Ass.
There is next the Ghur (Ghurkhud, or Gourkood) of Persia, of which
a detailed account occurs in Sir R, Ker Porter's Travels (vol. i.),
V/yVmil^
- >A>'lk
Fig. 75S.— The Wild Ass.
and which he describes as being ten or twelve hands high, with a
sleek coat, of a reddish colour, passing on the belly and hinder-parts
into silver)'-grey : the limbs were beautifully slender, " the mane
'was short and black, as was also a tuft which terminated his tail,
but no line whatever ran along his back, or crossed his shoulders."
Moorcroft, in his " Travels in the Hunalayan Provinces," describes
another species under the name of the Kiang (Equus /ei'angj,
with shorter ears than the Wild Ass, and which he says is certainly
not the Gurkhor (Khur ?), or Wild Ass of Sindh. (See subsequent re-
marks at the end of the article.) From this the Dzigguetai, or
Dzigtai {Eguus hanionus, Pallas), is again distinct ; and which
is a native of Mongolia and the borders of Thibet and China. Its
general colour is yellow, passing into white on the under-parts ; a
dark chocolate line runs along the spine.
In South Africa Le Vaillant observed, as he states, a Wild Ass,
in large herds, of a pale yellow colour, which is called by the
. Greater Namaquas the White Zebra. If Le Vaillant be correct, this
animal is unknown indeed ; no traveller in Africa has seen it but
himself, and Colonel Hamilton Smith suggests that he may have
mistaken for this Wild Ass the female of the Isabelline Antelope.
In the Cutch and Northern Goojrat there is a Wild Ass, which
Colonel Sykes identifies with the Dzigguetai of Southern Siberia and
the Ghur of Persia, considering them as one species, and observing
that all the " discrepancies of descriptions may be easily remedied
by the supposition that animals examined by different individuals,
at different seasons of the year, did really sMghtly differ, owing to
the difference of seasons." " The Wild Ass of Cutch and the north
of Goojrat is not found farther south in India than Deesa, on the
banks of the Bunnas river, in lat. about 30"^ 30', nor have I heard of
it to the eastward of the 75° of longitude on the south side of the
Himalaya mountains. In Cutch and Northern Goojrat it frequents
the salt deserts and the open plains of Thoodpoor, Jaysulmer. and
Bickaneor. By swimming the Indus it may communicate through
Sindh and Baloochestand with Persia ; and in Persia it evidently
exists, from Sir Robert Ker Porter's descriptions : to the north and
east Persia abuts upon the peculiar localities of the Dzigguetai,
through Bucharia to the Deserts of Gobi, where it delights in the
salt marshes, as it does in India, and thence to Tartary, Thibet and
South Siberia." (" Proceeds. Zool. Soc.;" 1837, p. 94.)
The Wild Ass is common in many parts of Central Asia ; herds
in summer are found about the lake Aral, whence they migrate
southwards in winter, returning northwards in the spring. The
Persians and Tartars hold its flesh in high esteem, and hunt it in
preference to all other descriptions of game. It is found west of the
Euphrates; " indeed we are informed by Colonel Smith," says the
author of the " Physical History of Palestine," "that not only is the
Syrian Ass larger and more handsome than the Ghurkhud of Persia,
but that the species improves west of the Euphrates, and is very fine
in the Bahar el Abaid, Africa." " Burckhardt declares that Wild
Asses are found in great numbers in Arabia Petraa, near the Gulf
of Akaba. The Sherarat Arabs hunt them, and eat their flesh, but
not before strangers. They sell their skins and hoofs to the ped-
lars of Damascus and the people of the Haouran. The hoofs fur-
nish materials for rings, which are worn by the peasants on their .
thumbs, or fastened under their armpits, as amulets against
rheumatism." (Notes on " Bedouins.")
The Tartars, Arabs, and Persians are not singular in their parti-
ality for the flesh of the Wild Ass. The epicures of Rome held it in
tire same estimation as wo do venison ; and from a passage in Pliny
it would appear that the species inhabited North Africa, and that
the most delicate and best flavoured fat foals {/a/iswaes) were
brought from that continent to the Roman market. Leo Africanus
also gives North Africa as the locality of the Wild Ass. We have
quoted before our authority for stating that it exists in Arabia and in
the Bahar el Abaid.
In the collection of the Zoological Society of London, there were, in
1879, the following living specimens of Wild Asses at the Gardens
m Regent's Park: viz. — The KiANG {Equiis hemwi/'is). The
Onager {E. onager). The Hemippe {E. hemippc).
For the fine female Kia7ig, or Wild Ass of Tibet, the only example
of this animal in Europe, the Society is indebted to the energy and
perseverance of Major W. S. Hay, F.Z.S., who brought it with him '
on his return from India in 1859. The Kiang, which is in all pro-
bability the true Eqi/iis hemioiius of Pallas, is found in herds in the
high plateau of the Tibet, at an altitude of from 15,000 to 16,500 feet
above the sea.
The Onager, or Wild Ass of the Asiatic deserts, is represented
by several specimens from different localities, which are known by
different native names. The Giirkhoor, or variety whi'-h inhabits
Cutch, was first obtained for the Society by Sir Thomas Erskine
Perry. The differences between it and the Kiang will be obvious at
first sight on comparison, though, before the two were brought into
juxtaposition, their distinctness was a matter of much discussion
among naturalists. This Ass inhabits the sandy deserts of Cutch and
Scinde, on the left bank of the Indus, in herds, and is noted for
swiftness and difficulty of approach.
The Hemippe, or Wild Ass of Assyria, was considered as speci-
fically distinct from that of Cutch by the late M. Isidore Geoffroy
St.. Hilaire, and named Equits hemippus ; but, judging from the
Society's specimens, the two forms seem to be very nearly akin.
The Djiggetai, or Dzigguetai {Equus hcmionus). — Suppos-
ing that this species be identical with the Wild Ass of Cutch and
Goojrat, and with the Khur (or Ghurkhud) of Persia, as we have
stated is the opinion of Col. Sykes, its range will be very extensive.
(See also remarks at the end of the preceding article.) Its fleetness
is extreme. Col. Sykes states that " Major Wilkins, of the cavalry
of the Bombay army, who was stationed with his regiment for years
at Deesa, on the borders of the Runn, or salt marshes east of Cutch,
in his morning rides used to start a particular Wild Ass so fre-
quently, that it became familiar to him, and he always gave chase
to it ; and though he piqued himself on being mounted on an
exceedingly fleet Arabian Horse, he never could come up with the
animal." A similar statement is given by Sir R. Ker Porter of the
Khur, one of which he chased in vain. "The sun was just rising
over the summits of the eastern mountain when my Greyhound
suddenly darted off in pursuit of an animal, which my Persians said,
from the glimpse they had of it, was an Antelope. I instantly put
spurs to my Horse, and, with my attendants, gave chase. After an
unrelaxed gallop of three miles, we came up with the Dog, who was
then within a short stretch of the creature he pursued, and, to my
surprise, and at first, vexation, I saw it to be an Ass. Upon a mo-
ment's reflection, however, judging from its fleetness that it must
be a wild one, a creature little known in Europe, but which the
Persians prize above all other animals as an object of chase, I de-
termined to approach as near to it as the very swift Arab I was on
would carry me. But the single instant of checking my Horse to
consider, had given our game such a lead of us, that, notwithstand-
ing all our speed, we could not recover our ground on him. I, how-
ever, happened to be considerably before my companions, when, at
a certain distance, the animal, in its turn, made a pause, and
allowed me to approach within pistol-shot of him :jhe then darted off
again with the quickness of thought, capering, kicking, and sport-
ino- in his flight, as if he was not blown in the least, and the chase
was his pastime. When my followers of the country came up, they
regretted that I had not shot the creature when he was within my
aim, telling me that his flesh is one of the greatest delicacies in
Persia. The prodigious swiftness and peculiar manner in which he
fled across the plain coincided exactly with the description that
Xenophon gives of the same animal in Arabia. But, above all, it
reminded me of the striking portrait drawn by the author of the
Book of Job. I was informed by the Mehmendar, who had been in
the desert when making a pilgrimage to the shrine of Ali, that the
Wild Ass of Irak Arabi differs in nothing from the one I had just
seen. He had observed them often, for a short time, in the posses-
sion of the Arabs, who told him the creature was perfectly untame-
able. A few days after this discussion, we saw another of these
THE MULE.
209
animals, and, pursuing it determinedly, had the good fortune to kill
it."
The Djiggetai lives in troops, under the conduct of a leader,
whose motions the rest follow. Ever quick and watchful, they take
the alarm on the least appearance of danger, and, on the approach
of the enemy, skim the desert, clear hills and rocks, and bid dcfi-
Fig. 759. — Group of Djiggetai.
ance to pursuit. It is easy to conceive the difficulties attending the
chase of this fleet and wary animal ; indeed, without the aid of fire-
arms, pursuit would be in vain. Fig. 759 represents a group of these
animals.
With all its attractions, this spirited, beautiful creature has never
been brought into the service of man. It is, indeed, extremely
vicious, and uses its heels on the most trifling occasion, kicking
violently, and for a considerable time together, rendering it danger-
ous for a person to venture near it. Yet it appears that in India it
has occasionally been tamed ; and M. Dussumicr states, " a Euro-
pean resident at Ciitch had a Djiggetai which was accustomed to
follow hmi m his rides. One day, having ended his ride at a larce
sheet of water, he went on board a boat ; the animal remained for
sorne time, at first quiet, on the shore, but becoming impatient on
findmg that tlie boat did not soon return, he took to the water, and
swimming, came up with it, and followed
it to the end of the excursion."
The Mule.— The Mule is the offspring
of the male Ass and Mare ; the offspring
of the Horse and female Ass is termed the
liinny, and is a small, inferior animal, of
little value. The Mule in general has the
form of the Ass, in some respects modi-
fied, and on a larger scale ; but the head
and tail approach nearer to those of the
Horse. We learn that the Mule was bred
in ancient times ; it is noticed in the reign
of David, when it appears to have been
in common use for the saddle, and conse-
quently must have been known much
earlier. The first mention of Mules is in
Genesis xxxiv. 24 ; but the true meaning
of the word thus rendered is doubtful.
Bochart is of opinion that the word (yemin)
really denotes a gigantic people, and this
opinion has the sanction ot the Samari-
tan text and version ; while the Syriac
renders the word as "waters," in which
meaning St. Jerome, Gesenius, and others
concur.
At the present day there are various
breeds of ^Iules in Syria, and very beauti-
ful animals are produced between high-
blood Arab Mares and well selected male
Asses. (See Fig. 761.) In Europe, the
Spanish Mule is deservedly celebrated, as
is also the Spanish Ass.
In Spain, the muleteer is the general medium of traffic, and the
legitimate traverser of the land, crossing the Peninsula from the
Pyrenees and the Asturias to the Alpuxarras, the Serrania de
Ronda, and even to the gates of Gibraltar. He lives frugally and
hardily : his alforjas of coarse cloth hold his scanty stock of pro-
visions ; a leathern bottle, hanging at his saddle-bow, contains wine
or water, for a supply across barren mountains and thirsty plains.
A Mule-cloth spread upon the ground is his bed at night, and his
packsaddle is his pillow. His low but clean-limbed and sinewy
form betokens strength ; his complexion is dark and sunburnt ; his
eye resolute, but quiet in its expression, except when kindled by
sudden emotion ; his demeanour is frank, manly, and courteous, and
he never passes you without a grave salutation — " Dies guarde a
usted ! " " Va usted con Dios, Caballero ! " "God guard you!
God be with you, Cavalier ! "
In all mountain countries, the Mule, from its sureness of foot, its
instinctive caution in choosing the path, and the management of its
proceeding in descending a perilous and steep track, is eminently
serviceable. It is employed in the Andes, where it has superseded
the Llama. (See Fig. 762.)
Fig. 760.- -The Mule.
Fig. 761. — The Domestic.-iteil Mule.
The Mule does not breed with the Mule, but has occasionally
been known to breed with the Mare ; and an instance occurred
in the gardens of the Zool. Soc, of a Mare producing a Foal, of
which the male parent was a hybrid between the Zebra and the
The use of the Mule in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and also in the
countries of the East, is too well known, and has been too often
300
THE MULE— THE ZEBRA.
described by travellers, to need our enlarging upon it. Next to the
Horse, it is our most valuable beast of burden, and in some situa-
tions far preferable. In England, however, it is not in request, nor
is any care taken in the acquisition of a fine race ; yet its hardiness,
strength, and power of enduring fatigue are great recommendations
in its favour.
He
Fig. 762, — The Mule in Mountainous Regions,
"The word MULE," observes Mr. Bell, "is doubtless derived
from /iiSXoe, labour ; from whence the Latin mithis, which affords
the Italian mulo, the French ?nulei, and our mule. It was formerly
called Moyle and Moil ; and this word is still employed, both in the
Fig. 763.- -The Zebra,
southern counties of England and in Scotland, to signify labour.
Thus Burns, in his exquisite ' Cotter's Saturday-night' —
" The toil-worn cotter frae his labour goes;
This night his weekly n:ail is at an end."
adds — "Mr. Yarrell informs me that in Cornwall the word
moyle signifies barren : this is a very re-
markable coincidence; and, after all, may
probably be the etymology of the last-men-
tioned name of our animal." A Mule may
be produced between the Zebra and the
Mare, or the Quagga and the Mare.
" Some years since, the Earl of Moreton,
being desirous of obtaining a breed between
the Horse and the Quagga (Burchell's
Zebra ?), selected a young Mare of seven-
eighths Arabian blood, and a fine male
of the latter species ; the produce was a
female hybrid. The same Mare had after-
wards, first a Filly, and next a Colt, by a
fine black Arabian Horse. They both,
strange to say, resembled the Quagga in
the dark line along the back, the stripes
across the forehead, and the bars across
the legs. In the Filly the mane was short,
stiff, and upright, like that of the Quagga.
In the Colt it was long, but so stiff as to
arch upwards, and hang clear of the sides of
the neck ; in other respects they were nearly
Arabian, as might have been expected from
fifteen-sixteenths Arabian blood."
To the physiologist this circumstance
opens an interesting subject for investiga-
tion, nor is the fact unimportant to the
breeders of animals, inasmuch as it incon-
testably proves that the characters of the
male parent of the mother's first progeny
exert a marked influence on her subsequent
offspring, whatever may be the peculiarities
of the father of the latter.
The Zebra {Equus zebra ; Equtts man-
tanus, Burchell). — This beautiful animal
is a native of the mountain districts of
southern Africa, and is found, according to various writers, in Congo,
Guinea, and even Abyssinia, according to Ludolphe. Bruce, how-
ever, states that " the Zebra is found nowhere in Abyssinia, except
in the south-west extremity of Kuora, amid the Shangalia and
Galla, in Narea and Caff, and in the moun-
tains of Dyre and Tegla, and thence to the
southward." It is called, in South Africa,
^ Wilde Paarde by the Cape colonists.
The Zebra is regularly striped, even down
to the hoofs, with glossy brownish-black on
a white or yellowish-white ground. The
ears are long, the neck short and deep,
with a sort of dewlap under the throat, pro-
duced by a loose fold of the skin ; the mane
is short, and the tail sparely clad with long
hair. (See Fig. 763.)
Wild and swift, this species lives in
troops in the bold ranges of craggy moun-
tains, remote from the abodes of man. Its
disposition is savage and intractable, and
it is by no means easily obtained, not only
from its fleetness, but from the nature of
the locality it frequents, where, like the
Wild Ass of Tartary, " the wilderness
and the barren land is his dwelling; he
scorneth the multitude of the city."
The Zoological Society of London has
some fine specimens of the Zebra in their
Gardens at Regent's Park.
There are three species of Zebra — the
Black and White, or true Zebra, which in-
habits the mountains already described ;
Burchell's Zebra, or the Black and Yellow
Zebra, which inhabits the plains ; and the
Quagga. Burchell's Zebra {Equus bur-
chellii) is found in great numbers north of
the Orange River, according to Sir Corn-
wallis Harris : —
" Seldom congregating in herds of fewer
than eighty or a hundred, it abounds, to a
great extent, in all the districts included
between that noble stream and the southern
tropic. Occupying the same regions, and
delighting in the same pastures, as the
THE ZEBRA— THE QUAGGA.
^o\
Brindled Gnu, rarely is it to be seen unless in the companionship of
that fantastic animal, whose presence would seem to be almost
indispensable to its happiness. It is singular enough, that the
members of two families, so perfectly foreign to each other, should
display so great a predilection for each other's society, uniformly
intermixing as they do, and herding in bonds of the closest friend-
ship. Fierce, strong, and fleet, and surpassingly beautiful, there
is, perhaps, no quadruped in the creation, not even excepting the
Mountain Zebra, more splendidly attired, or presenting a picture
of more singularly attractive
beauty than the free-born son
of the desert."
Burchell's Zebra is strong
and muscular, with sinewy
limbs, and might, perhaps, be
made serviceable to man. It
is an animal that admits of
being tamed, to a certain ex-
tent, with facility ; and occa-
sionally a half-domesticated
specimen is exposed for sale
at Cape Town, with a rider on
its back. The persons, how-
ever, who have had most op-
portunities of becoming ac-
quainted with its character,
regard it, tractable as it may
sometimes appear, as treacher-
ous, fickle, vicious, and obsti
nate. It is a remarkable fact
that this species, and tho
Quagga also, are often seen in
company with the Ostrich ;
several of the latter feeding
tranquilly in the midst of a
herd, without experiencing any
molestation.
This species may be distin-
guished from its mountain re-
lative by the shortness of its
ears, by the absence of stripes
on the limbs and under-surface
of the body, and by the stripes
of the upper parts being brown.
These animals present a
brilliant appearance when fly-
ing in troops before the hunter.
Their flesh (with that of the
Zebra and Quagga) is relished
by the natives, but INIr. Bur-
chell thought it not much superior to horseflesh, and lie would,
with most Europeans, think the same respecting the flesh of the
Wild Ass, which in Persia is in the highest estimation, and served
at royal banquets. The drawing (Fig. 764) represents the spearing
of one of these animals by a mounted Caffre.
The Quagga {Equus q2/agga). — Like the preceding species,
the Quagga is a native of the plain, and occurs south of the Orange
river" within the limits of the Cape Colony. It roams in large
distinctly on the sides of the body ; the haunches are greyish ; the
under-parts, tail, and legs, white. In its temper the Quagga is wild
and vicious ; nevertheless, it is said to be sometimes employed by
the natives for the purposes of draught. (See Fig. 765.)
Fossils of the Horse TRinE.
We have already stated that fossil relics of animals of the genus
Equus are abundant, and very widely dispersed. They occur in the
/
T':'m,
'ffi^/(^^
Fig. 765.— The Quagga.
herds, as does Burchell's Zebra ; but tho herds of the two animals
never mingle together, nor are the two species known to produce a
mixed progeny.
The Quagga is far inferior to Burchell's Zebra, both in size and
beauty ; its ground colour is a dull, brownish-white, clouded and
Striped with a darker colour on the head, neck, and withers, and less
Fig. 764. — Burchell's Zebra.
third period of the Tertiary series (Pliocene of Lyell), in the fresh-
water deposits in what is called diluvial detritus, in superfacial
gravels, sands, and clays, in the ossiferous caverns, in the osseous
breccia, and in the Eppelsheim sand, &c. Sir P. Cautley found
bones of the Horse (but not in abundance) among other fossil re-
mains, lying on the slopes, among the ruins of the fallen cliffs, and
also ?■« situ in the sandstone of the Sewalik Mountains, at the
southern foot of the Himalayas, between the Sutlej and the Ganges.
Several species of Equus have been recorded, as Equus fossilis
(E. adamiticus, Schlotheim), Equus [caballus) p-unigenius:
Equus (mulus) p-imigenius ; Equus [asuius) prumgcmus. It
is very probable that these recorded species may be really distinct
from each other; yet it is by no means certain, for it would appear
that it is rather upon size- than any definite and persistent charac-
ters that the distinctions are founded. Indeed, the bones of the
living species do not afford any certain data by which to discrimi-
nate one from another. Cuvier informs us that he had carefully
compared the skeletons of many varieties of Horses, those ot the
Mule, of the Ass, the Zebra, and the Quagga, and that he could
never find a character sufficiently fixed to enable him to pronounce
on a species from an isolated bone. Size, he obscr\-es, furnishes
but incomplete marks of distinction. Horses and Asses vary much
in this respect, from their states of domestication ; and he adds,
that though he had not yet procured the skeleton of a Djiggetai, he
doubted not its resemblance to the other species as much as they
resemble each other in the same particular.. To distinguish tii,_
skeleton, or a few bones of the skeleton, of the Zebra from those of
Burchell's Zebra, or the Quagga, or the Djigsetai, is indeed diffi-
cult ; but still, where the relics indicate great d.fterence of siz^ to
have existed, taking into account the circumstance that the extinct
Enui^se'ca wild, there is a chance of making distinctions.^
Some interesling details, in regard to the fo^^■ -XonfoloU "
Horse tribe, will be lound in Protestor Owen s ' Palaeontology
and Morris's " Catalogue of British Fossils." We have discovered
teeth 0° the HoVse in a fossihsed state, frequently m the London
day^ in the north of the metropolis between Crouch End, Highgatc.
and approaching Hampstead.
302
FACHYDERMATA, OR THICK-SKINNED MAMMALIA.
CHAPTER XX.
MAMMALIA.— ORDER, PACHYDERMATA— ELEPHANTS, Etc.
HE PACHYDERMATA, a term derived from
two Greek words — pachus, thick, and
dc?->!ia, skin — as the name implies, includes
those animals whose outer skin is of a thick
character. The Elephant, Rhinoceros,
Hippopotamus, Pig, &c., arc, therefore,
embraced in it. They belong to the Ungti-
lated, or Hoofed animals, in which are also
included the Horse and the Ruminants
that have been described in the preceding
chapters. But the Pachydcrmata differ in that
none of the kind ruminate, yet they have several
affinities with the Ruminant animals, and the
Equidaj, or Horse tribe.
On this subject Professor Owen remarks, that of
all existing hoofed quadrupeds, it would hardly be
anticipated that the Rhinoceros presented the
nearest affinity to the Horse ; one might rather
look to the light Camel or Dromedary ; but a
f "7 different modification of the entire skeleton may be
traced in the animals with toes in even number, as
compared with the Horse and other odd-toed
hoofed quadrupeds. In an extinct kind of Horse
{Hippopothcrium), the two splint-bones are more
developed, and each supports three phalanges, the
last being provided with a diminutive hoof. In the e.xtinct
Palaotheria the outer and inner digits acquired stronger propor-
tions, and the entire foot was shortened. The transition from the
PalcBotheria, by the extinct hornless Rhinoceros [Acefoikerium),
to the existing forms of Rhinoceros is completed. In the skeleton
of the Rhinoceros, we find resemblance to the Horse in the number
of the dorsal vertebra, in the third trochanter of the femur, and in
the number of digits on each foot, albeit the two that are hidden and
rudimental in the swifter quadruped, are here made manifest in
their full development : the concomitant shortening of the whole
foot, and strengthening of the entire limbs, accord with the greater
weight of the body to be supported, clad as it is with a coat armour
of thickened tuberculated hide : the broader feet, terminated each
by three hoofs, afford a better basis of support in the swampy
localities affected by the Rhinoceros. Both scapulas and iliac bones
are of greater breadth and less length. The ulna is fully developed
in thefore-limb, and the fibula in the hind-leg; but there is no
power of rotation of the fore-limb in any hoofed quadruped. The
upper surface of the skull is roughened for the attachment of
the horn, and in two distinct places where the species has two
horns.
If the equine skull be compared with that of the Rhinoceros, the
basioccipital will be seen to be narrower and more convex. The
true mastoid intervenes, as a tuberous process, between the post-
tympanic and paroccipital processes, clearly indicating the true nature
of the post-tympanic in the Rhinoceros ; the Tapir shows an inter-
mediate condition of the mastoid between the Rhinoceros and
Horse. The latter differs from both the Tapir and Rhinoce-
ros in the outward production of the sharp roof of the orbit,
and the completion of the bony frame of that cavity behind
by the junction of the postorbital process with the zygoma.
The temporal fossa, so defined, is small in proportion to the
length of the skull ; the base of the postorbital process is
perforated by a superorbital foramen ; the lachrymal canal
begins by a single foramen. The premaxillaries extend to
the nasals, and shut out the maxillaries from the anterior
aperture of the nostrils. The chief marks of afSnity to other
odd-toed hoofed beasts [Pcrissodactylcs] are seen in the
shape, size, and formation of the posterior aperture of the
nostrils, the major part of which is bounded by the palatine
bones, of which only a small portion enters into the forma-
tion of the bony palate, which terminates behind, opposite
the interspace between the penultimate and last molars. A
narrow groove divides the palatopterygoid process from the
socket of the last molar, as in the Tapir and Rhinoceros.
The pterygoid process has but little antero-posterior extent :
its base is perforated by the ectocarotid canal. The entoptery-
goids are thin plates applied like splints over the inner side of_ the
squamous suture, between the pterygoid processes of the palatines
and the alisphenoids. The postglenoid process in the Horse is less
developed than in the Tapir. The eustachian process is long and
styliform. There is an anterior condyloid foramen, and a wide
"fissura lascera." The broad and convex bases of the nasals
articulate with the frontals a little behind the anterior boundary of
the orbits. The space between the incisors and molars is of greater
extent than in the Tapir; a long diastema is not, however, peculiar
to the Horse; and, although it allows the application of the bit,
that application depends rather upon the general nature of the
Horse, and its consequent susceptibility to be broken in, than upon
a particular structure which it possesses in common with the Rumi-
nants and some other Herbivora.
The Tapir and the Rock Cony have four digits on each fore-foot,
and three digits on each hind-foot ; but they resemble more the
Horse and Rhinoceros than any other Vngulata. If the osteo-
logical characters of the hoofed animals with the hind digits in un-
even number be compared together, they will be found to present,
notwithstanding the differences of form, proportion, and size pre-
sented by the Rhinoceros, Hyrax, Tapir, and Horse, the following
points of agreement, which are the more significative of natural
affinity when contrasted with the skeletons of the hoofed animals
with digits in even number. Thus, in the odd-toed, or " perisso-
dactyle" ungulates, the dorso-lumbar vertebras differ in different
species, but are never fewer than twenty-two ; the femur has a third
trochanter, and the medullary artery does not penetrate the fore
part of its shaft. The fore part of the astragalus is divided into two
very unequal facets. The os magnum, and the digitus medius
which it supports is large, in some disproportionately, and the digit
is symmetrical ; the same applies to the ectocunciform, and the
digit it supports in the hind-foot. If the species be horned, the
horn is single ; or if there be two, they are placed on the median
line of the head, one behind the other, each being thus a single or
odd horn. There is a well-developed post-tympanic process, which
is separated by the true mastoid from the paroccipital in the
Horse, but unites with the lower part of the paroccipital in the Tapir,
and seems to take the place of the mastoid in the Rhinoceros and
Hyrax. The hinder half, or a larger proportion of the palatines
enters into the formation of the posterior nares, the oblique aperture
of which commences in advance of the last molar, and, in most, of
the penultimate one. The pterygoid process has a broad and thick
base, and is perforated lengthwise by the ectocarotid. The crowns
of the antepenultimate, as well as the penultimate and last pre-
molars, are as complex as those of the molars ; that of the last
lower milk-molar is bilobed. To these osteological and dental
characters may be added some important modifications of internal
structure, as, e.g., the simple form of the stomach, and the capa-
cious ancl sacculated caecum, equally indicating the mutual affinities
of the odd-toed or perissodactyle hoofed quadrupeds, and their
claims to be regarded as a natural group of the Ungulata. Many
extinct genera, e.g., Lophiodoti, Tapirothertum, Palcsotheri'nm,
Hippotherittm, Ace7-otheriuin, ]SIacratiche7iia, Elasmoiherium,
Coryphodo7i, have been discovered, which once linked together the
now broken series of Perissodactyla, represented by the existing
genera. Rhinoceros, Hyrax, Tapyrus, and Equus.
In respect to the osteology of the Pachydermata generally, Pro-
fessor Owen remarks that it may be illustrated in the Hippopotamus
(Fig. 766). The skeleton, in its strength and massiveness, presents
Fig. 766. — Skeleton of the Hippopotamus.
a greater contrast with that of the Giraffe, than the Rhinoceros's
skeleton does with that of the Horse ; there are, nevertheless, more
essential points of resemblance to the Giraffe's skeleton than to
that of the Rhinoceros. In points of minor importance we find the
Hippopotamus resembling the Rhinoceros ; as, e. g., in the short-
ness and strength of its neck ; but it has only fifteen dorsal, d, and
four lumbar, /, vertebra; The spines of these vertcbr:c arc shorter
DENTITION OF THE PACHYDERMATA.
303
and less unequal than in the Ruminants ; and they have an almost
uniform direction, as in all quadrupeds that do not move by leaps or
bounds. The tail is short, and, in the living animal, compressed,
acting like a rudder. The bones of the limbs are short and thick.
In the scapula, 51, the acromion is slightly produced, and the
coracoid recurved. The great tuberosity of the humerus, 53, is
divided into two sub-equal processes. The ulna and radius have
coalesced at their extrumities, and at the middle of their shaft, the
interosseous space being indicated by a deep groove and two holes.
In the carpal series of bones, the trapezium is present, but docs not
support any digit ; the innermost, answering to the thumb or pollex,
therefore, is the one which is absent ; of the remaining four digits,
the two middle, answering to the third and fourth, are most de-
veloped. The femur has no third trochanter. The fibula is distinct
from the radius, and extends from its proximal end to the calcaneum.
The entocuneiform bone is present in the tarsus, but there is no rudi-
ment of the innermost toe or hallux ; the proportions of the other
four toes resemble those on the fore-foot.
The skull is remarkable for the prominence and high position of
the orbits, which allow the eye to be projected above the surface of
the water, and a survey to be made, by the suspicious animal, with-
out the exposure of any other part of the head. The upper jaw is
peculiar for the development of the sockets of the great canine
teeth, and the lower jaw combines, with the like character, an un-
usual production and curvature of the angle.
In regard to the teeth of the Pachydcj-fiiafa, Professor Owen
remarks that the most complex condition of teeth adapted to a
vegetable diet is that pre-
sented by the Elephant.
The dentition of the genus
Ele;plias includes two long
tusks (Fig. 767), one in each
of the intermaxillary bones,
and large and complex mo-
lars (zii), 711 3, 4, and 5, in
both jaws ; of the latter
there is never more than
one wholly, or two partially,
in place and use on each
side at any given time, for
the scries is continually in
progress of formation and
destruction, of shedding
and replacement ; and all
the grinders succeed one
another, like true molars,
horizontally, from behind
forward. The total number
of teeth developed in the
Elephant appears to be
2—2 7—7
»;r^' ''^^ = 32. the
0—0 1 —^
two large permanent inci-
sors being preceded by two
small deciduous teeth, and
the number of molar teeth
which follow one another
on each side of both jaws being seven, or at least six, of which the
last three may, by analogy, be regarded as answering to the true
molars of other Pachyderms.
The incisors not only surpass other teeth in size, as belonging to
a quadruped so enormous, but they are the largest of all teeth in
proportion to the size of the body, representing, in a natural state,
those monstrous tusks of the Rodents, which are the result of acci-
dental suppression of the wearing force of the opposite teeth.
The tusks of the Elephant consist chiefly of that modification of
dentine that is called " ivory," and which shows, on transverse frac-
tures or sections, stria; proceeding in the arc of a circle from the
centre to the circumference, in opposite directions, and'forming, by
their decussations, curvilinear lozenges. This character is peculiar
to the tusks of the Proboscidian Pachyderms.
In the Indian Elephant, the tusks are always short and straight in
the female, and less deeply implanted than in the male ; she thus
retaining, as usual, more of the characters of the immature state.
In the male they have been known to acquire a length of nine feet,
with a basal diameter of eight inches, and to weigh 150 lbs. ; but
these dimensions are rare in the Asiatic species.
A Mammoth's tusk has been dredged up off Dungeness, which
measured eleven feet in length. (See Owen's " History of British
Fossil Mammalia," 8vo, 1844, p. 244.) In several of the instances of
Mammoth's tusks from British strata, the ivory has been so little
altered as to be fit for the purposes of manufacture ; and the tusks of
the Mammoth, which are still better preserved in the frozen drift of
Siberia, have long been collected in great numbers as articles of
commerce. In the account of the Mammoth's bones and teeth of
Siberia, published in the "Philosophical Transactions " for 1737,
Fig. 767.— Section of the Skull and Teeth
of Elephant.
No. 446, tusks are cited which weighed 200 lbs. each, and " are
used as ivory, to make combs, boxes', and such other thincjs, being
but little more brittle, and easily turning yellow by weather and
heat." From that time to the present there has been no intermission
in the supply of ivory, furnished by the tusks of the extinct Elephants
of a former world.
The musket-balls and other foreign bodies which arc occasionally
found in ivory, are immediately surrounded by osteo-dentinc in
greater or less quantity. It has often been a matter of wonder how
such bodies should become completely imbedded in the substance
of the tusk, sometimes without any visible aperture, or how leaden
bullets may have become lodged in the solid centre of a very large
tusk without having been flattened. The explanation is as follows :
—a musket-ball, aimed at the head of an Elephant, may penetrate
the thin bony socket and the thinner ivory parietes of the wide
conical pulp-cavity occupying the inserted base of the tusk ; if the
projectile force be there spent, the ball will gravitate to the opposite
and lower side of the pulp-cavity. The presence of the foreign body
exciting inflammation of the pulp, an irregular course of calcification
ensues, which results in the deposition, around the ball, of a certain
thickness of osteo-dentine. The pulp then resuming its healthy
state and functions, coats the surface of the osteo-dentine inclosing
the ball, together with the rest of the conical cavity into which that
mass projects, with layers of normal ivory.
The portions of the cement-forming capsule surrounding the base
of the tusk, and the part of the pulp, which were perforated by the
ball in its passage, are soon replaced by the reparative power of
these highly vascular bodies. The hole formed by the ball in the
base of the tusk is then more or less completely filled up by a thick
coat of cement from without, and of osteo-dentine from within.
By the continued progress of growth, the ball so inclosed is
carried forwards to the middle of the solidified exserted part of the
tusk. Should the ball have penetrated the base of the tusk of a
young Elephant, it may be carried forwards by the uninterrupted
growth and wear of the tusk, until that base has become the apex,
and be finally exposed and discharged by the continual abrasion to
which the apex of the tusk is subjected.
The tusk and pulp of a great Elephant at the Zoological Gardens
was longitudinally divided soon after its death in the summer of
1847. Although the pulp could be easily detached from the inner
surface of the pulp-cavity, it was not without a certain resistance ;
and when the edges of the co-adapted pulp and tooth were
examined by a strong lens, the filamentary processes from the outer
surface of the pulp, could be seen stretching as they were with-
drawn from the dentinal tubes before they broke. They are so
minute that, to the naked e3'e, the detached surface of the pulp
seems to be entire, and Cuvier was thus deceived in concluding that
there was no organic connection between the pulp and the ivory.
_ The molar teeth of the Elephant are remarkable for their great
size, even in relation to the size of the animal, and for the extreme
complexity of their structure. The crown, of which a great propor-
tion is buried in the socket, and very little more than the grinding
Fig. 76S.— Molar Teeth of Elephants and the Siberian Mammoth.
A, African ; B, Asiatic ; C, Elephas Piimigenius.
surface appears above the gum, is deeply divided into a number of
transverse perpendicular plates, consisting each of a body of
dentine, coated by a layer of enamel, e. Fig. 76S, A, V. ^YiCi.c, and
this attain by the less dense bone-like substance, c, which falls the
interspaces of the enamelled plates, and here more especially inerits
the name of "cement," since it binds together the several divisions
of the crown before they are fully formed anil united by the con-
304
THE ELEPHANT.
fluence of their bases into a common body of dentine. As the
growth of each plate begins at the summit, they remain detached,
and like so many separate teeth or denticules, until their base is
completed, when it becomes blended v.-ith the bases of contiguous
plates to form the common body of tlie crown of the complex tooth,
from which the roots are next developed.
The plates of the molar teeth of the Siberian Mammoth {Elephas
frimigenius. Fig. 768, C), are thinner in proportion to their
breadth, and are generally a little expanded at the middle : and
they are more numerous, in proportion to the size of the crown, than
in the existing species of Asiatic Elephant (Fig. 772, 11). In the African
Elephant (Fig. 774, A), on the other hand, the lamellar divisions of
the crown are fewer and thicker, and they expand more uniformly
from the margins to the centre, yielding a lozenge-form when cut or
worn transversely, as in mastication.
The formation of each grinder begins with the summits of the
anterior plate, and the rest are completed in succession ; the tooth
is gradually advanced in position as its growth proceeds ; and in
the existing Indian Elephant, the anterior plates are brought into
use before the posterior ones are formed. When the complex molar
cuts the gum, the cement is first rubbed off the digital summits;
then their enamel cap is worn away, and the central dentine comes
into play with a prominent enamel ring ; the digital processes are
next ground down to their common uniting base, and a transverse
tract of dentine, with its wavy border of enamel, is exposed; finally,
the transverse plates themselves are abraded to their common base
of dentine, and a .smooth and polished tract of that substance is
produced. From this basis the roots of the molar are developed,
and increase in length to keep the worn crown on the grinding
level until the reproductive force is exhausted. When the whole
extent of a grinder has successively come into play, its last part is
reduced to a long fang supporting a smooth and polished field of
dentine, with perhaps a few remnants of the bottom of the enamel
folds at its hinder part. When the complex molar has been thus
worn down to an uniform surface, it becomes useless as an instrument
Fig. 769. — Asiatic Eleph.int.
for grinding the coarse vegetable substances on which the Elephant
subsists; it is attacked by the absorbent action, and the wasted
portion of the molar is finally shed.
The grinding teeth of the Elephant progressively increase in size,
and in the number of lamellar divisions from the first to the last :
they succeed each other from behind forwards, moving, not iri a
right line, but in the arc of a circle, shown by the curved line in Fig.
767. The position of the growing tooth in the closed alveolus, m, 5,
is almost at right angles with that in use, the grinding surface
being at first directed backwards in the upper jaw, and forwards in
the lower jaw, and brought by the revolving course into a horizontal
line in both jaws, so that they oppose each other when developed for
use. The imaginary pivot, on which the grinders revolve, is next
their root in the upper jaw, and is next the grinding surface in the
lower jaw: in both towards
the frontal surface of the
skull. Viewing both upper
and lower molars as one
complex whole, subject to
the same revolving move-
ment, the section dividing
such whole into upper and
lower portions, runs parallel
to the curve described by
the movement — the upper
being the central portion,
or that nearest the pivot ;
the lower the peripheral
portion. The grinding sur-
face of the upper molars
is consequently convex from
behind forwards, and that
of the lower molars con-
cave ; the upper molars
are always broader than the
lower ones.
The bony plate forming
the sockets of the growing
teeth is more than usually
distinct from the body of the
maxillary, and participates
in this revolving course, ad-
vancing forwards with the
teeth.
In dealing with the Pachyderinata, we shall first describe the
Elephants, which form one of the most interesting groups of the
order.
The Elephant.
Two species of Elephant are, at the present day, in existence —
viz., the Indian Elephant {^Elephas indicus. Fig. 769), and the
African Elephant [Elephas africanus, Fig. 770).
Fig. 771. — Skull of Indian Elephant.
F;^. 770. — AUican Elephant,
Fig. 772. — Teeth of Asiatic Elephant.
THE ELEPHANT.
30s
The Indian Elephant is characterised by the elongation or pyra-
midal elevation of the skull (Fij;;-. 771), the concavity of the fore-
head, the moderate size of tlie ears, and the parallel narrow trans-
verse ribands or lines of enamel, with indented edges, which traverse
the crown of the grinders. This character is well displayed in Fig.
772, of which a represents the upper molar tooth, and b the lower
molar tooth of that species. The number of toes on each foot is
really five, but of the hind-toes four only are indicated by hoofs, the
filth being buried within
the dense skin. The tusks
of the female never ac-
quire the size of those of
the male. The male at-
tains to the height of eight,
nine, or ten feet at the
shoulder. This animal is
a native of India, Cochin-
China, Siam, Pegu, Ava,
the island of Ceylon, and
other large islands, as
Borneo and Sumatra.
The African Elephant
is distinguished by the
rounded figure of the skull
(Fig-. 773). by the magni-
tude of the ears, which
spread over the shoulders,
and by the lozenge-shape
assumed by the lines of
enamel traversing the
grinders. The figure of
these lines is well represented by Fig. 77.[, of which a represents
the surface of the upper grinder ; b, the lower grinder ; c, the
original state of the grinders, when the laminae of which they
consist are free, that is, as yet uncemented together ; and d, the
laminas as they are attached in parallels one to the other by cortical
Fig- 773- — Skull of African Elephant.
The tusks of the African Elephant are often of huge size, and
almost as large in the female as in the male. The toes are really
five ; but four only on each anterior foot, and three on each hinder
foot, are indicated externally by hoofs. In the present day this
species is confined to the remoter regions of the African continent.
We shall now proceed to a few general remarks on the structure
and organisation of the Elephant, applicable to both species.
There is something, it must be confessed, noble and imposing in
the appearance of the Elephant ; and especially when viewed in
front (see Fig. 775). Its colossal bulk, its vast powers, and the
peculiarity of its form and proportions, render it conspicuous among
the crowd of terrestrial animals. Its dignity, however, is the dignity
of strength and stature ; there
is no grace in its contour, but
every part is heavy and mas-
sive. The huge body is sup-
ported on four pillars, for such
the limbs appear, the bones of
which bear perpendicularly on
each other (see skeleton, Fig.
776), while a towering head, of
vast size, seems to rise at once
from the shoulders, without the
intervention of a neck. The
vertebra; of the neck (Fig. 776)
are indeed seven, as is the
general rule in the class Mam-
malia ; but instead of being
elongated, as in the O.i, Deer,
or Antelope, they arc com-
pressed into a short space—
for strength and firmness are
required. How, indeed, could
the ponderous head of this
animal be supported, were the
neck to be modelled upon a
plan of slender elegance ? Independent of the ivory tusks, the weight
of the skull itself is very great : we have seen four strong men labour
in carrying one of moderate size ; but the tusks make a consider-
able addition. Those of some of the Indian Elephants vary from
70 to 100 lbs. each ; but those of the African species are far heavier.
Hartenfels, in his " Elephantographia," gives a table of the weight
Fig. 775. — Head of Elephant.
Fig. 774.— Teeth of African Elephant.
substance in a more developed state of dentition, but before the
crown of the tooth has been worn by mastication, and when it only
presents on its surface blunt tubercles. To the structure of these
teeth we shall have occasion to refer again.
Fig. 776. — Skeleton of Elephant.
and length of the most remarkable upon record, with his authori-
ties ; among others, one is stated to have weighed 325 lbs. Cam-
per, who possessed one weighing 105 lbs., notices one sold at Am-
sterdam, the weight of which was 350 lbs. Well, then, m.ay the
head appear as if destitute of a neck, when we consider the load to
be sustained. The shortness, however, of the neck (setting aside
the projecting tusks, which of themselves would form an insuperable
obstacle), prevents the Elephant from applying his mouth to the
ground ; neither can he browse on the foliage of the trees like the
2 R
3o6
THE ELEPHANT.
Giraffe, for the position and formation of the mouth forbid the
attempt. (See Fi.ar. 777, the head of the Elephant with the probos-
cis upraised, showin.g^ the mouth.) But to atone for the shortness
of the neck, and those harmonious concomitants of structure which
exclude this animal from the pale of those that on the one hand
graze, and on the other browse, the Elephant is provided with an
T'S- 777. — Head of Elephant with Pioboscis upraised.
organ which more than supplies evei7 deficiency ; we allude to the
proboscis — an instrument, in every respect, of essential importance
in this creature's economy.
The proboscis of the Elephant must not, however, be regarded
exactly in the light of a new organ : it is a modification of the struc-
ture of the upper lip and nose ; and though in the Elephant this is
carried out to its maximum, still we find an analogous but short
proboscis in the Tapir, nor are traces of it lost in the Rhinoceros,
which has the upper lip capable of being protruded, and endowed
with considerable powers of prehension. If we turn to the skull of
the Elephant (Fig. 778, section of a skull ; a, the opening of the
P'^^-g^
on of Skull of Indian Elephant,
nostrils), we find the nasal orifice not only large, but appearing as
if situated in the forehead, in consequence of the situation and
development of the alveoli (sockets) in which the bases of the huge
projecting tusks are imbedded. From the nasal orifice is continued
the proboscis of the Elephant, in the form of an elongated cone ■• in
its anterior aspect it is rounded, and the coarse skin which covers
it is furrowed by transverse wrinkles, very apparent when the animal
contracts the proboscis, but which almost disappear when it is pro-
truded to the full stretch. The under-surface is flattened, with a
rough projecting margin on each side, producing, in some degree, a
similarity to the legs of a large Caterpillar. Flexible to an extreme,
and possessing an amazing strength, this organ consists of bundles
of muscular fibres, disposed, some longitudinally, others trans-
versely, in various directions crossing each other, and diverging from
two nasal canals, separated from each other by a tendinous parti-
tion, and lined with a mucous membrane, over which nerves are
abundantly distributed. Fig. 779 shows a section of a portion of
the proboscis or trunk of the Elephant admirably illustrative of its
structure ; — A. Horizontal section, in which we see the small trans-
verse muscles cut — some {a) across ; others (/;) in their length. B.
Vertical section in length, which has divided the nasal canal on
the left side. The small transverse muscles, which are seen at their
length at b, are cut across at c ; — other small muscles of the same
kind are seen at their length at d. We see in their length, at e, the
antagonist of these transverse muscles — that is, the small longi-
tudinal muscles. C. Vertical section across, The small transverse
muscles are seen in their length. They have various directions, not
precisely radiating from the axis to the circumference, though their
F'S- 779- — Section of the Trunk of the Elephant.
course is always across. They are all within the bed of the small
longitudinal muscles which the section has divided across. The
principal nerves and blood-vessels are also shown in this section ;
as are also the two canals of the trunk.
It is to this multiform arrangement of its muscles (and according
to Cuvier their number is about forty thousand), all of which are
under the will, that the proboscis of this animal owes its flexibility.
It can be protruded or contracted at pleasure, raised up or turned
to either side, coiled round on itself, or twined around any object.
With this instrument the Elephant collects the herbage on which
he feeds, and puts it into his mouth ; with this he strips the trees of
their branches, or grasps his enemy and dashes him to the ground.
But this admirable organ is not only adapted for seizing or holding
substances of magnitude ; it is also capable of plucking a single
leaf, or of picking up a straw from the
lillrmn^ ^°°^- The orifices of the canals of the
lj4p''^i(IBntBtt,^ extremity are encircled by a project-
KtMi||'UUml|[(M^JSaB ing margin, produced anteriorly into
^**'«*«wWH(HR.Jf^ a finger-like process endowed with a
W high degree of sensibility and exceed-
ingly flexible. It is at once a finger
Fig. 7S0.— End of Elephant's for grasping, and a feeler ; the division
Trunk (proJile). between the two nasal orifices or their
elevated sides serves as a point against
which to press ; and thus it can pick up or hold a small coin, a bit of
biscuit, or any trifling thing with the greatest ease. Figs. 780, 783 to
786, will serve better than words to convey an idea of the structure
of the termination of the trunk, and of the modes in which the animal
Fig. 7S1.— End of Trunk of
Male.
Fig. 7S2. — End oi Trunk of
Female,
uses it. Figs. 781 and 782 show the difference of form in the termina-
tion of the trunk of the male and female. As the Elephant feeds him-
self by means of his proboscis, so he drinks by the same means also.
THE ELEPHANT.
3^7
The young Elephnnt takes its mother's milk in tho ordinary manner ;
but in order to drink, tho animal dips the extremity of the proboscis
into the water, and sucks up tlie fluid, so as to lill the two canals ;
it then inserts the extremity into the mouth, and discharges the
contents. And here it may be observed, that at the upper part of
the canal, just anterior to the nasal orifice of the skull, there exists
a movable cartilage so disposed as to lead to the conclusion that it
acts as a valve in preventing the water v/hen sucked up from pass-
Fig. 7S3. — Proboscis in gather-
Fig. 7S4. — Herbage when
qatheietl.
l^-'S- 7SS--
-MoJe of holding a
Root.
Fig, 7S6. — Curled action when
much force is required.
ing through the posterior nares into the throat, which would be the
case but for some remedial contrivance. The Elephant can retain
the water taken into his proboscis as long as he pleases, and dis-
charge it either gently or with great violence : he does the latter,
when throwing it over his own body to cool himself, or when in play-
fulness or anger he discharges it against any bystander. Through
this trunk, the shrill trumpet-like noise which the Elephant often
utters, and which is an expression of satisfaction, is produced.
If we turn to the skeleton of this huge beast, its solidity will not
fail to strike us. We shall not here enter into minute details ; we may,
however, state that the head of the thigh-bone is not bound to the
socket by the ligainentum teres : this peculiarity exists only in the
Orang, the Sloth, the Seal, the Enhydra, the Walrus, and the
Ornithorhyncus, and in the present animal. The skull of the Ele-
phant is altogether extraordinary, and presents us with avast frontal
elevation, which gives it an air of great dignity ; but, as we shall see,
the appearance is deceptive. Fig. 778, p. 306, whicji represents a
vertical section of the skull, may be here consulted. Before and
above the cranial cavity, c, the two tables of the skull are separated
from each other by a series of irregular cells (the frontal sinuses
carried to an extreme), 6 b: whence it follows that the anterior and
upper portion of the skull is more advanced and elevated than the
development of the brain itself warrants. We read of instances in
which many balls have been lodged in the head of the Elephant
without bringing him down, and the reason is obvious : they entered
the vast region of cells, and did not touch the brain. In the denti-
tion of the Elephant we find much analogy to the order Rodentia,
and among them especially to the Capybara. The teeth of the Ele-
phant consist only of molars and of incisors, or, as they are com-
monly called, tusks, which occur only in the upper jaw. The molars
are of a compound structure, consisting of transverse folds of enamel,
each fold enveloping a central nodule of bone, with an external coat
of a different character, called cortical substance, or crusta petrosa,
compacting the whole together. Thus a single grinder may be re-
garded as made up of a certain number of distinct teeth bound up
into one mass. Remarks on this subject will be found at page 303,
ante, in regard to the general dentition of the Pachyitermafa.
The molars of the Elephant, w-hen perfected, are not permanent,
but are shed in due succession for six or eight times, perhaps oftener,
and this not from the rising up of a fresh tooth below the one it
is to succeed, but by the rising up of a new one behind the old
one, and which, gradually becoming developed, advances forwards as
the old one wears away, till its last remnant is pushed out. The
position of the new tooth, with respect to the old one, in progress of
wearing, will be seen by referring to the section of the skull. Fig.
778, ante ; the characters of the young teeth when forming, and
before worn down, are delineated in Fig. 774, c, d, ante. In the
skull (Fig. 778, ante), h shows the anterior tooth reduced almost to
nothing by detrition, and by the compression of the succeeding
tooth ; i shows a full-formed tooth in activity, already partially
ground down on Its face, /■, but with the posterior lamina; as yet
untouched ; / is the germ of a tooth to succeed the former (/)-it is
enc oscd m a membranous capsule, and lodged in a cavity at the
back of the jaw On this subject we might enlarge, but our limits
forbid. I he tusks of the Klepliant (upper incisors) are destitute of
true roots, and have no other union to their deep sockets than that
ot close contact ; they resemble a nail driven into a plank ; and by
gentle and continued pressure may have their direction altered
rhey consist of concentric layers of ivory, and grow by the con
tmued deposition of these layers added internally, for the pulp or
core which deposits the ivory fills the cavity at the base of the tusk
and arises from the bottom of the socket ; it is of great size, and
has no organic union with the tusk it secretes. We have 'seen
several instances in which bullets have, on cutting the tusks, been
found embedded in the ivory, to the astonishment of those who
know not the manner in which the tusks are produced. In these
instances the bullet has entered the socket, and lodged in the
bottom of the hollow base of the tusk, and the pulp or core in that
hollow has kept covering it with layer after layer of ivory, the tusk
gro^ying all the time, till at last, from being in the hollow, the bullet
attains the solid centre of tho full-grown tusk, being moved farther
and farther forwards by each deposit of ivory from within. The
tusks are not shed, as are the molars, but a permanent pair succeed
a deciduous pair, shed between the first and second year of its
existence. These tusks vary in size and curve. We learn from Mr.
Corse that one variety of Asiatic Elephant is characterised by
straight tusks pointing downwards ; it is termed Mooknah : another
variety has large heavy tusks inclining more or less upwards, and is
termed Dauntelah. Independently, however, of the shape and size
of the tusks in the male, the As'iatic species is divided into two
main or principal castes, between which there are many degrees of
intermixture. These two castes are called respectivclyKoomareah
and Merghee. The Koomareah is a deep-bodied, strong, compact
Elephant, with a large trunk, and legs short in proportion to the
size of the animal. The Merghee, when fully grown, is generally
taller than the former, but he has not so compact a form, nor is he
so strong or so capable of bearing fatigue ; his legs are long ; he
travels fast, has a lighter body, and his trunk is 'both short and
slender, in proportion to his height. A large trunk is always
esteemed a great beauty in an Elephant, so that the Koomareah is
preferred not only for this, but for its superior strength, by which it
can undergo greater fatigue, and carry heavier loads, than the
Merghee.
The external characters of the Elephant, which we have not as
yet noticed, need not long detain us. The skin is dark-coloured,
rough, and nearly destitute of hair; a tuft of bristles, laterally
disposed, terminates the tail : the eyes are very small, but lively
Fig. 7S7. — Young Elephant suckling.
and intelligent ; the tusks project on each side of the proboscis.
On each temple are situated certain glands with ducts opening on
the surface of the skin, whence exudes an unctuous secretion : but
beyond this nothing appears to be ascertained. The udder of the
female is placed on'^the chest between the fore-legs, and the young
Elephant sucks with the side of its mouth, compressing the udder
with its trunk, to increase the flow of milk. (See Fig. 787.)
The young Elephant at its birth is about thirty-five inches in
heit'ht, and it arrives at maturity when between eighteen and twenty-
four years of age. The average ratio of growth, as ascertained by
Mr. Corse (" Phil. Trans.," vol. xviii.), is eleven inches in the first
year, eight inches in the second, six the third, five the fourth, five
inches in the fifth, three inches and a-half in the sixth, and two
r,oS
THE ELEPHANT.
inches and a-half in the seventh. The males are probably longer in
attainincj their full growth than the females; but the females pro-
duce young before they have ceased to grow. Mr. Corse mentions
one instance in which the increase of growth during pregnancy
amounted to five inches. The period of gestation is twenty months
and eighteen days. The Elephant possesses the senses of smell
and hearing in great perfection, and musical sounds evidently pro-
duce pleasure.
Heavy and clumsy as is the form of this animal, yet its pace is
tolerably quick, especially over level ground ; indeed, when irritated,
the Elephant rushes on with great rapidity ; and many are the in-
stances on record in which the hunter, unsuccessful in his shot,
has been pursued, overtaken, and trodden to death. The gait of
the animal is, however, peculiar, and destitute of elasticity ; and on
reference to the skeleton (Fig. 776, ante), the reason will be immedi-
ately perceived. In the first place the bones of the limbs have an
almost perpendicular bearing with respect to each other; and in the
next place there is no canon-bone (a long metacarpal and metatarsal
bone), as in the fore and hind-limbs of the Horse, which m.ay thus be
said to have three bones in the leg, those of the hinder-hmbs in
particular being all oblique ; whereas the Elephant has the meta-
carpal and metatarsal bones five in number in each foot, short, and
restricted to the foot itself, instead of adding to the length and
elasticity of the limbs. In the Horse the thigh-bone is very short,
the true knee-joint is as high as the flanks, and the whole of the
limb from the hock-joint to the hoof, which really constitutes the
foot, consists of tarsal or instep bones, a long metatarsal or canon-
bone, and three phalangal bones, the last cased in horn ; these are
commonly called the pastern bones and coffin-bone. The arrange-
Fig. 788.— Elephant Kneeling.
ment of these bones in the limb of the Elephant is very different ;
and the knee, from the length of the thigh-bone, is lower than in
the Horse, so that the animal kneels in the same way as man. (See
Fig. 788.)
The haunts of the Elephant in his native regions are forests along
the borders of rivers, well-watered and fertile plains, where vegeta-
tion attains its utmost lu.xuriance, and green savannahs. There he
reposes in the shade of the trees, or cools himself in the waters.
Bathing, indeed, is one of the favourite enjoyments of this creature.
Even in our climate, during the summer months, the bath is a lu.xury :
■we have often seen the Elephant in the Gardens of the Zool. Soc.
plunge into his tank, draw the water up into his trunk, and spout it
in showers around ; then immerse himself completely, the end of the
trunk alone appearing above the surface, and there flounder about
in the exuberance of health and spirits. In his native country he
crosses the broadest rivers, the body, while swimming, being sub-
merged, and nothing seen but the extremity of the upraised pro-
boscis. Nor is it to water only that the Elephant displays a parti-
ality : he luxuriates in the ooze and mud of swamps and marshes,
and rolls and wallows in the half-fluid mire. We have seen him
fill his proboscis with this mixture, and discharge it over every part
of his body so as to invest himself with a layer of mud. In the hot
regions of which he is a native, he may find this a means of protect-
ing the skin from the scorching of the solar rays, as well as a de-
fence against the annoyance of insects, for the skin, thick and
coarse as it is, is nevertheless extremely sensitive. The same par-
tiality for the mud-bath is also displayed by the Rhinoceros and the
Hog.
Bishop Heber has described the bathing of wild Elephants which
he saw upon his approach to Decca. " At the distance of about
half a mile from these desolate palaces, a sound struck my ear, as
if from the water itself on which we were riding, the most solemn
and singular I can conceive. It was long, loud, deep, and tremu-
lous, something between the bellowing of a Bull and the blowing of
a Whale, or perhaps most like those roaring buoys which are placed
at the mouths of some English harbours, in which the winds make a
noise to warn ships off them. 'Oh!' said Abdallah, 'there arc
Elephants bathing. Decca much place for Elephant.' I looked
immediately, and saw about twenty of those fine animals with their
heads and trunks just appearing above the water. Their bellowing
it was which I had heard, and which the water conveyed to us with
a finer effect than if we had been on shore." Besides the water and
mud-bath for cooling the skin and keeping off flies, the Elephant, as
is often seen in India, will fan himself with a large bough, and use
it with ease and dexterity. The beautiful description by Southey of
this habit is so appropriate, that we hesitate not to introduce it : —
" Trampling his path through wood and hrake.
And canes which crackling fall before his way.
And tassel grass whose silvery feathers play,
O'ertopping the young trees.
On comes the elephant, to slake
His thirst, at noon, in yon pellucid springs.
Lo ! from his trunk upturn'd, aloft lie flings
The grateful shower ; and now
Plucking the broad-leafed bough
Of yonder plume, with waving motion slow,
Fanning the languid air,
He waves it to and fro."
A herd of Elephants, headed by their mighty leaders, feeding in
calm security in the secluded depths of the forest, or on the banks
of a river in some secluded valley, forms one of the most imposing
pictures in nature. Such a scene is beautifully described by Pringle ;
but willingly as we would quote it, our limits forbid. One point,
however, we may notice — the use, as observed by that traveller, to
which these animals apply their tusks as levers in uprooting trees.
It was in the valley of the Koonap River that the narrator came
upon the track of a herd : " Foot-prints of all dimensions, from eight
to fifteen inches in diameter, were everywhere visible, and in the
swampy spots on the banks of the river it was evident that some of
them had been luxuriously enjoying 'themselves by rolling their un-
wieldy bulks in the ooze and mud. But it was in the groves and
jungles that they left the most striking proofs of their recent presence
and peculiar habits. In many places paths had been trodden
through the midst of dense thorny forests otherwise impenetrable.
Among the groves of mimosa-trees, which were thinly sprinkled
over the grassy meadows along the river margins, the traces of the
Elephants were not less apparent. Immense numbers of these trees
had been torn out of the ground, and placed in an inverted position,
in order to enable the animals to browse at their ease on the soft
and juicy roots, which form a favourite part of their food. I
observed that, in numerous instances, when the trees were of con-
siderable size, the Elephant had employed one of his tusks exactly
as we should use a crow-bar — thrusting it under the roots to loosen
their hold of the earth, before he could tear them up with his
proboscis." j^
This account refers to the African species, but will also apply to
the Indian. The noble Elephant in the Garden of the Zool. Soc.
has at different times used his tusks in wrenching down the boards
which lined his apartment, and that with such effect as to demolish
no small portion of the inner woodwork, which was of great strength
and thickness.
The African Elephant equals, if it does not surpass, its Indian
relative in size. Major Denham saw one killed which measured 13
feet 6 inches in height, and mentions others which appeared to be
considerably larger. Mr. Pringle saw one which two officers of
engineers agreed in stating at fourteen feet. The Indian Elephant
seldom exceeds ten feet.
From the earliest times this noble beast has been employed by man ;
and multitudes have been drafted from their native forests, and with
little training brought to implicit obedience. It has served him as
a beast of burden, or as an auxiliary of war, and has added by its
presence to swell the pomp of kings and conquerors. Setting aside
the rude method of taking these animals in pits, now seldom or
never practised, it is remarkable that in every mode man avails
himself of the assistance of individuals of the same species which
he has already subdued.
It is well known that large male Elephants, from some cause not
ascertained, occasionally wander about alone ; they are of large size
and great ferocity, and wherever they pass do much mischief.
Being the finest Elephants, and best adapted for sale, great as the
risk may be, the hunters eagerly endeavour to capture them. They
follow them cautiously, by day and night, with two or four trained
females, called Koomkies. If it be dark, they can hear the animal
striking his food, to clean it, against his fore-legs, and then they
approach tolerably close : if it be light they advance more
cautiously. The females gradually move towards him, apparently
unconscious of his presence, gathering herbage, and feeding on it
with great complacency, as if they were, like him, inhabitants of
THE ELEPHANT.
309
the wild forest. It is soon seen by them whether he is likely to be
entrapped by their arts ; the drivers remain concealed at a little
distance, while the Koomkies press round tlie unfortunate Goondah,
or Snun (for so these solitary males are called). If he abandon
himself to the caresses of his new companions, his capture is almost
certain. The hunters cautiously creep under him, and during' the
time that his attention is thus absorbed, they fasten his fore-legs
with a strong rope. It is said that the wily females will not only
divert his attention from their Mohouts, but absolutely assist them
in fastening the cords. (See Fig. 789.) The hind-legs
are also secured, and, if the situation permits, lashed
to a large tree. The hunters then leave him, and
the faithless females retire : he tries to follow, and
discovers his condition. If fastened to a tree (Fig.
7go), he exhausts himself with rage and vain efforts
to break loose ; but if not secured, still he moves
with difiBculty in his shackles, and as long cables are
left trailing behind him, the Mohouts soon seize the
opportunity of lashing them round a tree of sufficient
strength. Sometimes he breaks his bonds, and rushes
madly to the forest, where the hunters dare not follow
him. But if adequately bound, his struggles arouse-
less ; and, worn out by the violence of his anger, his
exertions, and hunger, he submits at length, and is
conducted, under the escort of his treacherous friends,
to an appointed station, and, after a few months' disci-
pline, becomes reconciled to his fate.
In the "Asiatic Trans.," vol. iii., Mr. Corse gives
an animated description of the mode of conducting
the operation of Elephant-catching on a great scale,
as practised at Tipperah, where thousands of people
assemble to drive a herd of these superb animals
with the clang of drums and trumpets, and the din of
fireworks and musketry. The outline of the plan is
as follows : — The herd, when discovered, is surrounded
by a circle of men, divided into small parties, at the
distance of twenty or thirty yards from each other;
these, by noises of various kinds, and by fires lighted
at different posts, drive the animals into a body; in
the morning the circle opens, and the herd is slowly
driven forwards towards a spot where a new circle is
prepared to receive it ; the people closing up, taking
their proper stations, and passing the remainder of
the day and night as before. In this manner, day
after day, it is conducted towards a sort of concealed
pound or inclosure, called a keddah, made of strong
timbers, and divided into two or three great pens, com-
municating with each other by means of gates, which
are shut as the herd is forced from pen to pen. The
last pen has a narrow outlet passage, with a doorway,
sufficient for the entrance of only one Elephant at a
time ; and the passage itself will not allow* a large
Elephant to turn round. When, by dint of noise and
fires, the animals have entered the first gate of the
keddah, and they find themselves ensnared, their rage
is extreme, but escape is now impossible ; one outlet
only offers, but it leads to the next inclosure : the
leader enters, the rest follow ; the gate is instantly
shut by people who are stationed on a small scaffold
immediately above it, and strongly barricaded ; fires
are lighted, and the same discordant din made and
continued till the herd has passed through another
gateway into the last inclosure, the gate of which
is secured in the same manner as the former was.
The Elephants, being now completely surrounded
on all sides, and perceiving no outlet through
which they can escape, appear desperate, and,
in their fury, advance frequently to the ditch, in
order to break down the palisades, inflating their
trunks, screaming louder and shriller than any
trumpet, sometimes grumbling like the hollow
murmur of distant thunder ; but wherever they
make an attack, they are opposed by lighted fires,
and by the noise and triumphant shouts of the
hunters. As they must remain some time in this ^
inclosure, care is always taken to have part of the
ditch filled with water, which is supplied by a
small stream, either natural, or conducted through
an artificial channel from some neighbouring re-
servoir The Elephants have recourse to this
water to quench their thirst after their fatigues,
by sucking the water into their trunks, and then
squirting over every part of their bodies. While
they remain in this inclosure they continue sulky,
and seem to meditate their escape ; but the
hunters build huts around them, close to the
palisades, watchmen are placed, and every pre-
caution used to prevent their breaking through.
When the herd has continued a few days in this partition, the
door of the outlet passage is opened, and one is at last enticed in
with food. Having entered, the door is closed and securely barred :
retreat is impossible, and the captive is hemmed completely in.
His struggles in that narrow cage are useless. He is then
enveloped in a labyrinth of cords, and, exhausted with fatigue and
fury, he is led out between two powerful trained beasts, to whom he
is bound and tied, and brought by them to a spot where he is fastened
to strong trees. (See Fig. 791.) He then becomes again excited, and
UB-^
Fig. 7S9. — Wild Elephant captured by means of decoy Female Elephants,
Fig. 790. — Wild Elephant left after having been bouncl.
Fip. 79J.— Elephant Hamcssed in a KcJaah.
THE ELEPHANT.
sometimes falls a victim to his paroxysm of fury ; but commonly the
cravings of hunger induce him to eat, and he gradually yields to the
power of gentle discipline.
It is not an unfrequent occurrence for a domesticated Elephant to
escape to the wild herd, and resume its former independence ; and
such have been retaken, and submitted immediately to their former
riders. Mr. Corse mentions a female which twice escaped, and who
each time she was taken obeyed the words of command, attended to
her name, came to the side of the kcddah when called, ate from the
Fig. 792. — Warren Hastii
Elephant.
hands of the hunters, and knelt down when ordered. In another
case, that of a male, which had escaped about eighteen months, the
animal was furious when entrapped in the keddah ; an old hunter,
however, recognised him, rode boldly up to him, and ordered him to
lie down, pulling him by the ear. The animal seemed quite taken by
surprise, and instantly obeyed. Warren Hastings, the governor-
genera! of India, possessed an Elephant which had been ten years
absent from the rule of man. His keeper being dismissed, he v,'as
Fig. 793.— Elephants conveying Artillery through bad roads,
refractory to all others who attempted to control him ; and at length
escaped to the wild herd. After the long interval we have mentioned,
his old keeper recognised him in a keddah, and he instantly sub-
mitted himself to him. Mr. Zoffany painted the portrait of this
animal, and, in the key to his published print of a Tiger-hunt,
vouches for the authenticity of this account. Fig. 792 is a copy of
Mr. Zoffany' s print.
The Elephant is not used in the present day in India as an engine
of war, but as a beast of burden, in the transport of baggage, tents,
and various stores ; and there are peculiar circumstances in the march
of an Indian army which render the Elephant extremely serviceable.
Where dense jungles offer impediments which the pioneers could
not obviate without great labour and consequent delay, three or
four Elephants clear the way at once ; trampling down the long
grass and bushes, and breaking down the slender trees ; in short,
levelling all before them: again, where the artillery has to be dragged
through heavy roads of clay and mire, and deep sloughs, their
strength and sagacity are in great requisition. They always apply
their force in the most efficacious manner, and assist each other
with wonderful sagacity. Capt. Williamson thus notices their
services in this particular: — " Many of our most arduous military
operations have been greatly indebted for their success to the
sagacity, patience, and exertion of Elephants. Exclusive of their
utility in carrj'ing baggage and stores, considerable aid is frequently
supplied by the judgment they display, bordering very closely on
reason. When cannon require to be extricated from sloughs, the
Elephant placing his forehead to the muzzle, which when hmbered
is the rear of the piece, with an energy scarcely to be conceived,
will urge it through a bog from which hundreds of Oxen or Horses
could not drag it : at other times, lapping his trunk round the
cannon, he will lift while the cattle and men pull forward. (Fiof.
793.) The native princes attach an Elephant to each cannon, to aid
its progress in emergencies. For this purpose the animal is fur-
nished with a thick leather pad covering the forehead, to prevent its
being injured. It has sometimes happened that, in narrow roads
or causeways, or on banks, the soil has given way under heavy
cannon ; when an Elephant, being applied to the falling side, has
not only prevented the piece from upsetting, but even aided it for-
ward to a state of security." Elephants have probably been
employed in this manner from the first introduction of artillery into
Asia. Bernier, describing the army of Aurungzebe, says — " Many
of these cannon are so ponderous, that twenty yoke of Oxen is
necessary to draw them along ; and some, when the road is steep or
rugged, require the aid of Elephants in addition to the Oxen, to push
the carriage-wheels with their heads and trunks." Heavy guns are
often carried on Elephants' backs, both in the native and the Indian
armies.
In dragging cannon up mountain-passes, where the road is steep
and rugged, these animals have often performed good service,
stimulated by the praises and encouragement of their drivers, which
have great effect upon them ; besides, when they have achieved any
difficiilt operation, it is usual to reward them with sweetmeats and
arrack, and from all accounts they labour expecting the customary
reward. In former times, the Elephant, adorned with gorgeous
trappings, swelled the royal state of princes and persons of distinc-
tion, but in British India it is now rarely seen upon occasions of
ceremony, excepting at the courts of the native princes who still
retain some degree of independent authority. A line of Elephants
richly caparisoned is, however, a noble
spectacle. At Vizier All's wedding in
1796, there was a grand procession
of 1,200 Elephants, all magnificently
adorned; of these, 100 in the centre
had howdahs, or castles, covered with
silver ; and in the midst appeared the
Nabob, mounted on an uncommonly large
Elephant, within a howdah covered with
gold, richly set with precious stones.
Some of the Elephants of Aurungzebe
were, according to Bernier, most splen-
didly attired. Sir T. Rowe thus describes
the state Elephants of Jehanghir: — "His
greatest Elephants were brought before
him, some of which, being lord Elephants,
had their chains, bells, and furniture of
gold and silver, attended with gilt banners
and flags ; and eight or ten Elephants
waiting on him, clothed in gold, silk, and
silver. Thus passed about twelve com-
panies, most richly furnished ; the first
Elephant having all the plates on his
head and breast set with rubies and
emeralds, being a beast of wonderful
stature and beauty. They all bowed down
before the king."
By Europeans in India, the Elephant
is used for travelling, and in hunting
THE ELEPHANT.
311
the Tiger. The Horse cannot be brought to follow the track, or
stand 'firm at the sight of the ferocious beast, but the Elephant
will do both ; and besides his delicate scent, his bodily powers,
which enable him to make his way through the thickest covers,
and his great stature, which places the hunters seated in a how-
dah on his back in comparative safety, are peculiar reconunen-
It is said that the Elephant displays great fear towards the
Rhinoceros. Major Lally stated to the author of the " Oriental Field-
sports," that he once witnessed, from a distant hill, a most des-
perate engagement between a large male Elephant and a Rhinoceros,
in which the Elephant was worsted, and eventually fkd. Babcr, how-
ever, in his memoirs observes, that on the occasion of a Rhinoceros
Fig. 794. — Hiinters in a Howdah.
dations. (See Fig. 794.) After all, however, the sport is not un-
attended with danger, for the Elephant fears the Tiger, and the
latter, when wounded or hard pressed, bounds upon the nearest
Elephant, and mostly tries to seize the creature's trunk ; this it
throws up as high as possible, and if a staunch beast, endeavours to
receive the foe on its tusks. Well-trained Elephants have been
known to succeed, and, instantly kneeling, transfix the Tiger and
pin him to the ground (Fig. 795) ; but it often
happens that the Tiger accomplishes his effort,
in which case the Elephant loses all self-posses-
sion, and sets off at full speed, roaring violently,
and throwing all into confusion. Sometimes, in-
deed, the Elephant will not stand the attack, but
precipitately retreats in the greatest consterna-
tion ; in which case, if the Tiger springs upon the
animal, the hunters are in imminent peril. Mr.
Williamson (" Oriental Field-sports ") relates an
instance in which a gentleman went out with
others in pursuit of a cunning and daring Tiger,
and who urged his Mohout to make his Elephant
beat among the tall grass where the scent was
strongest ; this being done, in spite of the tre-
mendous tones of the agitated animal, the Tiger
found himself compelled either to resist or submit
to be trodden upon ; he sprang at once upon the
Elephant's quarter, fixed his fore-paws in the
pad on the animal's back, and his hind-claws in
the flesh of the thigh. In a paroxysm of fear,
occasioned by the suddenness of the attack, and
pain, the Elephant dashed through the cover, the
Tiger still clinging, but unable, from the motion
of the Elephant, to mount higher. It was with
difficulty that the gentleman could keep his seat,
and he was prevented from firing at the grim
beast, both from his unprecedented situation, and from the danger
of wounding some of the numerous followers who were exerting
the utmost speed of their respective Elephants to come to his assist-
ance. The pace of the Elephant was wavy and irregular, owing to
the animal's fear, and fortunately gave opportunity for some of those
mounted on light and speedy animals to overtake it, when a gentle-
man of the party despatched it with a shot.
Fig. 795. — Elephant pinning a Tiger,
hunt, one of the Elephants fell right in with the Rhinoceros, upon
which the latter immediately ran off in another direction. That an
enraged male of each species may meet, and fight, is not perhaps
improbable ; but we have no good grounds for supposing any ani-
mosity to exist between the two species : certain it is that the male
Elephant and Rhinoceros, in adjoining compartments, manifest to-
wards each other neither fear nor dislike.
White Elephants, that is, albinos, are occasionally found, and
are highly valued. At the court of Ava royalty is incomplete with-
out such an appendage, and both the nobles and people would
consider it inauspicious to want a White Elephant. In Siam also, as
well as in the Birman empire, the White Elephant is venerated.
Mr. Crawford (" Embassy to the Court of Ava"), who saw the cele-
brated White Birman Elephant (see Fig. 796), as well as six belong-
ing to the king of Siam, states, respecting the former, that his
establishment is very large. White Elephants were not unknown
■'-^Aic'A-Br'S'/:
Ky^iuv^'
Fig. 796.— White Elephant of Ava.
to thfe ancients, and were occasionally exhibited to the admiration
of the populace—" Sive elephas albus vulgi converteret ora"
(Horace).
Let us now turn from the Indian to the African species. This
animal is found from Senegal and Abyssinia to the confines of the
Cape settlement, wherever rivers, lakes, and extensive forests render
the rci^ion suitable for its residence. In the plains of the kingdom
3'2
THE ELEPHANT.
of Conijo, where the herbage attains a wild luxuriance, amidst in-
numerable lakes, and on the borders of the Senegal, whose waters
How through extensive forests, herds of Elephants still wander, and
also in the remoter districts of Caffraria. Cuvier appears to have
had some suspicion that the Elephant of Abj-ssinia and the eastern
portions of Africa might possibly be identical with the Indian species,
and he adduces the testimony of Ludolphe, who, in his " History of
Abyssinia," states that the female Elephants of that country are
destitute of tusks : he acknowledges, indeed, that the authority of
Ludolphe is doubtful; nevertheless, ho adds, his testimony is con-
firmed by Bruce, at least in one particular case, for, in the account
of an Elephant-hunt at which he assisted, the tusks of a female
W'Cre small, whilst the male had them of great magnitude. We
cannot lay much stress on a single case of this kind, and it is to be
observed that no mention is made of the size of the cars or shape of
the head; nor can we say whether or not the individual was young
or adult. It is not improbable that breeds or races may differ in
Africa as they do in India.
In ancient times the Elephant appears to have ranged along the
north and north-western shores. " Elephantos fert Africa ultra
Syrticas solitudines, et in Mauritania, says Pliny, and .^lian
asserts that they dwell in the forests and pasture-lands at the foot of
Mount Atlas. Though none are found in those localities in the
present day, we give full credit to the assertion, for we know that
the Lion once abounded in regions where it has long disappeared.
Moreover, the Carthaginians, who used the African Elephant as an
engine of war, as Porus and the Indian kings did the Asiatic, collected,
on the threatened invasion of Scipio (n.c. 205), a great number of
these animals, so quickly as to prove that they had not to penetrate
far into the interior to procure them. The Ptolemies, it would seem,
procured their Elephants in Abyssinia. Herodotus states that this
animal abounded, with Bears and Lions, in Libya. Ethiopia paid a
tribute to Darius, which consisted in part of Elephants' tusks.
Though the Romans were at an early epoch acquainted with ivory,
the Etruscan attributes of royalty being sceptres and thrones of this
material, still the first personal acquaintance of the Romans with
this animal was when Pyrrhus, king of Epirus (B.C. 281), invaded
Italy, bringing Elephants as part of the military force. These,
however, were most probably Indian ; and might, indeed, have been
some of the numbers which were left by Alexander at his death,
about half a century previously, and which with his kingdom and
treasures were divided between his successors, and employed in the
sanguinary wars which arose out of their individual contests for em-
pire. At all events, as India was open, these animals might easily have
been procured. Perdiccas led them into Egypt against Ptolemy,
and they were governed by Indian Mohouts ; Ptolemy opposed them
by Ethiopian Elephants, which were not considered so effective as
the Indian animals, perhaps from not being so well trained. The
Romans called the Elephant the Lucanian Ox, as it would seem from
having first encountered it in the territory of Lucania ; and this
name was generally adopted afterwards. In the Punic N'.ar the
Romans had to encounter the African Elephant, and Regulus
captured eighteen at the battle of Adis. Afterwards, at the battle of
Panormis (Palermo), upwards of 100 were taken, and the consul
Metullus transported them to Rome to gratify the wonder of the
people, and die in the circus for their amusement. Hannibal
employed them in Spain, and, as is well known, in Italy, and when
those which he brought with him had all perished, he received large
reinforcements from Carthage.
After the close of the Punic war, the Romans themselves used the
African Elephant in subduing Macedonia ; and thirty years after-
wards, Perseus, the last king of Macedon, whose great predecessor
had made Europe familiar with the power of the Elephant, possessed
none in his own army to oppose those brought against him by
Quintus Martius Philippus, and, after four years' ineffectual resist-
ance, Macedonia became a Roman province. At the battle of
Magnesia, Scipio brought African Elephants against Antiochus,
who opposed them with Elephants from India, and thus in hostile
array were brought together the peaceful tenants of the plains and
forests of two remote regions of the earth separated by seas and
deserts. Julius Cajsar employed, on various occasions, the Ele-
phant in his armies, but more perhaps as a beast of burden, and
for the sake of ostentation, or of striking terror among barbarous
people, than for actual combat. The Romans became now well
acquainted with this beast, and availed themselves of it for the pur-
pose of drawing splendid chariots in triumphal processions, but sel-
dom used it as an arm of war. They, however, forced it into the
brutal, demoralising combats of the amphitheatre, or amused them-
selves with its unwieldy performances in theatrical pageants — such
as we have seen in our own days. For more than 500 years did
Africa contribute Elephants to the Roman circus, and incalculable
numbers perished during that long period ; thousands were
dragged from the forests of Ethiopia to gratify by their torments
an ignorant and debased multitude, and thousands were slaughtered
in their native regions for the sake of their ivory, of which both
African and Indian were in the greatest request. Of this material
were fashioned the most imposing statues ; the rooms and furniture
Fig. 797. — Female Elephant and
her young one.
of the patricians were inlaid with gold and ivory; and it orna-
mented halls, porticoes, and temples.
With respect to the African Elephant it was most probably bred .
by the Romans in a state of domestication. Fig. 797 is a copy
of a representation, on the walls of Pompeii, of a female African
Elephant suckling her young one.
^^^^ The picture exhibits a perfect ac-
quaintance witli the mode in which
the little Elephant receives suste-
nance from its mother, a fact of
which Buffon and the naturalists of
the last century were ignorant.
At length the power of Rome
declined, the butchery of the circus
w^as suspended, and in the time of
Justinian (A.D. 527) an Elephant
was esteemed a rare spectacle at
Rome and Constantinople. The
intercourse between Europe and
Africa, on the fall of the Roman
empire, became in a great measure
suspended for centuries ; a wander-
ing population of Arabs spread
over the northern regions of Africa ;
and the Elephant, no longer hunted for his ivory, or captured for
the circus, wandered unmolested in his native forests. The modes
employed by the Carthaginians for training the animal were for-
gotten ; nay, that it had ever been reclaimed to the service of a people
whose place had been since occupied by Roman, Vandal, and
Arab conquerors, was a circumstance buried in oblivion, and the
African Elephant was at last believed to be incapable of the dis-
cipline w-hich still subjects the Indian to the use of man. In recent
times the demand for ivory has again revived, and in south and
western Africa the herds of Elephants are thinned by the gun of the
hunter.
Hitherto we have confined our observations to the two species of
Elephant at present existing on our globe ; time was, however, when
a species differing from either abounded on the earth, and ranged
over a great extent of country, tenanting climates not only within the
temperate latitudes, but such as are now exposed to the severities of
an Arctic winter, where their tusks are found in great abundance,
and collected for the sake of the ivory, which is still available.
More than this, however, the animal, flesh and all, has been found
in a state of preservation entombed in ice. Age^had rolled by since
the day which saw it inurned in its strange sarcophagus ; nations
and tongues and empires had risen and passed away ; the very
region it inhabited had undergone an alteration of temperature and
productions — yet, while the proudest monuments of human industry
were perishing, while nations were falling or rising, had this body
remained, as when the life departed, to be displayed in later days as
a relic of times beyond the date of human records. We allude to
the Mammoth found at the mouth of the Lena in Siberia.
In 1799, a Tungusian, who went along the coast to seek for Mam-
moths' tusks, first perceived the carcass on a vast block of ice, but
without being able to make out its true character. In 1801 it be-
came partially exposed; in 1803 it became disengaged by the melt-
ing of the ice ; and in 1804 the Tungusian, named Schumachoff, cut
oft' the tusks and sold them to a merchant for the value of fifty
roubles. Two years afterwards Mr. Adams found the Mammoth still
on the shore, but greatly mutilated. The Yakutski had fed their
Dogs with the flesh. Bears, Wolves, Wolverenes, and Foxes had
feasted upon it ; but though all the flesh and the proboscis were gone,
the skeleton remained with the exception of one fore-leg. The skin
was also to a certain extent perfect, and one of the ears was well pre-
served with its tuft of hairs. The skin, of a dark tint, was covered
with reddish wool and black hairs ; but much of the fur was injured
by damp, and much trodden into the earth by the Bears. The
skeleton and other portions of value were carefully collected ; the
tusks were repurchased, and the whole transported to St. Peters-
burg,
The skeleton is now in the Museum of the Academy, and the skin
still remains attached to the head and feet. A part of the skin and
some of the hair of this animal were sent by Mr. Adams to Sir
Joseph Banks, who presented them to the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons. The hair is entirely separated from the skin,
excepting in one very small part where it still remains attached. It
consists of two sorts, common hair and bristles, and of each there
are several varieties, differing in length and thickness. That re-
maining fixed on the skin is of the colour of the Camel, an inch and
a-half long, very thick-set, and curled in locks. It is interspersed
with a few bristles, about three inches long, of a dark reddish colour.
Among the separate parcels of hair are some rather redder than the
short hair just mentioned, about four inches long ; and some bristles
nearly black, much thicker than horsehair, and from twelve to eigh-
teen inches long. The skin when first brought to the museum was
offensive; it is now quite dry and hard, and where most compact
half an inch thick. Its colour is dull black. Fig.
represents
THE MAMMOTH— THE MASTODON'
i-^i
this fossil Elephant or Mammoth [Ehphas primigoiius). Another
and prior instance of the discovery of an ice-prcscrvcd Elephant is
recorded : in this case the carcass was found on the borders of the
Al.iseia river, which flows into the Icy Ocean beyond the Indigirska ;
it had been set free by the stream, and was in an upright position,
almost perfect, and covered with the skin, to which there still ad-
hered in many places hairs and fur, as in the Lena specimen. There
are not wanting other instances of parts, as the head and feet, with
Fig. 79S. — Skeleton of a Mammoth found in Siberia.
the flesh on, having been found in ice : nor is it only of the Elephant
that preserved remains e.xist ; for in 1771, the body of a Rhinoceros,
perfect, or nearly so, preserved in frozen earth or gravel, was disin-
terred near the Vilhoui. The head and feet are at St. Petersburg.
Asiatic Russia and Siberia appear to have been the stronghold of
the Mammoth ; over these vast regions, indeed, its fossil remains
occur in incredible numbers. There is, in fact, no river from the Don
to Kamtschatka where, either along the banks or on the beds, these
relics, with those of other e.xtinct species, do not abound. It is not,
however, only in that extensive tract that the fossil relics of Ele-
phants occur. They are common
ill Italy, France, Germany, Bo-
hemia, and the British Isles.
They are found also in North
America, mixed with those of
the Mastodon ; and have been
brought by Baron Humboldt from
Mexico and Peru.
Fig. 799 represents the skull
of the Elcphas primigeniiis. In
form it approximates the most
nearly to that of the Indian
Elephant, but has several dis-
tinguishing characteristics. The
grinders, for instance, have the
ribands of enamel across the
worn crown thinner and less fes-
tooned at their edge, and in a
given space are more numerous,
being closer together. The facial
line is more perpendicular, and
the top of the skull more peaked.
The alveoli of the tusks are more
developed. The lower jaw is
shorter, and more upright at its
symphysis ; while the grinder
follows a nearly level line. The
tusks are generally very large, arched, and directed upwards and
outwards, with a bold and somewhat spiral turn.
^Ylth respect to the strata in which these fossil relics are found, it
may be stated that it is only in alluvial and superficial deposits —
those filling the bottoms of valleys, or forming borders of rivers, the
mud of certain caverns — the crag formation and other Tertiary fresh-
water deposits, that they as a rule occur. In these slightly con-
solidated strata are also found other fossil relics, some of quadru-
peds of existing genera, and some of which there are no living
prototypes.
In some regions where the remains of the Mammoth and Rhino-
Fig. 799. — Skull of Mammoth.
ceros abound, as northern Siberia, a decided change in the climate
must have taken place since the era of the existence of the .nnimals;
although, as the clothing with which they were invested proves, the
climate was moderate, and often cold ; not, however, as it is now —
for, as Mr. Lyell observes, "it would bo difficult, if not impossible,
for such animals to obtain subsistence during an Arctic winter."
Yet, on the other hand, " so many skeletons could not have belonged
to herds which lived at one time in the district, even if those north-
ern countries had once been clothed with vege-
tation as luxuriant as that of an Indian jungle.
But if we suppose the change to have been
extremely slow, and to have consisted not so
much in a diminution of the mean annual tem-
perature, as in an alteration from what has been
termed an 'insular' to an 'excessive' climate—
from one in which the temperature of winter and
summer were nearly equalised, to one wherein
the seasons were violently contrasted — we may,
perhaps, explain the phenomenon. Siberia and
other Arctic regions, after having possessed for
ages a more uniform temperature, may, after
certain changes in the form of the Arctic land,
have become occasionally exposed to extremely
severe winters. When these first occurred at
distant intervals, the drift snow would fill the
valleys, and herds of herbivorous quadrupeds
would be surprised and buried in a frozen mass,
as often happens to cattle and human beings
overwhelmed in the Alpine valleys of Switzerland
by avalanches. When valleys have become filled
with ice, as those of Spitzbergen, the contrac-
tion of the mass causes innumerable deep rents,
such as are seen in the Mer-de-glace on Mont
Blanc. These deep crevices usually become filled
with loose snow, but sometimes a thin covering
is drifted across the mouth of the chasm, capable
of sustaining a certain weight. Such treacher-
ous bridges are liable to give way when heavy
animals are crossing, which are then precipi-
tated at once into the body of a glacier, which slowly descends to the
sea, and becomes a floating iceberg. As Bears, Foxes, and Deer
now abound in Spitzbergen, we may confidently assume that the
imbedding of animal remains in the glaciers of that island must be
an event of almost annual occurrence. The conversion of drift snow
into permanent glaciers and icebergs, when it happens to become
covered over with alluvial matter, transported by torrents and floods,
is by no means a rare phenomenon in the Arctic regions. During a
series of milder seasons intervening between the severe winters, the
Mammoths may have recovered their numbers, and the Rhinoceroses
may have multiplied again, so that the repetition of such catastro-
phes may have been indefinite. The increasing cold, and greater
frequency of inclement winters, would at last thin their numbers,
and their final extirpation would be consummated by the rapid
augmentation of other herbivorous quadrupeds more fitted for the
new climate." Lyell's " GeoL," vol. i., pp. 96—99.
The Mastodon.
Co-existent perhaps with the Mammoth, a race of huge animals,
now utterly extinct, once tenanted our globe : their remains, which
are met with in the superficial strata, occur in some localities in
great abundance ; and, from the differences presented by the teeth
and other parts, several species have been identified. To these
animals Cuvier gave the title of MASTODON, in allusion to the
principal character of thq. molars, which, instead of being formed,
as in the Elephant, of transverse lamina;, have the crown of simple
structure, but exhibiting ranges of bold conical elevations, divided
from each other by deep furrows. (See Fig. 800.) As the points of
these elevations become worn down by use, the crown presents a
series of lozenge-shaped lines of thick enamel (Fig. 801) ; but when
these are quite obliterated, the surface becomes uniform and concave.
Of the molars thus characterised there were two above and be-
low on each side ; but before these molars it w'ould appear that in
young individuals others had been situated, and had fallen in suc-
cession, as Cuvier satisfactorily ascertained from the examination of
various specimens. With regard to the mode of succession in the
grinders of the Mastodon, it takes place, says Cuvier, by a move-
ment from behind forwards. When the back tooth is in the act of
piercing the gum, that anterior to it is worn and ready to fall, and
they thus replace themselves one after the other. It does not ap-
pear that it is possible for more than two at a time on each side to
be in full operation, and ultimately, as in the Elephant, there is only
one. That the Mastodon had tusks like the Elephant is proved by
the large alveoli for their reception. As no perfect skull of the
Mastodon is known, it is impossible to defijie its contour : it must,
however, have had a general resemblance to that of the Elephant,
inasmuch as the tables of the frontal bone are separated in a similar
manner by extensive cells.
as
314
THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.
The neck is short, and the skeleton sfenerally (Fisf. 802) approxi-
mates to that of the Elephant. The Mastodon must have possessed
a proboscis, as is evident from a consideration of the structure of
the skull and skeleton {a) ; and, indeed, it would appear. that this
proboscis has not in every instance been completely decomposed.
The relics of the Mastodon gigantcus, or " Animal of the Ohio,"
Fig. Soo. — ^rohr of Mastodon, not worn.
Fig. Sol. — Molar of Mastodon, much worn.
are found in North America, especially in saline morasses ; and to
this circumstance Barton thinks is to be attributed the occurrence
of soft parts still capable of being made out. In 1762 (as he states),
out of five skeletons which were seen by the natives, one skull still
possessed what they called a "long nose," with the mouth under it.
Kalm, speaking of a huge skeleton which, in accordance with the
ideas of*^his time, he believed to be that of an Elephant, and which
was discovered by the savages in the country of the Illinois, says
that " the form of the trunk (bee) was still apparent, though half de-
composed." Of the several species of this extinct genus, the Great
Mastodon, or Animal of the Ohio, is the most remarkable. Its relics
Fig. S02. — Skeleton of Mastodon.
appear to be confined to the American contment : they are dis-
tributed very generally, and are accumulated in some places in
considerable abundance, but nowhere so much so as in that saline
morass popularly termed the Big-bone Lick. They are found buried
in the mud, and along the borders of the morass, at the depth of
four feet and upwards, together with the bones of Buffaloes, Stags,
&c. These relics have no appearance of having been rolled, and, in
some places, as for example along the Great Osage River, they are
found in a vertical position, as if the anjmals had sunk down into the
mud, which had closed over them. The ferruginous matter with
which the bones are impregnated, says Cuvier, is the main proof of
their long repose in the earth.
The traditions which were rife among the Red Men concerning
this gigantic animal and its destruction must not be passed over in
silence. M. Fabri, a French officer, informed Buffon that the sava-
ges regarded these bones scattered in various parts of Canada and
Louisiana as belonging to an animal which they named Pere-aux-
BcEufs. The Shawnee Indians believed that with these enormous
animals there existed men of proportionate development, and that
the Great Being destroyed both with thunderbolts. Those of Vir-
ginia state, that as a troop of these terrible quadrupeds were de-
stroying the Deer, the Bisons, and the other animals created for the
use of the Indians, the Great Man slew them all with his thunder,
except the Big-Bull, who, nothing daunted, presented his enormous
forehead to the bolts, and shook them off as they fell, till, being at
last wounded in the side, he fled towards the Great Lakes, where he
is to this day.
Besides the Mastodon gigantacs , the following species are dis-
tinguished : M. angiistidcns (Europe, America?), AI. andhini
(Andes), M. hu}?iboldtn{Cox\ce.-p<;\ox\ — Chili), l\f. minutics, M. tapir-
oides, ]\I. turicensis, M. avernensis (Epplesheim, Puy-de-Dome),
M. dcpliantoides (Irawaddi, Sewalik Mountains), ]\I. latidcns (Ira-
waddi, Sewalik Mountains), and M. longirostis, Katip. Professor
Owen has referred the teeth from the Norfolk crag to the last-named
species.
The Hippopotamus, H. amphibiiis — Family HippopotamidcB.
The Hippopotamus is a native exclusively of Africa, where, though
much more limited than formerly in the range of its habitat, it ten-
ants the banks and beds of the largest rivers, and of the inland
lakes from the Gariep to the Upper Nile and its tributary branches.
It is, however, not restricted to these, for it is marine as well as
fiuviatile.
Scarcely, if at all, inferior to the Elephant in bulk, but much
lower in stature from the shortness of the limbs, this massive animal
presents us with the " ne plus ultra" of uncouth clumsiness and
heavy solidity. Its body, like an enormous barrel supported on four
thick pillars, almost touches the ground ; the head is ponderous ;
the muzzle is swollen ; and the great thick lips, studded with wire-
like bristles, entirely conceal the projecting incisors of the lower jaw,
and the huge curved tusks or canines ; the mouth is wide ; the nos-
trils open on the top of the swollen muzzle ; and the eyes, which are
very small, are situated high on the head ; hence, when in the
water, the animal, by raising merely a small upper section of the
head above the surface, can both look around and
breathe, the body remaining submerged. The ears
are small and pointed : the tail is short, and fur-
nished with a few wiry bristles. The toes, four on
each foot, are tipped with small hoofs. The hide
is naked, coarse, and of great thickness, being two
inches deep or more on the back and sides. It
is made into shields, whips, walking-sticks, &c.
Between the skin and the flesh is a layer of fat,
which is salted and eaten as a delicacy by the
Dutch colonists of Southern Africa. The flesh also
is excellent, and in much request. The general
colour of the Hippopotamus is dusky brownish-red,
passing on the sides and limbs into a light purple-
red or brown ; the under-parts, the lips, and the
eyelids are light wood-brown, with a tinge of flesh-
colour ; the hinder quarters and the under-surface
are freckled with spots of dusky brown ; the hairs
of the tail and ears are black, those on the muzzle
yellowish-brown. The male far exceeds the female
in size. The Flippopotamus is gregarious in its
habits, sagacious, wary, and cautious. It has been
long driven away from the rivers within the limits
of the Cape Colony ; but in remoter districts, where
the sound of the musket is seldom heard, it abounds
in very lajge rivers, and is comparatively fearless of
man. "To convey," says Dr. Smith, " some idea
of the numbers in which they were found in several
of the rivers towards the tropic of Capricorn, it
may sufBce to state that, in the course of an hour
and a-half, a few members of the expedition party
killed seven within gun-shot of their encampment.
Several other individuals were in the same pool, and might also
have been killed, had it been desirable. One of the survivors was
observed to make his escape to an adjoining pool, and in accom-
plishing that he walked with considerable rapidity along the bottom
of the river, and with his back covered with about a foot of water."
(See Fig. 803.)
CO
THE HIPPOPOTAMUS.
3'S
The Hippopotami, according to Dr. Smith, feed chiefly on grass,
resorting to situations near X\v- banlcs of rivers which supply that
food. '• In districts fully inhabited by man, " says Dr. Smith, " they
(generally pass the day 'm the water, and seek their nourishment
durin"- the night ; but in localities differently circumstanced they
often'pass a portion of the day as well as the night upon dry land.
In countries in which the night-time constitutes the only safe period
for their leaving the water, "they are generally to be seen effecting
Fig. S03. — The Hippopotamus.
their escape from it immediately before dark, or arc to be heard
doing so soon after the day has closed, and according to the state
of the surrounding country ; they then either directly commence
feeding, or begin a journey towards localities where food may exist.
When previous to nightfall they may have been in pools or rivers,
they are generally at once enabled to commence feeding on reaching
the dry land ; but when they may have passed the day in the sea.
they require commonly to proceed some distance after leaving it,
before they find the grass which appears congenial to their palate.
It is not every description of grass that Hippopotami seem to relish :
they often pass over, in search of food, luxuriant green swards,
which would strongly attract many other animals which feed upon
grass. Besides having a peculiar relish for the grasses of certain
situations, they appear to have a predilection for districts supporting
brushwood ; and, owing to the latter peculiarity, they often wander
in localities on which little grass exists, when they might get it in
the neighbourhood in great abundance, but without the accompani-
ment of wood." The voice of the Hippopotamus is likened, by
Burckhardt, to the creaking and groaning of a large wooden door.
We are indebted to the " Guide" to the Garden of the Zoological
Society of London, at Regent's Park, for the following remarks on
the first Hippopotamus imported to England : — " The fact of Hippo-
potami having been on many occasions exhibited by the emperors of
Rome in the great displays of wild beasts which were presented to
the people in the circus, was a sufficient proof that the animal could
be transported from its haunts in the Nile with success. And, there-
fore, although 1,500 years had elapsed since the last recorded in-
stance of this kind, the Council of the Zoological Society, in the year
1849, undertook, with considerable confidence, the operation of ob-
taining one from Upper Egypt, all attempts to obtain it on the west
coast having proved futile.
" By the influence of the Hon. C. A. Murray, then H. M. Agent
and Consul-General at Cairo, his Highness the Viceroy, Abbas
Pasha, was induced to give orders that this object should be
effected ; and in the month of July in that year, a party of hunters,
specially organised for the purpose, succeeded in capturing a calf of
some three days old on the island of Obaysch, in the White Nile.
When found in the reedy covert to which the mother had confided
him, the Hippopotamus, who weighed in 1878, at least four tons,
was of such small dimensions that the chief huntsman took him up
in his arms to carry him to the boat from which his men had landed.
Covered, however, with a coat of slime more slippery than that of
any fish, the calf glided from his grasp, and struggled to regain the
safe recesses of the river. Quicker than he, the hunter used the
gaff-hook fastened to his spear, of the same model as that used for a
like purpose at the mouth of the Nile 3,000 years before, and struck
him on the side, and safely held him.
" From Obaysch, many hundred miles above Cairo, the Hippopo-
tamus travelled down in charge of the hunters and a company of
infantry, who finally landed him at the British Agency in the
month of November, 1849.
" By the obliging and liberal co-operation of the Peninsular and
Oriental Company, an apparatus was constructed on board their
steamer, the Rtpon, by which the
peculiar requirements of the animal
were perfectly accommodated ; and the
result was, that on the 25th of May,
1850, the first living Hippopotamus,
since the Tertiary epoch, was landed on
English soil. A special train conveyed
him to London ; every station yielding
up its wondering crowd to look upon
the monster as he passed — fruitlessly,
for they only saw the Arab keeper, who
then attended him night and day, and
who, for want of air, was constrained
to put his head out through the roof.
"The Hippopotamus, thus acquired,
continued to be a prime favouriti' with
the public ; and the arrival of his mate,
' Adhela,' in 1853, did not diminish
his attraction.
" For many years our hopes and ex-
pectations that the pair would breed
together were doomed to disappoint-
ment. At length, in the spring of
1872, the female produced her first
calf, and a second about nine months
afterwards. Both these, however,
were lost shortly after their birth,
in spite of every care and precaution.
With the third calf, born on the 5th of
November, 1872, more successful re-
sults were obtained. The little animal
sucked freely shortly after its birth,
and gave every sign of health and
vitality. It increased rapidly in size
and strength, and has continued to thrive up to the present time,
as will be apparent to all who see it (1878).
" The only other instance of a young Hippopotamus having been
reared in Europe, was one that occurred at Amsteniam some years
ago. In that case, however, the calf was separated from the mother,
and reared by hand upon Goats' milk.
" The flesh of the Hippopotamus is delicate and succulent; the
layer of fat next the skin makes excellent bacon, technically
denominated Hippopotamus 'speck' at the Cape; and from the
hide are made most punishing whips, of which a few have
occasionally appeared in the shops of London. The ivory of the
canines is singularly pure, although brittle, and realises a higher
price than the best Elephant tusk for particular purposes."
In March, 1878, however, this Hippopotamus succumbed to fate.
We give the following account furnished by an eminent naturalist. —
" Poor old Behemoth (Hippo, the ancient) is dead : he died last
Monday (March i ith). We shall no more hear his melodious deep
grunt of welcome, ' Urmp, urmp,' so well known to the visitors at
the Zoological. The poor old beast has done his duty bravely and
well. Mrs. and Miss Hippo mourn his loss. His last child, having
been born on the 5th November, was called ' Guy Fawkes ;' but as
it increased in years it \^s discovered by Mr Bartlett that the infant
was a female. Its name, therefore, was at once changed, and of late
it has been known by the euphonious name given it by Mr. K. Kars-
lake, Q,C. , of ' Cleopatra, the Queen of the Nile.'
"The history of European Hippopotami is interesting. Alto-
gether, the births in our own latitudes of nine, if not ten, are on
record. One was burnt at the great fire at the Crystal Palace. For
some years the Dutch authorities carefully prevented the baby
Hippopotamus from having access to the water at the moment of its
birth. Mr. Bartlett, resident superintendent of the Zoological,
however, allowed, with his usual sagacity, Guy Fawkes to be
born in the water, and then it appeared that in the water,
not on land, this sucking Behcm.oth could take the proper nourish-
ment from its mother.
" The public are probably not aware that at one time — in geological
times — Hippopotami resided in our own river Thames. Westmin-
ster Abbey is built on Thorney Island, which was really once an
island, the branch of the Thames which made it an island being
now represented by the ornamental water in St. James's Park.
This stream of water joined the Thames by flowing through the
ground upon wliich the Horse-Guards is now built. Not very long
ago the bones and teeth of English native Hippopotami were dug up
during the construction of some works almost in front of the
spot where the mounted sentries of the Life-Guards, or R.oyal Horse-
3i6
THE RHINOCEROS.
Guards Blue, are now dai)y stationed. These interesting relics are,
or were, in the possession of Mr. Milne, C.E. The skull of a Hippo-
potamus has been discovered in a peat-bog- in Lancaster, and is
now, I believe, in the Geological Museum at O.xford. Bones and
teeth of Hippopotami have also been discovered in Gloucestershire —
if I mistake not, in the Hyaena dens of Banwell, in the Mendip Hills ;
they have also been found on the east coast of Norfolk. The fact
that these gigantic animals will thrive and do well in England has
now been proved by the Zoological Society. It remains, therefore,
only for those gentlemen who own lakes and ornamental waters on
their properties to breed Hippopotami, animals most sagacious and
interesting in their habits, and, as has been proved, capable of do-
mestication during the earlier months of existence."
Fig. 804 represents the skeleton of the Hippopotamus, which is a
Fig. S04. — Skeleton of Hippopotamus.
ponderous frame-work in unison with the vast weight of solid flesh
to be sustained, and the enormous strength of the muscles. The
neck, though short, is longer in proportion than that of the Elephant,
and, from the shortness of the limbs, gives the animal the power of
grazmg the herbage.
Various fossil species of Hippopotamus have been described by
Cuvier and others ; ot one {H. aniiquus) the relics are widely dis-
tributed, and are particularly abundant in the Val d'Arno, Italy, in-
termixed with those of the Elephant and Rhinoceros.
The Rhinoceros — Family Rhinoceridce.
This genus contains seven or even more living and well-estab-
lished species, as far as naturalists are at present able to determine,
and several fossil species, of which the relics occur in the same
strata as those of the fossil Elephant.
Fig. 805. — Skeleton of Rhinoceros.
The existing species are confined to the hotter regions of the Old
World, and are divided between Africa and India, including the
islands of Java and Sumatra. It is in the land of the Elephant and the
Hippopotamus that the Rhinoceros wanders in fearless confidence,
as if aware of his enormous powers, and the advantage of his weapons
of defence. One species {R. indicus) is peculiar to continental
India beyond the Ganges, Siam, and Cochin-China ; one [R.jara-
nits, or sondaiats) is a native of Java ; and one with two horns
{R. sumafrensis), of Sumatra. Three two-horned species are in-
digenous in Africa — viz., the common two-horned or Black Rhi-
noceros {R. bicornis, Linn. ; africamis, Cuv.) : the White Rhi-
noceros {R. simus), and the Keitloa {R. kcitloa), discovered by
Dr. Smith during his expedition into the interior. Accounts of a
single-homed Rhinoceros were received by Dr. Smith from the
natives in the interior of South Africa, who represented it as living
far up the country ; moreover, Burckhardt alludes to a one-liorned
species in the territory above Sennaar, and states that the inhabit-
ants there give it the n.ime of the " mother
of the one horn." According to this tra-
veller, its northern boundary, like that of
the Elephant, is the range of mountains
to the north of Abou Huaze, two days
journey from Sennaar. The hide of this
animal is manufactured into shields, which
have an extensive sale; the material of
the horn is also sold, and at a high price,
Burckhardt having seen four or five Span-
ish dollars paid for a piece four inches
long and one inch thick. Was the one-
horned Rhinoceros seen by Strabo at
Alexandria this species or the common
Indian ? — and the same question appUes
to the one-horned Rhinoceros whicli,
with a Hippopotamus, was given by
Augustus, in the celebration of his tri-
umph over Cleopatra, to be slain in the
circus ; which animals, Dion Cassius says,
were then first seen and killed at Rome —
an assertion perfectly erroneous, as it re-
spects the Rhinoceros, if it was the com-
mon Indian species; for Plinv, in his eighth
book, alluding to the games of Pompey, mentions the one-horned
Rhinoceros (Indian, it is presumed) as then exhibited (" lisdem lu(li>,
et Rhinoceros unius in nare cornu, qualis, sape visus"). With
respect to the two-horned African species, it was also exhibited in
Rome ; and had learned critics known anything of natural history,
the line in Martial (" namque gravem gcinino cornu sic extuiit
ursum") would not have given rise to so many futile disquisitions
and attempted corrections. Pausanias describes a two-horned
Rhinoceros under the name of the .Ethiopian Bull. Two individuals
of the same species appeared at Rome under the emperor Domitian,
on some of whose medals was impressed their figure ; othe s were
exhibited under Antoninus, Heliogabalus, and Gordian III. M.irtial
lived in the time of Domitian, and the Rhinoceros " gemino cornu"
was doubtless seen by him.
The animals of the present genus are all remarkable for the mas-
siveness of their form and the clumsiness of their proportions ; they
are, however, more prompt and rapid than
might be at first supposed, and when at-
tacked they rush on their foes with head-
long impetuosity. The body is of great
bulk, and protuberant at the sides ; the
neck is short and deep ; the shoulders are
heavy, the limbs thick ; the feet are divided
into three toes incased in hoofs. The skin
is thick and coarse, with a knotty or tuber-
culous surface, and destitute, or nearly so,
of hairs. In the common Indian species it
is disposed in large folds, especially on the
neck, shoulders, haunches, and thighs.
The eyes are small, placed nearer the nose
than in other quadrupeds, and high towards
the upper surface of the skull ; the ears are
moderate and erect. The head is large
and ponderous : it is elevated between the
ears, whence it sweeps %vith a concave line
to the nasal bones, which rise in the form of
an arch to support the horn. (See skeleton.
Fig. 805.) The upper lip is soft, flexible,
sensitive, capable of being protruded, and
used to a certain degree as an organ of
prehension.
But that which gives most character to
the head of the Rhinoceros is its horn,
single in some species, double in others.
This organ is of an elongated, recurvent,
conical figure, arising from a broad, lim-
pet-shaped base, seated on the nasal bones, which are of a thick-
ness and solidity not to be found in other races of quadrupeds.
They form a vaulted roof, elevated in a remarkable degree above
THE RHINOCEROS.
3'7
the intermaxillary bones, containing the incisor teeth, and their
upper arched surface is rough with numerous irregularities and
depressions ; and here we may pause, to reflect on the advantages
gained bv their form and structure. They have not merely to sustain
the weight of the horn, no trifle in itself, but to resist the shock oc-
casioned by the violent blows which the animal gives with the
w eapon upon various occasions.
Hence, conjoined with their
solidity, that form is given to
the nasal bones which, of all
others, is best calculated for
sustaining a superincumbent
weight or sudden jars ; while
the rugosities and depressions
tend to the firmer adhesion of
the skin, to which the horn is
immediately attached. In the
two-horned species the pos-
terior horn rests on the os fron-
tis. The nasal horn of the
Rhinoceros is a solid mass,
structurally composed of ag-
glutinated fibres analogous to
hair, and much resembling
those into which whalebone is
so easily separable.
It has been asserted by some
travellers that the horns of the
African species are movable,
and that the animal rattles
them against each other : this,
however, is a mistake — they
are firmly fixed. The nostrils
are on each side of the upper
lip ; the tongue is perfectly
smooth, contrary to what is
alleged by many of the older
writers, who describe it to be covered with spines, and capable of
lacerating the skin. The senses of smell and hearing are very
acute.
The Indian Rhinoceros {Rhinoceros utiicornis). — This animal
in his native regions leads a tranquil, indolent life : like the
Elephant, he gives preference to the marshy borders of lakes and
rivers, or swampy woods and jungles, delighting to roll and wallow
in the oozy soil, and plaster his skin with mud. He is also fond of
the bath, and swims with ease and vigour. The splendid animal in
the gardens of the Zoological Society may be often seen, during
the hot weather of summer, enjoying the bath in the paddock ap-
propriated for his e.\ercise, or rolling and wallowing in the mud, or
basking luxuriously, half in, half out, of the water, like a huge hog,
uttering every now and then a low grunt of self-complacent satis-
faction.
Sluggish in his habitual movements, the Rhinoceros wanders
through his native plains with a heavy step, carrying his huge head
so low that his nose almost touches the ground, and stopping at
intervals to crop some favourite plant, or, in playful wantonness, to
plough up the ground with his horn, throwing the mud and stones
behind him. The jungle yields before his weight and strength, and
his track is said to be often marked by a line of devastation. When
roused, the Rhinoceros is a most formidable antagonist; and such is
the keenness of his senses of smell and of hearing, that, unless by
very cautiously approaching him against the direction of the wind,
it is almost impossible to take him by surprise. On the appearance
of danger the Rhinoceros generally retreats to his covert in the tan-
gled and almost impenetrable jungle ; but not always ; and instances
are on record in which, snuffing up the air and throwing his head
violently about, he has rushed with fury to the attack, without waiting
for the assault. There are, in fact, seasons in which the Rhinoceros
is very dangerous, and attacks every animal with impetuosity that
attracts his notice or ventures near his haunts — even the Elephant
himself.
From the earliest times the horn of the Indian Rhinoceros (the
observation applies to other species also) has been regarded either
as an antidote against poison, or as efficacious in detecting its pre-
sence, as well as useful in curing disease. The Indian kings made
use of it at table, because, as was believed, " it sweats at the ap-
proach of any kind of poison whatever." Goblets made of it are in
high estimation ; these are often set with gold or silver, and sell for
large sums : when poison is poured into them, the liquor, it is said,
betrays its noxious qualities by effervescing till it runs over the brim :
water drank from them, or from the cup-like hollow at the base of
the horn, is regarded as medicinal. In the latter case the water is
to be stirred in the hollow with the point of an iron nail till it becomes
discoloured, when the patient must drink it.
The strong deep folds into which the coarse skin is gathered in
the cheeks, neck, shoulders, haunches, and thighs, are distinguish-
ing characters of the Indian Rhinoceros. The general colour of the
skin is dusky black, with a slight tint of purple. Mr. Hodgson
(" Proceedings of the Zoological Society," 1834) states that the female
goes from seventeen to eighteen months with young, and produces
one at a birth : he adds also, "It is believed that the animal lives
for 100 years : one taken mature was kept at Katmandoo for thirty-
five years without exliibiting any symptoms of approaching decline.
Fig. S06. — The Indian Rhinoceros.
The young continues to suck for nearly two years : it has for a
month after birth a pink suffusion over the dark colour proper to
the mature hide." The female is desperate in the protection of her
young. (See Fig. 806.)
The Javanese Rhinoceros {R. javatius or so)idaicus].—.\s
far as is ascertained, this species is confined to the island of Java,
where it is called Warak. In the character of the incisor teeth, and
the horn being single, it agrees with the Indian species ; but it is a
less bulky animal, and, in proportion, more elevated in the limbs ;
the folds of the skin are both less numerous, less deep, and also
differently arranged ; the surface of the skin is divided into small
polygonal tubercles with a slight central depression in each, from
which arise a few short bristly hairs. (See Fig. 807.) In its habits
Fig. 807. — The Javanese Rhinoceros.
this species is gregarious , its range on the island extends from the
level of the ocean to the summits of mountains of considerable
elevation— the latter situations are preferred ; its retreats in these
mountains are to be discovered by deeply-excavated passages
worked out on their declivities. When met with, or otherwise dis-
turbed, it quietly retires, being very mild and peaceable. Night
is the principal season of its activity, and it often commits consider-
able damage in the plantations of cofl:'ee and pepper. Tlie horns
and skin are employed for medicinal purposes by the natives. Dr.
Horsfield (" Zoological Researches in Java") gives a detailed account
of one of these animals which was kept at Surakarta, and which
was very mild and tractable, allowing persons even to mount on its
back. In its habit of wallowin- in the mire it resembled the rest of
the genus The Javanese Rhinoceros was known to Bontius, who
wrot" on the productions of that island in 1629. Fig. 808 represents
the skull of this species, which is more elongated in proportion,
and less heavily made than that of the Indian animal.
3i8
THE RHINOCEROS.
The Sumatran Rhinoceros (R. sumafranus, or R. suma-
trensis. Raffles) was first described by Mr. Bell, surgeon in the ser-
vice of the i-ast India Company, at Bencoolen (" Philosophical Trans-
actions," 1793) ; but it appears to have been indicated previously by
Mr. C. Bliller, long resident in Sumatra (Pennant's "History of
Quadrupeds," 3rd cd., vol. i.) The head is more elongated than in
the other two species, and
there are two horns on the
nose : the neck is thick and
short, the limbs massive ;
the skin is rough and black,
and covered with short hair;
the folds are very incon-
siderable, but are most dis-
tinct on the neck, shoulders,
and haunches. The female
is stated to have a heavier
head than the male. The
number of incisors is four in
each jaw; but of these t'lc
lateral ones are very sma.l,
and soon fall out : hence
Bell and others supposed
the number to be only two.
The Sumatran Rhinoceros is by no means bold or savage ; one ot
the largest size has been seen to run away from a smgle Wild Dog.
Its native name is Badak, whence the term Abadia, or Abath, aPPjied
to the Indian Rhinoceros by our early navigators. Sir S. Raffles
says that, besides the species, there is another animal m the forests of
Sumatra, never noticed, which in size and character nearly resembles
this Rhinoceros, but which is said to have a single horn, and to be dis-
tinguished by a narrow white belt encircling the body. The natives
of the interior term it Tennu, which, at Malacca, is the name of the
Tapir ; but in Sumatra the name of the Tapir is Gindol and Babialu.
Fig. S08.— Skull of Javanese Rhinoceros.
Fig. S09. — The Sumatran Rhinoceros.
In the interior, however, where different tribes shut out from general
communication speak different dialects, it is probable that the term
Tennu may be the name applied by some, as at Malacca, to the
Tapir, and hence would the confusion arise ; for, from the descrip-
tion, notwithstanding the assertion that it possesses a horn, we
cannot help regarding this Tennu of the forest of the interior as the
Tapir.
Two very distinct forms of Rhinoceros are found in Africa, com-
monly calkd the Black Rhinoceros and the White Rhinoceros.
The White Rhinoceros is known by its pale colour, its very long
anterior horn, and its square, short-lipped mouth, which induced
Mr. Burchell to name it Rhinoceros simus. In the Black Rhino-
ceros, which, however, is not really black, as will be seen by exami-
nation of an existing specimen, but flesh-coloured, the upper lip is
produced and slightly prehensile. The White Rhinoceros is a
grass-eater, and inhabits the more open districts, while the Black
Rhinoceros resorts to the forests, and feeds much on shrubs and
small branches. The Zoological Society's African Rhinoceros, in
their Gardens at London, which was the first specimen of this
animal brought to Europe since the days of the Romans, was captured
in Upper Nubia, near Casala, in February, 1868.
The Black or Cojimon African Rhinoceros [R. bicornis,
Linn. ; R. africanus, Cuv.) — This huge animal, though driven
from the precincts of the colony, is still extensively spread through-
out the southern regions >)f Africa. When the Dutch first formed
their settlement on the shores of Table Bay, this Rhinoceros v/as
a regular inhabitant of the thickets which clothed the lower slopes
of the mountain ; but it has retired, and continues to retire, before
the advance of colonisation and the gun of the hunter. This species
differs from the Indian, not only in the possession of a double horn,
but in the absence of massive folds of skin, and in wanting the
incisor teeth. The skin is thick, coarse, scabrous, and forms a
deep furrow round the short thick neck ; the head is heavy ; the
eyes are small, and the skin round them, and on the muzzle and
before the ears, is wrinkled ; the upper lip is slightly produced, and
prehensile. The anterior horn is long, fibrous at the base, hard,
and finely polished at the point ; the posterior horn is short and
conical. General colour yellowish-brown, with tints of purple upon
the sides of the head and muzzle ; eyes dark brown. Length about
eleven feet. A few black hairs fringe the edge of the ears and the
tip of the tail. (See Fig. 810.) This animarfeeds upon brushwood,
Fig. Sio. — Black Rhinoceros and Young.
and the smaller branches of dwarf trees ; " from which circum-
stance," says Dr. Smith, " it is invariably found frequenting wooded
districts, and in those situations its course may be often traced by
the mutilations of the bushes. The mass of vegetable matter con-
sumed does not appear to be in proportion to the bulk of the animal :
indeed, as it feeds but slowly, and passes much of its time in idle-
ness, it must be regarded as a very moderate eater ; and, considering
that it appears to be fastidious in the choice of its food, it is fortunate
for its comfort that it does not require more nourishment." Of the
senses of the Rhinoceros, those of hearing and smell are very acute,
and aid the animal more than his sight in the discovery of danger,
the bulk of the body screening objects not immediately before the
eyes. "As these animals depend much upon smell for their
existence and safety, it is necessary to advance upon them from the
leeward side, if the aim be to get close without being discovered.
In pursuit they also trust for guidance to the same sense, and may
be heard forcibly inspiring the air when they have lost the scent of
the object they are following. The ticks and other insects with
which they are covered furnish for them another source of in-
telligence, inasmuch as they attract a number of birds, which sit
quietly picking them off when nothing strange is in sight, but fly
away when any object excites their fear. So well does the
Rhinoceros understand this, that he proceeds feeding with the
greatest confidence while the birds continue perched upon his back ;
but the moment they fly, the huge animal raises his head and turns
it in all directions to catch the scent. Whether he accomplishes
this or not, he generally feels so uncertain of his position, that he
moves to some other locality." The same observations apply to the
other African species. When disturbed or attacked, the Rhinoceros
becomes furious, and especially when wounded : he then rushes
towards his foe, and if he can get the hunter once within his sight,
the escape of the latter, unless he exert great presence of mind, or
the well-directed shot of a companion stop the animal in his career,
is very doubtful. The best plan is to wait till the enraged beast ap-
proaches, and then step aside suddenly, where some bush or in-
equality of the ground may afford a shelter, and give time to the
hunter for reloading his gun before the Rhinoceros gets sight of him
again, which fortunately it does slowly and with difficulty. Travel-
lers in the regions frequented by this animal are not safe during the
night from its attacks. It appears to be excited by the glow of a
fire, towards which it rushes with fury, overturning every obstacle.
It has, indeed, been known to rush with such rapidity upon a mili-
tary party lodged among the bush covering the banks of the Great
Fish River, that before the men could be aroused it had severely in-
jured two of them, tossed about and broken several guns, and com-
pletely scattered the burning wood. Le Vaillant, in an animated
account of a Rhinoceros hunt, describes the enraged and wounded
animals as ploughing up the ground with their horns, and throwing
a shower of pebbles and stones around them : and Dr. Smith says
that they are sometimes seen to plough up the earth for several
paces with the front horn when not enraged, but for what object he
could not discover. The native (Bechuana) name of this species is
Borili.
The Keitloa [R. kei/loa, Smith). — In general figure this
savage species resembles most nearly the common African Rhinoce-
ros. There are, however, he observes, many marked differences
between them, of which the following are a few of the external and
more palpable. In Rhnioccros keitloa the two horns are of equal,
or nearly equal length ; in Rhinoceros africaiius the posterior in
THE RHINOCEROS.
3'9
neither sex is ever much beyond a third of the length of the anterior
horn ; the length of the head, in proportion to the depth, is very dif-
ferent in the two. The neck of Rlutioccros Iccitloa is much longer
than that of the other, and the position and character of the cuticu-
lar furrows destined to facilitate the lateral motions of the head arc
very different. Besides these, Dr. Smith states that many other
diagnostic characters might be instanced ; such as the black mark
on the inside of the thigh of the Keitloa, the distinctly produced tip
of the upper lip, and the
comparatively few wrinkles
on the snout and parts
around the eyes. (See Fig.
Sii.)
The first example of this
animal which Dr. Smith met
with, during his expedition,
was shot about i8o miles
N.E. of Lattakoo, but con-
siderably south of the
country to w^hich the species
appears directly to belong,
and from which it might be
considered as a wanderer.
On the expedition penetrat-
ing to the northward of
Kurrichane, every one was
found conversant with the
name, and able to direct to
situations where the animal
was found. Few mentioned
the Keitloa without alluding
to its vindictive temper and
ferocity ; and those, says
Dr. Smith, who had suffici-
ent confidence in the party,
compared to it a chief, then
awfully oppressing that part
of the country, and spoke of
the man and the animal as
alike to be feared. As the
party advanced, the Keit-
loa became more common,
though it never occurred in
such numbers as the other
two species.
"The interest," says Dr.
Smith, "which the discovery
of this species excited, led
to the making of minute
inquiries as to the animals of
this genus ; and the expedi-
tion had sufficient reason
to believe, from the replies to constant questions, that two other im-
described species existed farther in the interior, one of which was
described as being something like the Keitloa, and having two
horns — the other as differing in many respects, and having only one
horn. The Keitloa browses on shrubs and the slender branches of
brushwood, using the upper lip as an organ of prehension."
The White, or Blunt-nosed R.hinoceros {R. simus), termed
Mohoohoo by the Bechuanas, is larger than the two former species,
being upwards of twelve feet in length, and nearly six feet in height.
It is a huge, massive animal, with the neck longer than in the other
African species, having three deep wrinkles running from the nape
down the sides ; the muzzle is truncate, the mouth shaped like that
of an Ox, the upper lip perfectly square, and destitute of the mobility
and power of protrusion which it exhibits in the other species.
Hence, instead of browsing upon shrubs, it feeds principally upon
grass, and therefore frequents open plains where such herbage
abounds, wandering very extensively in search of pasturage. This
animal was first described by Mr. Burchell, who, when at Lattakoo,
found it in abundance there, and Mr. Campbell brought the head of
one to England. In the Mohoohoo the horns are situated close to
the extremity of the nose : the first is very long, tapered to a point,
and slightly curved back ; the second is short, conical, and obtuse.
The general colour is pale broccoli-brown ; the buttocks, shoulders,
and under-parts shaded with brownish-purple ; tail clothed with stiff
black hair. According to Dr. Smith, the introduction of fire-arms
among the Bechuanas has rendered this animal rare in the district
where Mr. Burchell found it numerous : higher up the country, how-
ever, it still maintains its ground. In disposition it differs from the
other two species, being much more gentle, and is therefore re-
garded with less fear than either the Keitloa or the Borili.
The flesh of all three species is esteemed wholesome food by the
natives, who dig pit-falls for them in situations to which they are
known to resort ; and sometimes, though rarely with success, attempt
to kill them with the assagai or spear. In style of motion they are
all alike, and so awkward that their swiftness is to be appreciated
not by directly watching the animal itself, but by fixing the eye upon
some two points between which it takes its course. To revert to the
one-horned Rhinoceros, of which Dr. Smith heard in the interior of
South Africa, and of which Bruce and Hurckhardt received accounts
as existing in Adel and the country south of Sennaar. it may be
added that Dr. Smith adduces the testimony of Mr. Freeman re-
specting an animal by no means rare in Makooa, north of the
Mosambique Channel, which, overlooking the absurdities and ex-
Fig. Sii. — The Rhinoceros Keitloa.
aggeration of the description, he suspects to be a one-horned
Rhinoceros, and probably that of which he heard, and which may
extend to the countries mentioned by Bruce and Burckhardt.
The Hairy-eared Rhinoceros (R. hisiot!s).—0{ this new
Rhinoceros, which is nearly allied to the Sumatran, an adult female
is in the Zoological Society's collection. " Begum," as she is
called, was captured near Chittagong, in British Burmah, by some
oflficers employed in the Khcddah department of the Indian army —
that is, on the capture of Elephants. In January, 1872, she was
brought to England by M. Jamrach, and purchased by the Society
for;^i,250.
Among the fossil relics of animals which at some former period
have tenanted this globe, and after a quiet possession, generation
succeeding generation, of their pasture-lands, have become as it
were blotted out of the book of creation, those of the Rhinoceros are
extremely abundant, little less so, if at all, than those of the fossil
Elephant or Mammoth, as widely distributed, and occurring in the
same strata and the same localities. Several species have been dis-
tinctly made out, among which the most remarkable is that with a
bony partition between the nostrils, and supporting the nasal bones ;
it is termed by Cuvier Rh. tichorhiuus. Fig. 812 represents the
skull in two views : a, profile ; d, seen from below.
It was of this species that Pallas, in 1771, discovered an entire
frozen carcass buried in the sand on the banks of the Wilouji, or
Viloui, which joins the Lena, in Siberia. Happily, therefore, we
know the form and true proportions of the living animal. The skin
was smooth and destitute of folds, and, like the common African
Rhinoceros, the animal had two horns. The feet had three toes, as
in all extant species, but the hoofs were lost. Like the Mammoth
of Siberia, this animal was originally covered with hair : in many
parts of the skin this hair still remained, especially over the feet,
where it was very abundant, measuring from one to three inches in
length, of a stiff quality, and of a dusky grey. The head was in-
vested with a similar clothing. The head and feet are preserved in
I their natural state in the museum of St. Petersburg.
320
THE HYRAX.
The skull of this species differs from that of tiie two-horned African
Rhinoceros, not only in the presence of the osseous nasal partition,
but in general form and proportions. The length and narrowness of
the skull are very remarkable, as is also the space between the
orbits, which is much more contracted than in the common two-
homed species, and the nasal bones are far more elongated. In the
Fig. Si2.— Skull of Fossil Rhinoceros.
two-horned Rhinoceros, the disc which bears the anterior horn is a
semi-sphere, in this an oblong ellipse, and a disc of similar figure
supports the second horn, whence it may be safely concluded that
the horns of this fossil species were strongly compressed at the sides.
The occipital ridge is elevated and drawn out backwards, so that
from the highest point the occipital bone slopes at a very acute
angle inwards to the condyles.
Several fossil species of Rhinoceros are described. Almost every
bone-cavern in England, France, and Germany has afforded them
in abundance ; and Dr. Buckland proves that there must have been
a long succession of j'ears in v,hich the Elephant, Hippopotamus,
and Rhinoceros, with the Hyana, inhabited our island ; and that
the former, as the bones testify, became the prey of the latter, or
were devoured after natural or accidental death.
The Hyrax— Family Hyracidm.
When we look at the Rabbit-like Hyrax, it does not surprise us to
find that all the older naturalists regarded it as a Rodent, and
placed It in that order. It was reserved for Cuvier to point out Us
true situation. "There is no quadruped," says this great man,
"which proves more forcibly than the Daman the necessity of
having recourse to anatomy, as a test by which to determine the
true relationship of animals." This fur-covered active creature is a
(Fig. 813) and the skull (Fig. 814), which to many will be of interest.
With respect to the latter, the singular depth of the lower jaw can-
not but strike every attentive observer; and it may be added, that in
the convexity of the posterior edge of the ascending portion it sur-
passes that even of the Tapir, which, in this respect, is the nearest
among all animals to the Hyrax. In other particulars the skull ap-
proaches that of the Rhinoceros ; the molar teeth, in fact, are those
of the Rhinoceros in miniature, both as to form and number. There
are, as in the Rhinoceros, no canines. The upper incisors, two in
number, are long, triangular, pointed, stout," and separated from
each other by a small interval. The lower incisors are four in num-
ber, set in close array, flat, and directed forwards. At first their
Fig. S13. — Skeleton of D:\man, or Ilyiax,
true Pach' dermatous animal, and, notwithstanding the smallness of
its size, is to be regarded as " intermediate between the Rhinoceros
and Tapir." The resemblance which the Hyrax bears to the former
may be traced in its osseous system and internal anatomy. (See
" Proceeds. Zool. Soc," 1832 and 1835.) On these points it would
here be out of place to dwell ; we have, however, figured the skeleton
Fig. 814. — Skull of Daman, or Hyrax.
edges are notched, but they become smooth by use. The molars
are seven on each side, above and below : but the first, which is
small, falls out, being worn down as s on as the last molar on each
side has arisen ; and, in old individuals, the next is frequently want-
ing also.
With respect to the skeleton, it may be remarked that there are
twenty-one ribs on each side, a number greater than in any other
quadruped, except the two-toed Sloth, which has twenty-three. The
Elephant and Tapir follow the Hyrax. The fore-feet are divided
into four toes, tipped with hoof-like nails ; the hind-f'et into three,
of which the innermost is furnished with a long claw-like nail. The
toes are all buried in the skin, as far as the little hoofs, precisely as
in the Rhinoceros.
The Cape Hyrax, or Dassie [Hyrax capensis), is common in
the rockv and mountain districts of South Africa, and is said to ex-
tend as far as Abyssinia. It takes up its abode in the fissures of
the rugged crags, which afford it an asylum. It abounds on the
sides of Table Mountain ; but it is so wary, quick, and active, that it
is not to be approached without much difficulty. It often, however,
falls a prey to the Eagle and Fal-
con, which pounce upon it while
feeding in apparent security. The
Vulturine Eagle [Aqiiita vultu-
rtna), which makes the mountain
precipices its abode, destroys it in
great number. This timid little
animal is gregarious in its habits,
like the Rabbit, which it some-
what exceeds in size. The fur is
soft and deep, and of a dark grey-
ish-brown, becoming of a paler
tint beneath. There is no tail.
(See Fig. 815.) The following
communication, by Mr. W. R.
Read (see " Proceedings of the
Zoological Society," 1835, p. 13),
needs no apology for its inser-
tion : —
" The Hyrax capensis is found
inhabiting the hollows and crevices
of rocks, both on the summits and
sides of hills, as well as near the
sea-shore, even a little above high-
water-mark. It appears to live in
families, and is remarkably shy
in its wild state. In winter it is
fond of coming out of its hole, and sunning itself on the lee side
of a rock, and, in summer, of enjoying the breeze on the top; but
in both instances, as well as when it feeds, a sentinel is on the
look-out (generally an old male), which gives notice, usually by a
shrill prolonged cry, of the approach of danger, or even the least
movement of any suspicious object. It lives on the young shoots of
THE TAPIRS.
321
It IS
shrubs, the tops of flowers, herbs and grass, particularly of all those
which are aromatic." It is called the Dassie or Badger, by he
Dutch boors at the Cape. Another species which a so inhabits he
Cace is said to lodge in the holes of trees ; hence it has been called
Hyrkx arhoreiis. Another species has been described as living on
the West Coast of Africa, under the name of Hyrax dorsalis.
The Syrian Hyr.\x (//. syriacics^—l^^x^ species, accord-'
in? to Bruce, is found in Abyssinia, where it haunts the deep
caverns and clefts in the rocks. By the natives of Amhara
termed Ashkoko, or Askoko. It
also tenants the mountains of Syria
and Arabia ; and, as in days of old,
the rocks of Horeb and of Sinai are
still "a refuge for the Coneys."
By the Arabs, according to Dr.
Shaw, it is called Daman Israel,
that is. Lamb of Israel, or rather
Ganam or Ganniin Israel, as Bruce
contends, the word Daman being
mistaken for the latter. Most
authorities agree that it is the Sha-
phan (translated Coney) of the Scrip-
tures. The Syrian Hyrax agrees in
habits with its Cape relative. It
tenants the acclivities of the rocks,
sheltering itself under projecting
ledges, in deep fissures and caves :
it is gregarious, and dozens may
be often seen either sitting on the
great stones at the mouth of the
caves, to warm themselves in the
sun, or playfully skipping about in
the enjoyment of the freshness of
the evening. When captured, they
inflict severe wounds with their
formidable incisors, but are soon
rendered tame and familiar. Cuvier
and many naturalists have hesitated
as to the distinctness of the Syrian
and the Cape Hyrax. They are,
as we think, undoubtedly different,
and the Syrian species may be dis-
tinguished by the presence of long
bristle-like, but slender, black hairs,
dispersed not very thinly over its
body, and considerably exceeding
the fur : such at least was the case
with the specimen which we ex-
amined ; while in the numerous
specimens from the Cape, of all
ages, nothing of the kind is to be
perceived. Bruce, indeed, noticed this pecu-
liarity, and he considered the Amharic name,
Ashkoko, "as derived from the singularity of
those long herinaceous hairs which, like small
thorns, grow about his back, and which in
Amhara are called Ashok." (See Fig. 816.)
This Hyrax feeds upon tender shoots of
shrubs and herbage. In the Jewish law, the
Shaphan is said to chew the cud ; and it seems
not improbable, from the complex nature of
the stomach, that it may, like the Kangaroo,
possess the power of regurgitating its food into
the mouth to undergo a second mastication.
A fossil form closely allied to the Hyrax, the
skull of which has been discovered in the clay
near Heme Bay, has been described by Pro-
fessor Owen.
The Tapirs — Family Tapirida.
The genus Tapirus comprehends, as far as
known, only three species, of which two are
natives of South America, the other of Sumatra
and Malacca.
The geographical distribution of the exist-
ing species of Pachydermatous animals is so
partial, that we are surprised to find the
islands of Sumatra and the peninsula of Ma-
lacca dividing with South America this limited
genus between them. America, compared with
Asia and Africa, is deficient in living forms of
the Pachydermata : two only are indigenous
to that vast continent — viz., the Peccary and
Tapir ; and, reasoning from analogy, we should
not expect to find either of these forms in any
portions of the Old World, and more espe-
cially in the islands of the Indian Archipelao. The great mass of the
Pachydermata are peculiar to the warmer regions of Asia and the con-
tinent of Africa; and many genera, as Elcplias, Rhinoceros, Sus,
and Equits, give species to each, but not to America : so that the
existence of cognate species in one of the Indian Islands and in
South America, appears as if it were an exception to a general rule,
at least if we limit our views to the races now extant on the earth.
Once, indeed, America was replete with animals of this order: and
why so few should now appear as their representatives is a point
Fig. 815.— The Cape Hyrax.
Fig. 816.— The Syrian Hyrax,
2 T
THE TAPIRS.
not easy of solution. In their general form and contour the Tapirs
remind us of the Hog-; but the snout consists of a flexible proboscis,
not, indeed, elongated like that of the Elephant, but still suffi-
ciently developed to ser\'e as a hook by which the animal is capable
of drawing down twigs to the mouth, or grasping fruit or bunches of
herbage. The nostrils open at its extremity in the form of two
transverse fissures, but there is no finger-like appendage.
The Tapir is a massive, powerful animal ; the limbs are thick and
moderately long ; the head is large, compressed, and, in the Ameri-
can species, elevated at the occiput (see Fig. S17), whence the thick
neck rises with a prominent upper crest or ridge, along which runs
a mane of stiff thinly-set hairs. The eyes are small and deep set,;
Fig. Si 7. — Skull of American Tapir.
Fig. 818.— Teeth of Sumatran Tapir.
the ears are rather short ; the tail is rudimentary. The anterior
feet are divided into four toes, the hinder into three, the tips only
being cased in hoofs. The skin, which is thick, tough, and solid,
is sparely covered, excepting in one species, with very short, close
hair. The dentition (see Fig. 818) consists of six incisors in each
jaw ; the canines are small, especially those of the upper jaw, and
are separated from the molars by a considerable interval; the
dillera of the Andes, and is covered with long, thick, black hair.
The bones of the nose are more elongated than in the other species,
and Cuvier regards it as approaching, in some respects, to the fossil
genus Palaoi/icriiun.
The Common American Tapir {Tapiyus tcrresiris ; T. ameri-
camis). — This species is very extensively spread throughout the
warmer regions of South America, but especially between the
tropics, where it inhabits the deep forests, leading a solitary life,
and seldom stirring from its retreat during the day, which it passes in
a state of tranquil slumber. During the night, it^ season of activity , it
wanders forth in quest of food, which consists of water-melons,
gourds, young shoots of brushwood, &c. Its choice of food is not
very limited ; and, indeed, it appears to be as omnivorous as the
Hog. Azara, who states that the Guaranis term this animal
Mborebi, and the Portuguese of Brazil, Anta, affirms that it devours
the barrero, or nitrous earth of Paraguay, and that he has found a
quantity of this substance in the stomach. Its senses of smell and
hearing are extremely acute, and serve to give notice of the
approach of enemies. Its voice, which it seldom utters, is a shrill
kind of whistle, in strange contrast with the massive bulk of the
animal. Of enormous muscular power, and defended with a tough,
thick hide, the Tapir is capable of tearing its way through the
Fig. 819. — Skeleton of American Tapir.
molars are seven on each side above, and six below, and, until worn
down by attrition, the crowns present two transverse ridges. Fig. 819
represents the skeleton of the ordinary American Tapir ; in general
details it approaches that of the Rhinoceros. Of the two species of
Tapir peculiar to America, one has been only recently discovered.
It was found by Dr. Roulin in the most elevated regions of the Cor-
Fig. 820. — The American Tapir.
underwood in whatsoever direction it pleases : when thus driving
onwards, it carries its head low, and, as it were, ploughs its course.
(See Fig. 820.)
Its fondness for the water is almost as strong as that evinced by
the Hippopotamus. It swims and dives admirably, and will remain,
as we have seen while observing the specimens in the Gardens of
the Zool. Soc, submerged for many minutes, rise to the surface for
breath, and plunge again. When hunted or wounded it always, if
possible, makes for the water, and in its nightly wanderings will
traverse rivers and lakes in search of food, or for pleasure. The
female is very attentive to her young one, leading it about on the
land, and accustoming it at an early
period to enter the water, where it
plunges and plays before its parent,
who seems to act as its instructress.
The male takes no share in this work,
and does not constantly associate with
the female.
In its disposition the Tapir is peace-
ful and quiet, and, unless hard pressed,
never attempts to attack either man
or beast; when, however, the hunter's
Dogs surround it, it defends itself very
vigorously with its teeth, inflicting
terrible wounds. We have witnessed
those in confinement in the Gardens of
the Zool. Soc. occasionally break out
into fits of irritation, plunging about,
lunging violently with their heads, and
snapping with their teeth like a Hog.
The most formidable enemy of this
animal (if we except man) is the
Jaguar ; and it is asserted that when
that Tiger of the American forest
throws itself upon the Tapir, the latter
rushes through the most dense and
tangled underwood, bruising its enemy,
and endeavouring thus to dislodge
him, and sometimes succeeds in the
attempt.
In Cayenne the Tapir is occasionally
domesticated, and is harmless and quiet : it becomes, indeed,
familiar, and often proves troublesome to those who caress it, as
may be imagined would be the case with a pet Hog under similar
circumstances. The adult Tapir measures from five to six feet
in length, and between three and four feet in height ; its colour is
uniform deep blackish-brown ; the young are longitudinaUy marked
CO
cm
THE TAPIRS.
323
■with spots and six or eight bands of fawn-colour along the body,
and with numerous spots of the same tint on the cheeks. (See
Fig. 821.)
i'he second South American species, Tafirus viHosus, is but
little known. A third species exists in the Andes. A living speci-
men of the Brazilian Tapir, T. tcrrcstris, is in the Gardens of the
Zoological Society, London.
Fig. S21. — The Young Tapir.
The Malay, or Indian Tapir {Tapirus zndicus ; T. bicolor).
— This species was first introduced to science by Major Farquhar in
1816. It is a native of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, where it
is called Tatinoh, or 2€nnu ; and is as well known in Malacca as the
Elephant or Rhinoceros. In disposition it resembles its American
relative. It feeds on vegetables, and is very partial to the sugar-
cane. Though the natives have not domesticated it, this species is
as easily tamed as the Tapir of America, and becomes as gentle and
familiar. Major Farquhar possessed one which was completely
domesticated, and as much at
home as any of the Dogs :
it fed indiscriminately on all
kinds of vegetables, and was
very fond of attending at table
to receive bread, cakes, and
the like. This Tapir was pro-
cured in the Malay Peninsula.
(See " Trans. Asiat. Soc,"
vol. XV., 1820.) A Sumatran
Tapirwas, about the same time,
presented alive to the Asiatic
Society by G. J. Siddons, Esq.,
resident at Bencoolen. It was
of a lazy habit, very familiar,
and delighted in being rubbed
or scratched ; and this favour
it solicited from the people
about him by throwing itself
down on its side, and making
sundry movements. It is dis-
tinctly stated of this Sumatran
specimen, that another of its
great delights was to bathe,
— also, "that it remained a
very considerable time under
water." The living specimen,
says Sir S. Raffles, sent from
Bencoolen to Bengal, "was
allowed to roam occasionally
in the park at Barrackpore.
The man who had the charge
of it informed me that it fre-
quently entered the pond, and
appeared to walk along the
bottom under the water, and
not make any attempt to swim."
This characteristic habit of the
animal was not observed by
Major Farquhar in his Ma-
lacca specimen. That gentle- "
man says, indeed, that he
thought he might venture to
afBrm that the Malacca Tapir is not, like the American species,
amphibious in its nature. He adds, that the one he reared showed
rather an antipathy to water, and that in the peninsula of Ma-
lacca these animals are found to frequent high grounds. As,
however, it is admitted on all sides that the Malacca and the
Sumatran Tapirs are the same, and as these creatures differ in no
material points of conformation from the American Tapir, it is not
easy to imagine that, while the American animal and that from
Sumatra are so aquatic in their habits, the animal from Malacca
should exhibit contrary propensities. In Sumatra the Tapir in-
habits the dense forests of the interior, and is, therefore, seldom
seen : hence it has been considered rare in that island : it must
however, be observed, that after the loss of the ship Fame by fire,
when a living Sumatran Tapir, with other animals, perished, Sir S.
Raffles, during the short period of his stay in Sumatra, was enabled
to procure other specimens.
The Indian Tapir exceeds the American in size : it has no mane,
and the snout is longer and more proboscis-like. The most striking
external difference between the eastern and western animal, how-
ever, is in colour. Instead of being of the uniform dusky-bay tint
of the American, the Indian Tapir is strangely parti-colourcd. The
head, neck, fore-limbs, and fore-quarters are quite black : the body
then becomes suddenly white, or greyish-white, and so continues to
about half-way over the hind-quarters, when the black again com-
mences abruptly, and is spread over the legs. The abruptness and
contrast of the marking of this animal makes it look precisely as if
it were covered round the body with a white horse-cloth, leaving the
fore and hind-quarters exposed. The young, until the age of four
months, are black, beautifully marked with spots and stripes of
fawn-colour above, and white below. (See Fig. 822.)
According to Sir S. Raffles, the Indian Tapir receives various
names in different districts. By the people of Limun it is called
Saladang ; in the interior of Manna, Gindol ; at Bencoolen, Babi
Ala ; and at Malacca, Tennu. Marsden states that it is denomi-
nated by the Malays in many districts, Kuda-ayer, or River-Horse.
Though the flesh of the Indian Tapir, like that of the American, is
dry and disagreeable, and therefore of little value as an article of
food, still the animal might be domesticated with advantage (and
the same observation applies to the western species), and employed
as a beast of draught or burden, its docility and great strength
being strong recommendations. Its skin would prove, from its
toughness, useful for various purposes.
The PaLtEOTHerium.— In the gypsum-quarries near Paris, and
in various parts of France, have been discovered the fossil relics of
^^^.s^^i^^:^^^^
Fig. 822.— The Indian Tapir.
a group of Pachydermatous animals, to which Cuvier gave the title
of Pal^EOTHERIUM. Ten or eleven species are recognised, varj-mg
from the size of a Rhinoceros to that of a Hog. The most imme-
diate alliance of these fossil forms is to the Tapir, and they, perhaps,
take an intermediate station between that animal and the Rhinoce-
ros. The bones of the nose prove that the Palaotheria must have
been furnished with a short proboscis ; the toes were three in num-
ber on each foot : the dentition consisted of six incisors in each jaw ;
canines, as usual ; and seven molars on each side, above and below.
324
THE PALJEOTHERIUM.
Figs. 823 and 826 represent respectively outlines of the PalcBothe-
rium tnagnu7n and Palcsoiherium mimis, as restored by Cuvier ;
Figs. 824 and 825 represent the skeletons of the same animals ; Fig.
827 is an imperfect skull of Palceotlierhim 7Hagnum ; Fig. 828
shows the characters of the molar teeth of the upper jaw ; Fig. 829,
the lower jaw and molar teeth, imperfect.
foundation upon which he can rear a superstructure, a clue to the
recomposition of the fabric; Speaking of the accumulated stores
of fossil relics at his command, Cuvier thus writes : — "I at length
found myself, as if placed in a charnel-house, surrounded by
mutilated fragments of many hundred skeletons of more than twenty
kinds of animals piled confusedly around me ; the task assigned to
Fig. S23. — Outline oi Palccotherium magnum.
Fig. 824. — Skeleton of Palaotherium magnum.
Fig. 828. — Molar teeth of upper jaw of the P. magnum.
Fig. 829. — External view of part of the lower jaw of the F.
manittm.
Fig. 825.— Skeleton o{ Pahtothe-
rium minus.
Fig. 826. — Outline ol Palsothe-
rium minus.
Fig. S27. — Skull o{ Palaotherium magnum.
The restoration of the skeletons of these extinct forms is one of the
triumphs of science ; and, by persons unacquainted with the law of
harmonious dependence which reigns throughout the structure and
organisation of animal bodies, might be deemed an improbability,
or, at least, an uncertain pro( °ss : not so — the bones of the feet, the
teeth, the spine, or of the limbs, are to the comparative anatomist a
me was to restore them all to their original position. At the voice
of Comparative Anatomy every bone and fragment of a bone re-
sumed its place. I cannot find words to express the pleasure I ex-
perienced in seeing, when I discovered one character, how all the
consequences which I predicted from it were successively confirmed.
The feet accorded with the characters announced by the teeth ; the
teeth were in harmony with those indicated previously by the feet.
The bones of the legs and thighs, and every connecting portion of
the extremities, were seen joined together precisely as I had ar-
ranged them, before my conjectures were verified by the discovery
of the parts entire. Each species was, in short, reconstructed from
a single unit of its component elements." The relics of the Palcso-
theria are found mingled with those of many other extinct forms in
a stratum of Fresh-water formation, as is evidenced by the shells it
Fig. 830. — Teeth of Lophiodon,
THE HOG TRIBE.
3^5
contains : it is the first of the great Fresh-water formations of the
Eocene period of Lyell, a deposit in which nearly fifty extinct species
were discovered by Cuvier. We cannot doubt but that, like the
Tapir and Rhinoceros of the present day, the Palaothcria fre-
quented the borders of lakes and large rivers, feeding upon the
leaves and twigs of brushwood : there they lived and died ; their
dead carcasses drifted to the bottom of the lake, swept off from the
shore in seasons of flood, when the swollen rivers cleared the ad-
jacent lowlands of hosts of dead, and perhaps also of the living,
hurrj'ing them to destruction, and depositing their relics, to be in
other ages brought to light, the " reliquia vetustioris svi."
Another fossil genus allied to the Tapirs is termed by Cuvier
LoPHlODON : not less than fifteen species are determined; and
they are found in the same Fresh-water formation as the Palcso-
theria. The dentition of the Lophiodon differs from that of the last-
named animals, the lower jaw having only six molars. The teeth,
in character, approach those of the Rhinoceros. Fig. 830, a, repre-
sents a lower back molar of the gigantic Lophiodon of Argenton;
b, an upper back molar ; c, a canine tooth ; d, two incisor teeth : all
of the same species. With many essential parts of the osteology of
these extinct animals naturalists are as yet unacquainted ; the bones
of the nose, for example, and those of the feet, are not recovered.
The remains of the Lophiodons found at Issel, Argenton, Bucks-
■weiler, Montpellier, Montabusard, &c., occur in beds of Fresh-water
formation, but below those superficial strata containing the bones of
the Mammoth and Mastodon. They are associated with the relics
of forms of terrestrial animals, of which we have no living proto-
types, and with those of Crocodiles and Fresh-water Tortoises. The
antiquity of these beds may be inferred from the fact that in most
places they are covered by strata of decidedly marine formation, so
that the Lophiodon existed and passed away not only before the
races had commenced whose remains are found (and found only) in
the alluvial strata of the earth, but before the extinction of still
older races ; they belong, in fact, to strata of our continent, over
which, after becoming consolidated, the sea has rolled, and remained
long enough to cover them with rocks of a new origin.
The Hog Tribe— Family Suidm.
The division of the Zygodacfyla, in which the feet are formed of
two hoofed toes available for walking, and two others, placed at
some little elevation on the back of the foot, includes only a single
family, that of the Suidcs, or Swine, of which the common Hog may
be taken as an example. In these animals, the nose, although pos-
sessing considerable power of motion, is not produced into a pro-
boscis, nor is it swelled up into a blunt rounded mass as in the Hip-
popotamus, but runs in a tapering cylindrical form to the extremity,
where it is suddenly truncated. The tip is of a firm cartilaginous
nature, and is principally employed in turning up the earth in search
of roots and other articles of food. The skull is of a pyramidal
form, and the nasal bones are not elevated as in the Tapirs ; but the
facial bones are very large in comparison with the cranium. The
jaws are always furnished with the three kinds of teeth whilst the
animals are young ; but the incisors are always small, and, in some
cases, fall out with increase of age. The canines, on the contrary,
are always of large size, especially in the males, in which they
project from the sides of the mouth ; those of the lower jaw, from
constantly rubbing against their fellows in the upper, are usually
sharpened to a most acute edge, and constitute formidable weapons,
called ti(sks. The molar teeth vary from three to seven on each side
in both jaws. The feet consist of four toes, of which the two middle
ones are considerably longer and stouter than their fellows, forming
a cloven hoof, upon which the animals walk ; the two lateral toes
are also furnished with hoofs ; but they are placed at the back of
the foot, at some little elevation from the ground. One of these
hinder toes is wanting in some cases ; whilst monstrosities have oc-
curred with five toes, and others with a single hoof. The eyes are
small, and the ears of moderate size, and upright. The form of the
body resembles that of our ordinary Swine, but is lighter and less
bulky in the wild species. The tail is rather short and slender ; in
most cases it is capable of being twisted up into a sort of curl upon
the rump. The skin is covered with bristles.
Unlike the Pachydermata of the preceding families, which only
produce one, or, at the utmost, two young at a birth, the Swine are
very prolific, bringing forth frequently from eight to twelve young
ones. The species are found in the warmer parts of both continents
— only one, the Common Hog {Stts scrofa), being found wild in the
temperate parts of the Old World. They live in the woods and
forests, generally in marshy places, and feed upon roots and
herbage, and partly upon animal substances, such as insects and
their larvae, small Mammalia, and even carrion. The females and
young males live together in flocks ; but the old Boars are usually
solitary, except during the rutting season, which they pass in com-
pany with the females ; and at this period they have trerriendous
combats amongst themselves.
The best known species is the Common Hog {Sus scrofa), which
is found wild in many parts of Europe, all over Asia, and in the
north of Africa. It is also the original of our tame breeds ; and
from individuals of these, which have escaped from captivity, the
American forests have been supplied with a numerous race of Wild
Hogs. They feed at night, and often do immense damage to the
crops cultivated in the neighbourhood of their abodes, rooting up all
the produce in search of food. In the autumn they find a plentiful
nourishment in the acorns and beech mast which fall from the trees.
They are pursued with powerful Dogs ; and hunting the Wild Boar
has always been a favourite sport in the countries where they abound.
The flesh is superior to that of the domestic Swine.
Domestication has produced an immense number of varieties in
this Hog; but in all cases it is a most valuable animal. Its flesh
is very good, and bears salting and drj'ing remarkably well ; it
furnishes an abundance of fat ; and both the leather made from its
skin, and the bristles which cover it, arc applied to many important
purposes. Add to this, that it is an animal easily kept, that it
thrives upon almost any description of food, and we shall easily sec
that few of our domestic animals are superior to it in importance.
In this country, the Hog is rarely put to any use until after its death ;
but in Minorca, according to Pennant, he is employed as a beast of
draught, and is often seen in that island working in company with
the Ass. The same author tells us, he was informed by a Scotch
minister, that on his first going to his parish in Morayshire, he had
seen a Cow, a Sow, and two young Horses, "yoked together, and
drawing a plough in a light sandy soil ; and that the Sow was the
best drawer of the four."
Several other species of the genus Sus are found in a wild state in
India and the Indian Islands. Some of the latter, and the peninsula
of Malacca, are also inhabited by a singular species of Hog, called
the Babyrussa {Babyrussa alfurus), in which the upper canines arc
of great length, turned completely upwards, and curved backwards
in a semicircle. The object of this peculiar structure of the tusks
is entirely unknown. Some of the older writers tell us that the Baby-
russa hangs himself to the bough of a tree, by means of these
organs, when he wishes to take a quiet nap ; but the absurdity of
this statement is very apparent. The Babyrussa is of a lighter
form, and furnished with more slender limbs than the other Hogs ;
it is of a mild disposition, and its flesh is very good.
Southern Africa possesses several large species of Hogs belonging
to the genera Phacochccriis and PotamoclKsrus. The former are
called Wart Hogs, from their having a large fleshy protuberance on
each cheek ; they are of moderate size, but furnished with most
formidable tusks. The Potamochceri, instead of fleshy warts on the
cheeks, are disfigured by a large bony ridge on each side. The
head, in both of these genera, is large, and the animals have a most
unprepossessing expression of countenance.
Y\g. S3 1, —Teeth of Collared Peccary.
^26
THE HOG TRIBE.
In South America, this family is represented by the Peccaries
{Dicotyles), in which the hind-feet have only three toes, one of the
hinder ones being deficient, and the tail is reduced to a mere rudi-
ment. In form, these animals resemble small Pigs, and they agree
exactly in their habits with the Old World species. .They are, how-
ever, far less prolific, only producing one or two young at a birth. On
the back, concealed by the hair, the Peccaries have a peculiar gland
which secretes a strongly odoriferous fluid ; this is cut away by the
Indians when they kill a Peccary, as otherwise the whole of the flesh
would be contaminated.
Such is a general view of the characteristics of the Suida;, or
Hog tribe. The following is a description of some of the best known
and most important species.
The Collared Peccary {Dicotyles tajassu; D. torquattis). —
The Peccaries are the only indigenous representatives of the Porcine
group in America ; no true Swine are found there ; the Hog, which is
row common there, being of recent introduction, though it wanders
in wild herds.
The Peccary, closely resembles the Hog in form and in the quality
of the bristly hair which covers the body. It differs, however, from
the Hog in dentition, the incisors of the upper jaw being four
instead of si.x, and the molars above and below on each side six ;
while the tusks, which are of moderate size compared with those
of the Hog, instead of taking a curve outwards, meet like ordinary
canines; they are, however, sharp and effective weapons. Fig. 831, a,
represents a lateral view of the teeth of both jaws ; b, those of the
upper jaw in two views ; and c, those of the under. The limbs are
Fig. S32. — The Collared Peccary.
. more slender in proportion than in the Hog, and there are only
three toes on the hinder feet, the small outer toe being wanting.
The tail is a mere tubercle : beneath the skin on the top of the loins
is a large glandular apparatus, which pours out a secretion of dis-
gusting odour. In their voice, their habits of rooting in the earth,
the mode in which, when angry, they erect the bristles of the mane,
and clash their teeth, they resemble their Porcine relative of the Old
World. (See Fig. 832.)
Fig. S33. — The Eabiroussa, or Babyrussa.
The Collared Peccary is a native of the dense forests throughout
the greater part of South America, and is usually met with in pairs
or small families ; they take up their abode in hollow trees and holes
of the earth, where they seek a refuge from the pursuit of their
enemies, of which, man excepted, the Jaguar is the most destruc-
tive. Plantations of maize, sugar-canes, and potatoes often suffer
from their incursions. It is only when hard pressed that the
Peccary defends itself: indeed, it displays nothing of the sullen
courage of the Wild Boar, but retreats on the appearance of danger,
and precipitately seeks its hiding-place.
Azara states that the Guarinis term this species Tayt6tou, and
the white-lipped species Tagnicati. It is, he adds, domesticated
with more facility than the Wild Hog, and becomes troublesome
from its familiarity. " It is said, and I believe it, that their flesh is
good, but not so fat as that of the Hog ; when killed, however, the
glandular orifice between the haunches must be removed, since, if
this be not done, the flesh acquires a bad odour and taste. Never-
theless, the Indians eat it without this precaution." The inferiority
of the flesh of the Peccary to that of the Hog, and its dorsal gland,
will combine to exclude it from the European farmyard. The
Collared Peccary is about three feet in length, and is distinguished
by a stripe of white or yellowish-white passing from the withers
down each shoulder, and meeting on the throat. Its general colour
is grizzled blackish-grey ; the bristles being ringed grey, straw-
colour, and black.
The White-lipped Peccary {Dicotyles labiatus) is larger than the
collared species, and more robust ; it associates in vast troops
directed by an old male : when attacked they surround either man.
Dog, or Jaguar ; and if there be no means of escape, their enemy is
soon torn to pieces. M. Schomburgk had a narrow escape from an
infuriated herd, the leader of which he shot in the act of rushing at him :
as the troop approached where he stood, the noise was like that of a
whirlwind through the bushes ; " but the peculiar growl and awful
clapping of the teeth," he adds, " did not leave me long in doubt as
to its cause : it was evident the herd had divided, and were coming
directly towards me. I know not yet how I climbed the lower part of
a mora-tree, when by they rushed, their muzzles almost sweeping
the ground, and their rough bristles on the back standing erect :
they might have numbered fifty. They came and passed like a
whirlwind ; and before I had recovered from my astonishment, I
heard them plunge into the river and swim to the opposite bank."
Both species delight to wallow in the mire and muddy pools, and
readily take to the water, swimming with great vigour.
In captivity the White-lipped Peccary has appeared to be more
reserved and savage than the Collared species, and more ready to
testify, by the clashing of its teeth, its feelings of displeasure. The
Collared Peccary thrives in captivity, and has frequently bred in the
Gardens of the Zoological Society, London. The young never
exceeded two in number.
The Babyrussa, or Babiroussa {Stis babyrussa, Linn. ;
Babyrussa alfurics, F. Cuv.) — The term Babiroussa, or Baby-
russa, means literally Hog-Deer ; and
there is some reason to think that
the ancients were not altogether un-
acquainted with the animal. Pliny
notices a Wild Boar with horns on the
forehead, found in India ; and Cosmes,
a writer in the sixth century, uses the
term Hog-Deer(j;otpeXa0oc)as the desig-
nation of an Indian animal. However
this may be, it is only recently that
naturalists have become well ac-
quainted with it and its habits, thougli
its skulls have been brought over to
Europe in abundance by vessels trad-
ing among the Moluccas.
The Babiroussa differs somewhat in
dentition from the Hog, the incisors
being four above, instead of six, and
the molars five on each side in either
jaw. The upper canines or tusks of
the male emerge directly upward from
their apparently distorted sockets, and
sweep with a bold arch backwards,
attaining to a very great length. The
skin is thick, coarse, granular, of a
blackish tint, and sparingly beset with
very short bristly hairs. The tusks of
the lower jaw are long, strong, and
sharp, emerging like those of the Boar.
The tusks of the upper jaw do not
pass out between the lips, but cut their
way through the skin, nearly half-way
between the end of the snout and the
eyes. The tusks of the lower jaw are
formidable weapons. The male, when
adult, equals the largest Hog; the
THE HOG TRIBE.
327
female is of much inferior size, and destitute of the curled upper
tusks, or has them only rudimentary. (See Fig. 833.)
The Babiroussa is found in the marshy forests in the interior of
Bourou, and other of the Molucca islands, as Amboyna, and also
Java, where it associates in troops. Its habits resemble those of the
Wild Hog, and it is restless and ferocious. According to Lesson it
feeds chiefly upon maize, giving preference to that grain beyond
other articles of diet. It is partial to the water, and swims with the
greatest ease, often crossing the straits between adjacent islands
without any difficulty. The following are notes which we made from
a young male once living in the Gardens of the Zool. Soc. : — This
animal is Hog-like in its figure, and much resembles a small Pig of
the Chinese breed. It is roundly formed like a young, well-bred
Hog, and the skin lies close, giving a compactness to its appear-
ance. The head is small, and high between the ears ; the snout is
elongated ; the ears are very small, erect, and pointed ; the eyes,
in their form and expression, resemble those of a Stag; the iris is
brown ; the skin, which is thinly clothed with short black bristly
hairs, is everywhere dotted with small granulations, which spread
and become rougher, coarser, and more decided about the limbs
and feet, and especially on the anterior part of the head and sides
of the face and under-jaw. Closely as the skin lies, it becomes
thrown into a series of regular and prettily arranged wrinkles or
furrows with the dift'erent movements of the body, and varying in
direction accordingly. As the animal turns to one side, these
furrows are transverse ; in other attitudes they become more or less
oblique ; but none are to be seen when the animal stands still or lies
quietly on its straw. The tail is rather long, slender, and tapering ;
the limbs are well proportioned, and do not appear to be longer, in
relation to the size of the body, than in the Hog; the tusks of the
upper jaw (in the individual here alluded to) are at present small,
but curved back.
In its state of captivity, the young Babiroussa seems as contented
as a Pig in its sty, and it is not only quiet, but disposed to familiarity,
raising itself up on its hind-legs, and putting its snout to the bars of
the enclosure, evidently soliciting food. It turns the straw over and
over with its snout, and champs in eating, but utters, as far as we
could learn, no grunt, as does the Hog, nor has it the unpleasant
smell of the latter. That the Babiroussa might be reclaimed, not-
withstanding Lesson's account of its savage disposition in captivity,
and added to our domestic animals, is very evident. Its flesh is re-
ported to be held in high estimation. Fig. 834 represents the head
of the male Babiroussa [a) and of the female (3) by way of contrast.
Fig. 835 is an admirable delineation of the skull of the adult male,
in which the form of the tusks, their relative proportions and direc-
tion are faithfully given. Fig. 836, a, a lateral view of the dentition
of upper and lower jaw ; b, dentition of upper jaw in two views; c,
those of the lower jaw.
Fig. S34. — Head of Babiroussa, seen in profile.
Fig. 835.— Skull of Babiroussa.
The Wild Hog {Sus a^er, Briss. ; Siis scrofa, Linn.)— The
Wild Hog is, as all naturalists admit, the origin of our domestic
race ; but at what period it was reclaimed is very uncertain. The
circumstances, indeed, connected with the domestication of every
Tu™ j^ ^"^ject to the bondage of man are enveloped in obscurity,
ihe domestication, however, of the Wild Hog would not involve
much difficulty. Young individuals taken in their native forest soon
become reconciled to captivity, and display the same contentment
and familiarity which are so conspicuous in the ordinary tame beast.
It IS this disposition, a characteristic of the Pachydermata, which
renders the Elephant, the Rhinocfros, the Tapir, and others, so
easily subjugated ; but, on the other hand, the readiness with which
they submit to the restraints of captivity is counterbalanced by an
equal readiness to assume a life of independence The Hog, when
Fig. 836. — Teeth of Babiroussa.
left to itself, resumes its original habit, as is the case in America,
where wild herds roam the forest ; and, as we have seen, the Ele-
phant often escapes its trammels and joins its wild brethren, im-
mediately submitting, if retaken, to the voice of authority which it
had previously learned to obey. The Horse in a wild state scours
the plains of Tartary and South America ; it requires but a struggle
to break-in the most spirited. It may be laid down as an axiom,
that the animals of whose services man stands most in need are,
each in their way, those whose nature most readily induces them to
submit to his dominion, nay, even court his friendship. Some we
can tame, and only tame ; others we can educate.
The Wild Hog was once common in our island ; and it is almost
surprising, considering the passion for the chase, which seems to be
part and parcel of our English temperament, that this animal is not
re-established in some of its old haunts, the parks and forests of the
nobility. In India, indeed, the chase of the Wild Boar is one of the
field-sports to which our countrymen are enthusiastically devoted ;
nor is there any reason why it might not be revived in England.
The Wild Hog is still common in the forests of Germany, France,
and other portions of Europe, and extends also through Asia and
Africa ; if, indeed, the species is positively identical — a point which
there is some reason to question. At all events, slight differences
are observable between the Indian Wild Boar and the present breed
of the German forests ; and Sonnini expresses a doubt as to the
identity of the Egyptian and European wild race.
In no essential point does the wild race of Europe differ from our
domestic breeds ; the snout, however, is more elongated, and, as
might be expected, the contour of the frame is more gaunt and
bony. The ears are short and erect, the tusks large, and the
bristles long and coarse ; the general colour is rusty-black or black-
ish-brown, more or less brindled in patches. (See Fig. 837.) After
the age of three years, the Wild Boar leads a solitary life in the
forest, fearless of every foe and confident in his weapons, which,
added to his great strength, render him a formidable antagonist. It
is not, however, until the age of five or six years that he attains to
his full dimensions, and the duration of his life is from twenty-five
to thirty years. The females, with their young, associate in herds
for the sake of mutual protection : on the approach of an enemy the
young are placed in the centre, the old ones forming a circle round
them ; and should he be hazardous enough to venture on the attack,
he meets with a rough reception. It is thus that the young are pre-
served from Wolves, the chief foes to be dreaded by them ; to which
in some districts they often fall a prey, notwithstanding the vigilance
of their parent. It is only in defence of their young that the iemales
328
THE HOG TRIBE.
are furious ; but the old males are not to be approached without
caution, and often rush out upon those who venture near the pre-
cincts of their lair. At certain seasons, indeed, the Wild Boar is
very savage, and should he meet a rival, the most sanguinary com-
bat ensues.
In the month of December or January, each male attaches him-
self to the society of a chosen female, whom he accompanies in the
deepest glens of the forest for about thirty days. When about to
produce her young, the female seeks some undisturbed retreat, re-
Fig. 837.— The Wild Boar.
Fig. S38.— Boar-hunt.
mote from the haunts of the male, who, it appears, exhibits a pro-
pensity to devour her progeny if he discover the litter. To her
young the female is a most attentive mother ; she suckles them for
three or four months, and they remain with her for a long time : an
aged female is sometimes seen followed by several families, among
which are some of the age of two or three years. These young
rovers the French hunters call hUtcs de coinpagnie. The Wild Boar
seldom stirs from his lair during the day, and may therefore be re-
garded as in some degree nocturnal ; on the approach of twilight he
rouses from his indolent slumbers, and sets out in quest of food,
which consists of acorns, beech-mast, grain, different vegetables,
and roots ; in search of the latter he ploughs up the ground with his
snout : corn-fields in the vicinity of forests, where Wild Hogs exist,
often suffer extensively from their nightly incursions. The Wild
Boar, though not truly carnivorous, does not refuse animal matters
which chance may throw in his way: he does not, however, ordi-
narily attack and kill others for tfie sake of their flesh, but only
devours what he may meet with
in his rambles. In the morn-
ing the Wild Boar returns to
his lair in the thickest and
most gloomy parts of the forest,
under a rock, in a cave, or
under the canopy of gnarled
and intertwined branches.
When roused by the hunter
and his Dogs, the old Boar
retreats sullenly and slowly,
gnashing his teeth, foaming
with anger, and often stop-
ping to receive his pursuers,
on whom he often rushes with
sudden impetuosity, striking
with his tusks, goring Dogs
and men, and scattering terror
around. When the Boar turns
upon a pack, the foremost
Dogs are sure to suffer, and
several will fall by as many
strokes. An instance is on re-
cord in which a Boar turned
suddenly upon a pack of fifty
Dogs which pursued him, and
instantly despatched six or
seven of them, wounding all
the rest with the exception of
ten. The young Boar is less
resolute than the old animal,
and will run to a considerable
distance before he is brought
to bay ; nor is the assault at-
tended with any great degree
of danger. In all ages, the
chase of the Boar has been a
favourite diversion ; the classic
writings abound with allusions
to it, and to the risk incurred.
Ovid (Fab. iv., lib. viii.) gives
a spirited account of the chase,
in which the fury and strength of the enraged
beast are admirably depicted. It would seem
that the ancients endeavoured to enclose the
Boar by nets so as to prevent his escaping into
the recesses of the forest : the combat was close,
and therefore dangerous ; driven from his lair by
the Dogs, and hemmed in, the infuriated animal
turned savagely upon his assailants, and died,
after killing and wounding Dogs and men, trans-
fixed by spears and javelins. Our forefathers in
the Middle Ages deemed the Wild Boar one of
the noble " beastes of venery," and kept a power-
ful breed of Hounds for the chase : the weapons
used by the huntsmen were spears, and a sort of
short sword, or couteau de chasse ; the spears
were used when the Boar was brought to bay, and
the attack gave abundant opportunities to the
hunters of showing their skill and courage. The
loud blast of the horn, mingled with the shouts
of men, and the baying of the Hounds, pro-
claimed the vigorous home-thrust that struck the
savage lifeless to the ground. Fig. 838 is illus-
trative of the Boar-hunt as conducted in Europe.
Fig. 839 illustrates Boar-hunting as practised in
India at the present day, and in which H.R.H.
the Prince of Wales frequently took part during
his visit to that country in i875-'76. The Indian
term is " Pig-sticking " for this amusement. The
hunters are always mounted on horseback, and, instead of meeting
the animal with spears, attack him with javelins, or lances, launched
at him as he flies, or as he rushes to the charge, which is often so de-
termined that the Horses cannot be brought to stand the shock, or,
if they do, are thrown down and gored ; serious accidents some-
times occur. Mr. Johnson relates an instance in which a large and
resolute Boar, after being driven by the hunters into a plain, stood
at bay and challenged the whole party : he charged every Horse
CO
THE HOG TRIBE.
329
that advanced within fifty yards of him, with great ferocity, causingj
them to rear and plunge, and throw off their riders, whose lives were
in jeopardy: though many of the Horses were accustomed to the
sport, none would stand his charges, or bring the rider within javelin
distance ; and at last he fairly drove the party from the field ; and
then, gnashing his tusks and foaming, he made his way to the
jungle, where it was useless to attempt to follow him.
its introduction into the armorial bearings of many distinguished
families of every division of the kingdom."
The skull of the Hog (iMg. 840), which affords an index of the
habits of the animal, is of a conical or wedge-like form ; the base or
occipital portion forms a right angle with the oblique upper sur-
face, and a bold transverse ridge is formed by the union of the occi-
pital and parietal bones. The nasal bunes are prolonged nearly to
the end of the snout, which, in the living ani-
mal, terminates in a movable cartilaginous
disc, pierced by the nostrils. The lower jaw
is of great strength. The dentition (Fig. 841)
is as follows : — Incisors, ?- ; canines, '~' ;
6 i-i
■ 44. The canines of the upper
Fig. S39. — Boar-hunting, or Pig-sticking, in India.
In our own country, the Boar, reserved for the sport of the
privileged classes, was protected by severe laws. By one of the
edicts of William the Conqueror (a.d. 1087), it was ordained that
any who were found guilty of killing a Stag, Roebuck, or Wild Boar,
were to have their eyes put out : sometimes, indeed, the penalty
appears to have been a painful death.
At what precise period the Wild Boar became extinct in our
island cannot be precisely determined ; it is evident, however, that
as population increased, and the vast woods which spread over
many parts of the country were cut down and the land cleared, that
the range of the Boar would become more and more limited, and its
numbers decreased, till at length its extirpation would be complete.
We look in vain for the forest which, in the 12th century, covered
the country to the north of London, and of which Fitzstephen, in the
reign of Henry II., writes, observing that "on the north are corn-
fields and delightful meadows, intermixed with pleasant streams, on
which stands many a mill, whose clack is so grateful to the ear ;
beyond them an immense forest extends itself, beautified with woods
and groves, and full of the lairs and coverts of beast and game.
Stags, Bucks, Boars, and Wild Bulls." Banished, however, as the
Wild Boar is from among our native Mammalia, " its name is im.-
mortalised," as Mr. Bell observes, " by having given origin to the
appellation of many places in different parts of the country, and by
Fig. 840.— Skull of the Hog.
molars, L — 7 ■.
jaw are prismatic, and cun'c downwMrds, hav-
ing their anterior surface worn by the action of
the huge canines of the lower jaw, which arc
sharp, sweep out from the sides of the mouth,
and often attain to the length of eight or ten
inches, and sometimes even more. These ca-
nines or tusks are terrible weapons : rushing
on his antagonist, the Boar strikes obliquely
upwards, right and left, with prodigious vio-
lence ; a mode of action the best calculated for
bringing these weapons into effective play, and
in which the muscular powers of the neck and
shoulders are the most advantageously and
naturally exerted.
The Domestic Hog {Sus scrofa).—1\\\i,
animal is too well known to need any descrip-
tion ; and its utility too well appreciated to re-
quire comment. It is not, however, valued alike
in all countries, and in some is regarded with abhorrence.
In India, both Brahmin and Mussulman reject its flesh as food ;
yet, in many districts of that country, semi-domesticated Hogs
wander about the villages, feeding on the refuse which they pick up
in the streets. Colonel Sykes states, that in Dukhun " every village
abounds with Hogs ; but any property in them is equally abjured
Fig. S41.— Teeth of the Hog.
by individuals and the community." Detestation of the Hog was a
feeling entertained by certain nations in remote antiquity. It was
classed by the Jews among the vilest animals, and in Egypt the
swineherd was numbered among the profane, and forbidden to enter
the temples of their gods ; even the lowest dregs of the people refused
to bestow their daughter on him in marriage. The Egyptians sacri-
ficed the Hog to Bacchus, and to the moon when full. " In the even-
ing of the festival of Bacchus," says Herodotus, " though every one
2 U
33°
THE HOG TRIBE.
be obliged to kill a Hog before the door of his house, yet he imme-
diately restores the carcass to the swineherd that sold him." The
ancient Scythians, according to the same authority, made no use of
Swine, nor suffered any to be kept in the country. The Abyssinians
and the Cophts of Egypt, as well as the Mohammedans, reject the
Fig. 842. — The Domestic Hog.
Fig. 843. — Group of Domcitic Mogs.
flesh of the Hog. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, though
the office of swineherd appears to have been held in contempt, the
flesh of the Hog was in high estimation, and a Sucking-Pig was as
favourite a dish as amongst ourselves in the present day. The
Chinese have derived no prejudices against the Hog from the Mo-
hammedan nations of the East: on the contrary, they rear these
animals in great numbers for the sake of their flesh ; and even the
numerous population who tenant the floating town of rafts or barges
contrive to keep and rear them.
" One of the most singular circumstances," says Mr. Wilson, "in
the domestic history of this animal, is the immense extent of its dis-
tribution, more especially in far-removed and insulated spots in-
habited by semi-barbarians, where the wild species is entirely un-
known. For e.xample, the South Sea Islanders, on their discovery
by Europeans, were found to be well stocked with a small black-
legged Hog ; and the traditionary belief of the people in regard to
the original introduction of these animals, showed that they were
supposed to be as anciently descended as themselves. Yet the latter
had no knowledge of the Wild Boar or any other animal of the Hog'
kind from which the domestic breed might be supposed to be derived."
Among our Saxon forefathers the Hog was of great importance :
its flesh was a staple article of consumption in every household, and
a great portion of the wealth of the farmers and landed proprietors
consisted of droves of Swine, which were attended by swineherds,
thralls, or bond-slaves, and which were driven into the woods of oak
and beech, in order to feed on acorns and mast, and all the while
guarded from the attacks of the Wolf. The domestic Hog of that
period appears to have closely resembled, in form and colour, the
wild species; and the old unimproved breed, now seldom seen, may
be regarded as its modern representative. (Fig. 842.) There are
now in our island several breeds of this use-
ful animal, of acknowledged excellence, the
result of judicious crossings. The test of
excellence is productibility, a readiness to
become fat, small bone, and the quality
of the whole animal when converted into
bacon : size is of minor importance. The
introduction of the small Chinese breed is
one great source of improvement. The
Chinese Hog is short in the head, with
sharp neat ears, low on the limbs, and high
in the chine. It is very prolific, and fat-
tens readily. (Fig. 843,^.) The prevailing
colours are black or half-black and half-
white. This breed, or one closely allied to
it, extends from China throughout various
groups of islands in the Pacific.
The breed nearest to the Chinese in this
country is the Suffolk (Fig. 843, _/) : these
are generally white ; they are compactly
made, and deep in the chest.
Another source of improvement is the
Neapolitan Hog : this is a plump animal
of a black colour, without any hair, and
with a singular predisposition to become
fat : it is, however, of a tender constitution.
The pure black breed of Essex, which has
very little hair, is closely allied to it, and
when crossed with the Neapolitan, pro-
duces a most valuable stock : a cross be-
tween the Neapolitan and Berkshire breed
is also in high esteem. A breed between
the Berkshire, Chinese, and Neapolitan
may, by careful selection, produce every
quality which can be desired : great fecun-
dity, an early acquisition of fat, and mode-
rate size, with admirable form and propor-
tions. Our group of Hogs (Fig. 843) re-
presents — a, the Wild Boar ; b, the old un-
improved breed ; c, the black or wire-haired
breed ; d, e. Boar and Sow of the improved
breed ; /, the pure Suffolk breed ; g, the
Chinese breed.
The domestic Hog is by no means desti-
tute of intelligence, and little deserves the
character of a stupid filthy brute, as some
are pleased to call it. As regards filthi-
ness, everything will depend on its keeper :
it is true that, like the Elephant and Hippo-
potamus, it delights to wallow in the mire ;
but no animal more luxuriates in clean
straw, and when it is styed up in filth jus-
tice is not done to it. The Hog is a " huge
feeder," but so are the Horse and Ox, and
a fat Hog is a more comely-looking beast
than one that is lean and ill-fed. With re-
pect to intelligence, we rank it far bpfore
THE HOG TRIBE.
the Ox and Horse, thoua^-h it is loss docile. In ]\Iinorca it is used to
draw the plough, and works well ; and Pennant says that, in the dis-
trict of Moray, between the Spey and Elgin, it was formerly employed
for the same purpose, and that a credible eye-witness informed him,
" that he had seen in his parish there, a Cow, a Sow, and two young
Horses yoked together, and drawing a plough in light sandy soil,
and that the Sow was the best drawer of the four." The senses of
taste, smell, and hearing are possessed in great perfection by the
Hog : it is a saying among a certain class of persons, that Pigs can
smell the wind; they are certainly aware of the approach of a storm,
and we have seen them agitated during its continuance, screaming,
and running about with straw in their mouths, or carrying it to their
sty as if to add to their shelter. In Italy advantage is said to be
taken of the sense of smell with which this animal is endowed in
searching for truffles ; and in our own country the famous Sow, Slut,
was broke-in to the gun, and stood to her game as staunch as the best
Pointer.
The genus Sus, as at present constituted, contains, besides the
common Wild Hog, and its domestic relatives, some other species
known to naturalists : of these, one is the Papuan Hog, or Bene of
the natives of New Guinea {Sus pajiuetisis), figured and described
in the " Zoologie de la Coquille," by MM. Lesson and Garnot. It
is remarkable for its small size, and its light and agreeable propor-
tions, and the shortness of the tusks. It is common in the forests of
New Guinea, where it is esteemed by the native Papuans as de-
licate food : they contrive to catch these animals when young, and
rear them in a state of domestication.
Another animal is the Woodswine of Southern and Eastern Africa,
and of Madagascar, the Bosch-Vark of the Dutch colonists of the
Cape [Sus larvatKS, Cuv.) This savage and formidable animal
resembles the Wild Boar of Europe ; but its head is larger in pro-
portion, its snout broader, and an elevated callous protuberance is
seated on the cheeks between the tusks and eyes, giving a revolting
aspect to the physiognomy. Prompt and vicious, the Bosch-Vark is
much to be dreaded in combat, its strength and the size of its tusks
rendering it a match for almost any foe. It dwells in excavations in
the ground, where it is dangerous to attack it, as it rushes out sud-
denly from its retreat, and deals rapid destruction among its as-
sailants. Dr. Smith observes, that this species is subject to great
variety of colouring, scarcely any two specimens being precisely
alike : some are of a brownish-black variegated with white, and
others are of an almost uniform light reddish-brown or rufous without
white markings ; and it is scarcely possible to say which is the most
prevailing style of colouring. The bristles are long, particularly
upon the upper parts of the neck and back ; the canines are of huge
size and strength ; the ears are short, and thinly covered both with-
out and within with coarse black hair, which is longest at their tips.
The tail is thinly covered with black bristles. Average length of
body, between four and five feet ; of the tail, one foot. Living spe-
cimens of the European Wild Swine, Sus scrofa; of the
Japanese Wild Swine, Sus leuco?nystox ; and of the ^Ethiopian
Wart -Hog, Phacochcsrus csthiopicus, may be seen in the Gardens
of the Zoological Society in Regent's
Park, London.
The discovery of the bones of an ex-
tinct Hog of huge size, in the cavern of
Sundwick in Westphalia, is due to M.
Goldfuss. Bones of three distinct species
occur in the Epplesheim sand (Miocene
division of Tertiary deposits, Lyell), and
fossil relics of a species have been found
in Hutton Cave, in Mendip, and in other
places.
Several species of an extinct genus
{Chceropoiamus), closely allied to the
Hog, have been discovered in the gypsum
of Montmartre, in certain strata in Swit-
zerland, and in the Eocene forma-
tion of the Isle of Wight, &c. Numer-
ous specimens of fossils of the Pig tribe,
and others of the Pachyderniata, in-
cluding the Elephants, Rhinoceros, &c.,
may be seen in the British Museum.
A list of some of them will be found at
the end of this chapter.
South African Swine— -Genus
Phacochoerus.
331
w'?h those'rfTh^T f """^^' the grinders have a great analo^^^
of enamef PnH. ^^''=P'^="' = they are composed of ver^cal cylindc^
of enamel enclosmg an osseous deposit, and are cemented ton-ether
by cortical substance, or crusta pctrosa. It is long be ore tire root
of these teeth is perfected, and they advance in rotation from
behmd forwards pushmg before them the first molars, which in old
individuals are found to be either greatly reduced, or to have en-
Fig, S4.4, — Teeth of Phacochoere.
The animals contained in this genus
resemble the Hog in manners, form,
and aspect ; so that, were it not for the
peculiarity of their dentition, they would
necessarily be included in the genus
Sus. Their dentition, however, is so
different from that of the Hog as to
justify their separation. Instead of pre-
Fig. S.tS. — Abyssinian Phacochoere.
332
THE HOG TRIBE.
tirely disappeared. It is not till after ceasing to push forward that
the roots become consolidated. With regard to number they appear
to vary. In the skull of the Abyssinian Phacochocre {Ph. aliatii,
Riipp.), which we have carefully examined, tlic molars were found
to be four on each side above, and three below. From the first
molar above, which was very small, to the third, the increase in
size was gradual, but the fourth molar was long, and narrowed
gradually as it proceeded backwards. Had the animal lived much
longer, it is probable that the first molar would have disappeared :
the dentition would then have been as represented in Fig. 844, a. The
incisors were two above and si.K below. The tusks were enormous.
It would seem that the presence of incisors is variable ; for in the
South African species they either do not exist, or are undeveloped.
Cuvier states that vestiges of them are sometimes found under the
gum ; but in specimens from Cape Verde the incisors are generally
complete.
Fig. 844, a, is one side of the upper-jaw of the South African
districts these animals seldom venture to seek their food during the
day ; but in the countries inhabited by natives who are destitute of
the efficient arms of the colonists, they are at all times to be met,
though their favourite feeding-times are early in the morning, late in
the evening, and even during the night, if it be moonlight. When dis-
turbed in its retreats, and especially when hunted, the Vlacke Vark
is a very dangerous animal ; for though it will not turn out of its
way to give chase, yet, if brought to bay, or forced to extremity, it
attacks, with furious impetuosity, and strikes w-ith its tusks, which
are dreadful weapons ; it has been known to cut, with one stroke,
completely through the fleshy part of a man's thigh. We learn that
though this animal is used as food by the colonists, the Hottentots,
and Bechuanas, it is rejected by the Coast Caffres, who are much
more particular as to what they cat than any other natives of South
Africa, and consider as an inferior class the persons who consume
as food the articles which they hold as prohibited. The top of the
head, the upper part of the neck, and the anterior part of the back
Fig. 846. — South African Swine.
Phacocoere ; b, one side of the lower jaw of the Cape Verde species ;
c, a lateral view of the last molar tooth, which may be compared
with the molar of the Elephant.
The head of these animals is enormously large and heavy ; the
eyes are small and set high on the forehead, which is depressed be-
tween them ; under each eye is a large, coarse, fleshy lobe ; and a
warty excrescence appears on each side of the muzzle, between the
eye and the tusks. The muzzle is very broad, and the ears are
erect. (See Fig. 846.)
The South African Phacochcere {Phacochcerus cBthiopicus,
F. Cuvier), or Vlacke Vark of the Cape colonists.— The Phacochrere
found in Guinea, at Cape Verde, and along the Senegal, is regarded
as distinct from the present species by F. Cuvier, m consequence of
the possession of incisors; and is termed by \\\m Ph. a/ricamis.
The range of the South African Phacochocre, or Vlacke Vark, does
not appear to be precisely determined ; formerly it existed within
the limits of Cape Colony, and still lingers on the frontier districts,
but is much more comraQn in the remoter latitudes. In the frontier
are covered with very long and rigid bristles of a black-brown
colour, those on the top of the head diverging like the rays of a
circle. On the other parts the hair is shorter, and of a dull brown,
slightly inclined to white on the belly and flanks. The tail, except
along the top, where it is furnished with a number of blackish-brown
bristles, is nearly naked. Length of head and body, about five feet ;
of the tail, about eleven inches.
The Abyssinian Phacochcere {Ph. celiani, Riippell). — This
species was found by Riippell first in Kordofan, but afterwards in
greater abundance on the eastern slope of Abj'ssinia. It haunts
low bushes and forests ; and has a habit of creeping on its bent
fore-limbs in quest of food. In this attitude it uses its tusks in
digging up, or tearing out of the ground, the roots of plants, which
constitute part of its diet. When thus engaged, it pushes its body
forwards by means of its hind-legs, in order to move along. This
habit of kneeling to feed has been observed in the species from Cape
Verde. We have occasionally noticed it in the common Hog.
(See Fig. 845.)
FOSSIL PACHYDERMATA.
333
Fossil Pachydermata, Etc.
The Anoplotherium. — Our figures g-ive Cuvier's restoration of
the outlines of two species of the extinct group of Pachydermata,
termed Anoplotherium, the fossil relics of which, mixed with those
of the Paueotherium, occur in the gypsum-quarries near Paris,
and also, though more rarely, in the neighbourhood of Orleans and
Genoa. These A noplofhcria are remarkable for the characters of
their dentition : the teeth consist in each jaw of six incisors, two
canines, and fourteen molars, reckoning both sides together ; and
these are arranged in a continued and uninterrupted series, without
any vacancy between the incisors and the canines, or between the
canines and the molars. The canines resemble the incisors in form,
and might be mistaken for them ; the four posterior molars are like
those of the Rhinoceros. The feet are cloven as in the Deer, being
divided into two toes, sheathed with a hoof at the extremity ; in the
Deer and other Ruminants the metacarpal and metatarsal bones are
blended into a single canon-bone, but in the Anoplotherium they
are separate as in the Hog. Allied to the Pachydermata in some
points, and in others to the Pu>?iinantia, the Anoplotkeria appear
to have occupied an intermediate station between these two great
orders: their heads, judging from the skull, partook of the form of
that of the Horse and of the Camel ; the snout was not elongated
into a proboscis, as in the Tapir or the Elephant. The Anoplo-
theria are divided into three sub-genera, on various minor details of
structure. The restricted division, Ano;plothcr!um Proper, com-
prehends two species — viz., A. commune {Fig. 847), about the size
Fig. S47. — The Anoplotherium.
of the Ass, and the .4. secundarhim, about the size of the Hog.
These animals were low on the limbs, and probably resembled the
Tapirs in their habits, but were furnished with a long tail, com-
pressed horizontally at the base, and rendering them more essen-
tially aquatic : they resorted to lakes and marshes in search of
aquatic plants, and, as the flattened form of the tail indicates, must
have swum and dived with greater ease than either the Hippopota-
mus or Tapir.
The sub-genus Ziphodo7t contains but a single species {A . gracile :
Fig. 848), a light, slender, graceful creature, with much of the
Fig. 848.— The Ziphodon.
contour of the Gazelle ; it was probably fleet and active, and was
confined to the dry land, where it fed like the Deer. The tail was
short ; and in this respect, and in its general figure, as the skeletons
prove, it must have exhibited a complete contrast to the low-built,
heavy Anoplotheriu7n comnuine. The third sub-genus, Dicho-
bmtes, contains the D. leporiniun, murinum, and obliqim/n, the
first of about the size of a Hare, the other two of a Guinea-Pig.
Skull of the Fossil Adapis.— To the order Pachydermata
Cuvier refers an extinct animal, of which the remains have been
found in the gypsum-quarries of Montmartre. The remains, however,
are very rare, and we believe that only three fragments of skulls
have been recovered. The Adapis was evidently a small animal, its
skull being only about a third larger than that; of a Hedgehog.
There were four incisors, sharp-edged and oblique, in each jaw,
followed by a canine tooth of a conical form, and not exceeding the
molars in length. Of these latter there were seven on each side, in
each jaw. In the upper jaw the first molar was trenchant, the
second and third surrounded by a small ridge, and the last four flat-
crowned. In the lower jaw the first three molars were pointed and
trenchant, the remainder flat-crowned and tuberculous, like those
above opposed to them. (See Fig. 849.) Of the general outline of
the Adapis we have as yet no means of arriving at any idea.
The DiNOTHERiuii {D. gigantcum), as restored by Professor
Kaup, Cuvier, from teeth and isolated fragments ; and he gave, in
Fig. S.)9. — Skull of Fossil Adapis.
Fig. S50. — Lower Jaw of Dinotherium.
Fig. S51.— Skull of Dinotherium.
334
FOSSIL PACHYDERAfATA.
his work on fossil bones, the title of " Tapir gigantesque " to the huge
animal of which they were the relics, the only ones then discovered.
It was reserved for Professor Kaup to add to our knowledge of the ani-
mal in question, by the discovery first of several lower j.iws (Fig. 850),
and subsequently of the skull (Fig. 851), which were found imbedded
in a stratum of sandstone (the second or Miocene system of Tertiary
deposits), at Eppelsheira, about twelve miles south of Mayence, in
company with relics of the following — viz., a second species of
Dinotheriu7n, making the species 2 ; Tasinis, 2, larger than
living species ; Chalicotheriiim (allied to Tapirs), 2 ; Rhinoceros,
2 ; Tetracatilodoii (allied to Mastodon), i ; Hippotherium (aliied
to Horse), i ; Siis, 3 ; Felis (some as large as a Lion), 4 ; Macfiair-
odiis (allied to Bear, Ursiis culfridcns) : Gulo (Glutton), 1 ; Agno-
theriu}n (allied to Dog, but as large as a Lion), i.
Cuvier, before he had completed the last edition of his " Regne
Animal," became aware of M. Kaup's discovery of the lower jaw,
and in his Additions, vol. i., p. 581, he alludes to this fragment as
affording data for the separation of the " Tapir gigantesque " into a
distinct genus. To this genus M. Kaup has given the title Dino-
therium. The skull of this extraordinary animal is more than a
Fig. 852, — Skull of Dinotherium.
yard in length, and the size and situation of the nasal orifice (Fig.
852), with the salient portion of the short nasal bones, indicate the
probable possession of a proboscis ; we say probable, because in the
Manatee or Lamantin, and also the Dugong, we have a similar
extent and situation of the nasal orifice, a circumstance militating
against the inference that a proboscis necessarily accompanies this
conformation of the skull. Indeed, the general aspect of the skull
of the Dinotherium, setting aside the tusks of the lower jaw, and its
strange alveolar projection, strongly reminds us of that of the
Lamantin {Ilanahis, Cuv.) The orbits themselves are very small,
but the temporal fossae are very deep and extensive, indicating the
great mass of the temporal muscle. The lower jaw is most remark-
able. It is armed at the extremity with two enormous tusks
(incisors), which, instead of projecting upwards or forwards, sweep
downwards, and curve gently backwards, having their roots imbedded
in enormous alveoli. The dentition is as follows : — Incisors — ,
2
Canines ^^^, Molars, 5llS _ 22. Of the molars the third has
0-0 5-5
three transverse ridges across its surface ; the others have two, with
the exception of the first molar of the lower jaw, which has only one
i'"is- 853.— Palatal View cf the Skull.
at its posterior part, the anterior portion being trenchant. Fig. 853
represents the palatal view of the skull of the Dinotherium. Fig. 854,
the molar teeth and the relative bearing of the two rows, whicli
approximate towards each other anteriorly.
The situation and affinities of the Dinotherium have been the
subject of much speculation, and very opposite opinions have been
Fig. 854.— Molar Teeth.
entertained by different naturalists. M. Kaup, influenced by the
discovery of huge claws and a scapula, resembling in character
those of the Pangolins [Mam's), assigns the animal to the Edentata,
but differing from all extant species, not only in exceeding the
Elephant in size, but in having, like the Elephant, a proboscis. Dr.
Buckland regards the Dinotherium as approximating to the Tapir,
of aquatic habits, and furnished with a proboscis, by means of
which it conveyed to the mouth the vegetables raked from the
bottom of lakes and rivers by its tusks and claws ; and he alludes
to its claw resembling that of the Pangolins. MM. Blainville and
Dumeril consider the Dinotherium to have been allied to the Laman-
tins, or "aquatic gravigrades," — to have been, in fact, a Dugong
with tusk-incisors, and therefore one of the concluding forms of the
Pachydermata. They consider that it had no proboscis, but a huge
inflated muzzle and upper lip. Ganger places it with the Seals.
Now, as regards M. Kaup's theory, we may at once state that the
claws and scapula on which he founds it are not proved to belong to
the Dinotherium ; and he himself admits, that should the discovery
take place of other fossil relics whence the certain existence of a
Mfaiiis gigantea might be presumed, his theory would be over-
thrown. Our own opinion coincides with that of M. Blainville. The
occipital condyles (see the pos-
terior view of the skull seen
from below. Fig. 855, and the
skull, Fig. 85l,a«^(?) are termi-
nal, or in the direction of the
longitudinal a.xis of the skull,
as in Lamantins, and also the
Cetacca Alammalia modified
for aquatic existence. The
occipital surface is large, sub-
vertical, and even inclined from
before backwards, with a pro-
found mesial depression for the
insertion either'of a very strong cervical ligament or powerful muscles
for the elevation of the head. The basilary portion of the skull (Figs.
853, 855) is narrow in its component parts, while the vertical surface
(Fig. 851, ante) is, as in the Lamantins and Dugongs, very wide,
overplumbing the temporal fossa:, of which the depth and width indi-
cate the enormous levator muscles of the lower jaw, not only for the
purpose of mastication, but for the particular action of the lower jaw,
with its rake-like tusks. Moreover, in the lower jaw we find an
analogy to that of the Dugong, of which the branches curve down-
wards for a third of their length to a deflected symphysis, only that
in the Dinotherium this downward curvature is carried to a far
greater extreme, for the implantation of the tusk-incisors. 'What
were the limbs of this gigantic animal ? If its habits were terrestrial,
which a consideration of the skull forbids us to believe, the Dino-
therium must have had solid pillars of support, like the limbs of the
Elephant, and destitute of that liberty which even in the Pangolins
they are endowed with ; but, if our ideas are correct, its limbs were
adapted for aquatic locomotion, and perhaps the posterior pair were
wanting, or formed the elements of a terminal paddle. Its diet was
undoubtedly vegetable, as in the Dugong ; and we may conceive it
tearing up the strong-fibred vegetables from their sub-aquatic bed by
means of its tusks, which might serve also as weapons of offence,
or as anchors for the purpose of mooring itself to the banks of the
Fig. S55. — Skull seen from below.
FOSSIL PACHYDERMATA.
335
lake or river, or of dragging its unwieldy body partially out of the
water.
Bones of the Dinothcrium have been found in Tertiary frcsh-watcr
limestone near Orthes, at tlie foot of the Pyrenees, and with them
remains of a new genus allied to the Rhinoceros, of several unknown
species of Deer, and of a Dog or Wolf equalling a Lion in size.
was perfect ; but unfortunately the boys of the neighbourhood
knocked out the teeth witli stones, and set up the head as a mark
to throw at. Mr. Darwin, however, found a perfect tooth, and frag-
ments, ascertained by Professor Owen to be those of the lower jaw.
These remains were so fresh as to render it diflicult to believe that
ages had passed since their interment ; and Mr. Darwin observes
that they contained so much
animal matter, that when a
portion was heated in the flame
of a spirit-lamp, it not only ex-
haled a very strong animal
odour, but burnt with a slight
flame. The deposit in which
they were imbedded was a
whitish argillaceous earth,
forming the banks of the Sa-
randis, overlying a granitic
foundation.
The skull in question equals
in size that of the Hippopota-
mus, measuring 2 feet 4 inches
in length, and i foot 4 inches
in extreme breadth. The form
of the skull (Figs. 857, 858) is
elongated and depressed ; the
zygomatic arches are of enor-
mous size and strength, an
index of the great volume of
the temporal and masseter mus-
cles. The occipital region
slopes from the condyles up-
wards and forwards. The ma.x-
illary portion of the skull is
compressed laterally, narrow
across, and with large inter-
maxillary bones, slightly di-
lated at their extremity. The
superior part of the skull is
cavernous, with cells, or sinu-
ses, giving to it greater appa-
rent volume than the cerebral
cavity would lead us to infer.
We have already alluded to the
deceptive volume of the skull
of the Elephant. According
to Professor Owen the dental
formula is as follows : — In-
canmes none, a va-
Fig. 855. — The Dinotherium.
Cuvier and Kaup calculate the length of the Dinotherium at about
eighteen feet ; the massive lower jaw measures nearly four feet, ex-
clusive of the tusks. The above cut represents the restored animal.
(See Fig. 856.)
Fossil Skull of Toxodon {Toxndon ^laiensis, Owen). — We
are inclined to refer the Toxodon, of which an imperfect skull and
fragments of a lower jaw, and some teeth, are our only guides, to
the aquatic Pacliydermafa ; and,
as in the instance of the Dinothe-
rium, we draw our deductions from
the weight of the skull, from the
form and position of the nasal
aperture, the slope of the occiput,
and the position of the occipital
condyles.
The skull in question was
brought by Mr. Darwin from South
America. It appears that during
his sojourn in I3anda Oriental he
heard of some giant's bones at
a farm-house on the Sarandis, a
small stream entering the Rio
Negro, about 120 miles north-west
of Monte Video. Accordingly
there he rode, and for the sum
of eighteenpence purchased the
cranium now in the museum of
the Royal College of Surgeons,
London. Mr. Darwin was in-
formed by the people at the farm-
house that the relics were exposed
in consequence of a flood having
washed down part of the bank of
earth. When IJrst fo.md the skull Fi- S57.— .^Haill of Toxodon.
cant space being in their place ;
molars '—L = 78. The incisor
7-7
teeth (sec Fig. 859), the fragment of the anterior part of the lower
jaw, with the teeth in situ ; and Fig. 860, an incisor of the lower
jaw) are remarkable for their resemblance in many respects to those
of the Rodentia ; they were rootless, and had persistent pulps ;
growing, therefore, as worn down by use. In the upper jaw the two
central incisors are very small ; the two external ones very large,
curved, with their sockets extending back in an arched direction
Fig. S5S.— Skull of Toxodon.
through the intermaxillary bones to the maxillary, and terminating,
without becoming contracted, immediately anterior to the grinding
teeth. In the lower jaw the two middle incisors are largest, the rest
gradually diminishing in size. The molar teeth also are rootless,
and curved, whence the name Toxodon {r6Kov, a bow, vcovs, a
tooth) ; and their grinding surface presents one or more folds of
enamel re-entering the osseous substance of the centre, as in
Rodents.
We might here enter on many minutia?, and follow Professor
Owen through his anatomical details, were it not that they are
rather adapted for the close attention of the comparative anatomist
than the general reader. Those who wish to gain the fullest infor-
mation on these points we may refer to tlie " Proceeds. Geol. Soc,
336
FOSSIL PACHYDERMATA.
Lond.," 1837; and the " Zoology of the Beagle: Fossil Mammalia,"
Prof. Owen's " Pateontology," and other works on fossil geology.
We may observe, however, that "in the aspect of the plane of the
occipital foramen and occipital region of the skull, in the form and
position of the occipital condyles, in the aspect of the plane of the
bony aperture of the nostrils, and in the thickness and te.xture of the
osseous parietes of the skull,"
the To.xodon manifests an
affinity to the Dinotherium and
the aquatic Pachydermata (the
herbivorous Ceiacea of Cuvier,
but which in manners and
organisation have little relation-
ship to the true Whales, ex-
cepting as far as they are all
modified for the waters of the
deep).
With respect to the limbs of
the Toxodon, we have as yet no
evidence respecting their form
or number; how far, therefore,
they were constructed for aqua-
tic progression, whether for this
solely, or for occasional visits to
the land, is yet a problem to be
solved. Professor Owen, how-
ever, suggests that the presence
of large frontal sinuses renders
it not improbable that the habits of this species were not so strictly
aquatic as the total absence of hinder extremities would necessitate.
In speaking of the Dinotherium and Toxodon, it will be seen that
we have referred them, with the Lamantins and Dugongs, to the
Pachydermata, between which group and the ordinary Pachy-
dermata we regard the Hippopotamus as forming a link, though
Fig. S59. — Incisor Teeth of Toxodon.
Fig. S60. — Incisor of Lower Jaw of Toxodon.
decidedly within the pale of the latter. Cuvier has remarked, that
such of the Pachydermata as approach the Ruminants in the
structure of their feet, partake, in some degree, of the complication
of the stomach, which, in the animals of the latter order, is so re-
markable a character; and it maybe said, ;per contra, that such
Pachydermata as approach, in a certain degree, in habits to the
aquatic group, resemble them in the structure of the same organ.
The stomach of the semi-aquatic Hippopotamus, for example, con-
sists of certain sacculi, which renders it analogous to that of the
Lamantin. Sir E. Home observes that the stomachs of the Manatee
and Hippopotamus bear a close resemblance to each other in struc-
ture, and are, in many respects, similar to that of the Peccary, which
is a variation of the Hogs, to which the Tapir is also allied ; and
these circumstances throw no small light upon the preparatory pro-
cesses required for the digestion of different kinds of vegetable food.
The grass of the field is the food of Ruminating animals ; and, from
the structure of their digestive organs, it is evident that much pre-
vious digestion is necessary for its preparation. The grass and
weeds at the bottom, and on the banks of rivers, is the food of the
Manatee and Hippopotamus, and the apparatus formed for preparing
these sutjstances displays an approach to the stomachs in Ruminants.
In the Hog tribe the resemblance is less, those animals having a
more indiscriminate diet : the structure of their stomach shows that
grass is by no means their natural food.^ The stomachs of the
Manatee and Hippopotamus, then, which at first sight appear so
extraordinary and incomprehensible, are, in fact, the links which
unite the Ruminants to those animals which feed on roots and
various vegetable substances, and form a key, without which the
different gradations cannot be satisfactorily explained.
It is not only in the form of the stomach, but in the structure and
contour of the skull, the position of the eyes and nostrils, and even
in the nature of the skin, with its sub-cutaneous layer of fat, that we
trace the approximation of the Hippopotamus to the Lamantins ;
and it may be that the Toxodon, and even Dinotherium, form links
between the Lamantins and Hippopotamus, being within the pale of
the group to which the former belong.
We may here observe, that the number of fossil genera included
within the Pachydermata, greatly exceeds that of genera containing
living species, of which latter many, as Equus, Elephas, Rhino-
ceros, and Hippopotamus, have fossil as well as living species : so
that the number of fossil or extinct species already ascertained of
the Pachydermatous order, taken collectively, is far greater than the
number of living species. In some, perhaps many instances, the
affinities of the fossil Pachydermata are not understood, fragments
of bones only having been recovered : in some instances they can-
not be mistaken.
We began our observation on the Pachydermata by alluding to
the unfilled intervals between the forms now living on the surface of
the earth, and a statement that in fossil forms — some yet to be dis-
covered, others to be made out, and, as it were, re-constructed —
would the lost links in the chain be recovered ; and we again ex-
press our opinion that ultimately the work will be, if not perfectly,
at least to a great extent, accomplished.
That our ideas are not unreasonable, we have from time to time
satisfactory proofs. Sir Thomas Mitchell transmitted, many years
ago, from Australia, some fossil bones which incontestably prove the
existence of at least one gigantic Pachydermata, at some remote
period, in that region. These fossils consist of a portion of a molar
tooth, of the shaft of a thigh-bone, with part of the spine, of a sca-
pula, and some smaller fragments of a long bone. They were found
on the Darling Downs, those extensive plains marked to the south-
west of Moreton Bay on most maps of Australia, at the source of
the river Darling, and upwards of 4,000 feet above the level of the
sea. Sir Thomas Mitchell, in his letter to Professor Owen, to whom
the relics were forwarded, stated that these huge bones were found
in some abundance. It would appear from Professor Owen's exami-
nation, that this huge extinct animal was allied both to the Mastodon
Figs. S62, S63.— Portions of Molar Teeth.
and Dinotherium. Fig. 861 represents the femur of the extinct
Australian Pachyderm : a, its transverse section. Figs. 802, 863,
two views of the portion of a molar tooth of the same. .
Such is a description of some of the most interesting fossils of
Pachydermatous Animals. The collection in the British Museum is
rich in specimens, including the remains of the Hippopotamus,
Rhinoceros, Elephant, &c., &c., both of living and extmct species,
and of other animals described in this chapter. The following is a
list of some of the chief Pachydermata, whose fossils have been
found in this country, with the respective localities of each.
FOSSTL PACHYDERMATA.
33 7
BRITISH FOSSIL PACHYDERMATA.
NAME.
Anoploikertum coinmiire
„ secufidariiim.
Charo^otamus cuvieri . . J
Coryphodon eocmniis
Dichobiine cervinum
£)ichodo7i cuspidatus
Elephas :primigenius . .
Hippopotamus major . .
Hyopofamus, bovittus et vec- \
tiaiius
Binstead, Isle of Wight,
do. do.
Seafield and Binstead, Isle of
Wight.
Harwich and Camberwell.
Binstead, Isle of Wight.
Hordwell, Hants.
Many localities in the Pleistocene,
Valley of the Thames, Norwich.
Kirkdale, Torquay, Grays, Brent-
ford, and Folkestone.
Isle of Wight.
HyracotheriiC7n cuniculus
,'cporinnm
Lophiodon minimus
lilasiodon angustidens . .
MicrochcBrus
Palccotherium. {various)
Palo^lotherium do.
cif
Rhinoceros,
Sus scrofa
do.
Suffolk, and near Heme Bay,
Kent.
Rrocklesham, Isle of Wight.
Thorpe, Norfolk.
Hordwell, Hants.
Binstead and Seafield, Isle of
Wight.
Hordwell, Hants.
Clacton and Ilford in Essex;
Chatham in Kent ; Yorkshire
and Devonshire caverns.
Isle of Portland ; Newbury, Berks.
The following is a List of Fossil Pachydermatous remains found in the Zoological Collection of the British Museum :-
NAME.
H. tctraprotodon
H. do.
H.
H. travaficus
H. major . .
H. major . .
H. major . .
H. -major . .
H. viinutus
H. major . .
H. pcntlaiidi
Sus hysiidricus . .
Sus sivaloisis
Sus giganteus
Sus giganteus
Sus chcsroides
Sus cripnanthinus
Sus scrofa . .
Sus scrofa ..
Hy. bovi7ius
Hy. bovi?ius
H. vectianus
H. vectianus
Ano. cotnniune . .
ty • -
Ano. secundariu//i
A no. gracile
D. icporinum
U. ovina
D. cervinum
D. ovina . .
D. cuspidatus
Hippopotamus.
Pliocene ;
Miocene;
Miocene ;
Miocene ;
Pleistocene
Pleistocene
LOCALITY.
India.
India.
India.
India.
Walton, Essex.
Chelmsford.
Merycopotamus dissimi/is
Anoplotlierium cotnmune
,, secu7idarium
Orcodon culbertsoni
,, major . .
ChalicotIieriu7n sivalensc
Pal(SotJteriu77i 7nagnu//i
Pleistocene ; Peckham.
Upper Tertiary ; Auvergne.
Pleistocene ; Malta.
Upper Tertiary ; Tuscany.
Grotto di Maccagroni ; Sicily.
Sus.
Miocene ; India.
Miocene ; India.
Miocene; India.
Pliocene ; Banks of Nerbuddha.
Lignite ; Tuscany.
Miocene ; Athens.
Pleistocene; Coast of Suffolk.
Pleistocene ; Esse.t.
Hyopotamus.
Upper Eocene ; Isle of Wight.
Eocene ; Hants.
Eocene ; Isle of Wight.
Upper Eocene ; Isle of Wight.
Anoploi'herium.
Eocene ; Vaucluse, France.
Eocene ; Montmartre, ,,
Eocene ; Vaucluse ,,
Eocene ; ,, ,,
DiCHOBUNE.
Eocene ; Montmartre.
Upper Eocene ; Isle of Wight.
Middle Eocene ; Hordwell.
DlCHODON.
. . 1 Middle Eocene ; Hordwell.
Various.
Miocene'; India.
crassu?n . .
)t • •
mi7ior . .
an7iecte7is
Eocene
Eocene;
Miocene
Miocene
Miocene
Eocene ;
Upper Eocene
Middle Eocene
France,
do.
N. America.
Dakota.
India.
France.
Isle of Wight.
Hordwell, Hants.
Rhinoceros.
Equus juvillacus
77iag7lUS . .
fossilis
curvidens . .
sivale72sis . .
7i07nadicus
»» ■ ■
spelcBUs . .
palceonus . .
Eocene ; Montmartre.
Eocene ; France.
M. Eocene ; Hordwell.
Equid^.
. . Alluvium Superior ; Perria.
. . Alluvium Superior ; do.
. . Pleistocene ; Torquay.
. . Arroyo Gutierrez ; Uruguay.
. . Miocene ; India.
. . Pliocene ; India.
. . Miocene ; do.
. . Cavern of Bruniqucl.
. . Miocene ; India.
. . Grays, Essex.
P. tickori/ius
P. „ .. .
P. „ .. .
P. „ .. .
P. „ .. .
P. septorhi/ius . .
P. „
P. „ .. .
P. „
P. „
P. megarlitnus . .
P. „
P. sckbiermache7-i
P. etruscus
P. „
P. „
P.
Typotheriuni cristatuvi
Toxodon a7igustide7is .
,, plate7isis
P. peri7nensis
P. palceindicus ..
P. occide7italis ..
P. sivaie/isis
P. platyrlmius ..
P. si77iorre7isis ..
P. brachypus
Elcphas bomhifrons
pri//iigc?iius
Pleistocene ; Torquay.
Pleistocene ; Peckham.
Pleistocene Gravel ; Peterborough.
Pleistocene ; Chatham.
Caverns Pleistocene ; Westphalia.
Pleistocene ; Northamptonshire.
Pleistocene ; Ilford, Essex.
Pliocene ; Clacton, Essex.
Pleistocene ; Essex.
Minchin Hole ; Gowernr. Swansea.
Pleistocene ; Grays, Essex.
Pleistocene ; Thames Valley.
Miocene ; Eppelsheim.
Pliocene; Malaga, Spain.
Dredged off Happisburgh, Norfolk.
From Forest Bed, Pakefield.
Upper Tertiary ; Tuscany.
Pleistocene ; Buenos Ayres.
Pleistocene ; do.
Alluvial Deposits do.
Miocene ; Gulf of Cambay.
Miocene ; India.
Eocene ; Nebraska.
Miocene ; India.
Miocene do.
Miocene ; Villefranch-d' Astarai.
Miocene ; do.
Elephants.
meridio7ialis
i7isignis
cliftii . .
ga7iesa ..
colu/7ibi
antiquus
texia7ms
coiu/nbi
pla7lifK07lS
7i07nadicus
hysudricus
Mastodon andiu?n
„ arverne/isis
,, perimensis
,, sivale7isis
,, tapir sides
,, a/igustidens
ohroticus
S. leptocephalu7)i
Mylodo7i lettso77ii
Miocene ; India.
Eschscholty Hay.
Porcupine River ; Arctic America.
Pleistocene ; Essex.
From a Tertiary near Lyons.
Upper Tertiary ; Tuscany.
Miocene ; India.
Miocene ; Perim Island.
Miocene; India.
Pleistocene ; Brazos River.
Pleistocene ; Norfolk Coast.
Pleistocene ; Essex.
Pleistocene ; do.
Pleistocene ; Texas.
,, Georgia, U.S.
Miocene ; India.
Pliocene ; Central India.
Miocene ; India.
Mastodon.
I Pliocene ; Buenos A)rres.
|U. miocene; Eppelsheim.
Miocene ; Gulf of Cambay.
Miocene ; India.
U. miocene ; France.
I Miocene ; Sansan.
j Pleistocene ; Kentucky, U.S.
I Pleistocene ; Missouri, N. Amer.
SCELIDOTHERIUM.
.. I Pleistocene ; Buenos Ayres.
. . I Caverns Minas ; Geraes, Brazil.
Mylodon.
.. I Pleistocene ; Uruguay.
2X
338
THE CETACEA.
CHAPTER XXI.
MAMMALIA.— ORDER, CETACEA— WHALES, Etc. ; INCLUDING SUB-ORDERS-I. CETE, AND II. SIRENIA.
-iC'A enormous size
\^ HE last order of Placentarial Mammalia
is that of the Cetacea, which includes
the Whales, and some similar or allied
animals. In external appearance they
much resemble Fishes, but in all their
physiological and other characters arc
evidently Mammals, as they produce their
young alive, and suckle them until they
are fit to get their own subsistence.
The Cetacea are generally very bulky
creatures, the head being often of a most
the body tapers off posteriorly, and is
f^%^ terminated by a broad tail-fin, which, like that of the
J f^ fishes, is the principal agent in swimming, but is set on
0%^ in the contrary direction, being transverse instead of per-
i'fp pendicular (Fig. 864). This caudal fin is supported upon
■\^'f-~afirm cartilaginous basis, but has no trace of rays or
.'-<f-.r bones. The anterior limbs are converted into powerful
IfiAp fins, completely enclosed in one uniform skin ; but be-
^f*^'" neath this we find the usual bones of which the arm of a
vertebrated animal is composed, although considerably
J^jH^' shortened. In some instances the phalanges are very
'^^"^ numerous, but the fingers rarely exhibit any traces of
" nails. The posterior limbs are entirely wanting ; and the
only trace of the pelvis consists in a pair of bones sus-
pended amongst the muscles, and usually united in the front into
the form of a V, but completely detached from the vertebral column.
This is also destitute of that peculiar series of anchylosed vertebrse
called the sacrum, which serves, in the ordinary Mammah'a, to give
firm support to the pelvis. The first caudal vertebra; are, however,
Fig. S64.— Tail of the Whale.
distinguished from the lumbar by the presence of a series of small
inferior V-shaped arches ; these disappear towards the extremity of
the tail.
The head is not separated from the body by a neck, although the
cervical vertebrae are distinctly marked in the skeleton ; the great
bulk of the head is made up of the facial bones, the cranial portion
being often very small. The nostrils are sometimes, as in other
vertebrated animals, placed on the fore-part of the nose ; but, in the
typical forms, these orifices are brought quite to the top of the head,
constituting what are called the blow-holes of the Whale. The ex-
ternal ear is entirely wanting ; and the mode in which the auditory
organs of the Cetacea are adapted for the perception of sounds
both in the water and in the air, is very interesting. The
external aperture of the ear is exceedingly small, so as to prevent
any injury to the organ from the rush of water when the creature is
progressing rapidly through that element, although it apparently
allows of sufficient access of water for the communication of any
sounds that may be transmitted by its means. The air penetrates
into the ear through the Eustachian tube, which is of large size, and
opens into the blow-hole ; and thus, when the Whale is at the sur-
face of the water, and breathing, aerial sounds can readily find
their way into the ear. The eye is of very small size when com-
pared with the bulk of the animal ; and, from the immense develop-
ment of the facial bones, it often appears to be placed nearly in the
middle of the body.
The skin is naked, or only sparingly covered with scattered
bristles ; but to make up for the want of the ordinary clothing of the
Manunalia, the whole surface of the body, beneath the skin, is
covered with a thick coating of fat, or blubber, as it is termed, that
forms a most efBcient agent in preserving the temperature of the
body, at the same time reducing its specific gravity. It is this
blubber, which is often present in enormous quantity, that forms the
principal object for which these creatures are pursued. The Cetacea
are all inhabitants of the sea. They are divisible into two very
distinct groups, or sub-orders ; the Cete and SiRENlA.
These animals are called blowing Cetacea, because, in conse-
quence of the structure of the nostrils, they are capable of throwing
up jets of water or spray, accompanied with a loud noise ; this act
is termed "blowing," and the nasal orifices blow-holes, or spi-
racles ; they open on the top of the head, and lead to two large
membranous pouches seated immediately below the integument.
These pouches are receptacles for fluid, which, being forced up into
them, is prevented from returning into the throat by certain valves,
furnished w'ith strong muscles, lodged above the intermaxillary
bones (see Fig. 865, the skull of the Dolphin) : it is in the hollow at
Fig. 865.— Skull of Dolphin.
the top of the head that these pouches are placed. The posterior
nasal passage is furnished with longitudinal and circular muscular
fibres, and opens into the pharynx, or back part of the mouth, and
into it the larynx rises in the form of a pyramid, and the circular
fibres of the nasal passage have the power of grasping it by their
contractions. The channel, therefore, from the larynx through the
posterior nasal passage into the pouches is plain. Now these
pouches are lodged, as we have said, beneath the skin, and the nos-
trils, which conduct to them, open externally by a transverse semi-
lunar slit, while very strong muscular fibres, radiating from the
entire circumference of the cranium, cover the whole surface of the
apparatus, and act as compressors of the pouches. Let us suppose,
says Cuvier, " that the cetaceous animal has taken into its mouth
some water which it wishes to eject ; it moves its tongue and jaws
as if it were about to swallow, but, closing the pharynx, it forces the
water to mount into the nasal passage, where its progress is accele-
rated by the action of the circular fibres, until it raises the valves
and distends the membranous pouches above. Here it can be re-
tained until the animal wishes to eject it, and take in breath. In
order to spout, the valves being closed, it forcibly compresses the
pouches by means of the muscular expansions which cover them ;
and, compelled to escape by the narrow crescentic aperture, it is
projected to a height corresponding to the force of the pressure."
The noise, however, called blowing, shows that the animal forcibly
Fig. 866, — Section of Head of rorpoise.
THE CETACEA.
339
exhausts its lungs of the pent-up breath, driving- the air through the
nasal orifices, which, mingled with the water contained in the
pouches, rises like spray or dense mist. Fig. 866 represents a sec-
tion of the head of the Porpoise, showing the structure of the nasal
apparatus. This apparatus is of little use as an olfactory organ, the
sense of smell being very deficient.
The Cetacca, passing their existence in the wild waste of seas, are
capable of remaining submerged for a considerable length of time,
and the vascular system is modified accordingly, the arteries, not
only of the limbs, but of the chest and vertebral canal, being singu-
larly plcxiform. The discovery of this arrangement is due to the
celebrated \V. Hunter, who published an account of it in the Phil.
Trans., 1787. These animals, he says, "have a greater proportion
of blood than any other known, and there are many arteries appa-
rently intended as reservoirs where a larger quantity seemed to be
required in a part, and vascularity could not be the only object.
Thus we find that the intercostal arteries divide into a vast number
of branches, which run in a serpentine course beneath the pleura
(lining membrane of the chest), the ribs, and their muscles," forming
a deep maze of intermingled and contorted tubes. " These vessels
everywhere lining the sides of the thorax, pass in between the ribs
near their articulation, and also behind the ligamentous attachment
of the ribs, and anastomose with each other. The spinal cord is
surrounded with a net-work of arteries in the same manner, more
especially where it comes out from the brain, and where a thick sub-
Fig. S67.— Vascular Apparatus of Whale.
stance is formed by their ramifications and convolutions ; Fig. 867
represents the arrangement of the arteries of the chest.
We are indebted to Professor Owen for the following remarks on
the osteology of the Cetacea :^
In the skeleton of the Whale (Fig. 868), which, to outward appear-
ance, seems to have as little neck as a fish, there arc as many
cervical vertebra: as in the long-necked Giraffe ; this is a very
striking instance of adherence to "type within the limits of a class :
the adaptation to form and
function is effected by a
change of proportion in
the bones ; the cervical
vertebrae in the Whale are
flattened from before back-
wards into broad thin
plates ; in the Giraffe they
are produced into long
sub-cylindrical bones. In
the Whales the movements
of these vertebra upon one
another are abrogated,
and in the Grampus and
Porpoise the seven verte-
bra; are blended together
into a single bone ; they
thus give a firm and un-
yieldinjs' support to the large head, which has to overcome the resist-
ance of the water, when the rapid swimmer is cleaving its course
through that element. The dorsal vcrtebne are characterised, in all
£Jam/ualia, by the sudden increase in the length and size of the ribs,
which in a certain number of these vertebra, including the first, are
joined to a breast-bone by a commonly cartilaginous, but rarely
osseous part. The first rib is remarkable for its great breadth in the
Whae; this and a few following ribs are joined to a short, and
broad, and often perforated sternum (Fig. 868), No. 60 ; the remain-
1?? ,"''f. '"'^J'"''- o""' '''=. they would be called in human anatomy,
false. They are articulated to the ends of diapophyses which
progressively increase in length to the end of the dorsal series,
ihen follow vertebra: without ribs, answering to those called " lum-
bar. The whole hinder part of the trunk of Whales being needed
to effect the strokes by which they are propelled, its vertebra; are as
free from anchylosis as in fishes ; there is, consequently, no "sa-
crum," and the caudal vertebra; are counted from the first of those
that have " chevron bones " articulated to their undcr-part. This
special name is given to the vertebral elements called " ha;mapnmo-
physes " (see Fig. 869, A, skeleton of the Dugong), which are articu-
lated in Cetacea as in Crocodilia, directly to the under-surface of the
centrum, and, coalescing at their opposite ends, develop thence a
"ha;mal spine," and form a " ha;mal " canal analogous to, but
not homologous with, that in fishes. The caudal vertebra; of Whales
further differ from those in fishes in retaining the transverse pro-
cesses, and in becoming flattened from above downwards, without
coalescing. These modifications relate to the support of a caudal
fin, which is extended horizontally instead of vertically.
Whales and Porpoises progress by bounding movements or undu-
lations in a vertical plane, and their necessity of coming to the sur-
face to inhale the air directly, as warm-blooded Mammals, calls for
a modification in the form of the main swimming instrument, such
as may best adapt it to effect an easy and rapid ascent of the head.
The course of the Whale is stopped and modified by the action of
the pectoral limbs, which are the same parts as those in fishes, but
constructed more after the higher vertebrate type. The digital rays
do not exceed five in number ; but they consist of many flattened
phalanges, and are enveloped in a common sheath of integument.
A radius, 55, and an ulna, 54 (Fig. 869), support the carpal series;
but, instead of being directly articulated to the scapular arch, they
are suspended to a humerus, 53 : this is a short, thick bone, with a
rounded head. The scapula, 51, is detached from the occiput, has
a short stunted coracoid anchylosed to it, and is thus freely sus-
pended in the flesh ; it develops an acromial process : the ulna, 54,
is produced upwards into an olecranon. With all those marks, how-
ever, of adhesion to the Mammalian type of fore-arm, the outward
aspect of the limb is as simple as is that of the fish's fin ; it moves,
as by one joint, upon the trunk, and is restricted to the functions of
a pectoral fin.
In the huge skull of the Whale the broad vertical occiput may be
noticed, by which the head is connected, through the medium of a
short consolidated neck, with the trunk : the whole cranium seems
to have been compressed above, from before backwards, so that the
small nasal bones, 15 (Fig. 868), articulating with the short and broad
frontals, form the highest part of the skull. The long maxillaries,
21, and premaxillaries, 22, extend backwards and upwards, to arti-
culate with the nasals, and complete with them the bony entry to
the air-passages, situated so favourably at the summit of the cranium.
The nostrils, formed by the soft parts guarding that entry, are called
"blow-holes;" they are double in the Whales — single in the
src\sX\iir Cetacea. In the Whales, the "baleen" or "whalebone"
plates are attached to the palatal surface of the maxillary and pre-
maxillary bones ; the expanded toothless mandible supports an enor-
mous under-lip, which covers the whalebone plates when the mouth
is shut. The skeleton of the great finner Whale (^Balanoptcra hoops),
from which the fore-shortened view (Fig. 868, ante) is taken, was
ninety-six feet in length ; the relative dimensions of man is given by
the outlines of the skeleton at its side. No known extinct animal of
any class equalled this living Leviathan in bulk.
Fig. 868. — Fore-shortened view of the Skele-
ton of a Whale [^Balccnoptcra loops), show-
ing its relative size to man.
Fig. S69.— Skeleton of the Dugong (Halicore auslralis.)
There are a few Whale-like Mammals, equally devoid of rudiments
of hinder limbs, which obtain their sustenance from sea-weeds or
sea-side herbage. They have teeth adapted for bruising such sub-
stances, and the movements of the head in grazing require the
cervical vertebra; to be unanchylosed ; these are, however, short,
and in the Manatee but six in number. In the Dugong (Fig. 80y),
340
THE WHALE TRIBE.
one of these herbivorous sea-mammals frequenting the Malayan and
Australian shores, the upper and lower jaws are singularly bent
down, and the upper jaw is armed with a pair of short tusks. The
bones of all those Cetacea are singularly massive and compact.
Three or four of the anterior thoracic ribs are joined to a sternum —
Fig. S70.— Skull of Whale with baleen.
c, cranium ; vis, upper jaw ; mi, lower jaw ; a, single plate of baleen.
the other to the ulna, 54, and fifth digit, 57, v, and both to the single
bone representing the second row. The first digit, ?', consists of a
short metacarpal ; the metacarpals of the others support each three
phalanges.
We next proceed to describe some of the leading members of the
two sub-orders of the Cetacea — namely, the Cete and Siraiia.
Sub-order I.— Cete.
In the first of these, consisting of the true or typical Cetacea (the
Whales, Porpoises, and their allies), the body is peculiarly fish-like
in its form ; the teats, two in number, are placed on the belly, and
the nostrils on the top of the head. Of the latter there are some-
times two, and occasionally only one ; they do not appear to serve
as organs of smell, but must be regarded merely as respiratory
apertures, and orifices for the expulsion of the water taken into the
mouth with the food of the creatures. The complicated and won-
derful mechanism by which these different objects are effected have
been already described.
The head in these creatures is of very large size, sometimes form-
ing nearly one-half of the entire body ; the skull is usually unsym-
metrical, the bones of the right side being rather larger than those
Fig. 8; I. — Dead Whale on shore.
ttie rest are free. One of the vertebrae intervening between the
costal and caudal series has connected with it a simple pelvic arch,
in which the ilium and ischium may be recognised, and a still more
rudimental condition of such arch is suspended in the inguinal
muscles of the true Cetacea. Most of the caudal vertebrae, cd, of
the Manatee and Dugong have long diapophyses, and haemal
arches (Fig. 869), h. The terminal vertebrae are flattened horizon-
tally.
The lacteal organs of the Dugong are placed on the breast, and
the pectoral fins, in the female at least, are applied to clasp the
young. The animal so observed, with its own head and that of its
young above water, has given rise to the fable of the Siren and Mer-
maid. The bones and joints of the pectoral fin are accordingly
better developed than in the ordinary Whales. The first row of
carpal bones, 56, cousists of two— one articulated to the radius, 55,
of the left. A remarkable peculiarity presented by the skull is, that
the petrous bone, which usually forms a part of the temporal bone
in the Mammalia, in these animals is only attached to the skull by
cartilage. The mouth is exceedingly wide, and the jaws usually
armed with numerous conical teeth ; the only exceptions to this rule
are found in the BalcB7iidcB, or Whalebone Whales, which, in the
adult state, are furnished with a peculiar arrangement of horny
plates, although, in the early periods of their e-xistence, the jaws ex-
hibit distinct conical teeth. The skin is perfectly naked, and
beneath it lies a layer of blubber, which, in some of the large species,
attains an enormous thickness.
Although the Cete all subsist upon animal food, it is remarkable
that they possess a complex stomach, consisting of at least four
compartments, and sometimes of as many as seven ; the object of
which is not known.
THE WHALE TRIBE.
341
This group includes the largest of known animals. From their
abundance in all seas they have been generally known in all ages,
and as commonly regarded as fish. They are, however, in all respects
true members of the class Mamma/ia, as already explained in our
introductory remarks. They appear to be quite destitute of voice ;
and the majority are sociable animals, swimming in large shoals
together, and sporting frequently on the surface of the water. They
occur most abundantiy in the Arctic and Antarctic Seas.
Sub-divisions.— The CeU, or typical Cctacca, are divided into
three families. The first of these is the family of the BalcBtiida, or
true Whales, in which the teeth are deficient, and the mouth is
furnished with numerous plates of a horny substance, well known as
■whalebone or halecn. The arrangement
of these plates in the mouth of the Whale is
as follows : — Along the centre of the palate
runs a strong keel, on each side of which is
a broad depression, and along it the plates
of baleen are inserted. These are long flat
plates, attached by their bases to the palate,
and hanging down freely into the cavity of
the mouth (Fig. 870) ; they are placed trans-
versely in the mouth, so that their sides are
parallel, and at a very small distance from
each other. . The base and outer edge of
each of these perpendicular plates is com-
posed of solid whalebone ; but the inner
edge terminates in a fringe of fibres that
fill up the interior of the mouth. The object
of this structure is readily understood when
we consider the mode in which the Whale
procures its food. This enormous animal,
although strictly an animal-feeder, and pro-
vided with an immense mouth, has an
oesophagus so narrow that he is compelled
to nourish his vast bulk by the consumption
of some of the smallest inhabitants of the
sea : his food consists, for the most part, of
the small swimming il/o//«Jca i^Clio borealis)
and Crustacea, so abundant in the Arctic
seas ; and it is said he never indulges his
stomach with anything larger than a Her-
ring. To procure these insignificant morsels
he engulphs a whole shoal of them at once
in his capacious jaws, where they are, of
course, entangled amongst the fibres of the
baleen ; the water is then strained off, and
expelled through the blow-holes, and the monster is thus enabled to
pass his diminutive prey at his leisure into his stomach. The
baleen, in fact, forms a complete sieve, through which the Whale
strains the water from his food. The lower jaw is entirely destitute
of teeth, and furnished with large fleshy lips, within which the upper
jaw, with its apparatus of horny plates, is received when the mouth
is closed.
This family embraces the genera Balcsna and Balcsnoftera. In
the typical genus Balana the back has no fin ; while in the
Balcowptcra there is a small fleshy dorsal fin. The most important
species is the Greenland or Right Whale, which is so much sought
for on account of its blubber, the source of Whale-oil, and on
account of its luhalebonc, already described, and which has nume-
rous uses. A large Whale will yield from thirty to forty tons of
blubber, and a ton or more of whalebone, so that one animal will be
of the value of at least ;^i,ooo. The proportion of the oil to the
blubber is as three parts to four.
The Greenland or Right Whale ; or Great Mysticete
(_Bal(Z!ui mysiicetus'). — This colossal animal is a native of the Arctic
seas, whither it is followed by a daring race of mariners amid
horrid icebergs and extensive floes, where danger in every form is
imminent. Cold, intense beyond description — this has to be borne ;
hunger, for often are the vessels ice-bound, and the provisions
scanty — this has to be endured ; watchfulness, fatigue, and the
chance of being ingulphed during the tremendous conflict — these the
sailor bears and braves, content if he return home with a rich harvest
gleaned from the Arctic waters. The Greenland Whale, therefore,
even in this sense, is one of the most interesting of the Cetacea ;
nor is it less so from its habits and manners, which various ob-
servers, and in particular Captain Scoresby, have contributed to
illustrate. The ordinary length of this species is from sixty to
seventy or eighty feet ; but it is said to attain occasionally to greater
dimensions. Seen at a distance, it appears as a dark ill-defined
mass floating on the surface of the water ; and, indeed, it is only
when lying on its side, after death, that its true outline is to be made
out. (See Fig. 871.)
It is upon minute animals, such as small Shrimp-like Crustacea,
Clio borealis, Meduscs, &c., that this huge animal supports his
colossal frame. Ploughing his way beneath the surface with open
mouth, he engulphs his prey by myriads, which become entangled
eraong; the filaments fringing the baleen, and thus are as it were
sifted from the water, which escapes at the sides, as already ex-
plained. Every few minutes he rises to breathe, expelling through
the blow-holes a column of steam and water, and again plunges to
continue his repast. In order to dive, the Whale "first raises his
head, and then plunges it under the surface, dr.iwing his tail at the
same time underneath the body so as to form the segment of a circle ;
instantaneously he strikes it out, and goes down like a shot. The
length of time passed beneath the surface varies ; but, according to
Captain Scoresby, it seldom exceeds half-an-hour, and this only when
harpooned ; under such circumstances, on appearing again, which
is generally at a considerable distance from the spot where the
animal descended, he is always in a state of great exhaustion, owing
Fig. 872.— The Greenland Whale.
chiefly to the immense pressure it has sustained, but no doubt in
part to the long suspension of respiration : under ordinary circum-
stances the Whale rises to breathe every eight or ten minutes. (See
Fig. 872.)
The velocity of the Whale is very great. Captain Scoresby har-
pooned one which, on being struck, descended four hundred fathoms,
at the rate of eight miles an hour. But under the pain of this
weapon they often descend a much greater depth, subjecting them-
selves to an enormous pressure of water, and are, at the same time, so
overcome by terror as often to bruise themselves severely by the rocks
met with in their course, and sometimes even to strike so violently
against the hard bed of the ocean as to fracture their jaws. At the
depth of 800 fathoms, Captain Scoresby calculated the pressure at
21 1,200 tons, exercised on the surface of the body.
The most pleasing, as well as astonishing, exhibition of the power
and activity of these animals is during the pairing season, when
they gambol and frolic in the waters, throwing themselves about in
the exuberance of delight, little aware of the approach of their
enemies. Sometimes they dart along the surface, and then dive and
re-ascend witih such energy as to leap entirely out of the water;
sometimes they raise themselves perpendicularly ; sometimes, head
downwards, they flourish their tails aloft, and lash the water with
tremendous violence, throwing the sea around them into foam, and
producing a roaring noise resounding to a considerable distance.
The tail is, in fact, not only their organ of locomotion, but their
weapon of defence ; and though extremely timid and peaceful, they
often use it, when driven to despair, with terrible effect ; and this
the more particularly when one of a pair is struck, or the life of the
cub is in danger. The mutual attachment of each pair, and the
affection of the female for her young one, are intense ; and many are
the instances on record in which the one has died in defending the
other. Captain Anderson relates, that, "having struck one of two
Whales, a male and female, that were in company together, the
wounded one made a long and terrible resistance ; it struck down a
boat with five men in it by a single blow of the tail, and all went to
the bottom ; the other stili attended its companion, and lent it every
assistance, until at last the Whale that had been struck sunk under
its wounds, while its faithful associate, disdainmg to survive^ the
loss, stretched itself upon the dead animal, shanng its fate. A
more affecting instance, exemplifying the strength of maternal
attachnient, is related by Captain Scoresby. One of his harpogners
342
THE WHALE TRIBE.
struck a cub, in the hope of capturing the mother (a plan, we are
sorry to say, frequently made use of), who arose, and seizing the
young one with her paddle, dived instantly, dragging about loo
fathoms of line out of the boat with considerable velocity. Again
she arose to the surface, furiously darted to and fro, frequently
stopping short, or suddenly changing her direction, and exhibiting
every symptom of extreme agony. For a considerable length of
Fig. 873. — Harpooning the Whale.
Fig. 874. — Dangers of the Whale-Fishery,
time she thus continued to act, although closely pursued by the
boats ; but her concern for her offspring made her regardless of the
danger by which she was surrounded. After two fruitless trials she
washarpooncd, but even then did not attempt to escape, notwith-
standing her sufferings, but still clung to her offspring, and allowed
tlie other boats to approach, so that in a few minutes three more
harpoons were fastened, and in the course of an hour both the
mother and cub were floating
dead.
Figs. 873 and 874 illustrate
the method of Whale-fishing,
and the dangers which at-
tend it.
To the natives of the incle-
ment regions of the North,
the Whale is a still more im-
portant animal than to Euro-
peans. They not only use
the oil for lighting and warm-
ing their dwellings, but also
drink it with avidity ; and
both the blubber and the flesh
are favourite articles of food
with them. This peculiar
taste has sufficient reasons,
on scientific grounds ; for the
oil, containing much com-
bustible matter, affords, dur-
ing digestion, a consider-
able amount of animal heat.
Europeans can indulge in
similar articles of food when
resident in the Arctic regions.
A well-known Arctic naviga-
tor informed us that he had
repeatedly seen his men eat-
ing tallow candles, in the ab-
sence of purely animal food ;
and this, not from sheer hun-
ger, but as a positive matter
of taste, induced by the in-
tense cold of the climate.
Indeed, the flesh of a young
Whale, when roasted and
eaten with pepper and salt,
is said to be very good, and
not unlike beef ; but that of
the older animals is black
and coarse. From the inter-
nal membranes the Esqui-
maux prepare some of their
articles of clothing, and also
a semi-transparent substance
which serves instead of glass
for the windows of their dwell-
ings : and the bones and ba-
leen are also applied by them
to various useful purposes.
The female of this species
produces only one cub at a
birth, which remains under
her care for a considerable
period, until, by the develop-
ment of the baleen plates, it
is enabled to procure its own
support. The Whale usually
lives in pairs, but sometimes
numbers are seen together in
places to which abundance of
food or other causes induce
them to resort.
The unceasing persecution
to which the Greenland
^V^lale has been long sub-
jected has not only thinned
its numbers, but driven it
from localities in which it
was formerly common. It is
at present chiefly to be found
in the icy seas of Spitzbergen,
in Davis's Straits, Baffin's
Bay, and the waters of the
Polar circle. General colour
above, a velvety - blackish
grey ; under-parts, white.
An allied species, the Cape
or Southern Whale {Balcena
THE WHALE TRIBE.
343
atisfralis, Cuv.), but not attaining- to so large a size, inhabits the
Southern Ocean, and in the month of June visits the bays of Africa
adjacent to the Cape of Good Hope, for the purpose of bringing
forth its young. It is, in fact, only the females that thus approach
the coast, and they return to the main ocean in September. The
speculations of commerce have been directed to this representative
of the northern Mysticete, which, at a future day, may in like manner
become driven from its old haunts to more remote abodes. There is
a variety of BaltBiia {Dalccna anfiJ>odaria>i) tenanting the ocean
near New Zealand, in which were considerable fisheries ; but the
victims being generally of one sex, the number of Whales is rapidly
decreasing.
Fig. 8/5 represents the instruments used in the Whale fishery, the
Harpoon and Lance, as already described and illustrated at page
342, ante, w'here the mode and dangers of the Whale fishery are also
illustrated and described.
The BalaiioptercB, or Fin-backed Whales, are distinguished from
the preceding by the possession of a dorsal fin. They are also
characterised by the shortness of the plates of baleen, which, in
animals of the same size, do not measure twice, as many inches as
those of the Greenland Whale
do feet. Their food is of a
more substantial nature than
that of the true Balance, con-
sisting almost entirely of small
fishes. The largest species is
the Bal(Z?io;ptcra boops, which
is known to measure sometimes
as much as 100 feet in length,
and is probably the largest of
all known animals, living or
extinct. Another species, the
B. musculus, an inhabitant of
the Mediterranean, occasion-
ally attains a length of nearly
eighty feet. Notwithstanding
their vast bulk, these Whales
furnish comparatively little oil ;
and as their great activity ren-
ders their capture a matter
of danger and diflaculty, they
are generally avoided by the
whalers, although the species
are found abundantly in most
seas. The largest species,
commonly known as the Fin-
fish and the Rorqual {B. boo;ps),
occurs not unfrequently on the
British coasts. The following
is a description of it : — •
The Rorqu.^l {Balrsjiop-
iera boops, Flem. ; Balcenop-
tera rorqual, Lacep.) — The
Rorquals, constituting the ge-
nus BalcznoptcrcB, differ, as
already stated, from the Green-
land Whale and its allies in
the possession of a small dorsal
fin on the lower part of the
back, and a series of longi-
tudinal folds on the skin of the
under-surface of the body, and
particularly the throat and
chest. The food of these ani-
mals consists of fishes, and
especially Herrings and other
species which go in shoals, and
they engulph multitudes at once in the abyss of their capacious
mouth. They are remarkable for the rapidity and ease of their
movements : they dart along or dive with almost unequalled im-
petuosity, and are dangerous to attack.
The Great Rorqual, as already stated, is one of the largest, if not
the largest, of this gigantic race of beings, often exceeding 100 feet
in length. Its native regions are the Polar Seas, where it is seen
both in troops and pairs, the paired males and females exhibiting
devoted attachment to each other. The Rorqual is more restless,
more suspicious, and fiercer than the common Whale, and when
struck by the harpoon, descends with such velocity as often to snap
the line. It was an individual of this species which, in the month of
November, 1827, was stranded near Ostcnd, and of which the skele-
ton was subsequently exhibited in London and Paris. The length of
the skeleton was ninety-five feet ; the head measured twenty-two
feet. The spinal column consisted of sixty-two vertebra; ; the ribs
were fourteen on each side. The expanse of the caudal paddle was
twenty-two feet and a-half. The opportunity of examining the in-
ternal anatomy of this animal was lost, a circumstance lamented in
indignant but just terms by M. Van Breda, whose memoir on the
subject IS published in Cuvicr's " Histoirc Naturelle des C6tac6s."
This writer states, that besides the usual plates of baleen, the animal
had at the tip of its muzzle a thick tuft of rounded horny filaments,
or rather coarse hairs, united at the root by a common membrane,
and divided into finer threads at their points ; these filaments were
of different lengths, some exceeding three feet. This peculiarity
had not, we believe, been previously noticed. The weight of this
individual when captured was 480,000 pounds, and 4,000 gallons of
oil were extracted from the blubber. Weight of the skeleton alone,
70,000 pounds. Fig. 876 represents the skeleton, and Fig. 877 the
general appearance of the Rorqual.
The Sperm Wh.\les, or Cachalots.
The second family of the sub-order Ccte is that of the Physcfcrt'dcs, or
Sperm Whales, which are distinguished from the true Whales by the
absence of baleen plates in the palate, and the presence of from forty
to fifty conical teeth in the lower jaw. This is shorter and narrower
than the upper jaw, so that, when the mouth is closed, it is completely
enclosed by the upper lip. The teeth fit into cavities of the upper
Fig. 875. — Whaling Harpoon {a) and Lance {li).
Fig. S76. — Skeleton of Rorqual.
Fig. 877.— The Rorqual.
s
iaw, which, although not quite destitute of teeth, possesses these
orn-ans in a very rudimentary condition, and concealed in the gums.
The head as in the true Whales, is of enormous size, forming about
one-third of the entire length of the animal, and its form is exceed-
ingly remarkable. It is nearly cylindrical, and singularly truncated
in front ; and the blow-hole, instead of being placed on the forehead,
is situated on the anterior portion of this i"\™ense snout. The mass
of this part of the head is not composed of bone, but a sort ol car-
%lgj.s envelope, containing an oily fluid, which barde"^ J/
exposure to the air ; and in this state is well-known as Spc, maceti.
This substance is also diffused through «"= blubber .pj^.,^^t,y
Thf Cojimon Cachalot, or Sperjiaceti Whale \fiiyseter
.„J"-L/T./rLinn. ; Pkysctcr catodon, ^q^^:^;;:'^^
FhrdJep which t. daring sailor is called upon to combat
is seen in all lati-
..S £1Sl,S;T4!rSv" £SKc"ii'.h. A». »d
344
THE WHALE TRIBE.
Antarctic seas. It would seem that the animal is gregarious, and is
generaJly seen in parties consisting of half-grown males, or of
females attended by their young, and guarded by one or two males
of the largest size. When solitary Cachalots are observed, they in-
variably prove to be aged males.
The speed of an alarmed Cachalot does not exceed from eight to
ten miles an hour, though, when harpooned, its temporary velocity
may be estimated from twelve to fifteen miles. When thus flying
from pursuit the huge animal moves with a regular and majestic,
although rapid pace, and with a gently leaping gait ; the anterior
and upper portions of the colossal head are raised above the water,
and a portion of the back is also frequently exhibited. When parties
are pursued, they often move in lines, like a troop of Horse, and
exert all their movements, and descend, rise, and even spout in uni-
son. When about to plunge deep, the Cachalot assumes a vertical
position, raising the caudal fin, or "flukes," perpendicularly in the
air, an action that is performed leisurely, and one that distinguishes
this from most other species of Cetacca. This evolution is not, how-
ever, invariably performed, since, when tranquilly feeding, or care-
lessly avoiding a boat, the Cachalot will descend very gradually,
lowering itself, or, as it is technically termed, " settling down." The
ordinary length of time which the Cachalot remains under water,
when alarmed or wounded, is three-quarters of an hour, but in some
instances the time has extended, it is said, to an hour and a quarter.
The chase of this animal is very hazardous, for although generally
the troop fly on the appearance of danger, yet, when one is wounded,
the others often come to the rescue, especially in the case of the
females, which mutually assist each other; while the males com-
monly make a speedy retreat. One of the latter, however, if attacked
and infuriated, is extremely formidable, and will rush with immense
velocity, head foremost, against a boat, shivering it to pieces, or,
lashing with its tail, will cut it asunder, scattering the hapless
mariners, some, perhaps, struck dead, others maimed, on the surface
of the rolling ocean. Occurrences of this kind are indeed numerous,
and many a thrilling narrative of the " hair-breadth 'scapes," and
of loss of men and boats, in the close encounter with this giant of
the waters, can an old South Sea whaler tell, and many have been
recorded, which of themselves would fill a goodly and not uninterest-
ing volume. Not only are the boats in jeopardy, but the "whaling
vessel" itself is not secure. An authenticated instance occurred of
an American ship of large size being stove in and foundered by a
blow from a gigantic male Cachalot rushing, head foremost, against
it ; and only a short time ago a British vessel was nearly lost through
a blow of one of the animals near the bows of the ship, the idea of
the captain having first led him to suppose that a violent submarine
earthquake had occurred.
The food of the Cachalot consists of Seals and fishes of a large
size, which it pursues with great pertinacity ; but it would appear
that a large species of Cuttle-fish {Octopus) forms its principal
nutriment.
We have already noticed the magnitude of the head of the present
species ; and we may here observe that this magnitude is not owing
to any extraordinary development of the skull : the maxillary and
intermaxillary bones are indeed prolonged, but the cranial portion
is small, and rises abruptly (see Fig. 878, skull of the Cachalot in
profile). If, however, we look at the upper surface of the skull (Fig.
879), we find the top deeply concave, with a margin continued
Fig. 878. — Skull of Spermaceti Whale, in profile.
along the outer edge of each maxillary bone. It is in this con-
cavity principally that the substance termed Spermaceti, or more
properly Cetine, is lodged, and that in such immense quantity as to
give to the head its extraordinary size and figure. This substance,
in a semi-fluid state, is contained in a tissue of cells, not only filling
up the concavity of the surface of the skull, but giving to the head a
singular elevation, the whole being invested by a dense cartilaginous
expansion. Cetine is also found in cells along the back, and in
other parts of the body. This cetme exists mixed with oil, and
when the Whale is killed, a hole is made in the outer and upper
part of the head, and the oleaginous fluid is baled out with buckets.
The first process is the separation of the oil by means of draining
and squeezing ; the impure cetine is then put into barrels, in the
state of a yellow unctuous mass, and is afterwards further purified
by the following process :— The mass is put into hair or woollen bags,
and pressed between plates of iron in a screw-press, until it be-
comes hard and brittle ; it is then broken into small pieces and
Fig. S79. — Skull of Spermaceti Whale, seen from above.
thrown into boiling water, where it melts, and the impurities are
separated from it. After being cooled and taken from the first
water, it is put into a boiler of clean water, and a weak solution of
potash is gradually added. This is thrice repeated, after which the
whole is poured into coolers, when the spermaceti concretes into a
white semi-crystallised mass, and on being cut into small pieces ex-
hibits a beautiful flaky appearance, so well known as belonging to
the spermaceti of commerce. Other methods have been invented
and patented for the purification and use of this product, which is
largely employed in making candles, and for pharmaceutical pur-
poses. An ordinary-sized Whale will yield twelve large barrels of
crude spermaceti.
Like other Whales, the Cachalot is clothed with a layer of blubber,
but in less abundance than in the common Whale {Balccna j/iysti-
cctics). The oil procured from it, however, is thinner and more
valuable. Fig. 880 represents in outline, a, the Spermaceti Whale,
Fig. SSc— The Spermaceti Whale.
with the sections marked for flencing, or flenshing ; b, the anterior
aspect of the head ; c, the harpoon ; d, the lance.
There is another substance produced by the Cachalot, known in
commerce under the name of Ambergris. This substance, in the
form of opake greyish masses, marbled with darker tints, and some-
what hard and brittle, is found floating in many parts of the sea, or
thrown up on the shore. It is most abundant in the neighbourhood
of the Moluccas, and along the coasts of China, Japan, Madagas-
car, Africa, and also South America. Its consistence resembles
that of common wax ; it is fatty, inflammable, and when heated
emits a fragrant but powerful musky odour. In general it is mixed
up with the beaks of Cuttle-fish, the bones of fishes, and other foreign
matters. For a long time the nature of this substance was utterly
unknown. It has been regarded by some as a sort of bitumen, or
as a kind of gum, and by others as a composition of wax and
honey. It is now known to be produced, as a concretion, in the in-
testines of the Cachalot, and is often found in sickly or diseased
animals : indeed. Dr. Schwediawer asserts that the existence of
these indigestible concretions often occasions abdominal abscesses,
after the bursting of which the ambergris is found floating on the
surface of the sea. Formerly this substance was in high estimation
as a medicine ; at present it is only used as a perfume, but is seldom
to be obtained unadulterated. As in most of the Cetacea, the skull
of the Cachalot is destitute of symmetry, having a turn, as it were,
or bend, towards the left ; it is asserted also that the left eye is
smaller and more limited in visual range than the right, on which
account the sailors endeavour to attack it on its left. Mr. Bennett
makes no allusion to this circumstance, but merely observes that if
I
THE DOLPHIN FAMILY.
315
boats are not brought within the line of vision, the animal may be
approached with great facihty, the sense of hearing- being very im-
perfect — a deficiency, however, which appears to be in some measure
compensated for by the perfection in wliich it possesses the sense of
touch, through the medium of a smooth skin abundantly supplied
with nervous papilte. It even appears as though the Cachalots had
the means of conveying impressions to one another through the
water at considerable distances ; for it is a fact well known to the
Southern whalers, that upon a Cachalot being struck from a boat,
others that are miles distant will almost instantaneously display by
their actions an apparent consciousness of what has occurred, and
either take themselves off or come down to the aid of their injured
companion. This intelligence, he supposes, can only be com-
municated by a concussion of the water.
We have said that the Cachalot roams all seas ; it appears, how-
ever, to be more scarce in the Arctic latitudes than formerly, but is
abundant in the Southern Ocean, and within the regions of the
Antarctic circle. According to Colnett, the neighbourhood of the
Galapagos constitutes a sort of rendezvous in spring for all the
Cachalots frequenting the coasts of Mexico, Peru, and the Gulf of
Panama.
We have several instances on record of this animal having been
captured on our own coast, and on that of the adjacent continent ;
it has been seen in the Mediterranean, off the southern shores of
Europe, as well as off the shores of Southern Africa, and in the
channel of Mozambique, &c. Another variety of the animal, the
Physefer iursio, or the High-finned Cachalot, has been found off
the British coasts, and has been regarded as a distinct species.
In 1769 a Cachalot was killed in the Frith of Forth, and one was
seen off the Kentish coast. In 1774 a large one was stranded on the
coast of Norfolk ; some few years since a small one was captured in
the Thames, near Gravesend. In 1784 thirty-two Cachalots ran
aground on the coast of Audierne, being stranded on the sands
towards Cape Estain. In 1819 one of sixty-three feet in length was
killed in Whitstable Bay. According to Lowe, the Cachalot " is
Fig. S81. — Lower Jaw of Spermaceti Whale,
Fig. SS2. — Skull of Spermaceti Whale, seen from below.
often driven ashore about the Orkneys, nay, sometimes caught."
If we remember rightly, one was cast ashore off Margate, in Kent,
about thirty years ago.
The general colour of this species is greyish-black above, lighter
beneath ; the eye is small, with a few stiff hairs around. There is
no dorsal fin, but a distinct protuberance ; the pectoral fins are
small, and slightly grooved longitudinally. Fig. 881 represents a
portion of the lower jaw, to show the teeth. Fig. 882, the skull seen
from below. Fig. 883, the back view of the skull, showing its occi-
pital elevation above the articulating
processes and foramen magnum. (See
also Fig. 879, ante.) Fig. 884 repre-
sents, by way of comparison, the skull
of a Greenland Whale, as seen from
below.
The Dolphins, Etc.
The DelpJwiida;, or Dolphins,
forming the third family of the Cete,
or true Cetacea, are at once distin-
guishable from the great Whales
by the more proportionate size of the
head, which usually forms about one- Fig.
seventh of the total length of the
animal. The form of the body con-
sequently becomes more regularly fish-like than in the preceding
families, and the jaws are for the most part armed with numerous
conical teeth. (See Fig. 885.) This family includes numerous
species, which are found abundantly in all parts of the globe,
8S3.— Skull of Spermaceti
Whale, back view.
rnany of them enjoymg a tolerably wide geographical distribu-
tion. They are usually far inferior in size to the gigantic crea-
tures belonging to the preceding families, ten or twelve feet beinff
their ordinary length, although a few species attain a length of
thirty feet. They are active creatures, and generally live in con-
siderable flocks, swimming and playing on the surface of the sea,
Fig. SS4. — Skull of Greenland Wli.ale, under view, lower jaw removeJ.
^l^MMAimuM^^^
Fig. 885.— Teeth of Porpoise.
and sometimes leaping quite out of the water. Some of the species
appear to find great pleasure in swimming about ships, and gene-
rally accompany them for a considerable distance, when their gam-
bols afford a good deal of amusement to the passengers on board.
The ancients were well acquainted with this habit of the Dolphin,
which they regarded as, in an especial manner, the friend of man ;
and the writings of the poets of antiquity abound with allusions to
it. The food of the Delphinidcs consists almost entirely of fishes
and Cuttle-fishes. They are well described by Ovid —
" Undique dant saltus, multaque adsperglne rorar.t ;
Emerguntque iteriim, redeuntque sub cequora ruvsus,
Inque chori ludunt speciem, lascivaque jactant
Corpora, et acceptum patulis mare naribus efflant,"
The Common Porpoise [Phoccsna commtinis). — The common-
est species of the Delphi7iidce is the well-known Porpoise, which is
found abundantly all round our coast, and occurs in all the European
seas as far as the icy regions. The Porpoises pursue the Herrings,
and other fish that swim in shoals, with great avidity, and not un-
frequently advance far up our tidal rivers in pursuit of their prey.
They may be constantly seen in the Thames. Their length is from
four to eight feet, and, when in the water, they present a consider-
able resemblance to large black Pigs, when they are frequently called
Sea-hogs and Hog-fish. (See Fig. 886.) The name of Porpoise is
also said to be derived from the French Po?'C-poisson, or Hog-fish ;
the German Mccrschweht has the same meaning ; and the French
name, Marsozihi, is evidently derived from some old Teutonic form
of the same word. In places where the Porpoises are abundant
they are often caught for the sake of the oil which they afford ; their
flesh is also eaten ; and all the other species of the family are occa-
sionally taken for the same purposes. The Grampus {Phoccena
orca), another British species nearly allied to the Porpoise, is of a
much larger size, measuring sometimes no less than nineteen feet
in length. It is a voracious animal, feeding not only upon fishes,
but also upon the smaller Cetacea; there appears, however, to be no
reason for putting any faith in the accounts of the older naturalists,
who accuse the Grampus of attacking the Whale in flocks, and wor-
rying him to death.
The Round-headed Porpoise {Phocana vielas) is another large
species, which is remarkable for its exceedingly gregarious habits,
and for the strong attachment manifested by the different members
of the flocks towards each other. This species usually measures
about twenty feet in length, but specimens have been seen of twenty-
four feet long. It is distinguished by its very convex, rounded head.
It occurs in the northern seas in vast flocks : Mr. Bell records one
2 Y
346
THE DOLPHIN FAMILY.
of these which was run ashore in Iceland, that consisted of i.iio in-
dividuals ; and as many as 780 have been captured in one shoal in
the Shetlands. In the capture of these animals the 'boatmen are
greatly assisted by the strong- instinct which prompts the Porpoises
to follow one another like a flock of Sheep ; so that when the leader
of the flock has run upon the beach, all the rest are pretty sure to
Fig. 8S7. — Skeleton of Porpoise.
follow his example. To drive them on shore, all the boats in the
neighbourhood go out and surround the shoal, upon which they
gradually close until their victims are stranded, when they are
quickly despatched ; and the sea is frequently deeply tinged with
blood during one of these massacres. The bellowings of the
animals are also described as fearful. The Shetlanders call this
Porpoise the " Ca'ing Whale," the meaning of the former word
being " driving." Fig. 887 represents the skeleton of the Porpoise.
The Dolphins. — The true Dolphins have the snout produced
into a sort of rostrum, which is separated from the forehead by a
transverse depression. The best known species is the common
Dolphin {Delphiiius delphis), which abounds in all the seas of the
northern hemisphere. It measures six or eight feet in leno-th, and
is one of the most active species of the family. This species, as
already stated, is noted for its fondness for accompanying ships in
considerable flocks, sporting upon the surface of the water as if for
the delectation of the beholders. It is said that, in these gambols,
specimens have been known to leap out of the water to such a heio-ht
as to fall upon the deck of a ship.
Amongst the numerous exotic species, which resemble their
northern allies in their general habits, we may notice one which is
remarkable for living wholly in the fresh waters. This is the Inia
boliviensis, an inhabitant of the great rivers of South America,
where it is found at a great distance from the sea, and in situations
which the intervention of cataracts would prevent its reaching if it
were a native of the salt waters. The females usually measure six
or seven feet in length ; the males twelve or fourteen. They swim in
small shoals, pursuing I'he fishes with which the South American
rivers abound, and arc, in their turn, captured by the Indians for
the sake of the oil which they
furnish.
The Gangetic Dolphin, or Soo-
sook {Platanista gaiigetica), is
another species which frequents
fresh waters ; it occurs in the
Ganges as far as that river is
navigable ; but is most abundant
in the numerous mouths through
which its waters pass into the
sea. It is consequently a less
strictly fluviatile species than
the Amazonian Dolphin.
The Beluga {Phoccsna leu-
cas ; Delplii7iaptertis leucas,
^._ ^ rip V' ' . Pall.)— The Beluga (White Fish,
or White Whale) is a native of
the high northern latitudes, and
is one of the most beautiful, con-
fident, and active of its race.
Its colour is clear milk-white,
sometimes tinged with a rose-
colour or a slight wash of yellow,
and the skin is very soft, smooth,
and slippery. It associates in
small troops or families, and is
in the habit of following and
surrounding boats or ships, gam-
bolling like the Dolphin around
them ; or chasing its finny prey,
in quest of which it often ascends
the mouths of rivers, occasionally
to a considerable distance. Dur-
ing the intense severity of the
winter, the Beluga is said to
migrate southwards ; thisjourney
cannot, however, be to any great
extent, as it very rarely occurs in
the sea around the most northern
portion of the British Isles. The
flesh of this animal is eaten
by the Greenlanders and other
people of the Boreal regions.
Crantz says it is as red as beef,
and of somewhat similar flavour :
Pallas, that it is black. The
carcass yields excellent oil, and
it is principally for the sake of
this that the Beluga is hunted.
It is sometimes intercepted by
nets extended across the inlet or
stream it has entered, and at-
tacked with lances while endea-
vouring to force its return : on
other occasions it is harpooned,
and sometimes even caught by
means of hooks baited with fish.
The female produces one or two
young at a birth, towards which she displays the strongest attach-
ment ; they follow her in all her movements, and do not quit her
until they are of considerable size. Cuvier states that the teeth
are nine in number on each side above and below. Mr. Bell states
that, in a cranium in his possession, there are eight teeth in the
upper and six in the lower jaw, on each side ; but that, as two have
Fig. 888.— The Beluga.
THE NARWHAL.
evidently fallen from the former, there must have been ten originally.
Aged individuals are often found without any teeth in the upper
jaw. The Beluga measures, when adult, seventeen or eighteen feet
in length. One caught in the Frith of Forth measured 13 feet
4 inches, and nearly nine feet in circumference at the thickest part,
viz., the centre of the body, whence it tapers both to the head and
to the tail. Fig. 888 represents the animal.
The directors of the Westminster Aquarium made an endeavour,
in 1877, to add a living^Whale to their collection ; but the animal died
shortly after its arrival in London. In May, 1878, undeterred by the
untimely death of the live Whale, which he was instrumental in bring-
ing over in the previous year, and confident that this sea monster may
be reconciled to our climate, Mr. Farini imported no fewer than three
fresh specimens, one of which was safely housed in the Westminster
Aquarium. The consignment originally consisted of four, one
having perished on the voyage ; but to most people it will doubtless
be matter for surprise that the loss was not greater, when it is
stated that these strange creatures fasted during the whole period
of the sea journey, which lasted eleven days. This enforced absti-
nence was due to the fact that, like their predecessor, they appeared
to have no desire for any food but live fish, which they insist upon
catching for themselves ; whereas it is impossible to bring them
over safely otherwise than in boxes, on a layer of seaweed. In this
position they are kept thoroughly moist — an indispensable condition
of their existence — by the application of wet flannels every three or
four minutes, both day and night. Two of the Whales were in-
tended for the Westminster Aquarium ; but it was one of these, the
largest of all, which unfortunately succumbed to the voyage. The
other, which was lodged in the bath-like tank specially prepared
at that establishment, was a Beluga ; and although very young — its
age being estimated at about eighteen months — it weighed, as nearly
as possible, a ton and a-half, and its length, strictly speaking, was
13 feet 6 inches, although it did not seem to the eye quite so long,
the measurement being taken from the lower part of the head, near
the mouth, to the extremity of the tail. In appearance it was fat,
but somewhat flabby, the skin being broken in several places by the
persistent rubbing which it had undergone ; while on the upper
part of the back, near the neck (if neck it can be called), there was
a long irregular scar of a wound which, it is conjectured, has been
caused at some time by a harpoon from a whaler. It had already
so far recovered from the effects of its long confinement as to be
able to remain for two or three minutes at a time under water, and
to devour from fifteen to twenty pounds of live Eels a-day after its
arrival. It swam incessantly at an even pace up and down the
middle of the tank ; but whether this motion was prompted purely by
a desire for exercise, or by that vague longing to escape which ap-
pears to actuate a wild beast in a cage, is not clear. It is certain,
however, that the monster did not try to force a way through the
walls of the tank, but rather avoided them, giving a lurch on to its
side, and swinging round by a motion of the tail, invariably at some
distance from either end. At the same time great care had to be
taken for fear of its injuring its head against the edges by accident,
and for this purpose a constant watch was kept, and the gas was
kept burning all night. To the curious in such matters it will, no
doubt, be interesting to learn the manner in which live Whales are
caught and exported to this country. Large numbers of them are
in the habit, it appears, of making their way at certain seasons, in
quest of fresh-water fish, up a little river or inlet on the coast of
Labrador, where these latest captures have been made. A row of
stakes is therefore driven at this period into the bed of the river, at a
considerable distance up stream. The Whales are then pursued
when returning to the sea, and, being alarmed at this barrier — for
they are of a timid disposition — are easily held prisoners by the tail
with long hooks. Here they are left, and at ebb-tide they are found
stranded in the dry bed of the river.
The Narwhal {Monodoii monoceros). — The genus Monodoti, of
which the Narwhal is the only recognised species, was provisionally
placed by Cuvier in the family DelphinidcB. It evidently forms the
type of a distinct group. Among the Ccfacea inhabiting the dreary
realms of the Polar Ocean, the Narwhal, if not the largest, or among
the largest, is nevertheless one of the most remarkable : its general
form resembles that of the Porpoise ; it has, however, no teeth,
properly so called, but two ivory tusks, or spears, implanted in the
intermaxillary bone, but of which the right remains usually rudi-
mentary and concealed during life. The left tusk, on the contrary,
attains to the length of from five to seven or eight, and sometimes
ten feet in length, and projects from the snout in a right line with
the body, tapering gradually to a point, with a spiral twist (rope-
like) throughout its whole extent. (See Fig. 88g.) In its structure
and growth this tusk resembles that of the Elephant, being hollow
at its base or root, and solid at its extremity. It is in the male only
that this spear-like weapon, under ordinary circumstances, becomes
duly developed, the females (and indeed the young males) having
the left, as well as the right tusk, concealed within its bony socket.
This rule, however, is not invariable, for females have not only been
seen with the left tusk projecting, but the right also, if wo may
credit the account of Lacepcde, who states that Capt. Dirck Pcter-
_^______ 3-17
son, commander of a vessel called the Golden Lion, brought to
Hamburg, in 1689, the skull of a female Narwhal, having two tusks
implanted in it, of which the left measured 7 feet 5 inches, the right
seven feet. It may be added, that Capt. Scoresby brought home the
skull of a female Narwhal in which both tusks projected, though
only to the distance of two and a-quarter inches, and which was ex-
Fig. 8S9.— The Narwhal.
amined by Sir. E. Home. Nor, with respect to the male, must it be
supposed that the right tusk never becomes developed, for, on the
contrary, instances sometimes occur in which the right tusk projects
externally nearly as far as the left ; and there are grounds for sup-
posing that when the left becomes lost or broken by accident, the
right tusk becomes developed to supply the deficiency. Formerly
these tusks, or horns, were looked upon to be the horns of the fabu-
lous Land-Unicorn, and therefore they were valued as an inestimable
curiosity, and sold excessively dear, till the Greenland fishery was
set on foot, when they became more common, and their real nature
known.
The use assigned to the tusk of the Narwhal by Crantz, viz., that
of uprooting marine vegetables on which to feed, is altogether a
supposition. As the male only has this instrument developed, or
generally the male, the female must be reduced to sad difficulties in
the procuring of food ; but in truth the position of the tusk renders
such a use as is here attributed to it impossible. Moreover, the
Narwhal does not subsist on marine fuci, or alga, but on soft
animal matters, as molluscs and fish. Capt. Scoresby found the
remains of Cuttle-fish in the stomachs of several which were opened
by him, and similar remains were also found in the stomach of one
driven ashore near Boston.
In general form the Narwhal resembles the Porpoise, but the head
is small and blunt ; the mouth is small, and not capable of much ex-
tension. The under-lip is wedge-shaped. The eyes are placed in a
line with the opening of the mouth, at the distance of thirteen or
fourteen inches from the snout, and of small size, being about an
inch in diameter. The spiracle, or blow-hole, is a single orifice of a
semicircular form, on the top of the head, directly over the eyes.
The fins, or flippers, are about fourteen or fifteen inches long, and
from six to eight broad ; their situation on the sides of the animal
being at one-fifth of its length from the snout. The breadth of the
tail is from fifteen to twenty inches. There is no dorsal fin, but a
sharp ridge runs down the centre of the back, the edge of which is
generally found to be rough and worn, as if by rubbing against the
ice. At an early age the Narwhal is blackish-grey on the back,
Vkfith numerous darker spots and markings running into each other,
forming a general dusky-black surface. The sides are almost white,
with dusky and more open markings : the under-surface is white.
In adult spec4mens the ground-colour of the back is yellowish-white,
with markings varying from dark grey to dusky-black, and of a
roundish or oval figure, with interspaces of white or yellowish-white
between them. The skin resembles that of the common Greenland
Whale {Balcsna viysticclKS), but is thinner. The female Narwhal
produces a single young one at a birth, which she nourishes with
milk for several months.
To the rapidity, the great powers, and the ferocity of the Narwhal,
when attacked, many writers have borne testimony. Its form is ad-
mirably adapted for cleaving the waters, and we can well believe
that the shock of its weapon, driven full tilt against an enemy, must
produce a terrible effect. The ribs of the stoutest boat would be
transfixed, by the dint of such a blow, far more easily than was ever
shield by the lance of knight in battle or tournament. Several
instances have, indeed, been known in which the animal has plunged
his weapon deep into the thick oak timbers of a ship, when it has
fortunately snapped short, the fragment remaining fixed in the ori-
fice, so as to plug it up. A portion of wood taken from the hull of a
ship, with a piece of Narwhal's tusk firmly imbedded in it, came
some few years ago under our own inspection. It is probably only in
defence of the females and their young, unless, indeed, when at-
tacked himself, that the male Narwhal thus rushes against ships or
boats ; for we utterly discredit the usual accounts of its causeless
348
THE SIRENIA, OR HERBIVOROUS CETACEA.
and indiscriminate attacks upon any object which approaches withm
its range. Doubtless, when wounded and harassed, it becomes
desperate ; and its power, its velocity, and weapon combine to
render it formidable.
The Narwhal is gregarious, associating in troops of trom six or
eight to twenty or more ;
Fig. 890. — Spearing the Narwhal.
Fig. S9 1. —Fossil Teeth of Zeuglodon.
eigni 10 iwiiiuy V.L ..."'^ , and numbers are often seen clustered
together, both in the open sea, and in bays and inlets free from the
ice forming a compact phalanx, moving gently and slowly a ong.
Under such circumstances, the independent movements of each in-
dividual are necessarily embarrassed, so that a considerable slaugh-
ter may be easily effected
among them. When attacked
at such a time, the hind ranks,
instead of turning against
their assailants, press upon
those before, sliding their
long weapons over the glossy
backs of their leaders, and all
becomes disorder and con-
fusion. Opportunities of this
kind are welcome to the
Greenlanders, to whom the
Narwhal is an important
animal. Independently of the
oil, which the Narwhal yields
in considerable quantity and
of excellent quality, the flesh
is much esteemed by these
people as food, and eaten both
fresh and in a dried and
smoked state, being prepared
over the fire of their huts.
The tendons of the muscles
are useful in the preparation
of thin but tough cordage ;
and Duhamel states (see his
"Traits des Peches ") that
several membranous sacs ob-
tained from the gullet are made
use of as parts of their fishing
apparatus. The ivory spear,
or tusk, the Greenlanders em-
ploy in various household and
economical purposes instead
of wood, and in the manu-
facture of weapons, as darts
or arrows, &c. When struck
by a harpoon, the Narwhal
dives with great velocity, and
in the same manner as the
Whale, but not to the same
extent. In general it descends
about 200 fathoms ; and on
returning to the surface, is
despatched by a whale-lance
without any difficulty. (See
Fig. 890.) The blubber is
about three inches in thick-
ness, and invests the whole
body : it affords about half a
ton of oil.
The Zeuglodon.— In the
oldest Tertiary strata of America, the bones of a gigantic extinct
Cetacean animal have been discovered, the dentition of which
differs so much from that of any existing forms, that it has
been regarded as the type of a distinct sub-order, the Zeuglo-
do7ita. The teeth are compressed and furnished with two roots,
whence the name Zeuglodon, applied to the animal. When
first discovered they were supposed to belong to some gigantic rep-
tile ; and the name of Basilosaurus was given to their unknown
possessor; but the subsequent discovery of an entire skeleton has
proved the Cetacean nature of this enormous animal, which mea-
sured about seventy feet in length.
The fossil teeth, represented in Fig. 891, were discovered by Dr.
Harlan in America ; a, represents the cut surface of one of these
teeth, each part exhibiting a central pulp cavity, and concentric
striae of growth.
Sub-order II.— Sirenia.
The Sirenia, or Herbivorous Cefacea, exhibit, in some respects, a
considerable afBnity to the Pachyderjnafa, and especially to the
Elephants ; they have, indeed, been placed in that order by De
Blainville and some other geologists. The majority, however, fol-
lowing Cuvier, regard them as forms of Cetacea, with which they
agree in their most important characters.
They, nevertheless, present several considerable differences from
the Cctc, or Whale-like animals, forming the preceding sub-order.
Thus the nostrils are placed on the front of the snout, in the same
position as in most other Mammalia; the nasal cavities present
nothing of the remarkable arrangement which prevails amongst the
typical Cetacea ; and the nostrils are, consequently, never employed
THE MANATEE AND DUGONG.
349
as blow-holes. The molar teeth, which are present in all, except
one species, are furnished with broad crowns, with transverse folds
of enamel, forming' a regular grinding surface ; and the teats, in-
stead of being placed upon the belly, in the neighbourhood of the
anus, are removed forwards upon the breast, near the fins. The
head is of moderate size, and more distinctly separated from
the trunk by a neck than in the preceding sub-order ; the mouth
is enclosed by thick fleshy lips, and the skin covered with scattered
bristles.
All these characters point more or less to an affinity with the
Elephants ; but the general form of the body, the absence of the
posterior members, the conversion of the anterior limbs into fins, and
the presence of a broad transverse tail-fin at the hinder extremity of
the body, seem to indicate a still more defined connection with the
Cetiicea.
The bones in these animals are dense and heavy ; whilst those of
the true Whales are light and spongy. The heart presents a most
singular structure, its two auricles being separated by such a deep
cleft that the organ presents two points, and appears as though com-
posed of two separate hearts.
The Sirenia inhabit the sea-shores, especially about the mouths of
rivers, up which they sometimes penetrate to some distance. They
feed entirely upon seaweeds and aquatic plants, and do not, as
stated by some authors, quit the water to pasture on the shore. They
are seen frequently to support themselves in an upright position,
with the upper part of the body out of the water, when they are said
to present a somewhat human appearance at a distance, the illusion
being assisted by the long whiskers which usually project from the
upper lip, and the pectoral mamma; of the females. It is supposed
by Cuvier, and many other naturalists, that the lively imaginations
of the ancient mariners raised, upon this slight foundation, all the
wonderful stories of Tritons and Sirens, Mermen and Mermaids,
that we meet with in the old writers.
Sub-divisions. — In this sub-order we have only two families.
The first is that of the Rhytniida;, which only includes a single
species, the Rhytina stelleri, or Northern Manatee, which, like the
Dodo, has become extinct, but at a much more recent period. This
singular animal was distinguished from the other herbivorous Cctacea
by the total absence of true teeth ; the only masticating organs
which it possessed being a pair of bony plates in the anterior portion
of the mouth, one of which was attached to the palate, and the other
to the lower jaw. The Rhyfina j/cZ/er/' measured about twenty-fivo
feet in length, and about twenty feet in girth at the thickest part.
The skin was of a very remarkable nature. The true skin was not
more than a sixth of an inch thick, of a soft texture, and whitish
colour ; but this was concealed beneath an epidermic coat, which
often attained an inch in thickness, and was composed entirely of
perpendicular horny tubes, analogous to hair. This epidermis was
of a blackish-brown colour, very rough, and strongly wrinkled on the
sides, so that it had no small resemblance to the bark of a tree ; it
was so exceedingly tough that an axe would not penetrate it without
difficulty.
This most remarkable creature was discovered in the year 1741,
upon the shores of an island in Behring's Straits, on which Behring^s
second expedition was shipwrecked ; its flesh formed the principal
food of the unfortunate mariners who were compelled to pass ten
months in that inclement latitude ; but although surrounded with
everything that could discourage a man, one of the party, M.
Steller contrived to prepare a most admirable account of the
animal, which was afterwards published in St. Petersburg ; the
author, however, did not live to superintend the publication of his
treatise. In honour of this in-
defatigable observer, his name
has been appended to the ani-
mal of which he furnished such
an excellent account ; and this
probably contains all we shall
know of it, as the islands near
which it occurred were soon
afterwards visited by numerous
ships, in pursuit of the Sea-
Otters which abounded there ;
and the crews killed these large
Cetaceans in such numbers, for
the sake of their flesh, that it is said the last Rhyihia was
destroyed in 1768, within twenty-seven years of the first dis-
covery of the species. The only remains of this animal, at present
known, consist of a skull and a few other fragments in European
museums.
The Manatee. — The Manah'dcB, or Sea-Cows, are always fur-
nished with molar teeth, and, when young, with two incisor teeth
in the upper jaw ; the latter are permanent in one genus {Halkore),
but fall out at an early period in the other iJManatus). (See Fig.
8g2. ) The skin is always more or less covered with scattered bristles.
The habits of these animals, which are peculiar to the tropical seas,
have already been described under the characters of the sub-order.
(See Fig. 893.)
In the true Manatees, or Lamantins {Manaius), the molar teeth
vary m number from eight to twelve on each side of each jaw, and
the caudal hn is of a rounded form. They are confined to the Atlantic
Ocean, two species inhabiting the American coasts, and one occur-
ring on the west coast of Africa; The largest species Uf. latiros-
tris), which inhabits the Gulf of Mexico, and extends as far as
Florida and the West Indies, measures fourteen or fifteen feet
in length, and is said even to attain a still larger size. The
African species [M. sctiegalensis) does not exceed eight or
nine feet. The South American species (j1/. australis) occurs
about the mouths of the great rivers of that continent, and
usually measures nine or ten feet in length. All the species
occur in considerable abundance, and are pursued with avidity
by the natives of the respective countries on whose coasts they
Fig. S92.— Skull of Manatee.
Fig. 893.— The Manatee.
live, for the sake of their flesh and oil. Humboldt states that
the flesh of the South American species is excellent, and fur-
nishes a most welcome article of food to the Roman Catholics
of Brazil, as it is regarded by the Church as a fish, and may
consequently be eaten on fast-days. When salted, and dried in
the sun, it will keep for a whole year. The oil of this species is
also excellent in quality, and quite free from smell ; its skin is cut
into harness, and frequently also into whips, which are much dreaded
by the unfortunate slaves in those countries. Fig. 894 represents
the skeleton of the Manatee.
The Dugong {Halicore cetacea ; HaUcore dugong, F. Cuv. ;
Halicore tndicus, Desmarest). — This species is a native of the
o^^3^;?>>.
Fig. 894. — Skeleton of Manatee.
Indian seas, being common among the islands of the Indian
Archipelago, and visiting also the coasts of Australia. Its
favourite haunts are the mouths of rivers and straits bet\yeen
proximate islands, where the depth of water is but trifiing (three
or four fathoms), and where, at the bottom, grows a luxuriant
pasturage of submarine algaj and fuci : here, in calm weather,
small troops may be seen feeding below the surfar-^, and every
now and then rising to take breath. The position of the
mouth, the muscular powers and mobility of the lips, garnished
with wiry bristles, and the short incisor tusks of the upper jaw,
enable these animals to seize and drag up the long tronds of
the sub-aquatic vegetables which constitute their nounshment.
(See Fig. 895.)
350
THE DUGONG— FOSSIL CETACEA.
The Dugong is in high esteem as an article of food, its flesh being
tender and not unhke beef; hence it is hunted assiduously by the
Malays, who attack the animal with harpoons, in the management
of which they are very dexterous. Of recent years its oil has been
used m Europe as a substitute for Cod-liver oil in scrofulous and
cognate diseases.
Fig. S95.— The Dugong.
The mutual affection of the male and female is very great, and
the latter is devoted to her offspring. If a Dugong be killed, the
sur\'iv'or of the pair, careless of danger, follows after the boat,
carr>-ing the body, impelled by an overmastering passion, and thus
often shares the fate of its partner.
The Dugong attains to the length of seven or eight feet; its
caudal paddle is crescent-shaped ; the large thick upper lip hangs
over the lower; the skin of the body is thinly set, with very short
prickly bristles ; the anterior limbs, or flippers, are destitute of nails.
The ventricles of the heart are not united together, but form, as it
■were, two distinct hearts joined at the top: this separation of the
ventricles does not alter the routine of the circulation. The eyes are
very small.
An allied species {Halkore tabernaaiU) has been discovered by
MM. Ehrenberg and Ruppell, in the Red Sea, and off the east
coast of Africa.
Fig. 896 represents the skeleton of the Dugong, which may be
compared with that of the Manatee in Fig. 894, ante. They may
also be compared with the skeleton of the Porpoise, Fig. 887, ante,
(a true Cetacean), with advantage. In the Indian Dugong there are
seven cervical vertebrs, nineteen costal, and thirty lumbar, pelvic
and caudal. In the Dugong of the Red Sea these latter vertebra
amount to thirty-three, making in all fifty-nine. The number of ribs
is nineteen on each side. The lower jaw is articulated to the cranium
by a true synovial capsule, reflected over cartilaginous surfaces, and
not, as in the true Cetacea, by a coarse, oily, ligamentous substance.
frontal, which consist of two portions advancing forwards, so as to
enter into the upper margin of the nasal orifice, and form the ceiling
of the orbits. The interma.xillary bones {a) advance far forwards
but are destitute of teeth, excepting during the early stages of the
animal's existence : these bones form the lateral edges of the nasal
onfice, which is very spacious ; but in the living animal the bones
are continued by a cartilaginous addition, so that the nostrils open
at the end of the muzzle. The orbits are situated far forwards, and
their margin is very prominent ; the zygomatic arch is broad and
strong ; the muzzle advances directly forwards with a very slio-ht
gradual downward bend. The dentition of the Manatee is illustrated
in Fig. 898. In adult skulls eight molars on each side are usually
tound ; in others nine or ten ; and Fred. Cuvier observes that, as in
Fig. 89S.— Teeth of Manatee.
Fig. 899. — Teeth of Dugong,
Fig. S96. — Skeleton of Dugong.
Fig. 897 represents the skull of the Dugong ; that of the Manatee
was given in Fig. 892, ante. The skull of the Manatee may
be distinguished from that of the Dugong by the following par-
ticulars : —
The nasal bones are very small, and imbedded, so to speak, in the
Fig. 897.— Skull of Dugong.
some of the ordinary Pachydermata, the anterior molars, worn the
first, fall as the posterior ones become developed, being, indeed,
pushed out by their advance.
The skull of the Dugong (Fig. 897) is distinguished by the enor-
mous size of the intermaxillary
bones, a, which extend back-
wards as far as the middle of
the temporal fossa;, and are
bent down with a sudden angle
(reminding us of the beak of the
Flamingo) over the elongated
symphysis of the lower jaw.
In this deflected portion of
each intermaxillary bone is
lodged the root of a permanent,
tusk-like, but not very promi-
nent incisor, there being two
of these teeth above, none be-
low. This development and
shape of the intermaxillary
bones throws the nasal orifice
higher up than in the Manatee; the lower jaw is thicker, shorter,
deeper, and its symphysis fits the deflected portion of the inter-
maxillary bones. In the young Dugong the molars are five on
each side, above and below ; but the three anterior are deciduous,
the two last being permanent.
Fossil Cetacea.
In respect to the fossils of the order Cetacea, we may remark
that the skulls of several species of gigantic animals have been
found in the Tertiary strata of different parts of the world,
which are referred by Palaeontologists to the present sub-order
of Sirenia. Amongst these we have already referred, at page 833,
ante, to the remarkable Diywtherium, of which the bkuU has
been found on the banks of the Rhine. The animal appears to
have been more than equal to the Elephant in size ; and, like
that quadruped, it was furnished with a pair of long tusks ; but
these projected from the end of the lower jaw, which is curved
downwards at a right angle to the body of the jaw ; the tusks
were thus directed downwards, and it is supposed that the
animal employed them to support its head upon the shore.
The molar teeth are broad, and furnished with notched trans-
verse ridges; and the nasal cavity is of very large size, as in
A PLACENTAL ANIMALS.
3SI
the Elephant : from this and other circumstances, it is supposed
that the Dhiotherium was furnished with a short flexible trunk.
Fuller particulars have been afforded at page 335, ante, where the
" restored " animal is illustrated.
In his " Pakeontology," Prof. Owen remarks that the marine de-
posits of the Miocene show the remains of extinct genera of Dolphins
\Tiphius and Dioplodoii), and of Whales {Baiccnodon). Petrified
Cetaceous teeth, and ear-bones, called " Cetololites," have been
washed out of previous strata into the red crag of Suffolk. These
fossils belong to species distinct from any known existing Cctacca,
and which probably, like some contemporary quadrupeds, retained
fully-developed characters, which are embryonic and transitory in
existing cognate Mammals. The teeth of these Cctacca were de-
termined in 1840, and the ear-bones in 1843. The vast number of
these fossils, and the proportion of phosphate of lime in them, has
led to their enormous use as manure by the agriculturists, as crude
super-phosphates. Thousands of cubic acres must have been broken
up to furnish the Cetacean nodules of the red crag.
In regard to the Siroiia, Prof. Owen observes that, as represented
at the present day by the Dugongs and Manatees (see a7ite, p.
349), there were abundant and more widely distributed representa-
tives during the Miocene periods, having on the whole the nearest
affinity with the existing African Manatee, Maitatus seiiegaleiisis,
but with associated characters of the Dugong. There were, for
example, two incisive tusks in the upper jaw, and four or five small
incisors along the deflected part of each ramus, or lower jaw. The
upper molars, with three roots, were thickly enamelled, like those of
the Manatee, but with a pattern of grinding surface which led
Cuvier to attribute detached specimens to a species of IJil,f,of,ota-
7m,s. Ihe lower molars had two roots. All the bones have the
dense and solid structure of those of the Sirenia. On the remains
of this remarkable amphibious animal, discovered in the Miocene
beds at Kppelshcim, Kaup founded the genus Ilalitlicrium Other
remains have been discovered in Piedmont, Aste, and many parts
of France, from the " calcaire grossier " of the Gironde, containing
Lophiodont fossils, up to the Pliocene near Montpcllier, at which
period the Halitherium seems to have become extinct. The
Zeuglodon, a fossil Cetacean, has already been described at paee
348, ante. '^ "^
We are indebted for the following list of fossil British Cetacea to
Morris's "Catalogue of British Fossils."
Fossil British Cetacea.
Name.
Balsena mysticetus,
f » It
Batenodon affinis.
,, definita.
,, emarginata.
,, gibbosa.
,, physaloides.
Batenoptera boops.
Monodon minoceros (see p. 347).
Phocsena crassidens.
Physeter macrocephalus.
LOCALITV.
Pleistocene, Brighton ; London.
PI. and M., Heme Bay.
Red Crag, Felixstow ; Suffolk.
Pleistocene, Bridgewater.
Pleistocene, Essex.
Pleistocene, Lincolnshire.
PI. and M., Essex.
CHAPTER XXII.
MAMMALIA.— SUB-CLASS APLACENTARIA— KANGAROOS, Etc.
. LL the animals that have been described in
the preceding chapters belong to what, for
the sake of distinction, we may call the
Mammals proper. In the first chapter we
gave ample descriptions of all the pecu-
'iiarities they are characterised by. But in
the sub-class now before us we have an
extraordinary departure in one respect.
All the previously-described Majnmalia
•are brought alive into the world, having
had previous life in the uterus of the
female. They are therein attached to the parent by
-..., ^^-_ means oi 3. ^placenta, by which they receive, directly,
El ^^' nutriment before birth ; hence all the previously-
lit ^1^ described animals are called Placentaria. In the
animals of the present sub-class no such provision
exists. Hence tliey are called A;placentarta. These
two groups of Placental and Aplacental animals are
distinguished not only by this physiological character
indicated in their names, but also by structural cha-
racters of importance, which are quite sufficient to
prove that this division of the class is perfectly
natural, as will be seen by the following remarks.
SUE-CLASS I. — APLACENTARIA
General Characters. — The K^\a.c^r\\.3X Mammalia, as already
stated, are those in which the embryo never forms a vascular con-
nection with the uterus of the mother, the ovum being simply
retained within the uterus, and the requisite nourishment for the
development of the young animal obtained by absorption. An
analogous process is supposed to take place in the ovoviviparous
fishes. But the size of the young animal, in comparison with the
original yelk, is much greater in the Mammal than in the Fish, and
the necessity for a supply of nourishment from the mother must
increase in the same proportion ; so that the term ovoviviparous,
applied to these Mammalia by many authors, is scarcely so strictly
ajiplicable to them as to the Viviparous Reptiles and Fishes.
Although this character, being strictly physiological, does not in
itself serve to distinguish an animal belonging to this group from a
Placental Mammal, the imperfect state of the newly-born young,
consequent on their somewhat premature introduction into the
world, necessitates the provision of certain organs which furnish
excellent characters for that purpose. Thus the great majority of
the animals belonging to this sub-class, are provided with a singular
pouch (Lat. Alarsiipiuni) extending under the belly, in which the teats
are situated ; and the young, when born, are introduced into this
cavity, where they adhere firmly to the teats, and remain concealed
until their development has proceeded sufficiently far to enable them
to venture forth from their retreat. For the support of this pouch,
these animals are furnished with two bones, which pass up the front
of the abdomen, resting upon the front of the pelvis (Fig. 900) ; and
these bones (called marsupial bones) are found not only in the
females, which alone possess the pouch, but
^ also in the males. They also occur in the
three members of the group, the females of
which are destitute of the abdominal pouch ;
so that they may be regarded as charac-
teristic of the Aplacental Mammals.
Another important character by which
these creatures are distinguished from the
members of the other sub-class, is derived
from the structure of the brain, which is
always destitute of the great commissure,
called the corpus callosum, that in the
majority of the Mammalia unites the two
hemispheres of the brain. The latter are
usually smaller than in the other Mam-
malia, and leave the cerebellum, and some-
times even the optic lobes, uncovered.
These animals, both in their mode of
reproduction and in their general structure,
evidently approach the oviparous classes,
and they are accordingly placed at the
bottom of the Mammalian series. At the
same time they frequently exhibit, in many
of their characters, a remarkable resem-
blance to the higher groups of Mammalia ; so much so, in
fact, that some naturalists have proposed to insert them amongst
the other orders in those places, their title to which appeared
to be indicated by their external characters and mode of life.
In the present day, zoologists are tolerably unanimous in re-
garding the Aplacental Mammals as a group apart, although offering
many points of analogy with the higher orders. The Mo?ii)trcmata,
however, have been retained by Wagner among the Edentata.
Divisions. — The Aplacentaria are divided into two very dis-
tinct orders. In one of these, which makes the nearest approach in
its structure to the oviparous Vertebrata, the abdominal pouch is
wanting, and the intestinal canal, and generative and urinary
organs, all open, as in the Birds and Reptiles, into a coraraoa
Fig. 900. — Pelvis of the
Echidna.
<-, base of the vertebral
column ; i, iliac bone ;
VI, marsupi.il bone ; f,
cavity for the head of
the femur.
352
THE ORNITHORHYNCHUS.
cloaca. From this circumstance these animals are denominated
Mo7iotremata [fnotios, single; and trema, an orifice). In the
second order, that of the Marsuj>ialia {niarsup!UT>i, a pouch), the
general structure agrees more closely with that of the ordinary
quadrupeds ; the urinary and generative organs have a common
orifice, which is quite distinct from the anal opening ; and the abdo-
men, in the females, is furnished with a pouch for the reception of
the young during their long infancy.
Order I.— Moxotrem.\ta.
General Characters. — The Monotrcmata show most dis-
tinctly, in all their characters, a relationship to the oviparous Verte-
hrafa. The bones of the skull, as in Birds, are early united together
in such a way as to obliterate the sutures. The cranium is very
small in comparison with the facial bones, which project in a more
or less beak-like form ; the jaws are not covered by soft, movable
lips, and are either entirely destitute of teeth, or furnished with sub-
stitutes for them, in the form of small horny plates.
The bones of the shoulder (Fig. 901) are unlike those of any
other Mammals, and appear to be intermediate in their arrangement
between those of Birds and Reptiles.
At the top of the sternum there „ ^,^ ^
is a T-shaped bone, formed by the
union of the two clavicles, in the
same way as the furcula of a Bird ;
one of the three extremities of this
bone rests upon the top of the ster-
num ; whilst the other two are in
contact with the acromion processes
of the shoulder-blade. Besides
these, the coracoid bones, which
are reduced to the form of small
processes of the shoulder-blade in
the other Mammalia, are here of
large size, and assist, as in the
Birds, in the support of the scapular
arch ; whilst the shoulder-blades
themselves are produced beyond the
socket of the humerus, to such an
extent that they also rest against
the sternum.
The eyes are of small size, and
the external ear altogether deficient.
The orifices of the alimentary, uri-
nary, and generative organs, all
open into a common cloaca, as in Birds, and the whole structure
of the female sexual organs is very similar to that of a Bird.
The feet have five toes armed with long nails ; and, besides these,
the males are furnished with long spurs on the hind legs ; at the
base of these is a glandular organ, and the spurs are perforated ; but
it does not appear that there is any truth in the assertion that the
wounds inflicted by them are venomous.
So little is known of the habits of these animals, that it was long
Fig. 901. — Sternal apparatus of
the Ornithorhynchus.
rt, acromion process ; co, coracoid
bone ; </, clavicles united ; /;,
socket for humerus ; 0, scapula ;
s, sternum ; c, ribs.
considered doubtful whether they did not produce eggs instead of
living young; and even at the present day, the condition in which
the young are born, and the way in which they contrive to obtain
tlicir natural nourishment, are still matters of dispute. The orifices
of the mammary glands are not elevated into nipples, but consist of
simple slits in the skin of the abdomen. The order Monotremata
includes three species, all natives of Australia, which form two
families — viz., the Ornithorhyiicidce and the Ec/u'dm'dcB. Of the
former there is but one known species, of which the following is a
description : —
The Ornithorhynchus {Orntiko-hynchtis ;paradoxus, Blu-
menb. ; Platypus aiiatiiius, Shaw ; Mallangong and Tambreet of
the natives of the borders of the Yas river, Murrumbidgee, &c.) —
The genus Ornithorhytichus is perhaps the most singular of any
contained in the class Manunalia, and certainly one of the most
interesting, especially to the physiologist. It contains those re-
markable creatures furnished with a Duck-like beak and webbed
feet, which would seem, even from their external organisation, to
partake in some degree of the nature of a Bird — creatures, the first
discovery of which excited the most lively astonishment.
On looking at the Ornithorhynchus, we are immediately struck
with the configuration of the head. Instead of a muzzle gradually
continued, as we see in other Mammalia generally, it abruptly
assumes the appearance of the bill of a Duck, being broad, flat,
rounded, and covered with a leathery membrane. (See Fig. 902.)
The outer surface of the upper mandible is greyish-black ; the palate
flesh-coloured ; the under mandible paler externally. The edges of
Fig. 902.— The Ornithorhynchus.
Fig. 903. — Teeth of Ornithorhynchus.
both are soft, and the lower, which is the shortest and
narrowest of the two, has its edge adapted to a depres-
sion under the margin of the upper mandible, which is
also channelled with obliquely transverse furrows ;
those, however, are merely in the leathery skin. There
are no horny laminae, as in the bill of the Duck. True
teeth are wanting ; but on each side in either man-
dible there are two horny appendages without roots ;
one on each side is large and tuberculous, situated on
the base of the mandibles, at the posterior part of the
mouth ; the other forms a long narrow ridge on the
anterior part of the mandible along the edge. (See Fig.
903.) Capacious cheek-pouches are carried under the
skin of the face, from the inside of the mouth, serving
as receptacles for food. At the base of the beak,
separating between it and the head, there projects a
broad, loose, leathery flap from each mandible, the use
of which is probably to defend the eyes and fur of the
head from the mud in which the animal grubs. Duck-
like, in quest of insects. The tongue is short and
thick, and covered with long papillae. The nostrils
are two small orifices situated near the apex of the
upper mandible. The eyes are small, but brilliant,
and placed rather high in the head. The ears open
externally by a simple orifice near the external angle
of the eyes, and are capable of being e.xpanded or
closed at pleasure.
The fore-feet are largely webbed, and divided into
five toes, terminating in strong, blunt, burrowing
claws. The web which unites the toes is tough and
leathery : it extends considerably beyond the claws,
and would appear at first sight to act as an impedi-
ment to the animal while excavating its long burrow.
THE ORNITHORHYNCHUS.
353
We do not find, however, that this is the case : it can be folded back
at pleasure. The hind-feet are smaller and less powerful than the
anterior pair : they are divided into five toes, armed with sharp claws,
and webbed, but the membrane is not carried out beyond the roots
of the claws. The hind-feet are directed backwards, as in those of
the Seal (see Skeleton, Fig. 904), and their action is backwards
Fig. 904. — Skeleton of Ornitliorhynchus.
and outwards. The tarsus of the male is armed with a large, sharp,
movable spur, turned backwards and inwards. It is not used as a
weapon of defence, nor are accidental wounds and scratches made by
it while struggling in a person's hands attended with ill effects.
Formerly this spur was regarded as poisonous. In the female a
rudimentary spur may be distinguished. (See Fig. 905.)
The body is elongated, low, and
depressed ; the fur is close and fine,
and consists of two sorts, an under-
layer of soft, short, waterproof wad-
ding, and an outer vest of long, fine,
glossy hair, thickly set, and in many
instances assuming a crisped appear-
ance. The tail is strong, broad, flat-
tened, and of moderate length : it is
covered above with longer and coarser
hairs than those of the body, but its
under-surface is only scantily fur-
nished. General colour, deep brown ;
head and under-parts paler ; a
whitish spot in front of each eye ;
average length of head and body,
including tail, twenty to twenty-three inches ; beak, about two inches
and a-half ; tail, four or five inches.
Essentially aquatic, as is sufficiently declared by its outward
structure, the Ornithorhynchus passes the active part of its existence
almost exclusively in the water. The favourite places of resort of
this animal are tranquil parts of rivers with high steep banks, and
abounding in water-weeds, among which, and in the oozy mud, are
the insects, &c., on which it feeds.
Their burrows (see Fig. 906) are excavated in the steep banks
overhanging the tranquil sheets of water in which they seek their
Fig. 905. — MagnifieJ IlinJ-loot of
Female Ornithorhynchus.
Fig. go6. — Burrow of Ornithorhynchus.
food. These burrows are continued in a serpentine form, rising as
they proceed, the termination often being at the distance of fifty
feet from the mouth. The entrance is generally larger than the rest
of the passage, but the termination is again enlarged, so as to be
commodious for the parents and their offspring. The female pro-
duces from two to four at a birth, and in the month of November (a
summer month in Australia). The young at an early period (imme-
diately after birth, and for some time afterwards) are naked, and
very small, and their general aspect is very unlike that of the fully-
developed animal. They are curled round, the head and tail being
doubled on the abdomen ; the skin of the body is thrown into trans-
verse folds ; the eyes are merely indicated by the convergence of a
few wrinkles on the skin, which passes over these organs, proving
that their development does not take place till a considerable time
after birth, and, together with the helpless rudimentary condition of
the young animal, demonstrating that it is necessarily confined for
a long period to the nest in which it is brought forth, and conse-
quently that it does not and cannot follow (as has been conjectured,
I like a Duckling just hatched) its parents to the water. The beak is
small, soft and covered with thin skin. "The margins of the
upper mandible are rounded, smooth, thick, and fleshy ; the whole
ot the under mandible is flexible, and bends down upon the neck
when the mouth is attempted to be opened. The tongue, which in
the adult is lodged far back in the mouth, advances in the youne
animal close to the end of the lower mandible ; all the increase of
the jaws beyond the tip of the tongue, which in the adult gives rise
to a form of the mouth so ill calculated for suction, or application to
a flattened surface, is peculiar to that period, and consequently
forms no argument against the fitness of the animal to receive the
mammary secretion at an earlier stage of existence." (Prof. Owen )
That the Ornithorhynchus suckles its young, and possesses' a milk-
secreting apparatus, are facts which, though once denied, arc now
incontestably proved.
If the hairs be removed from the abdomen of a female Ornithor-
hynchus, an areola or oval spot may be distinguished, consisting of
a group of ducts, very minute, yet with orifices larger than those in
which the hairs are implanted. The areola varies in extent, and
the ducts lead to a large gland beneath the skin, and a thin muscu-
lar expansion. This mammary gland is composed of a number of
lobes, amounting from 120 to 200, and tliese are tlie cells in which
the milk is secreted, and which oozes from the ducts, and is re-
ceived by the soft mouth of the young, which is capable of being
closely applied to the areola.
Specimens of two young Ornithorhynchi of different sizes were
minutely examined by Professor Owen. The smallest of these
rather exceeded two inches in length ; the largest was double that
size, and was one of the two young ones taken with a mother from
a nest, on the banks of the Fish river, by Lieutenant the Honourable
Lauderdale Maule, and kept alive for about a fortnight by that gen-
tleman. The stomach of this larger specimen was ifound to be full
of coagulated milk. On carefully inspecting the whole contents
with a lens, no portion of Worms or bread could be detected, which.
Prof. Owen observes, solves the doubt entertained by Lieutenant
Maule, as to whether the mother nourished this young one with the
food which was given to her for her support, or with the secretion
afterwards discovered to escape from the mammary pores ; for the
mother having been killed by accident on the fourteenth day after
her captivity, it was observed, on skinning her while yet warm, that
milk oozed thi-ough the fur on the stomach. That it was really milk
on the stomach of the young animal. Professor Owen demonstrated,
and the matter may be considered as
fairly set at rest. Another point which
seems to be now established is, that the
Ornithorhynchus is Ovoviviparous, or,
in other words, produces eggs, which,
as in the case of the Viper and the
viviparous Lizard {Zooloca vivipara,
Bellj, are hatched just before exclu-
sion, the young being born rudimen-
tary and naked.
Referring to our illustrations. Fig.
907 exhibits a portion of the integu-
ment from the abdomen of the Orni-
thorhynchus, with the hairs removed,
to show the mammary areola. (Owen,
"Phil. Trans.") Fig. 908, a magni-
fied view of the mammary areola,
showing the orifices of the ducts of
the glandular lobules. Fig. 909 shows
the mammary lobular gland of the
Ornithorhynchus, reduced below the natural size. (Owen, " Phil.
Trans.") Fig. 910, view of the larger of the specimens of young
Ornithorhynchi just alluded to ; a, the nostrils ; c, the eyes ; d, the
ears ; e, thesvent ; f, the orifice and rudimentary spur of the hind-
Fig. 907. — Portion of integu-
ment from the abdomen of
Ornithorhynchus.
Fig. 908.— Magnified view of the Mammar)- Areola,
2 2
354
THE ORNITHORHYNCHUS.
foot; g, membrane at the base of the mandibles. (Owen, " Zool.
Trans.") Figs. 911, 912, smaller specimen of young Ornithorhynchus,
and front view of head, a, nostrils ; b, prominence on upper mandi-
bles ; e, vent ; f, orifice and rudimentary spur on hind-foot ; c, the
eyes ; d, the ears ; g, the membrane at the base of the mandibles ;
//, the tongue. (Owen, " Zool. Trans.")
Fig. 909. — Mammary gland of Ornithorhynchus, reduced below the
natural size.
Fig. 910. — Larger Specimen of young Ornithorhynchus.
From the account of Mr. Bennett, who
procured and kept several of these ani-
mals in Australia, it appears to be a lively
interesting creature. Its voice, which it
utters when alarmed or disturbed, re-
sembles the growl of a puppy, but in a
softer key. It dresses its fur, and seems
to delight in keeping it smooth and
clean. (Fig. 913.) the mandibles are
endowed with great sensibility. Speak-
ing of a family of these creatures which
he obtained, and which lived a con-
siderable time in captivity, Mr. Bennett
says, " The young sleep in various pos-
tures ; sometimes in an extended po-
sition, and often rolled up, like a Hedge-
hog, in the form of a ball. (Fig. 914.)
They form an interesting group, lying in
various attitudes in the bo.\ in which I
had placed them, and seeming happy Fig. gn. —Smaller specimen
and content. Ihus, for mstance, one of young Ornithorhynchus.
lies curled up like a Dog, keeping its
back warm with the flattened tail, which
is brought over it, while the other lies
stretched on its back, the head resting,
by way of a pillow, on the body of the
old one, which lies on its side, with the
back resting against the box ; the deli-
cate beak, and smooth clean fur of the
young, contrasting with the rougher and
dirtier appearance of the older one ; all
fast asleep." The gambols of the )'oung
Ornithorhynchi are thus detailed : " One
evening both the animals came out
about dusk, and went, as usual, and ate food from the saucer,
and then commenced playing with one another like two puppies,
attacking with tlieir mandibles, and raising their fore-paws against
each other. In the struggle one would get thrust down, and at the
moment when the spectator would expect it to rise again and renew
the combat, it would commence scratching itself, its antagonist
looking on, and waiting for the sport to be renewed. When running
Fig. gi2. — Front view of
mandibles of the above.
they are exceedingly animated; their little eyes glisten, and the
orifices of their ears contract and dilate with rapidity : if taken mto
the hands at this time for examination, -they struggle violently to
escape ; and their loose integuments make it difficult to retain them.
Their eyes being placed so high on the head, they do not see
objects well in a straight line, and consequently run against every-
Fig. 913. — Ornithorhynchus combmg itself.
Fig. 914. — Ornithorhynchus sleeping.
thing in the room during their perambulations, spreading confusion
among all the light and readily-overturnable articles. I have occa-
sionally seen them elevate the head, as if to regard objects above
or around them. Sometimes I have been able to enter into play
with them by scratching and tickling them with my finger : they
seemed to en|oy it exceedingly, opening their mandibles, and biting
playfully at the finger, and moving about like puppies indulged with
similar treatment. As well as combing their fur to clean it when
wet, I have also seen them peck at it with their beak (if the term
may be allowed), as a Duck would clean its feathers. When I
placed them in a pan of deep water, they were eager to get out after
being there for only a short time ; but when the water was shallow,
with a turf of grass in one corner, they enjoyed it exceedingly. They
would sport together, attacking one another with their mandibles,
and roll over in the water in the midst of their gambols, and would
afterwards retire, when tired, to the turf, where they would lie comb-
ing themselves. They appeared to be in a great measure nocturnal,
preferring the twilight to the bright glare of day."
In Fig. 916, the skull of Ornithorhynchus is represented in dif-
ferent aspects : a, as seen from above ; b, as seen from below ; c, as
seen from behind. The upper figure (915)13 that of the under jaw. The
skull is remarkable for the flattened and elongated form of the bones
of the facial portion ; the intermaxillary bones, which are, as it were,
let into projecting maxillaries, diverge, leaving a vast opening (the
foratneyi iiicisivum). The cranial cavity is considerable ; the
orbits are small ; the zygomatic arch slender and compressed. The
sub-orbital foramen appears on the edge of the upper mandible, its
situation being marked by a projection of the bone. The lower jaw
is slender and depressed ; there are no coronoid processes ; the
outer sides of the ascending rami (though very narrow) have, as
THE ECHIDNA.
355
in most, if, indeed, not all the Marsupials, a pit-hke cavity for
Iho lodo-ment of the massetcr muscle. The extent of the temporal
muscle is trifling. The skull of the Ornithorhynchus can be con-
founded with that of no other animal,
1^'iJ- 9IS- — Lower Jaw of Oinithorhynchu5, seen from hclow.
Fig. 9x6. — Skull of Ornithorhynchus.
With respect to the sternal apparatus, to which we shall allude
in our account of the Echidna, it appears to be formed more
after the model of that of the Saurian reptiles, than after that of
Mammalia. (See Fig-. 917.)
The Echidnid.-e. — The family of the
Echidni'dcs, or Porcupine Ant-eaters, in-
cludes only two species, which, like the
Ornitkorhynchiis, are found in New
South Wales and Van Diemen's Land.
In many respects these animals re-
semble the Ornithorhynchus ; but they
differ from that curious creature in several
important particulars. Thus the snout,
instead of taking the form of a flattened
Duck's bill, is produced into a nearly
cylindrical organ, of which both man-
dibles are enclosed in a continuous skin,
except just at the apex, where there is a
small orifice to allow of the protrusion
of the tongue. The latter organ, by an
arrangement of longitudinal and annular
muscles, which we can see repeated in
the true Ant-eaters, is capable of being
extended and contracted to an immense
extent, so that it may be exserted from the mouth to a length of nearly
eight inches, and retracted till it is wholly concealed. The jaws are
entirely destitute of teeth ; and the nostrils, as in the preceding
family, are placed at the end of the snout. The legs are short and
strong, and the feet all furnished with five toes, armed with powerful
claws, but destitute of the sw'imming membranes that form so re-
markable a feature in the Orniihorhynchus. The body is short and
. 917. — Sternal apparatus
of Ornithorhynchus.
thick ; the tail is reduced to a very small size ; and the skin is
clothed with bristly hairs, intermixed on the upper surface with
numerous short, acute spines, very similar to those of the Hedgehog.
The structure of the sternal apparatus, the mammary glands of the
female, and the spurs on the hind-legs of the male, is the same as
in the Ornithorhynchus, already described under that head.
Of the two species belonging to this family, one, the Echidna
/yj//7'.v (Fig. 918) is certainly peculiar to New South Wales; and
Fig. 918. — Echidna.
the other. Echidna setosa, is said to be proper to Van Diemen's
Land— although, according to Mr. AVaterhouse, it is also found in
New South Wales. They measure from fifteen to eighteen inches 111
lencrth, and arc found generally in hilly countries, where they live in
burrows, and feed upon insects, principally Ants and Termites, \vliirli
they capture by the protrusion of their long sticky tongues. _ They
are slow, dull, nocturnal animals, but exhibit a wonderful activity m
dig<nn'- for which their powerful claws are admirably adapted.
When surprised, they either make their escape by burrowing into
the earth, or roll themselves up in the manner, of a Hedgehog, so as
to expose their spiny covering to the enemy. '
The Great Ant-Eater has been already described at page 212,
ante, among the Edentata.
.Order H.— Marsupialia.
GENERiiL Characters.— This order includes a considerable
number of species, the majority of which are inhabitants of Austra-
lia, although a few are found in the warmer parts of America They
exhibit a great variety of structure and habit ; and the families into
which they are divided often differ from each other as much as the
orders of the Placental Mammalia. Thus the arrangement arid
form of the teeth, and the structure of the extremities, vary exceed-
ingly in the different families ; and these subordinate groups are
here often distinguished by characters of the same nature as the
orders of the higher forms. . • , ■, v .,
From these the Marsupialia are of course distinguished by the
characters already given for the sub-class; and their principal
points of difference from the Mottotremata may be given in a few
words One of the most important consists in the separation of the
orifices of the urino-gerital apparatus and alimentary canal, which
no loncrer discharge themselves into a common cloaca. Ano her
character is the possession by the female of a more or ess complete
pouch, situated in the under-part of the abdomen, within which the
teats are inclosed, and which serves for the protection of the imma-
ture voun<T. Here they remain suspended to the teats during the
earliest periods of their existence, and in many cases they also re-
treat to this natural shelter when alarmed, long after tfy have
begun to lead an independent life, as will be subsequently illustrated
under the ^description of the Kangaroo. The marsupial bones are
thus called into requisition for the support of the sac, with its con-
ained young ones; but we nevertheless find these bones in the
r^ales, in which no such office is to be performed. It is found a so,
that the mammary organs in the female marsupial animals are fur-
nished with pecu'7ar muscles, destined, ^7 their contmc ion to pro-
mote the flow of milk into the stomach of the y°""£- ^f 'f 'iJ"^ 'fj*^
early ages appear not to possess the strength requisite to obum
this noSrishment by the ordinary process of mucking. f^^'-^^^^
able, also, that in order to provide the young f '""^i^' .^ '* ',';^^^„"^e^!
of breathing whilst engaged in this perpetual and, to ^ '^^/'^ ° "^
tent, involuntary sucking, the larynx is prolonged "P^^^rds to tne
aperture of the posterior nares, where it is embraced by he soft
tk Ln^arrangemenPt as the above sUl^^^more^.n^^^^^^^^^^^
The skull IS very variable >° fo"^"?' ^'^^ ^^^^ ^^ys f'urnished with
3S6
THE WOMBAT— THE KANGAROOS.
eluded by the zygomatic arch. The external ears are always pre-
sent, and often greatly developed ; and, lastly, the arrangement of
the bones of the scapular arch is similar to that of the ordmary
Mammalia.
The first traces of the existence of Mammalia upon the earth
consist of the fossil remains of animals of this order. They make
their first appearance in the Stonesfield slate, and in the gypsum of
Paris ; so that, during the formation of these strata, that part of the
earth which we now call Europe, was inhabited by animals of a type
that, in the present day, is entirely confined to Australia, a few of
the Indian islands, and America.
Sub-divisions.— The Marsiipialia may be divided into two
great sections— the Phytophagous, or plant-eating, and the Rapa-
cious, or Carnivorous, and Insectivorous groups. These two sections
are well characterised by the structure and arrangement of the
teeth. In the former the canine teeth are small, and sometimes
altogether wanting in one or both jaws ; the incisors, on the con-
trary, are large, but never more than two in number in the lower
jaw, and the molars are furnished with broad, tubercular crowns.
This section includes three families.
The first of these is the family of the Phascolomydcs, includmg
only a single species, the curious Wombat {Phascolomys fossor), an
inhabitant of Van Diemen's Land, and the small islands in Bass's
Straits.
The Wombat {Phascolomys fossor ; Phascolomys ■wombat,
Peron and Lesueur ; Didelphis ursifta, Shaw). (See Fig. 919.)
Fig. 919.— The Womb.it.
In its general figure the Wombat is heavy and clumsy : the limbs
are short ; the muzzle blunt ; the eyes very small : the ears short and
pointed; the nostrils widely separated ; the tail a mere tubercle.
The feet are broad ; the fore-feet have five toes, with strong nails for
burrowing. The hind-feet have also five toes, but the inner is merely
a little nailless tubercle. The teeth are formed for grinding roots
and other vegetable matters. (See Fig. 920.)
Dental formula: — incisors, _; canines, -^^; molars, ?~j = 24.
2 0-0 5—5
All the teeth are deeply implanted, and hollow at the base.
The fur is moderately long and very coarse, indeed almost bristly ;
the general tint is grizzled-brown, or grey, mottled with dusky-
black ; the feet are black ; the under-parts of the body dirty white.
The tip of the muzzle is naked. Length of head and body, from two
to three feet. The first account is in Lieut. -Col. CoUins's work (" Ac-
count of the English Colony in New South Wales," 1802),. where
there is an excellent description, an error as regards the dentition
of the animal excepted. The details were furnished by Mr. Bass,
and drawn up from a specimen obtained at Preservation Island, and
sent to the Newcastle museum.
As might be conjectured from its clumsy form and heavy squat
proportions, the Wombat is slow and indolent. It lives in burrows,
which it excavates to a considerable depth, and in which it quietly
reposes during the day, being nocturnal in its habits. Its food is
exclusively vegetable. Its temper is placid ; but its intelligence is
at a low ratio. When provoked it utters a hissing sound. Its flesh
is said to be excellent.
In captivity the Wombat is perfectly contented ; it passes the day
in sleep, covered over by straw or other materials ; it feeds during
the night, and in the morning resumes its tranquil slumber. Mr. G.
Bennett, in his "Wanderings," notices one of these animals which
was kept at Been, in the Tumat country, in a state of domestication.
" It would remain in its habitation till dark ; it would then come out
and seek for the milk-vessels, and should none be uncovered it would
contrive to get off the covers, and bathe itself in the milk, drinking
Fig. 920. — Teeth of Wombat.
at the same time. It would also enter the little vegetable garden
attached to the station, in search of lettuces, for which it evinced
much partiality. If none could be found, it would gnaw the cab-
bage-stalks without touching the foliage. Although these animals
were numerous in the more distant parts of the colony, they are
difficult to procure, from the great depth to which they burrow."
According to Mr. Bass, though its disposition is gentle, yet it bites,
and is furious if provoked, and then utters a low cry between a hiss-
ing and a whizzing sound. Mr. Bass chased one of these animals,
and lifted it off the ground, carrying it for upwards of a mile without
its exhibiting any discomposure, though it was often shifted from arm
to arm. When, however, he proceeded to secure the animal by tying
its legs, while he left it in order to cut a specimen of a new wood, it
became irritated, w-hizzed, kicked, and scratched with all its might,
and snapped off a piece of Mr. Bass's jacket with its powerful in-
cisors. The creature, whose temper was now ruffled, continued dur-
ing all the rest of the way to the boat to kick and struggle, and only
ceased from exhaustion. According to the natives, the Wombat,
among the mountains westward of Port Jackson, never comes out of
its burrow to feed till night, but in the islands it is seen to feed dur-
ing all parts of the day. The stomachs of such as Mr. Bass
examined were distended with coarse wiry grass ; but these speci-
mens were living on the islands ; and as such grass is not found in
the hilly districts of the mainland, he concludes that the animal
lives upon the sorts of vegetable that circumstances present to it.
He observed this animal on some occasions among the dry ricks of
seaweed thrown up upon the shores, but could never discover what
it was in search of. Its pace is a sort of hobble, something like the
awkward gait of a Bear. There is little doubt but that the Wombat
might easily be naturalised in our island and other parts of Europe.
In 1879, living specimens of the common Wombat, and of the
Platyrhine Wombat {P. platyrkinus) were in the collection of the
Zoological Society, Regent's Park, London.
The Macropodid^, or Kangaroos.
The second family of the Marsiipialia is that of the Macropo-
didcB {macros long, and pous foot, both terms being derived from
the Greek, and genus Macropus), or Kangaroos, which are at
once distinguished among the Marsupials by the structure of the
hind-legs. These organs are exceedingly long and powerful ; and
the feet, being much elongated, rest with their whole sole upon the
ground ; the fore-legs, on the contrary, are very short, and are of
little use to the animal in progression, its movements consisting in
C.3
<=>
cx:
-a:
THE KANGAROOS.
Ml
. . 6 • o-
incisors, - ; canines, —
2 0-
powerful leaps, effected by the extension of the hind-lcjjs. In its
natural position, the Kangaroo sits upright upon its haunches, with
the assistance of its powerful tail, which, with the two hind-feet,
forms a sort of tripod. In opposition to this great development of
the hind-parts of the body, all the fore-parts are exceedingly small,
so that some fanciful observers have compared the animal to a crea-
ture compounded out of portions of two others of very different
bulk.
The head is small, and furnished with good large ears, and the
upper lip is cleft. The dentition is very different from that of the
Wombats, and in some respects resembles that of the Horse. There
are six incisors in the upper jaw, but only two in the lower ; the
canines are always deficient in the lower jaw, and very small in the
upper, where they are also sometimes wanting, or concealed by the
gums ; so that there is always a considerable space between the in-
cisors and the molars, which are five in number on each side, and of
a more or less quadrangular form. Hence the dental formula of —
and molars, i^5 = 28. The anterior
5-S
feet are furnished with five toes, each of which is armed with a claw;
the hind-feet, on the contrary, only possess four toes, the inner one,
or great toe, being deficient. Of these, the two outer are the
largest, and are terminated by strong hoof-like nails ; whilst the
inner ones are united together as far as the root of the nails.
With regard to the character of the internal organs, we may ob-
serve that the stomach is of a complex structure, being divided by
constrictions into several compartments. The object of this arrange-
ment is not clearly known ; but Professor Owen has observed a sort
of rumination to take place in some species. The coccum attains a
considerable size, but is destitute of the vermiform appendage.
In reference to the skeleton of the Kangaroo, we quote the follow-
ing remarks of Professor Owen from the " Circle of the Sciences."
Australia possesses an indigenous race of Herbivorous Mammals
created to enjoy existence on its grassy plains. But the climate of
this fifth continent, as, from its extent, it has been termed, is subject
to droughts of unusual duration, and the parched-up grass, ignited
by the electric bolt or other cause, often raises a conflagration of
fearful extent, and leaves a correspondingly wide-spread blackened
desert. To the Antelope, and other Ruminants of tropical or
warmer latitudes, swiftness of limb has been given, which enables
them to migrate to river valleys, where the vegetation is preserved
from the influence of the dry season. Australia, however, is peculiar
for its scanty supply of perennial streams ; the torrents of the brief
periods of rain are reduced to detached pools in the dry season, and
these are parched up in the long droughts, leaving hundreds of
miles of the country devoid of surface water. If, then, the parent
Herbivore could traverse the required distance to quench its thirst,
or satisfy its hunger, the tender young would be unable to follow the
dam. A modification of the procreative process has accordingly
been superinduced, which characterises the Australian Mammals ;
the young are prematurely brought forth, of embryonic size and
helplessness, and are transferred to a pouch of inverted skin, con-
cealing the udder ; and in this viarsupium, as in a well-stored
vehicle, they are easily transferred by the parent to any distance to
which the climatal conditions may compel her to migrate. The
economy of this portable nursery, the requisite manipulation of the
suckling young therein suspended from the teat, demand a certain
prehensile power of the fore-limbs, a freedom of the digits, with
some opposable faculty in them, and the possession of so much
sense of touch as would be impossible were the digit to be incased
in a hoof; the horny matter is accordingly developed only on the
upper surface of the finger-end, and is in the form of a claw. But
the unguiculate pentadactyle extremity — though a higher grade of
structure in the progress of limbs — is not suited for the exigencies
of the Herbivore, and would have appeared utterly incompatible
with an existence dependent on grazing in wild pastures, had wc
argued from knowledge restricted to the forms and structures of the
hoofed Herbivores of the Europseo-Asiatic, African, and American
continents. How, then, it may be asked, is this difficulty overcome
in the case of a grazing animal, necessarily a marsupial, and con-
sequently an unguiculate one ? The answer need only be a reference to
Fig. 921 ; the requisite faculty of migration of the parent with the
tender offspring is gained by transferring the locomotive power to
the hinder part of limbs extraordinarily developed, and aided by a
correspondingly powerful tail ; the fore-limbs being restricted in
their development to the size requisite for the marsupial offices and
other accessory uses.
This is the condition or explanation of the seemingly anomalous
form and proportions of the Kangaroo — so strange, indeed, that the
experienced naturalists, Banks and Solander, may well be excused
for surmising they had seen a huge bird when they first caught a
glimpse of the Kangaroo in the strange land which they, with Cook,
discovered.
The rapid course of the Kangaroo is by a succession of leaps, in
which twenty to thirty yards are cleared at a bound ; the Herbivore,
instead of a swift courser on four pretty equally developed hoofed
extremities, is, in Australia, a leaping animal ; and the saltatorial
modihcation of the I\lammalian skeleton is here shown in that of one
of the swiltest and most agile of the numerous species of Kangaroo,
the Macropits dcgans.
In this Kangaroo, 13 vertebrrc are dorsal, 6 are lumbar, 2 are
sacral, and 2S are caudal, the first fourteen of which have h.x-ma-
pophyses. These elements coalesce at their distal ends, and form
small haemal arches ; they overspan and protect from pressure the
great blood-vessels of the tail, the powerful muscular fasciculi of
which derive increased surface of attachment from these hxmal
arches. 1 he pelvis is long; the strong prismatic ilia, S2, and the
ischia, 63, carry out the great flexors and extensors of the thigh to a
distance from their point of insertion— the femur, which makes
these muscles operate upon that lever at a most advantageous
angle ; the trunk, borne along in the violent leaps, needs to be un-
usually firmly bound to the pelvic basis of the chief moving powers.
Accordingly, we find a pair of bones, 64', extending forwards from
the pubic symphysis, 64, along the ventral walls, giving increased
bony origin to the unusually developed median abdominal muscles
attaching the thorax to the pelvis; and these "marsupial bones,"
as they are called, have accessory functions relating to reproduction
in both sexes of the Marsupial quadrupeds. The femur, 65, is more
than twice the length of the humerus : it is proportionate^ strong,
with well-developed great
and small "trochanters,"
and a " fabella" behind one
or both condyles. The pa-
tella is unossified. The
fibula, 67, is immovably
united to the lower half of
the tibia. This bone, 66, is
of unusual length and
strength, and is firmly inter-
locked below with the troch-
lear astragalus. The heel-
bone sends backwards a
long lever-like process for
the favourable insertion of
the extensors of the foot.
This member is of very
unusual lensjth. The inner-
most toe, or hallux, is Fig. 921.— Skeleton of the Kangaroo-
absent ; the second and (Macropm cUi^ans).
third toes are extremely
slender, inclosed as far as the ungual phalanx in a common fold
of integument, and reduced to the function of cleansing the
fur. The offices of support and progression are performed by the
two outer toes, iv and i\ but principally by the fourth, which
is enormously developed, and terminated by a long, strong, three-
sided, bayonet-shaped claw ; these two toes are supported, as
usual, by the os cuboides, which is correspondingly large, whilst the
naviculare and cuneiform bones are proportionally reduced in size.
The bones of the fore-limb, though comparatively diminutive, pre-
sent all the complexities of structure of the unguiculate limb. The
clavicle, 58, connects the acromion with the sternum, and affords a
fulcrum to the shoulder-joint. The humerus, articulating below
with a radius and ulna which can rotate on each other, develops
ridges above both inner and outer condyles, for the extended origin
of the muscles of pronation and supination. The brachial artery
pierces the entocondyloid ridge. The carpal bones, answering to
the scaphoid and lunar in the human wrist, arc here confluent. The
digits are fi^;e in number, enjoy free, independent movements, and
are each terminated by a sharp-curved claw.
The Great Kangaroo {Macropus major, and M. g/gajifeus,
Shaw ; M. nemoralis, M. fridicus, tSjc.)— The general aspect of
the Kangaroos is very peculiar ; the anterior parts of the body are
light and flexible, and the fore-limbs are small. In contrast with
these characters is the vast development of the hinder quarters, i.''0
haunch, hind-limbs, and tail ; parts 'it the frame in which the mus-
cular power of the animals is concentrated, to which wc have .already
called attention in the precedi-.ig account of the skeleton of these
animals by Professor Owen.
The diet of the Kangaroo is exclusively herbaceous ; the stomach
is very large and sacculated, and balls of hair, similar to those so
often occurring in the stomach of Cows and Oxen, have in .a few
instances, been found in it. These balls, as was observed by I'rof.
its erect attitude; but this .act by no means takes place with the
same frequency and regularity as in the true Ruminants-v.z.. the Ox
or Uecr.
358
THE KANGAROOS.
The Great Kangaroo (the Boomer, Forester, and Old Man Kan-
garoo of the Colonists ; Bundaary of the Aborigines) is extensively
spread in Australia, the intermediate country between New South
Wales and South Australia, and also in Van Diemen's Land, or
Tasmania. It was first discovered by the celebrated navigator
Captain Cook in 1770, while stationed on the coast of New South
Wales.
The Great Kangaroo is not, strictly speaking, gregarious ; more
than si.x or eight are seldom seen together ; most frequently it is
met with singly, or in pairs. The kind of country which it prefers
consists of low grassy hills and plains, skirted by thin open forests
of brushwood, to which Wx. Gould says it resorts for shelter from the
oppressive heat of the mid-day sun. That it would bear, if natural-
ised, the severities of our winter, is beyond a doubt, since in Tas-
mania, among other places, it resorts to the bleak, wet, and fre-
quently snow-capped summit of Mount Wellington.
The male greatly exceeds the female in size, measuring 7 feet 10
inches from the nose to the extremity of the tail, the length of the
latter being little more than three feet. Instances have occurred of
the weight being 220 pounds. The general colour is uniform grey-
ish-brown, grizzled on the arm and under-surface. A whitish mark
runs above the upper lip, and is faintly traceable along the sides of
the face. The hands, feet, and tip of the tail are black. (See Fig. 922.)
Fig. 922. — Great Kangaroo.
The Kangaroo readily takes to the water, and swims well. It
often resorts to this mode of escaping from enemies, among which
is the Dingo, or Australian Dog. Man, however, is the most unre-
lenting foe of this inoffensive animal. The native employs several
modes of obtaining it. Sometimes he steals upon it, under the
covert of the trees and bushes, till within range of his unerring
spear. Sometimes numbers of men unite in a large party, and,
forming a circle, gradually close in upon the animals with shouts
and yells, by which the animals are so terrified and confused, that
they easily become victims to the bommerangs, clubs, and spears
which are directed from all sides against them. The colonist era-
ploys the gun, and a breed of Dogs between the Greyhound and
Bulldog, fierce, powerful, and very fleet for the course. ''Many of
these Dogs," says Mr. Gould, "are kept at the stock-stations of
the interior for the sole purpose of running the Kangaroo and the
Emu." The latter is killed solely for the supply of oil which it
yields, and the former for mere sport, or for food for the Dogs.
"Although," he adds, " I have killed the largest males with a sin-
gle Dog, it is not advisable to attempt this, as they possess great
power, and frequently rip up the Dogs, and sometimes cut them to
the heart with a single stroke of the hind-leg. Three or four Dogs
are generally laid on, one of superior fieetness to j)uU the Kan-
garoo, while the others rush in upon and kill it. It sometimes
adopts a singular mode of defending itself by clasping its short but
powerful arms around its antagonist, leaping away with it to the
nearest water-hole, and there keeping it beneath the surface until
drowned. With Dogs the old males will do this whenever they
have an opportunity, and it is also said they will attempt the same
with man."
In Tasmania the Great Kangaroo is regularly hunted with Hounds,
as the Deer or Fox in England. The sport is said to be excellent.
Mr. Gregson says, in a letter to Mr. Gould, " I recollect one day in
particular, when a very fine Boomer jumped up in the very middle
of the Hounds, in the open. He at first took a few high jumps with
his head up, and then, without a moment's hesitation, he stooped
forward, and shot away from the Hounds apparently without effort,
and gave us the longest run I ever saw after a Kangaroo. He ran
fourteen miles by the map, from point to point, and if he had had
fair play, I have little doubt that he would have beat us. But he had
taken along a tongue of land that ran into the sea, so that on being
hard pressed, he was forced to try to swim across the arm of the
sea, which cannot have been less than two miles broad. In spite of
a fresh breeze, and a head-sea against him, he got fully half-way
over ; but he could not make head against the waves any farther,
and was obliged to turn back, when, being quite exhausted, he was
soon killed. The distance he ran, taking the different bends of the
line, was not less than eighteen miles." He was far before the
Hounds, and quite fresh when he took to the water. His hind-quar-
ters weighed nearly seventy pounds. " We did not measure the
distance of the hop of this Kangaroo ; but on another occasion, in
which the Boomer had taken along the beach, and left his prints in
the sand, the length of each jump was found to be fifteen feet, and
as regular as if they had been stepped by a sergeant. When a
Boomer is pressed, he is very apt to take to the water, and then it
requires several good Dogs to kill him ; for he stands waiting for
them, and as they swim up to the attack, he takes hold of them
with his fore-feet and holds them under water. The buck is very
bold, and will generally make a stout resistance ; for, if he cannot
get to the water, he will place his back against a tree, so that he
cannot be attacked from Ijehind, and then the best Dog will find him
a formidable antagonist. The doe, on the contrary, is a very timid
creature ; and I have even seen one die of fear."
The period of gestation in the Kangaroo is thirty-nine days. The
appearances presented by the young one twelve hours after birth,
and adhering to the teat of the mother, within the pouch, are thus
described by Prof. Owen : — " It resembled an earth-worm in the
colour and semi-transparency of its integument, adhered firmly to
the point of the nipple, breathed strongly but slowly, and moved its
fore-legs when disturbed. Its body was bent upon the abdomen, its
short tail tucked in between the hind-legs, which were one-third
shorter than the fore-legs, but with the three divisions of the toes
now distinct. The whole length, from the nose to the end of the
tail, when stretched out, did not exceed one inch and two lines."
Though enabled by means of its lips to grasp the nipple with con-
siderable firmness, the unaided efforts
t of the young one could not draw nutri-
ment thence, and consequently the mam-
mary gland is acted upon by a peculiar
muscle, which, compressing it, forces out
the milk into the mouth of the young, as
has been already explained. The following
cuts represent the peculiar arrangement
by which the sucking of the young is thus
facilitated. (See Figs. 923, 924.)
"Thus aided and protected by modifi-
cations of structure," remarks Professor
Owen, " both in the system of the mother
and in its own, designed with especial
reference to each other's peculiar con-
dition, and affording, therefore, the most
irrefragable evidence of creative foresight,
the feeble offspring continues to increase
from sustenance exclusively derived from
the mother for a period of about eight
months. The young Kangaroo may
then be seen frequently to protrude its
the pouch, and \.o_ crop the grass at
Fi.?. 923.— Outline of the
Kangaroo about twelve
hours after birth, showing
its natural size and exter-
nal development at this
period. a, the upper
nipple of the left side, to
which it was attached ;
b, the lower nipple of the
same side.
head from the mouth of
the same time that the mother is browsing. Having thus acquired
additional strength, it quits the pouch, and hops at first with a
feeble and vacillating gait, but continues to return to the pouch
Fig.
924. — I. Dissected Head of Mammary Foetus of a Kangaroo. 2. Teat of
the Mother : the mark shows how far it is taken in by the young.
3=-
V*-
THE KANGAROOS.
359
for occasional shelter and supplies of food till it has attained
the weight of ten pounds. After this it will occasionally insert its
head for the purpose of sucking, notwithstanding another foetus may
have been deposited in the pouch, for the latter, as we have seen,
attaches itself to a different nipple from the one which had been
previously in use."
The following cut represents the skeleton of the Kangaroo in an
upright position, which may be compared with that in a bent form,
given in Fig. 921, ante, by which the peculiarities of the structure of
the Kangaroos, as contrasted with all other forms of ihe. Mammalia,
will be further illustrated.
Fig. 925. — Skeleton of Great Kangaroo.
In the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, London, there were
(1879) """^ following specimens of living Kangaroos — viz., ^Bennett's
Kangaroo, Halinaturus bennetti ; the Derbyan Kangaroo, Hal-
viatu7-iis derb/'amis ; the Great Kangaroo, Macropus gjgas, or
giganteiis ; the Black-faced Kangaroo, ]\Iacj-opiis inelaiiops ; the
Red Kangaroo, IMacropus riifus; and the Yellow-footed Rock-
Kangaroo, Pcfrogale xanthopus. Most of these have bred in the
Gardens. The Rock-Kangaroos differ from the ordinary forms in
the structure of their feet, which are adapted to their rock-loving
habits, and in their bushy dangling tails. About si.x species of this
genus occur in different parts of Australia, amongst which the most
elegantly marked is certainly the Yellow-footed Rock-Kangaroo of
South Australia.
The KiVNGAROO Rat, or Potoroo {Hypsiprymnus murinus,
Pander and D'Alton). — The Bettong of the natives of New South
Wales.
It is principally in their dentition, and in the elongated narrow
form of the head, that the little animals of the genus Hypsiprymnus
differ from the Kangaroos. There are canines in the upper jaw.
The dental formula is as follows (see Fig. 928) : — Incisors, — ; ca-
2
nines, ~ ; molars, ill5 = 30. Fig. 937 represents the skull,
the elongated contour of which is very conspicuous, resembling the
peculiar structure of the Rndentia.
The Potoroo (the Macropus minor of Shaw; H. sefosiis of
Ogilby ; H. peronii, Quoy and Gaimard) is about the size of a
Rabbit, measuring fifteen inches from the nose to the root of the
tail, the latter being ten inches and a-half in length. The general
colour of the fur is brown; on the back blackish, pencilled with
brownish-white. Lips, chin, throat, and under-parts of the body
dirty-white ; fore-feet brown ; ears rounded, and well covered with
hair ; tail scaled, and sparingly clothed with short decumbent hairs,
which (excepting at the base and extreme point) are of a black
colour on the upper part and sides of the tail. The hairs on the
under-side are brown : and at the tip there are a few dirty-white
hairs.
The Potoroo is common in New South Wales. It is timid and in-
offensive, feeding on vegetables, and proceeding in the manner of
Fig. 926. — Kangaroo Rat.
Fig. 927. — Skull of Kangaroo Rat.
Fig. 92S. — Teeth of Kangaroo Rat.
the Kangaroo. Of its habits little is known. It frequents the pre-
cincts of scrubs and patches of brushwood, and scratches up the
crround in quest of roots. These animals are found to be very
destructive to the potato crops, and are thus easily caught by
baiting the trap with this vegetable. The above cuts represent the
Kangaroo Rat, its skull and teeth (Figs. 926—928).
The Tree Kangaroos, of the genus De?idroIagns, of which
some species are found in New Guinea, differ from the rest of the
family, consequent on their habit of living in trees. Their size
varies greatly! some of the largest species being over four feet in
length in the body, while the smallest are about the size of the
Kangaroo Rat, just described.
'360
THE PHALANGERS.
The Phalangers. — Family Phalangisiid^.
The third and last family of the Phytophagus Marsupials, is that
of the Phalangistidcr, or Phalangers, which resemble the Kanga-
roos to a considerable extent in their dentition, but differ from these
in their complete adaptation for an arboreal existence. The
stomach, unlike that of the Kangaroos, is simple in its construc-
tion, and the intestine is furnished with a very long cfficum. The
Ogilby) has the tail less densely clothed than in Phala^igista
proper : the apical portion is naked beneath ; the fore-feet, with the
two united inner toes, slightly opposed to the others.
Besides these are the Flying Phalangers, constituting a distinct
genus, Petaiiriis. The true Phalangers, of which we illustrate the
Sooty Tapoa (see Fig. 929), and the Vulpine Phalanger {Pk. vul-
^ina) (see Fig. 931), are animals of arboreal habits, residing almost
constantly among the branches. Their food consists principally of
fruits, buds, leaves, &c., but insects, eggs, &c., are also eaten.
Fig. 929. — Sooty Tapoa.
tail is usually very long ; but in one genus, on the contrary, it is
reduced to a mere rudiment. The following description affords the
chief characteristics of the species of this family.
The Sooty Tapoa {Phala7igista fuiiginosa). — This animal pre-
sents us with the example of a group termed Phalangers (genus Pha-
langista) ; but they are often erroneously called Opossums by travel-
lers and persons not conversant with Natural History. (See Fig. 929.)
The Phalangers of Australia have six incisors above, of which the
two middle are the largest ; and in the lower jaw are two long ob-
liquely projecting incisors, which are met by the corresponding
incisors on each side. There is a small canine on each side in the
upper jaw only. The molars on each side, above and below, are
five, of which the first is a false molar. These are the constant
teeth ; but besides there are, in some species, little additional molars,
sometimes canine-like molars, in front of the contiguous and con-
stant series. The number of these additional teeth varies in the
same individual on different sides of the jaw. Dental formula: —
Incisors, _ ; canines, ^—^■, molars, 5jl5 . additional inconstant
2 0-0 5-5
molars,
2-2
(See Fig. 930.) The head
3-3 l-I 2-
is somewhat elongated, the forehead slightly arched ; the mouth
moderate. The feet have five toes ; those of the fore-feet are armed
with strong hooked claws ; those of the hind-feet consist of four
true toes, and a large thumb destitute of a nail, and very distinct
from the rest, of which the two innermost are shorter than the two
outermost, and are united together to the base of the claws. The
tail is long and prehensile, well furred, excepting at the extreme
point and part of the apical portion beneath, which is bare to a
greater or less extent. We may here observe that the Phalangers
form three sections, or sub-genera. The first {Pka!a»gisfa) is ex-
clusively Australian, and has the tail naked beneath only at the tip.
The second section comprehends a group {Cuscus), distinguished
by having the tail throughout the greater part of its extent beneath
naked, scaly, and highly prehensile. The ears are short and close.
These animals inhabit the Celebes and Moluccas, where they are
called Couscous, or CoSscoes. The third group {Pseudocheirus,
Fig- 930.— Teeth of Sooty Tapoa.
Night is their season of activity ; during the day they conceal them-
selves in the hollows of trees, or lie close on the branches, hidden
by the foliage. The number of young which the females produce at
a birth appears to be two, at least if the account of Mr. Bennett
(see "Wanderings in New South Wales") is to be taken as a cri-
terion. He states that on one occasion he was present when a
number of Flying Squirrels (viz., Flying Phalangers), Opossums
(Phalangers), Bandicoots, Snakes, &c., were caught by the natives
during what he terms a hunting expedition, and that one of the
Opossums among the game was a female, and had two large-sized
young ones in her pouch.
Though the Phalangers are at ease among the branches, the
motions of these animals, generally speaking, are not distinguished
by that nimbleness and rapidity which we so much admire in the
Squirrel. On the contrary, their motions are slow and cautious, and
they use their prehensile tail as an additional security. When in
danger of discovery, they are said to suspend themselves by the tail,
hanging, head downwards, motionless as if dead ; and this is more
remarkably the case with the Couscous of the Moluccas. It is,
indeed, reported, that if a man fix his eyes on one thus counterfeit-
ing death, it will continue to hang till, no longer able to sustain the
weight, the muscles of the tail relax with extreme fatigue, and the
animal falls to the ground. Few animals have more soft and deli-
cately woolly fur than the Phalangers ; their skins are consequently
highly prized by the Aborigines, as well as their flesh, which is eaten
with avidity, and doubtless is not inferior to that of the Kangaroo.
Like many of the Marsupials, the Phalangers have an unpleasant
smell, owing to a fluid secreted in certain glands ; but this does not
affect the delicacy and flavour of the flesh.
In captivity the Phalangers are not very attractive : during the
day they slumber concealed among the hay or other bedding of their
cage, shrouding themselves from observation, and are impatient of
interruption ; they do not, however, attempt to bite, and appear as
stupid as they are sluggish : their form, however, is graceful, and
their fur sets them off to much advantage. When feeding, they sit
up like the Squirrel, holding the article of which they are partaking
between the fore-paws. During the night they traverse their cage,
take their food, and enjoy the active hours of their existence. We
know of no instance in which they have bred in Europe ; but as the
Kangaroo produces young in our climate, it is not improbable that,
under favourable circumstances, these animals also might multiply
THE PHALANGERS.
in our extensive menageries, especially as tliey appear to bear our
climate very well, care being' taken against their exposure to the
severities of the weather.
The following description of the Sooty Tapoa was taken from a
living specimen : — " The shape and proportions of Phalaiigista
fiiligiiiosa are those of the Phal. viilpina; the ears are also of
similar shape and size, hairy on the outsides, but naked within.
The colour is a uniform sooty-brown over all parts of the head and
body, not even excepting the belly and the inner surface of the
thighs. The hair has a frizzled appearance, but it is not so close
nor so fine as in Phal. viilpina. The tail is long, black, and rather
bushy; the naked slip underneath, as well as the nose and soles of
the feet, which are also naked, is of a bright flesh colour. The
moustaches are large, stiff, and black." The individual was said
to have been brought from Sydney. In the museum of the Zoologi-
cal Society, and in their gardens at Regent's Park, are specimens
of the Phalangers.
The Vulpine Phalanger {Phalaiigista vulpina).—Oi all the
species the Vulpine Phalanger is probably the most carnivorous.
The female is destitute of a true pouch, and the teats are two in
number. The Vulpine Phalanger is about the size of a Cat ; in
captivity it displays but little to interest ordinary observers, the day
being passed in sleep ; nor, when roused up by the approach of
night, is it remarkable for activity or alertness. Its fur is soft, fine,
and woolly ; the predominating tint is greyish-brown, passing into a
yellowish-grey on the shoulders ; the tail is covered with long
black fur, excepting along a line on the under-side at the tip,
which is naked. It is a native of New South Wales, and also of
Tasmania, where it is common. The tint of colouring is subject to
considerable variation as respects intensity, intermediate shades
being' obsen-able between the ordinary grey specimens and the Sooty
Tapoa, which is regarded as a distinct species. The native name
of the Vulpine Phalanger, according to White, is JV/ia tapoa roo.
(See Fig. 931.)
361
F'S- 93'' — Vulpine Phalanger.
The Spotted Couscous {Cuscus maculatus. Cusacs amioi-
nensis, Lacep. ; Phalaiigista maculata, GeofTr.) — This species is
a native of the Islands of Amboina and New Guinea, where it is
called Couscous, or Coescoes. M. Lesson found it at Waigiou,
where it is called Scham-scham. It is arboreal, and its flesh is in
request, being esteemed as delicate food by the natives. In colour-
ing this animal is subject to much variation ; generally the ground-
tint is whitish, ornamented with isolated brown spots ; these some-
times blend or run into each other. The fur is thick and woolly.
(See Fig. 932.)
The Squirrel Petaurus [Petauriis sciiireus). — This creature
belongs to a group of beautiful animals, bearing the same relation-
ship to the Phalangers that the Flying Squirrels do to the ordinary
Squirrels. (See Fig. 933.) They constitute the genus Petaurus,
sub-divided into some minor sections, according to certain modifi-
cations of dentition. In the section termed Belideus, to which the
Squirrel Petaurus belongs, the dental formula stands thus : —
Dental formula : — Incisors, — ; canines, -^^ ; false molars, ^ — =?;
2 0-0 4-4
true molars, ini: = 40.
4-4
In the figure of the teeth, from F. Cuvier, the numbe'r of lower
molar teeth (false and true) only amounts to five on each side ; in
other pomts also he is erroneous. (See Fig. 934.)
The Pctauri, or Flying Phalangers, are characterised by a broad
expansion of skin on cither side of the body between the anterior
and posterior limbs ; the tail is free, long, and destitute of prehen-
sile power ; it forms a balancer to the body in the flying leaps which
these animals take, and perhaps assists them in modifying the
direction of their career. These animals are nocturnal in their
habits, and feed upon fruit, leaves, and insects. During the day
they conceal themselves in hollow trees, and are said generally to
associate in small flocks. Their aerial evolutions, when the shades
of evening have roused them to activity, are described as being
peculiarly graceful, and their leaps apparently desperate. The
Squirrel Petaurus is one of the most beautiful of the genus. It is a
Fig. 932. — Spotted Couscous.
^''fy^m^ii' /^
'i'ii,\
Fig. 933. — Squirrel Petaurus.
native of New South Wales, and is called by the colonists the Sugar
Squirrel and Norfolk Island Flying Squirrel. We have seen
two of these animals in captivity ; during the day they remained in
a state of torpidity, rolled up in a bed of wool and soft hay. At
night they became animated, and traversed their cage with great
rapidity, leaping from one part to another, and gambolling in the
exuberance of a sportive disposition. At the same time they \yere
timid, and by no means remarkable for intelligence. .'While leaping,
the lateral membranes are expanded so as to form a parachute.
The following anecdote serves to prove both the daring extent of the
leaps taken by these animals, and the power they certainly possess
of turning or altering their course :—" On board a vessel sailing
off the coast of New "Holland was a Squirrel Petaurus, which was
permitted to roam about the ship. On one occasion it reached the
3 A
362
THE BANDICOOTS.
mast-head, and as the sailor who was dispatched to bring- it down
approached, it made a spring from aloft to avoid him. At this mo-
ment the ship gave a heavy lurch, which, if the original direction of
the little creature's course had been continued, must have plunged
it into the sea. All who witnessed the scene were in pain for its
Fig. 934. — Teeth of Squirrel Petaurus.
safety ; but it suddenly appeared to check itself, and so to modify
its career, that it alighted safely on the deck."
The Squirrel Petaurus is about eight to twelve inches long in the
head and body, and as much in the tail. The fur is peculiarly deli-
cate and soft ; the general colour above is fine grey, somewhat
darker on the head, and white beneath. A black line passes from
the point of the nose along the back towards the full furred tail ;
and the lateral folds of skin are bounded in front and on the sides
by a similar band, which confounds itself gradually with the grey of
the body : the outer margins of these expansions are fringed with
white. The thumbs of the hind-feet are strong, distinctly oppos-
able to the sole, and destitute of a claw. The eyes are full and
large.
The Koala {Phascolarctos ci?tcreus ; Lipurus cinereiis, Goldf. ;
Phase, fuscus. Desman ; Phase, /lindcrsii. Less. ; the Ashy
Koala). — This extraordinary animal is thick and stoutly made, with
robust limbs and powerful claws : there is no tail. The head is
large, the muzzle blunt ; and the naked space in which the nostrils
are situated is continued along the nasal bones, till it nearly attains
the level of the eyes. The ears are large, standing out from the
sides of the head, and tufted with long full fur ; the eyes are small.
The fore-feet have each five toes, armed with large sharp claws ;
these toes are divided into two sots ; the first two forming a pair by
themselves, and antagonising with the other three. The hind-feet
have also five toes^viz., a large and powerful thumb, destitute of a
nail, and well padded beneath, and four strongly clawed toes, of
which the two first, as in the Phalangers, are united together as far
as the last joint. It may be here remarked that in some of the
Phalangers (as Cook's Phalanger, &c.) there is a decided tendency
in the first two fingers of the fore-paws to remain distinct and sepa-
rate from the rest. The dentition approaches closely to that of the
Phalangers.
Dental formula : — Incisors, - ; canines, -— !■ ; false molars,
2 0-0
— ^ ; true molars, 'iHA — 30.
l-i 4-4
The Koala is a native of New South Wales, but does not appear
to be very abundant ; at least it is seldom seen in collections of
natural objects from that country. In its habits it is nocturnal and
arboreal ; it climbs with great facility, and in passing along the
branches suspends itself like a Sloth by its claws, which in adults
are very powerful. The female carries her young one, when able to
leave the pouch, clinging to her back, and long continues her care
of it. The Koala, however, does not live exclusively on the trees ;
it visits the ground, and there burrows, and that with facility. In
the cold season it is said to make a nest in its underground retreat,
and retiring to it there to lie dormant. Its food is entirely vege-
t.Tble, and consists, in part at least, of the young leaves of the gum-
trees {Eiica/yptiis). It laps like a Dog when drinking, and uses its
fore-paws in laying hold of the branches while it feeds. Its voice is
a soft barking sound. On the ground its gait resembles that of a
Fig. 935. — The Koala.
Bear. Length of head and body about twenty-six inches. The fur
is compact, woolly, and of an ashy-grey, patched with white over
the crupper; the inside ot the thighs is rusty-grey. (See Fig. 935.)
The colonists term this animal Native Bear, or Monkey. By the
Yas natives it is called goribun, and by them its flesh is highly es-
teemed.
The Bandicoois— Family Peramelidcz.
From the Phalangers, of which most, if not all, subsist to a cer-
tain extent upon animal food, we pass, by an easy transition, to the
Rapacious Marsupials. These are at once distinguished from the
vegetable feeders by the nature of their dentition.
The form of the molars agrees with that observed in the Insecti-
vorous Placental Mammalia, with which the Bandicoots seem to
correspond.
The structure of the limbs is remarkable, the hind-legs being
much longer than the anterior pair, and adapted for leaping, like
those of the Kangaroos. In the genus Cliaroptis this number is
even reduced to two. In the hind-feet the inner toe is rudimentary
or entirely wanting {Cheer opus); the second and third are com-
pletely united, and the two outer toes are the largest, and separate.
The Bandicoots arc small animals, inhabiting different parts of
Australia and Tasmania. They are nocturnal animals, digging
themselves burrows in the soft ground, for which purpose their claws
are well adapted ; and from this circumstance, and the unusual
length of its ears, one of the species [P. lagotis) is called the
" Rabbit" by the colonists of Swan River. The flesh of the animal
is said to resemble that of the Rabbit, but their food is generally of
a very diff'erent nature, consisting principally of insects and grubs,
although some species are said to have a particular predilection for
roots, and especially bulbs. Their gait consists of a series of hops,
in which, however, they are said, like the Rabbit, to use their fore-
feet. The following affords a description of some of the species.
The Long-nosed Bandicoot {Pcrameles nas2tfa). — The Ban-
dicoots, as already stated, while allied in the structure of their
organs of locomotion to the Kangaroos, yet in their system of den-
tition they exhibit a remarkable difference. In this latter point they,
in some respects, approach the Opossums {Didelphis). Above, the
incisors are ten in number ; of these the outermost on each side is
conical and apart from the rest. The canines are curved and stand
isolated ; the molars on each side are seven, of which the three first
are false, compressed, and sharp. The four true molars are crowned
with sharp tubercles. Below, the incisors are six in close array, and
projecting obliquely. The canines and molars are as in the upper
jaw.
Dental formula :— incisors, ~ ; canines, ^—— ; molars, "L^ = 48.
6 i-l 7-7
(See Fig. 936.)
The general contour and form of the Bandicoots is Rabbit-like,
but the muzzle is elongated, narrow, and pointed, the nose advanc-
ing considerably beyond the jaw. The fore-feet are divided into five
toes ; of these the innermost is rudimentary, and the outermost a
mere tubercle, having a minute nail. The three middle toes are
THE BANDICOOTS.
363
large, and armed with strong claws. The hinder limbs, though not
developed to the same proportionate extent as in the Kangaroos,
exceed the fore-limbs. The metatarsus is elongated and naked
beneath ; the toes are four in number — viz., on the inner side, two
toes joined in common integument, as in the Kangaroos, each
furnished with its distinct claw ; a large and robust middle toe, with
a straight, strong, pointed claw, and a small outer toe, also armed
with a straight claw. (See Fig. 937.)
Fig. 936. — Teeth of Long-nosed Bandicoot.
Fig. 937. — Long-nosed Bandicoot.
Though the sj'stem of dentition in the Bandicoots is insectivorous,
they do not refuse vegetable aliment ; they hve in burrows, for the
digging of which their fore-paws are well adapted. In their move-
ments these animals resemble a Rabbit ; they do not, like the Kan-
garoo, bound from the hind limbs alone, but arching the back, pro-
ceed with a saltigrade gait — that is, half-way between running and
jumping ; or rather by a succession of short leaps from the hind to
the fore-feet, but not with much speed, nor maintained for a great
length of time. The Kangaroos make considerable use of the tail,
but in the Bandicoots it is by no means so important an organ,
though it assists them in sitting upright, an attitude usually assumed
when eating, the fore-paws being brought into use as holders, like
those of the Squirrel. With these paws they scratch up the earth in
search of roots and insects ; and it is said that the potato crops of
the colonists, in some districts, suffer from their incursions. They
are readily tamed, and in a few days become reconciled and familiar.
Tht long-nosed Bandicoot is found in New South Wales. It mea-
sures about sixteen inches in the length of the head and body, and
five in that of the tail. The ears are erect, pointed, and covered
with short hair ; the eyes are very small ; the nose remarkably long,
pointed, and naked at the extremity. The tail is slender, and though
better covered with hair, bears some resemblance to that of a large
Rat. The hair is of two kinds, an upper and under-coat ; the hairs
forming the upper or external coat arc coarse and harsh. In colour
it resembles the Rat, excepting that it is of a more sandy shade on
the upper parts of the body, and of a more clear silvery-white
beneath. The under-coat, concealed by this outer garment, consists
of soft ash-coloured wool or fur, well calculated to protect the animal
from cold and variations of temperature ; for it appears to be an in-
habitant of the mountain districts of Australia, principally, if not
exclusively.
The form and characters of its teeth would lead us to suppose that
it fed almost entirely upon insects and similar creatures ; and M.
Geoffrey even imagines that it may use its long snout for the purpose
of rooting up the earth like a Pig in search of Wurms and grubs.
The colonists, however, assert that these Bandicoots are chiefly, if
not purely, herbivorous, and that the principal part of their food
consists of roots, which they dig up with their sharp and powerful
claws. In the neighbourhood of human habitations they frequently
enter into the granaries, and do as much mischief to the corn as the
Rats and Mice of our own country. The Australians have, however,
one advantage over the European farmers in this respect : the Ban-
dicoot is more easily excluded than the Rat, for it cannot, like that
destructive species of vermin, eat its way through the planks and
timbers, and still less through the brick walls of the buildings. It
is probably from this habit of committing petty depredations upon
the farm-yards and granaries, as well as from the general similarity
of their external appearance, that the colonists of New South Wales
sometimes confounded the Bandicoots with various species of murine
animals originally found in the country under the common denomi-
nation of native Rats and Mice. Nor is it at all improbable, not-
withstanding the assertion of the colonists to the contrary, that M.
Geoffrey's conjecture as to the insectivorous habits of this animal
may be at least partly, if not entirely, true. The Common Rat,
with teeth much less adapted for living upon flesh than those
of the Bandicoots, is well known to have decidedly carnivorous
propensities ; and, as M. Geoffrey very correctly obser\'es, it is
seldom that analogous forms of dentition fail to indicate analogous
appetites.
The CHiEROPUS {Charo^pus ecaudatus, Ogilby). — This animal,
which is closely allied to the Bandicoots, was hrst described by Mr.
Ogilby (March, 1838) from a drawing made by Sir Thomas Mitchell.
The animal was found by that officer on the banks of the river
Murray during his expedition into the interior of New South
Wales.
The drawing of the fore-foot very closely resembles that of the
Pig : two toes are represented short, and of equal length, with
Fig. 938. — Cha;ropus.
hoof-like claws ; but there is a swelling at the base of the first piia-
lanc-es which renders it probable that there may be two rudimen-
tar^on'es also present. The form and characters of the hmd-feet
are perfectly similar to those of Pcramdes, as are also the teeth, as
far as Mr Ogilby could judge from the drawmg, except that the
canines appeared much smaller. The ears are long, elliptical, and
nearly naked: the head broad; the muzzle long and pointed ; the
body is described as being about the size of that of a smal Kabbi ,
and the fur much of the same colour and quality as m '!>'-'' animal
Most probably, in its habits and manners, the animal resembles the
Bandicoots. (See Fig. 938.)
The Opossums— Family Didelphid<s.
The Virginian Opossum {Didelphis vi>■ginmna).—y\^'^ genus
DidclJ^his, of which the Virginian Opossum is an example, is
364
THE OPOSSUMS.
It contains about twenty species, some
of
restricted to America
whicli are very small. r 1 • 1, .i,n i^^tr.
The teeth are as follows :-Upper mcisors ten, of winch the two
middle are longer than the rest, and somewhat separated from tnem ,
lower incisors eight ; canines as usual ; molars on each side above,
seven, the threefirst false, triangular, compressed ; molars below, seven,
the three first false ; the true molars, both above and below, crowned
with sharp tubercles. Of all terrestrial Mammalia, the Myrmecobius
excepted, the teeth are in these animals the most numerous.
SO-
Fig. 939.— Teeth of Virginian Opossum.
Fig. 941. — Male and Female Opossums.
amounting: to fifty :— Incisors, '°; canines, I — ?-; molars,?-^
" ■' 8 i-i " ^~^
(See Fig. 939.) The limbs are short, the feet plantigrade, the
toes five on each foot, armed with sharp, strong, curved
claws, excepting the inner toe or thumb on the hinder feet, which is
opposable, and destitute of a nail. The soles are covered with a
naked skin endowed with great sensibility. The tail is scaly and
naked, except at its base, and constitutes an organ of prehension,
not, however, to the same extent in every species. The head is long
and pointed, the profile straight. The eyes are small, dark, promi-
nent, and undefended by eyelids, but furnished with a nictitating
membrane. The ears are large, thin, naked, and rounded. The
tongue is rough with horny papilte. The snout is long ; the muzzle
pointed, naked, and moist ; the nostrils are lateral ; the mouth ex-
tremely wide ; and the expression of the physiognomy peculiar and
unpleasant. In one division of this genus the females have a pouch
for their young ; in another division the pouch is rudimentary, con-
sisting of a slight fold of skin.
In Fig. 940, skeleton of the Virginian Opossum, the marsupial
bones {a) are seen.
The Virginian Opossum, and its immediate relatives, are slow in
their movements, and nocturnal in their habits ; they reside habitu-
ally on the branches and in the hollows of trees, remaining torpid
during the day. At night they prowl about, and feed upon insects,
eggs, birds, reptiles, and small Mammalia, adding, also, fruits and
roots to their diet. Their sense of smell is in high perfection. Like
our Pole-Cat, as respects voracity, though not activity, they often
invade the precincts of the farm-house, destroy poultry and other
domestic birds, and retreat on the first appearance of dawn, leaving
their slaughtered victims behind. Their odour is disgusting, es-
pecially when alarmed or irritated.
The Virginian Opossum is common in many parts of North
America, from Mexico to the southern provinces of the United
States. It is one of the largest and most robust of the genus, and
equals a Cat in size, being about twenty-two inches in the length of
the head and body, measured over the curve of the back ; the tail is
fifteen inches long. The under-fur is deep and woolly, traversed by
long, straight, whitish hairs,
often tipped with brown. The
ears are large and black ; mar-
gined at the tip with white. The
scaled portion of the tail of
a whitish tint. The general
colour of the fur is dirty-white,
■with a slight yellow hue ; the
legs are dusky-brown, a tint of
which surrounds the eyes.
Hairs of moustaches long and
white, with a few of a black
colour intermixed. (See Fig.
941.)
There is nothing pleasing
either in the appearance or
habits of the Virginian Opos-
sum : in captivity it is slothful
in the extreme, and becomes
inordinately fat, eating both
animal and vegetable diet.
Whatever may be its cunning
in a state of liberty, it evinces
but little intelligence when
caged in our climate, but ap-
pears to be a compound of in-
dolence and apathy, not un-
mixed with timidity. In its
native woods it suffers from
the attacks of birds and beasts
of prey, and is also hunted by
man for the sake of the flesh
and fat. "As soon as the
Opossum discovers the ap-
proach of his enemies, he lies
perfectly close to the branch,
or places himself snugly in the
angle where tw-o limbs separate
from each other. The Dogs,
however, soon announce the
fact of his presence by their
baying, and the hunter, as-
cending the tree, shakes the
branch upon which the animal
THE OPOSSUMS.
36s
is sc.ited with great violence, so as to alarm and cause him to
relax his hold." In tViis way, driven from branch to branch, he is
oblig-ed at last to drop to the ground, where, unless the Dogs are
vigilant, the animal escapes ; for, as is asserted, it steals slowly and
quietly to a little distance, and gathering up itself into a small com-
. pass, assumes the stillness and attitude of death. This artifice,
under the obscurity of night, and amidst dense rank herbage, or
tangled underwood, often proves successful. In the " Perfect
Description of Virginia," 1649, it is noticed as a beast "that hath
a bagge under her belly, into which she takes her young ones, if at
any time affrighted, and carries them away." Lawson states that
the 'Possum is found nowhere but in America. " She is the wonder
of all the land animals, being the size of a Badger, and near that
colour. The female, doubtless, breeds her young at her teats, for I
have seen them stick fast thereto, when they have been no bigger
than a small raspberry, and seemingly inanimate. She has a
paunch, or false belly, wherein she carries her young, after they are
from those teats, till they can shift for themselves. Their food is
roots, poultry, or wild fruits. They have no hair on their tails, but
a sort of a scale, or hard crust, as the Beavers have. If a Cat has
nine lives, this creature surely has nineteen ; for if you break every
bone in their skin, and mash their skull, leaving them for dead, you
may come an hour after, and they will be gone quite away, or per-
haps you may meet them creeping away. They are a very stupid
creature, utterly neglecting their safety. They are most like Rats
of anything. I have, for necessity in the w'llderness, eaten of them.
Their flesh is very white, and well tasted ; but their ugly tails put
me out of conceit with that fare. They climb trees as the Racoons
do. Their fur is not esteemed nor used, save that the Indians spin
it into girdles and garters." The prehensile power of the tail
ser\-es the animal in more ways than one, for it is stated that the
little ones, when advanced in growth, leap upon their mother's back
if they are frightened, and, twisting their tails round hers, escape,
with her assistance, the threatened danger.
This animal climbs with great facility, and will hang suspended
from the branches by its tail, and by swinging its body contrive to
iiing itself to the adjoining boughs. It is often observed hanging
motionless for a considerable time with its head downwards.
The Opossum produces several young, sometimes as many as six-
teen, at a birth. She makes a thick nest of dry grass in some ob-
scure retreat, in which to conceal herself. When first born the
young are in a most rudimentary state, minute, blind, naked, and
shapeless. Yet even in this state they are always found adhering to
the teats of the mother, shrouded in her pouch. There they remain
until they have attained the size of a Mouse, which is not until the
fiftieth day, at which period their eyes are opened, and their bodies
are covered with hair. They now venture occasionally from their
hiding-place, returning to it on the least appearance of danger ; nor
is it until they have attained to a considerable size that they finally
quit their an.xious parent. The period of gestation is said to be
twenty- si.x days.
Merian's Opossum {Didclphis dorsigera). — Among the Opos-
sums, in which a fold of the skin of the abdomen forms only a rudi-
mentary pouch, must be enumerated Merian's Opossum. Though
the other Opossums, with complete marsupial pouches, occasionally
Fig. 942.— Merian's Opossum,
carry their young on the back, with their tails twined round that of
the parent, still it is in these pouchless species that this curious
habit most usually prevails ; hence the term Dorsigera, which,
though applied to the present animal, might with equal propriety be
given to other species, as Didel^his brachyura, cinerea, tricolor,
and miirina.
Merian's Opossum is a native of Surin.am, and in its habits it
agrees with the rest of the genus. The tail is slender, and longer
than the head and body taken together ; at the base it is clothed
with fur, resembling that of the body generally ; the naked portion
IS of a pale brown tint. The fur of this animal is short, and lies
close ; on the upper parts of the body it is greyish-brown, the roots
of the hairs being paler. The under-parts of the body are yellowish-
white ; a deep brown spot encircles the eyes ; the forehead, top of
the head, cheeks, outer side of the limbs and feet, are yellowish-
white. Length from nose to root of tail about six inches ; length of
tail seven inches. A beautiful specimen of this active little Opos-
sum, with its young clinging to it, is preserved in the British Mu-
seum. (See Fig. 942.)
The Yapock {Cheironcctes varicgatus ; Ch. pa!maius).—Th\s
interesting animal, the Yapock, is a native of Brazil, tenanting the
smaller streams and rivers, and it appears to extend from the con-
fines of that empire to the shores of the Gulf of Honduras. Buffon's
specimen was procured in Cayenne. He terms it " Petite Loutre
de la Guycne." It is also called " Demerara Otter."
The Yapock measures from ten to fourteen inches long in the head
and body, the tail being rather more. The limbs are short, and the
contour of the body elongated. The ears are moderate, the nose
pointed ; the fur of the body close, short, somewhat crisped and
glossy ; the tail, excepting at the base, is scaly, the scales being
spirally arranged and interspersed with fine, short, bristly hairs. The
fore-feet are divided into five long and slender toes, armed with
small weak claws, the innermost or thumb excepted, which has a flat
nail. It is not opposable, though placed rather behind the general
line of the other toes. On the outside of the wrist there is an elon-
gated tubercle (the pisiform-bone developed), resembling a sixth
finger, the use of which is not apparent. The hind-feet, which are
broad, are each divided into five toes, tied together by ample webs ;
the clavvs are small ; the inner toe has a flat nail. This curious
animal is furnished with cheek-pouches of great size, which extend
far back along the sides of the mouth ; and this circumstance, as Mr.
^3-<?a^
Fig. 943. — The Yapock Opossum.
Ogilby remarks, "hitherto unobserved by zoologists, throws con-
siderable light upon the habits of this rare animal, which thus ap-
pears, like the Ornithorhynchus, to feed upon fresh-water Crustacea,
the larvae of insects, the spawn of fishes, &c., which it probably
stows away in its capacious cheek-pouches." Small fishes are
doubtless among its prey. (See Fig. 943.)
The Yapock, unlike the Opossums, is incapable of climbing : it is
an aquatic animal, like the Otter, and lives in holes along the banks
of the rivers which it frequents, and in which it seeks its food. It is
said to take its young early to the water. Two specimens in the
possession of the celebrated naturalist, M. Natterer, were caught
near water not far distant from Rio Janeiro, and a third was cap-
tured alive near Para, in a basket similar to those used in this
country for catching Eels. It had made its way through the funnel-
shaped entrance, under water, and could not return.
The dentition of the Yapock differs in some points from that of
the Opossums : the incisor and canine teeth are the same in both ;
THE BANDED ANT-EATER— THE POUCHED WOLF.
but the molars are only five on each side, two false and three true,
both in the upper and under jaw. The ground colour of the upper
surface is dusky black ; a white semilunar mark passes from ear to
ear across the forehead; on each side are four large transverse
marks of delicate grey, one on the scapula, and three on the sides of
the body, forming bands interrupted or rendered incomplete by a
middle dorsal line. The under-surface is white, the tail is black, its
tip (the extent varying from half an inch to three or four inches)
beinsr white.
The Crab-eating Opossum {Didelphys cancrtvora).—T\\\s
Opossum is common in Brazil. It is one of the largest of the .group.
It is said to prefer marshy districts, and to be exceedingly fond of
Crabs. Fig. 944 represents this animal.
Fig. 944. — The Crab-eating Opossum.
The ia.m\\y oi ihe Jilyrmecobudcs includes only a single species,
the Myrmccobius fasciatiis, or Banded Ant-eater, an inhabitant of
the southern and western parts of Australia. It is distinguished
from all the other Marsupials by the great number of its teeth, that
are more numerous even than those of the Opossums. This increase
is in the molars, of which there are five on each side in the upper
iaw, and six in the lower ; between these and the canines there are
three false molars in each jaw, and the incisors are eight in number
in the upper, and six in the lower jaw. The total number of teeth is
consequently fifty-two. The molars are furnished with small pointed
tubercles, like those of the ordinary insectivorous quadrupeds, which
this animal resembles in its food. (See Fig. 945.)
Fig. 945. — Skull and Lower Jaw of Banded Myrmecobius.
The head of the Myrmccobius is terminated in front by a pointed
snout, and furnished with narrow-pointed ears. The anterior feet
have five, and the posteriorfour toes, all furnished with strong claws,
and the tail is rather long and bushy. Its feet are formed for run-
ning on the ground, where it progresses by successive leaps like a
Squirrel ; but, when pursued, it usually takes refuge in the hole of
a tree. (See Fig. 946.)
Its food consists of insects, which it is said to collect m the same
way as the true Ant-eaters and the Echidna, by protruding its long
tongue ; and it is generally found in districts containing many Ant-
hills, no doubt for the sake of the abundant supply of food obtainable
in such situations. The female is destitute of a pouch ; but the
young, when adhering to the teats, are said to be concealed by the
long'hairs which grow upon the belly of the mother. It is an ele-
gant little creature, measuring about eighteen inches in length, in-
cluding the tail ; the anterior parts are of a reddish-tawny colour,
and the hind part of the back is adorned with transverse bands of
black and white. (See Fig. 946.)
Fig. 946. — The Banded Myrmecobius.
In the preceding families the coecum is of moderate size ; but, in
the following one, it is entirely wanting. This is the family of the
Dasyuridcs, or Dasyures, including the most Carnivorous species of
the Marsupial series, which it completes. The teeth are usually
forty-six in number, and agree, in their arrangement, with those of
the Opossums, except that there are only eight incisors in the upper,
and six in the lower jaw. In the typical genus Dasyiiriis, however,
there are only two false molars between the true molars and the
canines, so that the total number of teeth is reduced to forty-two.
The form of the molars in the upper jaw is usually irregularly trian-
gular, with three points ; but those in the lower jaw are compressed
cutting-teeth, the edges of w-hich are also furnished with three
points. The feet are formed for terrestrial progression ; the anterior
have five toes, and the posterior four, all perfectly separate, and
armed with curved claws. The deficient toe of the hind-feet is
sometimes represented by a sort of tubercle, which, however, does
not reach the ground. The tail is of moderate length, or elongated,
and always well covered with hair. This family includes the largest
of the rapacious Marsupials. They are evidently analogous to the
ordinary Carnivorous quadrupeds, not only in their ferocity and car-
nivorous propensities, but also more or less in form.
A striking instance of this is presented by the Pouched Wolf
{Peracyoii, or Tliylacimis cy7iocepliaIus), which, both in its general
form and the structure of its extremities, closely resembles a large
Dog or Wolf. It is of a yellowish-grey colour, with transverse black
bands on the hinder part of the back, whence it has obtained the
names of the " Zebra Wolf," the " Hyaena," and the " Tiger," from
our colonists in Van Diemen's Land, to which island it appears to be
exclusively confined. It is a most Carnivorous animal, often com-
mitting considerable ravages amongst the flocks of Sheep ; but it
has now become rather rare, except in the wildest and most inacces-
sible parts of the colony, where it lives amongst the caves of the
mountains, and feeds upon the smaller Kangaroos and other Mam-
malia. It is even said sometimes to devour the Echidna, notwith-
standing his spiny protective coat. It is a strictly nocturnal animal.
Remains of an animal nearly allied to this (Tliylacotlierium) have
Fig. 947-— The Dog-head Thylacinus, or Pouched Wolf.
FOSSIL MARSUPIALS.
367
been found in some of the secondary strata in Europe. (See
Fief. 947.1
Of the ■ typical Dasyures {Dasyitrus), the larg-est species {D.
7irsi7ms) is also a native of Tasmania, wlicro it is commonly known
amongst the colonists by the name of the "Devil." It is about
eisjhteen inches long in the body, and is covered with a long, thick,
co^arse hair, of a black colour, with a few white spots on the breast
and shoulders. It is of a most savage nature, and is often destruc-
tive to Sheep, to which its powerful jaws render it a most formidable
enemy, notwithstanding its comparatively small size. When Van
Diemen's Land was first colonised, the " Devils " were very abun-
dant, and did much mischief amongst the poultry ; but they are
now, for the most part, banished to the woods in the unfrequented
parts of the country, where they exercise their destructive propensi-
ties on the small wild quadrupeds and birds. (See Fig. 948.)
In the genus Phascogalc, including several small Opossum-like
animals, with bushy tails, the first toe of the hind-foot, instead of
being absent or quite rudimentary, is of sufficient length to be em-
ployed as a thumb in grasping ; and these animals, consequently,
Fig. 94S.— The Ursine Opossum.
Fig. 949. — The Brush-tailed I'hascogale.
ascend trees with facility in the pursuit of the insects which consti-
tute their food. One species of this genus is smaller than our
common Mouse.
Fossil Marsupials.
Besides the fossil Opossum of the Montmartre gypsum {Diddphys
cuvicri), and the fossil Dasytirus, Ilypsiprymnus, IJalmaturiis,
Phascolomys, and Kattgaroo, from the Australian bone-caves and
breccia, some fossil forms discovered in the Stonesfield oolite, as
evidenced by portions of the lower jaw, have attracted much atten-
tion, and no little discussion. Some anatomists, with M. de Blain-
ville, contended against the Mammal origin of these relics, or at
least of one of the forms ; but those who have examined the fossils,
and read the arguments on either side, will, we think, agree with
Baron Cuvier and Professor Owen, and assign them to animals of
the Marsupial section, which at some epoch tenanted our quarter
of the globe. The jaws of these extinct Marsupials, named respec-
tively, Thylacotlierium prevostii, Owen (Fig. 950), and Phascoln-
therium bucklandii, Owen (Fig. 951), are represented of the natural
Fig. 950. — ^Jaw of Thylacolherium.
Fig. 951. — Jaw of Phascolotheriuni.
size, and also magnified, in order to show clearly the characters and
arrangement of the teeth.
For the following list of British Marsupial Fossils we are indebted
to the" Catalogue of British Fossils," by Mr. John Morris, F.G.S.,a
work from which we have already frequently quoted.
Name.
Amphitherium (Thylacotherium).
,, Broderipii.
,, Prevostii (Didelphys).
Didelphys Colchesteri.
Phascolothesium Bucklandii, &c.
Locality.
Stonesfield, Oxfordshire.
Suffolk.
Stonesfield, Oxfordshire.
In Prof. Owen's " Paleontology," numerous specimens of fossil
Marsupials, which have been discovered in Australia, are mentioned,
embracing the Perameles, or Bandicoots, Wombats, Phalangers,
Potoroos, Kangaroos, &c. Among others is the entire skull of the
Diprotodon austral is, now in the British Museum. This skull
measures three feet in length, and indicates the necessarily enor-
mous size of this primeval Kangaroo.
In the preceding pages the details of Animal Life in relation to the
Mammalia of both Recent and Extinct Creatures have been given,
together with notices and tables of fossil species. In respect to the
value of the latter to the Naturalist, the following remarks, by Pro-
fessor Ansted, will be not only read with interest, but be of much
value as a guide to the student of Modern Natural History in its re-
lation to Paleontology.
" In Geology, the law of representation is found to have been
carried out in past time ; or, in other words, the species characteris-
tic of any geological formation, are representative in time, as well as
space, of the species now existing. The whole mystery of extinct
species is revealed by the due consideration of this law; and a fact,
perhaps the most startling of any of those taught by geological in-
vestigation, is thus seen to be only another form of a condition of
things universal upon the earth at present.
" For what can be more striking than to be told that, in ancient
368
REM A RKS ON PA L^ONTOL OGY.
times, there existed on this earth of ours, races of beings now passed
away, and to be taught the peculiarities of size, form, and even
habits of animals and vegetables which no eye of man has ever seen
in a living state ; what more marvellous than this reconstruction of
long-lost organic forms— this clothing with flesh and blood the dry
and scattered bones of skeletons— has ever been thought of by the
imagination of man, even in its wildest flights ?
"And yet all this is now effected, and in the most satisfactory
manner, by those naturalists who have been contented to study, with
patience and perseverance, the works and ways of existing nature.
When we find that she adopts methods and obeys laws which are
unchangeable, we in fact only add one more to the innumerable proofs
of order and system which pervade all the works of creation. The
extension of a law is not the adoption of a new law ; and so far as we
are aware, no new method has been required or adopted. _
" But we must refer again to the important and interestmg subject
of ancient organic nature, and learn the extent to which naturalists
have advanced in proving the fact of the ancient existence of animals
and ve'^etables now no longer met with, as well as the limits of dis-
covery ,°and the reasons for arriving at the conclusion attained.
" And here the main argument employed is still that of analogy,
and the main proofs rest on the accordance of the past with the
present. . . ,
'" To take the cases nearest our own times— who is not aware ot tne
fact that the bones of the beaver, the wolf, and of many animals now
living in other parts of Europe, are constantly met with and that
these creatures must, not long ago, have inhabited the British
islands ' The progress of civilisation may, it is said, have produced
this partial and local extinction. Let it be so ; but what is the case
with regard toother animals, such as the great Irish elk ? _ Ihis
animal of which the perfect skeleton has often been found in the
boc-s of Ireland, cannot have lived in the country where we find
it without having been observed, and yet we have no record of its
existence as a fiving animal. It is quite gone-the last of its race
has died, and left only a few fragments for us to put together, in
order to show how great the changes have been even since the sur-
face of Ireland and the Isle of Man could afford food and shelter for
these ^iant animals. Smaller deer are still in the British islands ;
the reindeer and the elk still tread the frozen plains of Lapland and
the forests of North America ; but this most gigantic of the deer
tribe is gone, although not without leaving sure marks of its former
P'^?7vVu"h'out dwelling any further at present on these examples, let us
consider another also of great interest, in which we have not merely
the dry skeleton, but the very flesh and skin of an ancient inhabitant
of northern Europe. . , , » i- ,-• i
" In the wild desert plains of Siberia, close to the Arctic Circle
many miles north of the last traces of arborescent vegetation and
where perpetual frost binds together into a rock those gravel y heaps
which in England and northern Europe are loose and shingly, there
are found, from time to time, the bones of animals which once
inhabited that district. And what are these animals ? Are they the
progenitors of the wolves, the dogs, the foxes, the bears, which are
now the only creatures, except man, who disturb such solitudes ? Do
we find, occasionally, a straggler from the still more glacial climates
in the vicinity ? By no means. These frozen gravel cliffs of the icy
sea are partly made up of the bones of elephants, 'rhinoceroses, hip-
popotamuses, and of such-like animals, in incredible abundance.
" For very many years whole cargoes of ivory have been brought
annually from these storehouses ; and most of the ivory used in the
beautiful German carvings of the middle ages was derived hence.
Here, then, it would seem probable these animals must have lived,
for their bones are not broken or injured by rolling, and have cer-
tainly not been carried far. But this is not all ; nor is it, perhaps,
the most extraordinary fact with regard to this subject ; for it is not
many years since the entire carcass of an elephant was obtained
from these cliffs, the flesh having been preserved in a sufiiciently un-
decomposed state to serve as food for wild animals, and a part of the
skin, hair, and wool — for this creature was warmly clad — in such a
state of preservation, that they were transported, with the skeleton,
to the museum of St. Petersburg. Since then many such carcases
have been discovered ; and, for a few hundred pounds, it is said that
we might now bring to England an elephant thus preserved — one of
the ancient inhabitants of northern Europe.
" Now, when we look at the carcass of the animal thus handed
down in a perfect state, we find that it does not exactly agree with
any of those at present living on the globe. The differences, indeed,
are not considerable, and are evidently such as would fit the animal
better for the conditions of its abode and climate as well as food.
There is adaptation in every part of every skeleton ; and the principle
of adaptation of parts is that on which the comparative anatomist and
naturalist must work to obtain any general results in this science.
" Each part of every animal is admirably fitted to work with every
other part in producing the adaptation of the whole to the peculiar
necessity of the creature. This is a fact well proved by a thousand
examples daily before us, and it is universally and minutely true.
" Since, then, we find that there are certain animals difi^erent from
the present inhabitants, but whose remains are found under circum-
stances which render it clear that they formerly inhabited a given
district ; and that these animals are, at present, unknown upon the
earth, the first step is gained towards a knowledge of the history of
extinct species. But there is another point to be considered — the
representation of the present races. This we might illustrate by
reference to the Irish elk, or the elephants of Siberia ; but we prefer
taking a more striking example.
" In New Zealand, there exists at present, although it is now rare,
a small, wingless bird — not like an ostrich, but absolutely wingless,
and covered with hair. This animal is called the apteryx, and was
the largest animal found in New Zealand at the time of its discovery.
In the island of Mauritius there appears to have formerly existed a
curious wingless animal about the size of a turkey, called the dodo ;
and the beak and feet of this animal, as well as a drawing of it, are
preserved in the British Museum. No living dodo has, however, been
seen in modern times.
" In the island of New Zealand, there are also found, in the gravel,
some fossil bones nearly as large as the thigh-bone of an ox ; and on
careful examination of the bones found in this gravel, a number of
species of wingless birds have been found, which exhibit, in regular
gradation, a series ot animals of various sizes, more or less like the
apteryx — all wingless, but the largest of them much more gigantic
than any ostrich. There is here, then, a distinct representation in
time."
THE BIRDS.
369
CHAPTER XXIII.
CLASS II.-AVES, OR BIRDS.
Introductory Remarks.
KCIDEDLY the most interesting: de-
partment of Natural History is that of the
class AVES, or Birds. Their variety
of form, habits, and manners ; their plu-
mage, always beautiful, often rich and gorge-
ous^ their aerial endowments ; their nidifi-
cation ; their voices ; the Bittern's boom,
the cawing of busy Rooks, the Cock's shrill clarion,
the thrilling lay of the Skylark, or the rich strains
of Philomel— nay, even the hoarse cries of those
that tenant moorland and morass, fen or lake, or
wheel in buoyant flight over the broad expanse
of ocean ;— these all combine to throw a halo of
attraction around them, heightened by associa-
tions which, in every mind, hold an abiding sway, and
often inspire it with sentiments of affection.
The general form of the body in Birds is oval. The
leo-s, two in number, are usually placed in such a
manner as to fall under the middle of the body, and
the anterior limbs are modified to form organs of flight,
in the form of wings. The skeleton is perfectly ossified,
and the substance of the bones generally exhibits a
greater degree of hardness than in any other of the
Vertcbrata. This solidity, and consequent weighty of
the matter of which the bones are composed, which
would seem to be out of place in animals intended for
Fig. 952.— Skeleton of Vulture.
vc, cervical vertebrro ; vs, sacral vertebrce ; w/, caudal vertebrre ; cl, clavicle ;
h, humerus ; 0, bones of forearm ; ca, carpus ; //;, phalanges ; st^ sternam ;
f, femur ; t, tibia ; ta, tarsus.
habitual residence in the air, is compensated for
by a peculiarity in the structure of the bones,
that occurs in no other group of animals. The
greater part of the bones are hollow, and their
cavities are filled with air, which passes into the
interior through small openings seen on the sur-
face of the bone, communicating with the numer-
ous air-cells of the body. In some Birds which,
although endowed with great power of flight,
have bulky and heavy bodies, these air-cavities
are found in almost every bone ; whilst in a few,
whose habits are entirely terrestrial, nearly all
the bones are destitute of air-cells. In young
Birds, also, which have not attained the power
of flight, the bones are filled with marrow ; but
this gradually gives way to the ordinary air-
cavities.
The structure of the skeleton (see Fig. 952) is
of course remarkably modified to suit the Bird
for its aerial habits ; but the recognition of its
different parts is by no means diflacult. The
head is usually of small size, and the bones of the skull, which in
voung Birds are distinct, are generally completely amalgamated in
the adults, so as to form a continuous bony capsule (Fig. 953).
The size of the skull and cerebral
cavity is usually much larger, in
proportion to the facial bones,
than in the Reptiles, and the
former often appears to predomi-
nate to a still greater extent,
in consequence of the existence
of large air-cells in the interior
of the bone. On the surface of
the -skull there are usually scve-
^ ral strong ridges for the attach-
ment of muscles ; the occipital
Fig. 953. — Skull of an Eagle. foramen is situated on the lower
a, cranium; (5, tympanum ; r, tympanic part of the back of the skull,
bone ; d, interorbital partition ; t, la- and the occipital condyle is sim-
chrymal bone ; /, its superior branch ; pie, convex, and sometimes glo-
g, nostril ; h, upper jaw ; 7, nasal bular, so as to give the head
fossal ; j, jugal bone ; k, lower jaw. great mobility. The openings
of the ears are placed on each
side of the back of the skull, close to the
base ; and immediately beneath these are
articulated the tympanic bones, which give
support to the lower jaw. In front of the
skull, on each side, are the orbits, which
are usually of enormous size, and very
rarely completely inclosed ; they are sepa-
rated by a bony partition, which, however,
is usually perforated.
The facial bones are produced into a
beak of variable length, which is attached
to the skull in such a manner as to retain
a certain amount of mobility, although this
depends rather upon the elasticity of the
material than upon an articulation. Upon
this the nostrils are seen ; they are very
variable in size, and the bony septum is
frequently wanting; so that the nostrils
form a passage from side to side of the
beak.
When viewed from beneath (Fig. 954).
the centre of the sphenoid bone is scon to
project in front of the occipital to a con-
siderable distance below the orbit ; this
supports a more or less elongated bone
Fig. 954. — Cr.inium and
Upper Jaw of Raven,
seen from beneath.
abbe, occipital bone ; dd,
temporal bones ; <¥, tym- /(.|,g pterygoid) on each side, which runs
panic bones;/, sphenoid; oijijquely backwards, and articulates at its
.».. .^»Q.Ti-mM 1-innPC ' hit. ^ -^ . •. '.1. .1 . ^^^',r^ K/-.na
temporal bones ; ee, tym
panic bones;/, sphenoid; obliq_,, ..-.
gS, pter)-goid bones ; h/i, extremity with the tympanic bone,
orbital plates; » palatine ^^\^^^^ gj (his are the bones of the upper
bones ; jL; jugal bones ; palate, which are all firmly united
//, maxillary hones ; »m J^w ^"d pa ,m intermaxillarv bones
r;tr ' ' coSJte the greater part of the edge of
37°
OSTEOLOGY OF BIRDS.
the jaw ; the maxillaries give rise to a long slender bone (the fi/^^al
bone), on each side, which is directed backwards, and articulates
with the tympanic bone. The palate is formed of a pair of large
palatine bones and a vomer ; the former are continued backwards
till they articulate either with the sphenoid bone or with the tym-
panic bones. The lower jaw is always articulated with the tympanic
bones ; it is composed, originally, of twelve pieces, and, in some
Birds, it retains this condition for a considerable time ; but, in the
adult state, these pieces are always amalgamated so as to form a
single bone. The jaws of Birds are never armed with teeth, but
simply covered with a horny sheath, which undergoes an immense
number of modifications to suit it to the necessities of the different
Birds.
The vertebral column, in Birds, exhibits the same division^ into
separate regions as in the other Vcrfebrata ; but as the exercise of
the faculty of flight requires great solidity in the thoracic region, and
the tail is very short, the only part of the spine that exhibits any
flexibility is the neck. This is usually of considerable length, and
consists of at least nine vertebrje ; in the majority of Birds the num-
ber is from twelve to fifteen, and in some twenty, or even more. The
bodies of these vertebrae are convex behind and concave in front, so
that they are capable of great freedom of motion, and the transverse
processes are very strong, and exhibit a foramen at their base,
through which a portion of the arteries of the head, and the main
stems of the sympathetic nerve, pass upwards to the head. From
the peculiar conformation of the articulating surfaces of the verte-
bra;, the neck is capable of describing very abrupt curves, and in
most Birds it is held more or less in the form of an S, this being the
most favourable position for suddenly darting forward the head, a
movement which is constantly employed by many of these animals
in the capture of prey.
The dorsal vertebra; are usually eight or ten in number, and vary
from six to ten or eleven. They are short and broad, firmly at-
tached to each other, and not unfrequently anchylosed. They are
furnished with spinous processes on their lower surface, which pro-
ject into the cavity of the body, and serve to give support to the
lungs. They have also dorsal spinous processes for the attachment
of muscles, and transverse processes to which the ribs are articu-
lated. The latter, which articulate both with the transverse pro-
cesses and with the bodies of the vertebree,
are flat bones, that unite by a movable
articulation with a corresponding series of
bones rising from each side of the ster-
num (the sternal ribs) : these are analo-
gous with the cartilages of the ribs in
other animals. To give increased sta-
bility to this apparatus of ribs, each of
them is furnished with a laminar process,
which passes obliquely upwards and back-
wards, and is attached to the following
rib (Fig. 955). In addition to these true
ribs, which correspond in number with
the dorsal vertebra, there are frequently
one or two false ribs in front, which do
not reach the sternum, and the lumbar
vertebra; are also occasionally furnished
with ribs, which resemble the true ribs in
structure, except that they want the lami-
nar processes.
The lumbar and sacral vertebrae, whicti
vary in number from seven to twenty, are
completely united, so as to form a single
bony piece, the only indications of its
compound nature being afforded by the
foramina, which exist in its upper surface
for the passage of the nerves. With this elongated sacrum the
pelvic arch is also amalgamated, so that the apparatus, to which
the hind-limbs are attached, acquires all the solidity of a single
bone. The tail is very short, and composed of from six to nine
small vertebrae, which are capable of a certain amount of motion,
and are furnished with strong transverse processes. The last verte-
brae is considerably larger than its fellows, of an oblong form, and
set on in a direction nearly perpendicular to the axis of the body ;
it gives attachment to the muscles which move thgi feather of the
tail, and is, consequently, of great importance.
The sternum, which occupies the anterior part of the thorax, is of
very large size in most Birds, extending backwards under the greater
part of the abdominal cavity. It forms a broad plate, concave on
its internal, and convex on its outer surface, where it is also fur-
nished with a very prominent keel, or ridge, to which the powerful
muscles of the wings are attached, so that the greater or less de-
velopment of this keel may be taken as a criterion of the power of
flight of the Bird to which it belonged. In the Ostriches, and other
Birds in which the wings are so small that they are quite useless for
flight, the sternal keel is entirely wanting.
The upper part of the sternum also serves for the ."support of the
bones of the scapular arch, which are very firmly united together, so
F'g- 955.— Ribs of the
Golden Eagle.
aa, ribs ; ib, sternal ribs ; cc,
articulating surfaces for the
transverse processes ; dd,
heads of the ribs, articulat-
ing with the bodies of the
vertebrae ; ce, laminar pro-
cesses.
as to afford a solid point of attachment for the anterior limbs. This
arch consists of three bones on each side (Fig. 956, showing sternum
of the Golden Eagle), of which one, the coracoid bone, that is firmly
articulated to a large pit in the anterior angle of the sternum, gives
the principal support to the anterior member. At the superior ex-
tremity of the coracoid bone, which is the strongest of all the bones
Fig. 956. — Sternal Apparatus of the Golden Eagle.
a h c d e f, sternum ; g g g Si sternal ribs ; h h, coracoid bones ; i i, scapulae ;
j j, clavicles.
of the shoulder, there is an articulating surface, that assists in the
formation of the cavity for the reception of the head of the humerus.
This is completed by a corresponding surface on the anterior ex-
tremity of the scapula, or shoulder-blade, which is also articulated
at this part to the coracoid bone, and extends backwards, along the
dorsal surface of the ribs, close to the spine. The arch is com-
pleted by the clavicles, which are usually anchylosed at their ex-
tremity, so as to form a single V-shaped bone, which is commonly
known as the/urctdum. or merry-
thought. The angle of union of
the two clavicles is also sometimes
anchylosed to the anterior angle
of the sternal keel ; but, in most
Birds, it is only attached to this
point by ligament. The upper
extremities of the clavicles are
articulated to the coracoid bones
and scapulas, which they assist in
supporting against the action of
the powerful muscles of the wings.
The bones of the anterior extre-
mities are remarkably elongated,
to suit them for the important part
which they have to perform in
supporting the Bird in the air ;
but, in other respects, there is no
difficulty in recognising them as
modifications of the same parts
which occur in all other Verte-
brata (Fig. 957). The humerus,
which articulates with the glenoid
cavity of the shoulder, is a cylin-
drical bone of moderate length,
but very stout. At its lower ex-
tremity it exhibits two articulating
-Bones of the Wing of the surfaces, for the reception of the
Fig. 957.-
Jer-Falcon.
HI,
ra-
elbow-joint ; 11, wrist-joint ;
knuckle-joint; a, humerus; h,
dius and ulna ; c, metacarpus ; 1
rudimentary thumb ; I, 2, 3, t
rudimentary phalanges of fingers.
two bones of which the fore-arm
is as usual composed. These
bones, the radius and ulna, are
much longer than the humerus ;
they are both of a cylindrical form,
and thickened at the extremities ;
OSTEOLOGY OP BIRDS.
37«
but their size is very unequal, the ulna being much stouter than
the radius, which is usually very slender. These are followed by
two small, rounded bones (the carpal bones) forming the wrist-
joint ; and these again by two elongated bones, which are com-
pletely united at their extremities, and represent the bones of the
hand {jnctacarpals) in man and other Vertcbrata. At the base of
the united metacarpal bones there is another small bone, sometimes
free, sometimes anchylosed, which represents the thumb, and gives
support to the feathers of the pinion or bastard-wing ; and they are
followed by two short fingers, of which one consists of two or three
phalanges, whilst the other never contains more than a single joint.
The articulations of the principal bones possess great freedom of
motion in certain directions, so that in repose the whole limb can be
folded up in a very small compass, the bones taking a nearly parallel
position. {See skeleton of the Vulture, Fig. 952, ante.)
The bones of the hinder extremities are always well developed ;
but, except in the Ostriches, the two sides of the pelvis are not
united beneath. The bones of each side are, however, completely
amalgamated with each other, and with the sacrum. The hinder
limbs are composed of the usual bones. The femur, or thigh-bone,
is a short, stout, cylindrical bone, articulating with the pelvis by a
small rounded head, which is placed at right angles to the axis of
the bone ; it is completely concealed within the muscles of the body.
The knee-joint is completed in front by a zm^W -patella, or knee-cap,
and the shank, which is much longer than the thigh, is formed
almost entirely by the tibia, the fibula being reduced to the form of
a gradually attenuated bone, which is usually attached to the tibia.
The tarsus is composed of a single cylindrical bone, of very variable
length, which is generally covered only by a scaly skin, and rarely
feathered. The foot consists of from two to four toes, composed of
a variable number of joints ; the great toe is usually directed back-
wards. The arrangement of the toes is, however, very variable in
different groups of Birds, to adapt the feet for walking, perching, or
climbing ; and these modifications will be referred to hereafter.
To further illustrate the osteology of Birds, we may draw atten-
tion to the skeleton of the Hawk, as illustrated in Fig. 958, in which
SrW
Fig. 958.— Skeleton of Hawk.
will be seen— A, the skull ; E, cervical vertebra ; C, the dotted lines
mdicate the extent of the anchylosed vertebrje of the back ; D, the
caudal vertebrje— the letter is placed on the ploughshare ; E, the
nbs ; F, the breast-bone ; G, the furcula, or merry-thought ; HH, the
clavicular or collar-bone ; H*, the scapula, or shoulder-bone ; i, the
humerus ; K, L, the bones of the fore-arm, ulna, and radius ; M,
metacarpus of hand ; N, phalanges of fingers ; O, p, Q, the pelvic
bones ; R, the femur or thigh-bone ; o, o, the patella or knee-pan ;
S, the leg, tibia and fibula ; T, T, the os calcis, or heel-bone ; v, v,
viow f 1 "'',= ^^■^'- ^^^ '""■ F'ff- 9^9 affords another
view of the wmg In this, illustrating the bones of the Hawk's
wing, G IS the outline of the furcula ; H', outline of part of scapula ;
I humerus, or arm-bone; K, the ulna; L, the radius, both forming
^f fr'';i!"",i ' "'■''•■'' '?■" ^^^'-bonc-'s; M, .M, metacarpal bones;
M, the thumb ; a, n, N, the phalanges of the fingers.
Fig. 95g. — Bones of Hawk's Wing.
The muscles of Birds are generally of a very firm nature, and of
a deep red colour ; the great mass of muscles is devoted to the
movement of the wings, and attached to the keel of the sternum.
The sinews are beautifully white and glistening, and have a great
tendency to become ossified in certain parts of the body. This is
especially the case in the long tendons, which pass down the tarsus
from the flexor muscles of the toes, which are of particular impor-
tance to the Bird in perching, as, from their passing over the back
of the joint between the shank and tarsus, they are of course
stretched by the bending of this joint. This is constantly observed
to take place in a Bird resting upon a perch ; the toes are thus in-
voluntarily made to grasp the object upon which the Bird is sitting,
and by this means it remains securely fixed, even when the voluntary
action of the muscles is in abeyance, as during sleep.
The clothing of the skin, in Birds, consists of the peculiar organs
well-known 3^% feathers, which, although they agree in their nature
and mode of development with the hairs of the Matnmalia, are of a
far more complicated structure. It is also to the great development
of some of these dermal appendages, the strong quill
feathers of the wing, that these animals are indebted
for their power of flight ; and the existence of similar
strong feathers in the tail is also of great import-
ance to them in directing their course through the
air.
A perfect feather (Fig. 960) consists of the shaft,
b, or central stem— which is tubular at the base, a,
where it is inserted into the skin — and the barbs, or
fibres, which form the webs, c, d, on each side of the
shaft. The basal portion of the shaft presents the
appearance of a transparent, homy, cylindrical tube,
a, narrowed at the extremity, which is inserted in
the skin. The upper portion, or true shaft, is always
of much greater length than the tube, and tapers
gradually to the extremity; it is flattened at the
sides, more or less convex on the back, and the lower
surface exhibits a strong longitudinal groove. It is
composed of a white, elastic, spongy matter, covered
by a thin homy sheath. The dorsal portion of this
horny sheath envelops the whole of the base of the
shaft, and becomes continuous with the tubular part
of the feather. At the point where the complete
horny tube commences, the feather usually gives rise
to a small supplementary shaft, also furnished with
barbs, which is denominated the -plumule. This
appendage is confined to the feathers composing
the general plumage of the Bird, and even on these
it is not always present ; it is wanting on the quills of
c.tube; /-, shaft; the wings and tail.
f, a, webs. Xhe webs arc composed of numerous barbs, or
small fibres, arranged in a single series along each
side of the shaft. These are slender prolongations of the outer
horny coat of the shaft ; they are inclined towards the apex of the
feather, and are usually of a flattened form, slightly concave on
one side and convex on the other, so that each barb fits closely into
that immediately preceding it. Their margins are furnished with a
Fig. 960.
Quill Feather.
372
WINGS OF BIRDS.
series of minute filaments, called barbules, by which the adhesion
of the barbs to each other is effected, thus giving a great degree
of inrmness to the web ; and these are not unfrequently edged with
still smaller fibres, to which the name of barbules has also been
given. Towards the base of the shaft the barbs are generally of a
loose texture, and more or less disunited, forming the warm sub-
stance well known as down ; this modification of structure is more
particularly observable in the feathers of the general plumage, in
which the down often forms the greater part of the feather ; the
plumule is also a downy feather.
The two principal modifications of the feather are qiiills and
plumes. The former are distinguished by the great stiffness of
their shafts, which enables them to become the prmcipal aijent in
aerial locomotion : they are confined to the wings and tail. The
plumes constitute the general clothing of the body, and differ from
the quills in the greater delicacy of their texture.
Besides the common feathers, the skin of many Birds — and es-
pecially of the aquatic species, in which the accessory plumules rarely
exist — is covered with a thick coating of down, consisting of a mul-
titude of small feathers of peculiar construction ; each of these down
feathers is composed of a very small soft tube imbedded in the skin,
from the interior of which there rises a small tuft of soft filaments,
without any central shaft. These filaments are very slender, and
bear on each side a series of still more delicate filaments, that may
be regarded as analogous to the barbules of the ordinary feathers.
This downy coat fulfils the same office as the soft woolly fur of many
quadrupeds, the ordinary feathers being analogous to the long
smooth hair by which the fur of those animals is concealed. The
skin also bears a good many hair-like appendages, that are usually
scattered sparingly over its surface ; they rise from a bulb which
is imbedded in the skin, and usually indicate their relation to the
ordinary feathers by the presence of a few minute barbs towards the
apex.
The development of feathers takes place in small sacs of the
corium, or true skin, which are at first completely closed, but con-
tinue to envelop the base of the full-grown feather. From the bot-
tom of this sac a small prominence arises, which is continued into
the tube of the feather in the form of a vascular membrane. This,
however, dries up when the feather is mature, and then constitutes
the shrivelled skin which is seen in all quills, and commonly known
as the pith.
Once or twice in the course of the year the whole plumage of the
Bird is renewed. In many cases the new clothing is very different
from that which it replaces ; and in Birds inhabiting temperate and
cold climates, we can frequently distinguish a summer and winter
dress. This circumstance has given rise to the formation of a con-
siderable number of false species, as the appearance of the Birds in
these different states is often very dissimilar ; and it is only by an
accurate study of the living animals — which is, of course, almost im-
possible with many exotic Birds — that such mistakes as these can
be prevented or rectified. Another fertile source of similar errors
is to be found in the difference very commonly existing between the
two sexes — a difference which is often so great, that without par-
ticular information derived from the observation of the Birds in their
native haunts, it would be impossible to refer the males and females
to their proper partners. The difficulty is still further increased by
the fact, that the young of all Birds, in their first plumage, differ
more or less from their parents, and frequently only acquire their
mature dress after the lapse of three or
four years ; the plumage undergoing a
certain change at each moult. These
circumstances undoubtedly throw great
difficulties in the way of the student of
Ornithology ; and it is perhaps not much
to be wondered at if we have sometimes
half-a-dozen different names for different
states of the same species ; but it must
also be confessed, that in this, as in
other departments of Natural History,
the desire to describe new species has
often led to an unjustifiable multipUca-
tion of errors of this description.
In a zoological point of view, the
greatest importance attaches to the
feathers of the wings and tail, to which
different names have been given. The
quills are inserted into all the bones of
the wing ; but the longest are those
attached to the bones of the hand, and
to these the name oi iprimaries is given.
The feathers supported by the fore-arm
are denominated secondaries, and those
attached to the humerus, tertiaries.
The thumb also bears a few quills, which form what is called the
alula, or bastard wing. These, and some other feathers to which
particular names have been given, are shown in the following cut
(Fig. 961}. The base of the quills is covered by a series of large
feathers called the wing-coverts, that are also distinguished into
primary and secondary. The feathers of the tail are furnished
with numerous muscles, by which they can be spread out and folded
up like a fan . Their bases are also covered, both above and beneath,
by smaller feathers, which are called the tatl-coverts.
It is impossible to conceive any covering more beautifully adapted
to the peculiar wants of these creatures than that with which they
are endowed by nature. All the feathers being directed backwards,
the most rapid motion through the air only' tends to press thein
more closely to the body, and the warm air, confined amongst the
inner downy fibres, is thus effectually prevented from escaping. In
the aquatic Birds the feathers are constantly lubricated by an oily
secretion, that completely excludes the water. In the wings, the
quill feathers exhibit, in the highest degree, a union of the two
qualities of lightness and strength, whilst, by their arrangement,
they can be folded together into a very small compass.
Fig. 961. — A, ear-coverts; B, bastard wing; C D E, wing-coverts;
primaries ; G, scapulars ; H, secondaries ; L, tail-coverts.
F,
The feathers usually cover the whole surface of the Bird, with the
exception of the mandibles and feet ; and even the latter are some-
times clothed with feathers ; but in some cases different portions of
the surface are naked, and covered only with a soft skin. These
naked portions are usually confined to the head, where the skin often
Fig. 962. — Wing of Buzzard (partly stripped).
forms remarkable folds or wattles ; but in some cases, as the Vul-
tures, the whole neck is bare of feathers.
In order that the arrangement of the feathers of the wings may
be still better understood, we refer to Fig. 962, the wing of the
WINGS AND TAILS OF BIRDS.
37J
common Buzzard, stripped of all its feathers, excepting those which
give it power and expanse, and which are those arising from the
hand and the ulna, and termed quill-feathers. They form two sets.
Tlie first set, A, A, A, consist of those arising from the hand (meta-
carpus and phalanges), and constituting the most important of the
series, being mainly instrumental, by their length and shape, their
stiffness or flexibility, in determining the character or the power of
their flight. They are the primaries, or primary quill-feathers, and
are ten in number, but they differ in form as well as in relative
length. The second set arise exclusively from the ulna, and are the
secondaries, or secondary quill-feathers, B : they are usually shorter,
broader, and less rigid than the former ; their number varies. From
the small bone, which represents the thumb, arise certain short stiff
feathers, lying close upon the quills of the primaries, and constitut-
ing the spurious wing or winglet, c. Besides these, there is a group
of feathers, the tertiaries, arising from the humeral joint of the fore-
arm, and which, in many Birds, as the Curlews, Plovers, Lapwings,
&c., are very long, forming a sort of pointed appendage, very appa-
rent during flight : in most Birds, however, they are very short, or
not to be discriminated from the rest of the greater coverts, of
which, in fact, they are a continuation ; hence they cannot strictly
be reckoned among the quill-feathers. The same observation also
applies to the feathers, D, attached to the upper part of the hu-
merus, the scapularies ; these lie along the sides of the back, and
in many Birds are of great length. The position of these feathers,
and of the coverts, will be seen in the annexed sketch, Fig. 963,
fig. 963.— Wing of Curlew.
which is the expanded wing of a Curlew : A, a series of feathers, the
lesser coverts, disposed in scale-like order, row after row, on the
fore-arm and carpal joint ; they cover the barrels of the quill-
feathers ; below them extends a series of larger feathers, B, which
sweep across the wing, encroaching far on the primaries, and when
the wing is closed usually hiding the secondaries ; these are the
greater coverts, of which the tertiaries are to be regarded as a con-
tinuation. The under surface of the wing is lined with softer fea-
thers, or under-coverts.
From the leading modifications exhibited in the wings of Birds,
we turn to those presented by the tail, the osseous structure of
which, with the mode in which the feathers are ordinarily arranged,
has already been pointed out. Even more numerous than those of
the wings are the diversities of form and size presented by this
organ ; diversities more or less directly influencing the character of
the flight. In some instances the tail is reduced to a mere rudi-
ment, or is even wanting, and in others it is large and of great
length. Nor is it only from its form or size that the tail of the
feathered race influences the peculiar manner of flight ; the texture
and quality of the feathers themselves are of great importance.
Where the tail consists of soft plume-like feathers, we may at once
set it down that the Bird, thus furnished, is ill-adapted for aerial
progression ; and it will be found, moreover, that the structure of
the wings and the nature of the general plumage, will invariably
correspond with the characters of the tail ; for wings, well calculated
for atrial progression, and a tail unadapted for it, would be a viola-
tion of the laws of nature, there being no contradiction of parts and
purposes in natural laws. On the contrary, if the feathers of the
tail be firm and the barbs close — though the tail itself may not be
very ample — it will be of great avail. There are many examples of
Birds with small tails being endowed with surprising powers of
flight ; indeed, in most Birds of rapid flight, the wings, when closed,
advance with their points to the end of the tail, or even pass beyond
it: we may mention the Peregrine- Falcon and the Swift; in the
latter Bird the tail feathers are only ten in number, and are far ex-
ceeded by the wings when closed. Where, however, the tail is
much reduced, as in the Kingfisher, its rudder-like power is evi-
dently diminished, and though the flight may still be rapid, it is ne-
cessarily straight and arrow-like, there being no power of sailing in
easy circles, or of making abrupt turns and doubles, as we see in the
Kite on the one hand, and in the Swallow on the other.
We need hardly say that, in the act of flying, Birds expand their
tails, and thus the extent of surface is increased to their manifest
advantage. Where the wings are ample, and the tail ample at the
same time, the flight is easy and graceful ; where the tail is short
and the wings long and vigorous, the flight is generally rapid and
impetuous ; but where the tail is long and ample, and the wings
rounded and short, as in the Magpie, the flight is laborious. The
principal forms assumed by the tail are as follows: — i, square, or
even; 2, rounded; 3, graduated regularly (every feather advancing
in due degree), or irregularly (some advancing to an extreme beyond
the others) ; 4, .slightly forked with rounded points ; s, more or less
deeply forked with acute points ; 6, plumose. The "size of the tail
vanes under every modification of form, and the forms themselves
differ to a considerable degree, as it regards a very great number of
minute particulars ; the feathers also composing the tail exhibit an
mfinity of differences, both in form and texture.
As examples of some of the principal forms in the tail of Birds we
select the following illustrations :— Fig. 964, the tail of the Kestrel
spread out ; Fig. 972, the tail of the common Buzzard ; Fig. 966,
the tail of a species of Humming-bird ; Fig. 974, the tail of the
Heron ; Fig. 068, the tail of the Sandpiper; Fig. 967, the tail of the
Coot; Fig. 965, the tail of the Pied Wagtail ; Fiy 973, the tail of
the Magpie ; Fig. 970, the tail of the Chaffinch ; Fig. 969, the tail
of the Lark; F^ig. 975, the stiff rudder-like tail of the Cormorant;
Fig. 971, the scansorial tail of the Tree-creeper.
Fig. 964. — Tail of Kestrel.
Fig. 965.— Tail of Tied Wagtail.
Fig. 966.— Tail of
Hummintr-bird.
Fig. 967. — Tail of
Coot.
Fig. 968.— Tail of
Sandpiper.
Fig. 969. — Tail of
Lark.
?ig. 970. — Tail of
Chaffinch.
Fig. 971.— Tail of
Tree-creeper.
lig. 972. — Tail of iluzzard.
Fig. 973.— Tail of Magpie.
374
MANDIBLES, BEAKS, FEET, AND DIGESTIVE ORGANS OF BIRDS.
The mandibles are always sheathed in a horny case, usually of a
more or less conical form, on the sides of which the nostrils are
commonly seen. In most Birds the edges of this horny sheath are
sharp and smooth, but in some they are more or less denticulated
Fiq
974--
-Tail of Heron.
F'S- 975-— Tail of CormoiaRt.
along the margins ; the upper mandible is frequently hooked at the
extremity, as in the Predaceous Birds (Fig. 976), where it serves for
tearing the prey ; or in the Parrots, which employ also their beaks
in climbing. The beak is sometimes of enormous size, as in the
Toucans and Hornbills (Figs. 977 and 978) ; but in these it is of a
light spongy texture, so that the Birds exhibit far more activity tlian
might be expected from the disproportionate bulk of their bills. In
the Ducks the bill is more or
less flattened, and its te.xture
is much softer than in other
Birds ; it is furnished with
numerous nerves, and thus
serves as an organ of touch.
In other Birds, the simply
conical form predominates,
although the bill exhibits an
almost infinite number of par-
ticular modifications, to suit the
exigencies of different Birds.
At the base of the bill, there
is, in many Birds, a circle of
naked skin, which is called the
cere ; and in others, which cap-
ture insects on the wing, the hinder portion of the gape is bordered
by long bristles (Fig. 979), which are of great service in preventing
the escape of their insect prey.
The characters afforded by the form of the bill are of great im-
portance in classification ; and those derived from the structure of
the feet and the arrangement of their scaly covering, are perhaps
Ostriches, one of the others is also deficient, and the foot consists
only of two toes. In the Parrots, again, the outer toe is also turned
backwards ^Fig. 982), and the foot is divided into two pairs of toes—
an arrangement which enables these Birds to climb with great
facility, their feet being applicable to many of
the purposes of hands. In the Cuckoo, and
some other Birds, the outer toe is capable of
being directed either backwards or forwards,
at the pleasure of the animal ; and in some
of the Swallows, the whole of the toes are
turned forwards. The Water-birds have the
toes more or less united by a web, which is
usually confined to the three anterior toes, but,
in some species, also extends along the side
of the foot to the great toe (Fig. 983).
feet and tarsi are generally bare of feathers, and covered
with a horny skin, sometimes simply granular, but usually more or
less distinctly divided into horny plates, the form and arrangement
of which afford very important characters for the classification of
Fig- 979-— Head of
Goatsucker.
The
Fig. 976. — Beak of Jer-Falcon.
Fig. 977. — Beak of Touran.
Fig. 97S. — Beak of Hornbill.
equally valuable. In most Birds the toes are four in number ; and
in the majority of these, three of the toes are directed forwards,
■whilst the fourth or great toe is turned backwards (Fig. 980). In
some Birds the posterior toe is wanting (Fig. 981); and in the
Fig. 980.— -Foot of the Falcon.
these animals. The toes are always terminated by claws, varying'
greatly in their form, according to the habits of the animals. In
the Predaceous Birds they are very long, strong, curved and acute,
constituting the formidable weapons with which these creatures
seize their prey : the harmless Perch-
ing Birds have long slender claws ;
and the Scratching Birds, such as the
common Fowl and its allies, are fur-
nished with stout nails. The latter
are also frequently armed with an ac-
cessory claw, attached to the back of
the tarsus above the great toe (Fig.
984). _ _
In the structure of the digestive
organs. Birds exhibit a great uni-
formity. The oesophagus, often very
muscular, is usually dilated into a
large sac, called the croJ>, at its en-
trance into the breast ; this is abun-
dantly supplied with glands, and acts
as sort of first stomach, in which the
food receives a certain amount of pre-
paration, before being submitted to
the action of the proper digestive
organs. A little below the crop, the narrow oesophagus is again
slightly dilated, forming what is called the vctitriculus succenfurt-
a/'«j, the walls of which are thick, and contain a gre.at number of .
glands, secreting the gastric juice. Below this, the intestinal canal
Fig. 9S1. — Foot of the Bustard.
Fig. 9S2. — Foot of the I'anot.
Fig. 983. — Foot of the Gannet.
CIRCULATING, RESPIRING, AND OTHER ORGANS OF BIRDS.
37S
is enlarged into a third stomach, the gizzard, in which the process
of digL'stion is carried furtlior. In the Granivorous Birds, the walls
of this cavity are very thick and muscular, mostly clothed internally
with a strong horny epithelium, serving for the trituration of the
foot; but in the Predaceous species, the gizzard is thin and mem-
Fig. 9S4. — Foot of the Fowl.
branous. The intestine is rather short, but usually exhibits several
convolutions ; the large intestine is always furnished with the ap-
pendage of two coeca, and opens by a semicircular orifice into the
cloaca, that also receives the orifices of the urinary and generative
organs. The liver is of large size, and usually furnished with a gall-
bladder. The pancreas is
lodged in a sort of loop formed
by the small intestme im-
mediately after quitting the
gizzard. There are also large
salivary glands in the neigh-
bourhood of the mouth, which
pour their secretion into that
cavity. (See Fig. 985.)
The organs of circulation
and respiration in Birds pre-
sent a marked advance upon
those of Reptiles. They are
not, however, separated from
the abdominal cavity by a
diaphragm. The heart con-
sists of four distinctly sepa-
rated cavities — two auricles,
and two ventricles — so that
the venous and arterial blood
can never mix in that organ,
and the whole of the blood
returned from the different
parts of the body, passes
through the lungs before be-
ing again driven into the sys-
temic arteries. The blood
is received from the veins of
the body in the right auricle,
from which it passes through
a valvular opening into the
right ventricle, and is thence
driven into the lungs. From
these organs it returns through
the pulmonary veins into the
left auricle, and passes thence
into the ventricle of the same
side, by the contraction of
which it is driven into the ,
aorta. This soon divides into
two branches, which by their
further subdivision give rise
to the arteries of the body.
The lungs are of consider-
able size, and adhere to the
ribs and inferior spinous processes of the vertebral column. They
are red spongy organs, and e.xhibit several openings (usually four
pairs, Fig. 986) on their surface, which lead into large air-sacs,
hollowed out in the cellular tissue of the body (Fig. 987). These air-
sacs are in communication with the cells in the interior of the
bones, which thus receive a constant supply of air. The air thus
penetrates to all parts of the body, so that respiration goes on with
greater activity in Birds than in any other Vcrtchrata, for a portion
of the blood is constantly in contact with air when passing through
the capillaries of the body, as well as through those of the lungs.
Fig. 9S5. — Digestive Apparatus of
Common Fowl.
CESophagus ; /, crop ; vs, ventriculus suc-
centuriatus ; g, gizzard ; /, pancreas ; d,
duodenum ; co, coeca ; gi, large intestine ;
tt, ureter ; 0, oviduct ; cl, cloaca ; z, small
intestine ; f, liver ; vf, gall-bladder ; c,
gall-duct.
Fig. 986. — Lungs of the Apteryx.
trachea ; v, pulmonary vessels ; /,
lung ; 0, bronchial orifices ; b b, bron-
chial tube opened.
The consequence of this is, that the blood attains a higher tempe-
rature than even in the iMammalia; and as the clothing of Birds is
.of a nature to prevent the dispersion of this heat, the temperature of
their bodies is constantly very high.
The trachea opens into the ccsophagus by a longitudinal slit a
little behind the roof of the
tongue. It runs down the neck
in the form of a single tube,
usually composed of complete
cartilaginous rings ; and in some
Birds which have a loud cry,
such as the V/ild Swan, it is
convoluted, and received into a
cavity of the front of the ster-
num. In general, however, it
runs straight to the lungs, before
entering which it divides into
two branches. At this point
there is usually a second larynx,
furnished with an apparatus of
muscles, which is the principal
agent in the production of the
well-known sounds emitted by
many Birds. The mechanism
of the vocal organs in Birds,
&c., has already been described
in the first chapter of this work,
at p. 13.
The kidneys, which are fre-
quently united, are situated in
the posterior portion of the ab-
dominal cavity, close to the sacrum ; their secretion is discharged
directly through the ureters into the cloaca. In addition to the
kidneys, there is another secretory organ situated on the surface of
the tail; it produces a fatty secretion, that communicates a certain
amount of greasiness to the feathers ;
and this is so great in the Aquatic
Birds, that their feathers are never
wetted by immersion in water.
In the development of the nervous
system, also. Birds exhibit a con-
siderable superiorityover the Reptiles.
The brain is larger in proportion
to the spinal marrow, and the hemi-
spheres of the cerebrum, or true brain,
are especially developed (Fig. 988).
The cerebral hemispheres are smooth,
and quite destitute of the convolu-
tions which are generally observable
on the surface of these parts in the
Mammalia ; and the great commis-
sure that unites the hemispheres in
the latter, known as the corpus callo-
sum, is also wanting. The cerebel-
lum is much larger than in the Rep-
„. „ _ , ,. tiles, and distinctly grooved trans-
Fig. 9S7. -Lungs and Au--sacs of ^(;,sg,y . jj consists almost entirely of
the Ustrich. ^^ central portion ; the hemispheres
a, heart ; b, stomach ; c c, intes- of the cerebellum, which in the Alam-
tines ; d, trachea ; e, lungs ; nialia are always of considerable size,
fff, air-sacs, with the apertures and often form the greater part of
through which they communi- that organ, being here usually re-
cate with the lungs. duced to a comparatively rudimen-
tary condition. The main stem of
the sympathetic nerve, as already stated, passes up to the brain
through the lateral apertures of the cervical vertebra;.
The organs of the senses are also usually present in a tolerably
Fig. 9SS.— Brain of the Sparrow.
(I). From above— 3, cerebral lobes; /', cerebellum; x, bill; z, eyes. (2).
From behind— (7, cerebral lobes ; b, cerebellum ; c, optic lobes ; d, medulla
oblongata. (3). From beneath— «, cerebral lobes; c, optic lobes; I, 2,
3. 4j Si 6, six pairs of cerebral nerves.
376
SEJ^SES OF SMELL AND SIGHT OF BIRDS.
high state of development. The sense of smell, however, is but im-
perfect ; the nasal cavity exhibits but few convolutions ; and in
some birds, the external nasal apertures are either entirely wanting,
or reduced to a very small size. These orifices are generally placed
on the sides of the bill, or quite at its base, where they are fre-
quently surrounded by a naked skin ; but in the wingless Apteryx
of New Zealand, the nostrils are situated at the extremity of the long
bill.
With respect to the eye of Birds, we may observe that the
bony orbits are capacious, and the organs seated therein of accord-
ing magnitude. In Birds of prey the general shape of the eye is
that of a bell, or chalice ; the cornea, which is very convex, forms
the bottom of the chalice ; the posterior segment of the sclerotica
its cover. This peculiar form (see Fig. 989) arises from the curva-
Fig. 990. — Sclerotic Plates of Penguin.
Fig. 9S9.— Eye of Owl.
ture and length of the bony plates, which, as in all other Birds,
occupy the front of the sclerotica, lying close together and over-
lapping each other. These bony plates form a flat or slightly con-
vex ring ; but in the Rapacious Birds they form a concave ring,
which gives to the eyeball the above-mentioned form. By means of
this ring the eye becomes a kind of self-adjusting telescope, so as
to take in both near and very distant objects.
A representation of the sclerotic plates forming the bony ring in
the eye of the Penguin {Apteno-
dytcs) is represented in Fig. 990.
They remind us forcibly of the
eye-plates in some of the Rep-
tiles, particularly of those be-
longing to the eyes of the Enalio-
saurians, or fossil marine Lizards.
The Penguin has to adjust its eye
for vision both on land and under
water. This contrivance must
greatly assist the adjustment ne-
cessary for seeing clearly in such
different media.
The crystalline humour is flat in Birds ; and the vitreous humour
is very small. The colour of the iris varies in different species, and
in many cases is very brilliant. The marsupium, which arises in
the back of the eye, and the use of which is not very clearly ascer-
tained, is a peculiarity in the eye of Birds. They have three eye-
lids ; two of which, the upper and lower, are closed, in most of the
race, by the elevation of the lower one, as may be frequently seen in
uur domestic poultry. The Owl, the Goatsucker, and a few others
have the power of depressing the
upper eyelid. Of these Birds the
upper only is furnished with eye-
lashes generall}' : the Ostrich, Secre-
tary-Vulture, some Parrots, and a
few other Birds have them in both
lids. But the third eyelid, or nicti-
tating membrane, forms the most
curious apparatus. When at rest,
this, which is a thin semi-trans-
parent fold of the tiaiica conjtuic-
tiva, lies in the inner corner of the
eye, with its loose edge nearly
vertical. By the combined action
of two muscles which are attached
towards the back of the sclerotica,
it is capable of being drawn out so
as to cover the whole front of the F'g- 99i-— Section of Eye of Owl.
eyeball like a curtain, and its own
elasticity restores it to the corner in which it rested. This, it is
said, enables the Eagle to look at the sun.
Fig. 991 shows the section of the eye of the Owl : a, the quad-
rangular bony scale within the substance of the sclerotic, giving it
firmness ; b, an expansion called the ciliary body, extending over
the whole of the inner surface ; c, a curious membrane, called the
pccten, projecting through the choroid into the vitreous humour,
and in some Birds attached to the side of the lens : of its use little
is known. Fig. 992 shows the posterior view of the eyeball ; Fig.
993 a lateral view of the same. These show the two muscles which
Fig.
992.— Eyeball of Owl ;
posterior view.
Fig. 993. — Eyeball of Owl :
lateral view.
originate from the sclerotic, and are applied to its curved surface
round the entrance of the optic nerve (Fig. 992, a). The larger re-
presents rather more than half of what, if completed, would be a
broad circular ring (Fig. 992,^): it is called the quadratus. At-
tached by its wider edge, near the margin of this part of the scle-
rotic, its fibres converge to the narrower edge, and terminate in a
narrow tendon (Fig. 992, c), perforated through the whole length like
the hem of an apron. The second smaller muscle, called the
pyra7!iidalis, from its shape (Fig. 992, d) at an opposite part of the
circumference. Its fibres converge, and are fixed into a long round
tendon (Figs. 992 and 993, e), which passes through the loop or
hem (c) of the quadratus, and hence turning over the edge of the
broad part of the sclerotic, is continued along the surface of its
bell-shaped portion, where it passes through several thread-like
loops or pulleys which keep it applied to the concavity, and round a
bony point which projects from the surface, and is attached near the
edge of the cornea to the edge of an elastic fold (Fig. 993.7^) of the
conjunctiva, which is called the third eyelid, or nictitating {i.e.,
winking) membrane. It will be easily seen by the help of the figures,
from this description, that the effect of the simultaneous contraction
of the two muscles will be to draw the membrane with great rapidity,
making it sweep over the surface of the cornea. It returns by its
own elasticity with nearly equal quickness. A Bird may be seen to
use this mechanism twenty times in a minute ; in fact, as often as it
may be necessary to cleanse the surface of the eye. The colour of
the membrane is milky ; and it is seen to pass from the upper and
inner to the outer and lower corner of the eye with the speed lor
which the act of winking is proverbial.
There is no external auditory apparatus, but the orifice to the
internal auditory apparatus is covered with a tuft of close feathers ;
sometimes, however, as in the Owl, there are external membranous
valves, capable of being opened or closed at will. The sense of
hearing is acute.
Birds are all oviparous ; that is, they produce eggs which are
Fig. 994.— Egg Organ.
EGGS AND INCUBATION OF BIRDS.
377
Fig. 995-— Vivified Eg^.
hatched by incubation, and from which the young are excluded, in
different deo-rees of development, those of the Gallinaceous and
Duck tribes'being the most matured; they are, indeed, capable of
runnin,"' about and picking; food in the course of a few hours, and
hence are called Aittojthagi. In the following illustrations, the de-
velopment of the e^%, during incubation, will be apparent.
Fig. 994 represents the egg-organ of the Fowl : the eggs in this
apparatus are found in all stages of maturity, from a minute yellow
grain, upwards, to the size of a walnut ; the largest are destined to
be laid first ; all are enveloped in a delicate
membrane, but are destitute of the white,
or albumen, and the shell ; they exhibit the
germ of the future Bird, under a slightly
elevated spot. (See Fig. 995.) After becom-
ing disengaged and passing into the egg-
tube, they become covered with albumen,
then with a double membrane, and lastly
with a calcareous envelope. The albumen
is laid on layer after layer in the egg-tube,
and gradually coats the membrane enclos-
ing the yolk, some of it being inspissated
so as to form an almost invisible membrane, the chalaza, which,
being twisted by the revolutions of the yolk, is gathered into deli-
cate spiral cords, retaining the yolk in its place. This albumen
and chalaza are secreted in the first part of the egg-tube; in the
next part the investing membrane
{menibraiia ;putaiiiinis) is formed
and added, and lastly the shell.
The anatomy of the egg, prior to
the commencement of incubation,
is simple. (.See Fig. 996.) Immedi-
ately beneath the shell (permeable
by air) is the meinbrana pictami-
?!!S, consisting of two layers, sepa-
rating at the larger end, so as to
leave a space called the vesiciila
aen's, which is filled with air con-
taining an unusual portion of oxy-
gen, destined to serve for the respi-
ration of the future chick. En-
closed in the menibrana ;putaminis
is the albumen with the suspending
cords (chalaza), and, lastly, the
yolk with its germ, enclosed in the
meinbrana vitelli. It is by the
natural warmth of the body of the
parent, brooding over the eggs,
that the vital, though as yet torpid. Fig. 996.— New-laid Egg, with part
germ is called into activity, and of Shell removed,
begins to develop. Its progress is
gradual, but rapid, till the chick breaks from its imprisonment and
commences a new career.
The changes which the chick undergoes in the egg during the
process of incubation, have engaged the attention of many philo-
sophical naturalists, who have given the minute details of every
phase : we shall not follow them, but refer to the following illustra-
tions, as exhibiting the progress with sufficient clearness for those
to whom minute anatomical disquisitions would not prove very at-
tractive.
Y\g. 997, an egg as it appears twelve hours after incubation, with
a magnified view of the germ in its first stage of development. Fig.
998, the same, with the chick and the first appearance of the prin-
cipal blood-vessels magnified. Fig. 999, an egg opened four days
after incubation, with a magnified view of the chick. Here the
pupil of the eye is distinctly visible, and in the head arc five
Fig. 997. — Egg and Germ at Twelve Houre after Incubation.
vesicles, filled with a fluid ; and these, as they enlarge, approach
each other, coalesce, and form the brain, invested with its mem-
branes. Fig. 1000 represents the chick at ten days removed from
the egg. Fig. looi, the chick removed at fourteen days. Fig. ioo->
the condition of the chick on the twentieth day. Fig. 1005 the posi-
tion of the chick in the egg previous to liberation. Fig. 'looJ posi-
tions of the shell after the escape of the chick. Contrary to what
Fig. 99S.— Egg and Cliick at Thirty-si.x Hours.
Fig. 999. — Egg and Chick on Fourth Day.
Fi.c
1000. — Chick at
Ten Days.
Fig. looi. — Chick at
Fourteen Days.
some persons suppose, the chick frees itself from its narrow prison
byTs^own exerti^ons, and not by the aid of the '"fher, as some have
suggested, from the circumstance that pieces of the shell ^re often
brfken off while the membrane within remains unruptured : but the
fact is tha the membrane is yielding and elastic, while the stacH s
not • the latter therefore breaks, while the membrane stretches It
might be supposed that this task was much above the strength of
378
CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.
the yet feeble chick, did we not reflect that instinct calls upon it to
exert its utmost energies, and that its very position favours its
efforts. The bill is still soft, indeed, and might at first seem ill-
fitted for breaking the shell ; but a provision is made ; for, as IMr.
Yarrell observes, "upon the curved part of the upper mandible,
just above the point, will be seen a small horny scale, nearly circu-
Fig. 1002. — Chick on
'Twentieth Day.
Fig. 1003.— Chick in Egg
as nearly hatched.
Fig. IC04.— Position of Shells after Escape of Chick.
lar, having at its centre a hard and sharp projecting point, and_, by
the particular position of the head, this sharp point is brought into
constant contact with the inner surface of the shell." Such, at
least, is the use generally attributed to this horny point ; and it is to
be remarked, that when the chick escapes, and the beak hardens by
exposure to the air, it soon falls off, and on the second or third day
only a light-coloured mark is observable on the spot it had occupied.
In Pigeons, and other Birds, which are long before they become
capable of running about and feeding themselves, this horny point
remains for more than a week. It is worthy of note, that on the
beak of the very young Omithorhynchus, described at p. 354, arite,
a similar horny scale exists.
Most Birds live in pairs during the breeding season, which usually
occurs only once in the year; and both sexes generally take an
equal part in the care of the young. They usually form a nest of
some description for the reception of the eggs ; this is composed of
the most different materials, such as sticks, moss, wool, vegetable
fibres, &c. ; and comparatively few are contented with a hole
scratched in the ground for the performance of the work of incuba-
tion : in fact, in many instances, the work of these little architects
must excite the admiration of every observer. The nests of different
individuals of the same species are generally not only of the same
form, but even composed nearly of the same materials ; so that an
observer, accustomed to the inspection of Birds' nests, can gene-
rally tell at a glance the species to which a nest belongs. The
number of eggs laid is also very uniform in each species.
In the structure and development of the c^%, which have been
described and illustrated, we find a great uniformity throughout
this class. We may, however, remark that the development of the
embryo takes place here in precisely the same manner as in the
Reptiles. Notwithstanding this general uniformity in the processes
of reproduction, there is a remarkable difference in the condition of
the young Birds at the moment of hatching, and this has given rise
to the division of the class into two great sections. In some, which
usually reside upon the ground, where they form their nests and
hatch their young, the latter are able to run about from the moment
of their breaking the egg-shell, and the only care of the parents is
devoted to protecting their offspring from danger, and loading them
into those places where they are likely to meet with food. The
others, which, in fact, constitute the majority of the class, pass more
of their time in the air, and generally repose upon the trees, or in
other elevated situations, where they also build their nests ; and the
young Birds, for some time after they arc hatched, remain in the
nest in a comparatively helpless state, their parents bringing them
food, and attending upon them most assiduously until their feathers
are sufficiently grown to enable them to support themselves upon thp
wing.
Another remarkable phenomenon presented by this interesting
class of animals, is the instinct which prompts many of them to
change the place of their abode, in accordance with the season ot
the year. In some cases these migrations are of comparatively
small extent, the Birds moving only from one [part of a country to
the other, frequently for the sake of a supply of food ; but many
species, which are commonly known as Birds of passage, perform
long journeys twice in the year, visiting temperate, or even cold,
climates during the summer, and quitting these, at the approach of
winter, for regions which enjoy a more genial temperature during
this period of the year. The Swallows, and many others of our
small Birds, are well-known examples of those which visit the tem-
perate regions of Europe, and remain in these countries to breed
during the summer ; and a considerable number of other species,
including several of our Aquatic Birds, arrive in the temperate
regions of Europe at the approach of winter, their summer residence
and breeding-places being situated far to the north. The winter
quarters of our summer visitants appear to be principally the coasts
of the Mediterranean, and especially the northern parts ot Airica.
In their long journeys to reach these countries, they are of course
compelled to pass over a considerable expanse of sea ; and, before
venturing upon this arduous portion of their voyage, they are fre-
quently found collected in vast flocks upon promontories which pro-
ject towards the place of their destination. On their arrival on the
opposite shore, many species are so exhausted by their exertions
that they may be taken by the hand.
Having thus given a general description of the physiology, habits,
and other characteristics of Birds, we proceed to take them in
detail for an especial description of the various peculiarities which
each order presents for the study of the naturalist.
Various methods have been adopted by naturalists in the classifi-
cation of Birds. But they present analogous difficulties with those
we have already seen prevalent in the case of the Mainmalia. In
fact, throughout nature, or, at least, animated nature, we can
scarcely ever meet with well-defined or broad distinctions in the
order of classes. We might even go farther ; for, on reference to
page 352, miie, we have shown that in many respects the Omithor-
hynchus, one of the Mammalia, singularly resembles the Duck in
physical structure and habits.
The class of Birds has, by some authors, been divided into two
great natural sections, in one of which the young are produced in
such a condition that they are capable of moving about immediately
on their quitting the ^%% : these are the Autophagi, or self-feeders ;
whilst, in the other series, the young remain in the nest until they
are completely fledged, and are supplied with food by their parents
until that time. The general habits of the adult animals are equally
characteristic of these two sections : the Birds belonging to the
latter are generally distinguished by .their great power of wing,
which fits them especially for an aerial residence, whilst their feet
are more particularly adapted for perching ; those of the former
series, on the contrary, are distinguished by their stronger feet,
which adapt them more especially for walking upon the ground, and
their wings are frequently weaker than in the opposite section,
although many of the species possess great power of flight. The
names oi Autophagi and Insessores have been proposed for_ these
two sections, each of which includes several orders. The distinc-
tion, however, is more apparent than real. It certainly is not abso-
lute, because several of the so-called ^z^/o/Zz^^/ feed their young for
a considerable period after they are hatched.
The A utophagi, in which the young Birds are capable of feeding
themselves from the moment of leaving the !i%g, include four orders ;
namely, the Natatorcs, or Swimmers, in which the legs are un-
usually short, and the toes always furnished with a membrane ; the
Grallatores, or Wading Birds, which have the legs elongated,
with the extremity of the tibia; usually naked, and the toes free ;
the Cursores, or Runners, with rudimentary wings, and powerful
cursorial legs; and the iJaJ-ori^J, or Gallinaceous Birds, with short
legs, divided toes, adapted either for walking or perching ; and well-
developed wings. r , • , .. i- 1
The Insessorial section also includes four orders, of which the tirst,
includino- the Pigeons, or Cohanbcs, is distinguished by the pre-
sence of^ cartilaginous scale at the base of the beak, covering the
nasal cavities, and exhibits considerable analogy with the Gallina-
ceous Birds, especially in the structure of the feet. Of the three other
orders the Scansores, or Climbing Birds, are characterised by the
structure of their feet, two of the toes being directed fonvards, and
two backwards ; the Passeres, or Perchers, by their usually straight
bills and comparatively slender feet, of which three of the toes are
turned forwards, and one backwards ; and the Rapfnrcs, or Proda-
ceous Birds by their powerful hooked beaks, and strong talons
armed with formidable claws. It is with the latter we shall com-
mence our description of Birds, neglecting for our purpose strict
Zoological classification.
RAPTORIAL BIRDS.
379
CHAPTER XXIV.
CLASS II.— AVES, OR BIRDS— ORDER, RAPTORES.
APTORES is a term .-ipplied to an extensive
order of Birds, including Eagles, Vultures,
Owls, &c. Amongst the Passerine Birds
there are a few instances of species which
^ are exceedingly predaceous in their disposi-
tion, destroying not only insects and worms,
that in fact constitute a considerable portion
of the food of most of the species, but also
;v.")'j'Si^^ tyrannising over the smaller Birds and
^- "- ''^- ^flr''" other vertebrated animals, in a style which
would justify us in applying to them the
denomination of Birds of prey. It is, however, in the
present order that we find the powers of destruction
developed to tlie fullest extent, and the whole structure
of the Raptorial Birds is evidently adapted to the in-
cessant warfare which they wage with their neighbours.
Nevertheless some of these Birds are of a peaceful
nature, and feed exclusively upon the bodies of animals
which they find already dead, although in all their
characters they are unmistakable members of this order.
Amongst these distinctive characters, the most im-
portant are those furnished by the bill and feet. The
former of these organs is always rather short and strong,
with the upper mandible longer than the lower one ;
strongly hooked at the tip, or curved throughout its
whole length ; very sharp at the point, and frequently
armed with teeth on the margins. The base of the bill is covered
by a cere, in which the nostrils are pierced. The feet are usually
short and powerful, composed of four toes, armed with long, curved,
and acute claws. With these the predaceous Birds seize their prey
in a deadly grasp, and hold the victim whilst the powerful bill is
engaged tearing off portions of its flesh.
The other parts of their organisation exhibit the same adaptation
to a piratical mode of existence. The wings are always of large
size, and often of extraordinary length, giving the Birds an as-
tonishing rapidity of flight ; it has been calculated that some of the
Falcons progress through the air at the rate of at least sixty miles
an hour, under ordinary circumstances ; but, when in immediate
pursuit of their prey, they are supposed sometimes to attain at least
twice this speed. The tail is long and broad, usually composed of
twelve feathers ; it is sometimes rounded or forked at the end.
The tarsi are rarely furnished with scutella, as in the Passerine
Birds ; but these and the toes are generally covered with a reticu-
lated skin, although, in some cases, a few scutella are found upon
the front of the tarsi and the upper part of the toes. The latter are
arranged three in front and one behind, and the anterior toes are
usually united at the base by a short membrane, except in the Owls,
in which the outer toe is capable of being turned backwards, and
the inner one alone is united to the middle toe by a membrane. In
some instances the feet are feathered down to the toes.
The Raptorial Birds are very generally distributed over the globe.
They vary greatly in size, but the majority feed upon the flesh of
animals which they capture for themselves ; some of the smaller
species, however, condescend to prey upon insects.
Sub-divisions. — These Birds form three families, which may be
arranged in two sections, or tribes — the Nocturnal and Diurnal
rapacious Birds. The former of these sections only includes a
single family, that of the Owls ; the second includes the Falcons,
Vultures, &c.
Families Falconid^ and Vulturid^, including Eagles,
Falcons, Hawks, Etc.
The Diurnal Raptorial Birds are readily distinguished from the
Nocturnal by the smaller comparative size of the head and eyes, by
the lateral position of the eyes, and by the nature of the plumage,
which is firm, and wants that peculiar softness that enables the
Nocturnal species (the Owls) to fly noiselessly through the air. The
wings are larger, and more pointed. The bill is strong ; nearly
half the mandible is covered by a cere ; the tarsi and toes are
usually covered with the reticulated scales, but sometimes are
plumed. In the structure of the intestinal canal there is also a
great difference. The oesophagus of the Diurnal Raptores is di-
lated into a large sac, or crop, which is wanting in the Nocturnal ;
and the coecal appendages of the intestine, which in the Owls
attain a large size, are reduced largely in the Diurnal species.
The general appearance of these may be seen in the following illus-
tration of the Milan Royal Hawk, or Kite. (See Fig. 1006.)
The Golden Eagle (Aqmla c/irysaV/nsJ.-Wo select the
Golden Eagle as a specimen of the family Fnlconidu- ; not indeed
because it is w^iat modern naturalists call the type, which mav be
found in the Peregrine or the Iceland Falcon, but because it is
associated in our minds with ideas of courage, strength and
ferocity; characteristics which are not displayed even by some of
the species of the genus Falco—3.s the Kestrel, for example— and
still less so by the species of other genera. The Eagles form the
sub-family Aquiliitcs.
What the Feline and Musteline races are among terrestrial quad-
rupeds, such arc the Fakonidts among Birds. They live by slaugh-
ter ; their life is passed " in armis," and they carry on with unceas-
ing activity the work of destruction ; they rejoice in carnage and
cower with outspread wings over their reeking quarry, utt'erine
shrieks of exultation. *"
Their bearing is lofty and noble ; their eyes are largo, bright .and
piercing; their frame sinewy and muscular; their' flight' im-
petuous. Their beak is strong and hooked, and the talons°are for-
midable. Look at those of the Golden Eagle (Fig. 1005), and picture
Fig. 1005. — Talons of Golden Eagle.
them driven with remorseless force into the flesh of the agonising
victim.
The Falconidm live either alone or in pairs ; some tenant deep
forests ; others scour wide and level plains, or high moorland ;
some haunt the sea-shore, and build on the wave-beaten rocks;
and some make the " difficult peak" of the mountain range their
home. They surround their eyry with the relics of many a sangui-
nary feast, and their "young ones suck up blood."
Among the FalcoiudcB the Eagles are pre-eminent in size and
daring. When at rest on the crag of the rock, they assume an atti-
tude of dignified calmness, as if conscious of superiority ; but the
bright glance of the eye betrays the ferocity of disposition, which
the «e.\t moment may be displayed in a terrific burst, as, sweeping
down with irresistible force, they prostrate their victim, and dye their
beak and talons in its gore.
In all the Eagles the cere at the base of the beak is large, and
perforated by the nostrils ; the talons are strong ; the wings ample,
and slightly rounded, the fourth quill-feather being the largest. In
the genus Aquila, which includes the Golden Eagle, the tarsi are
plumed to the toes ; the beak is sub-triangular above ; the nostrils
are rounded. „ . . , .
The Golden Eagle (Eryr Melyn of the ancient British) was once
common in many parts of England, and, till in comparatively recent
times, bred annually in Cumberland, Westmoreland, and the t eak
of Derbyshire. It is still to be seen in the Highlands of Scotland,
and in some districts of Ireland is far from being uncommon. Mr.
Thompson (" Mag. of Zool. and Botany," vol. ii., p. 43) states that
the gamekeeper of Mr. Stewart, between the years 1828 and 1832,
had killed thirteen or fourteen Golden Eagles, on the mountain
range of the Horn (the name given to the peninsula bounding the
western entrance to Sheephaven, in the county o. Donegal, and
which terminates in the stupendous promontory of Horn Head; ;
THE GOLDEN EAGLE.
380
and the same observant naturalist writes :-" On visjtins: Achil^ off
the coast of Mayo, in June, 1834, in company with Robert Ball, -
Esq of Dublin, Lieutenant Reynolds of the Preventive Service, a
keen sportsman, and well acquainted with Birds, assured us that
one or two pairs of Golden Eagles breed annually in the island.
When subsequently on the mountain of Croagh-patrick, which ter-
minates volcano-like in a magnificent cone, and is in elevationthe
second in Connaught, we, for a considerable time, observed a pair ot
these Eaeles towering above its summit. In the county of Kerry, a
few weeks afterwards, an Eagle, supposed to be of this^ species, was
seen by some of our party when viewing the Lakes of KiUarney irom
the topmost ridge of Mangerton. When on a visit to this same
place the previous autumn, my friend, Robert Patterson, Esq., ot
1 liL Mihn Royal Hawk, or Kite.
Belfast, made the following note, which he has kindly permitted me
to use : — • Near to the little lake called the Devil's Punchbowl, we
disturbed four Eagles preying on a full-grown Sheep : they rose
majestically into the air as we approached. The people who were
with us supposed the Sheep, being perhaps sickly, had been killed
by the Eagles, a supposition corroborated by the quantity of fleece
scattered over the ground for some yards in one direction. The
flesh of the neck was completely removed, although that of every
other part was untouched. We were assured that' two Eagles will
occasionally pursue a Hare, one flying low, coursing it alono- the
ground, the other keeping perpendicularly above the terrified ani-
:nal. When the lowest Eagle tires, they change places, and pursue
the same system of tactics until the Hare is completely wearied out.
1 was told the same circumstance a few days afterwards near Tra-
lee, and again near Monastercvan : my informant in every instance
stated the fact as having fallen under his own knowledge, and not
as a matter of hearsay.' "
The mode of pursuing the Hare above described, and on the cor-
rectness of which we rely, reminds us that either this or an allied
Eagle [Aqiiila imperialis) is employed by the Tartars in the chase
of Antelopes, Wolves, Foxes, Hares, &c. ; nor would it appear that
there is much difficulty in training these powerful Birds to the work,
for, though Eagles captured when adult are extremely savage and
indocile, they are as easily reclaimed as the Peregrine Falcon when
taken young from the nest. Mr. Thompson observes, that R. Lang-
try, Esq., of Fortwilliam, near Belfast, " has at present an Eagle of
this species which is extremely docile and tractable. It was taken
last summer from a nest in
Inverness-shire, and came
into his possession about the
end of September. This Bird
became at once attached to
its owner, who, after having
it about a month, ventured
to give it its liberty, a privi-
lege which was not on the
Eagle's part abused, as it
came to the lure whenever
called. It not only permits
itself to be handled any
way, but seems to derive
pleasure from the applica-
tion of the hand to its legs
and plumage. The Eagle
was hooded after the man-
ner of the Hunting-Hawks
for some time, but the prac-
tice was abandoned ; and
although it may be requisite
if the Bird be trained for the
chase, hooding is otherwise
unnecessary, as it remains
quiet and contented for any
length of time, and no mat-
ter how far carried on its
master's arm. It is quite in-
difi^erent to the presence of
any persons who may be in
his company, and is unwil-
ling to leave him even to take
a flight, having to be thrown
into the air whenever he
wishes it to do so. When
this Eagle is at large, he has
only to hold out. his arm to-
wards it, which, as soon as
perceived, even at a distance,
it flies to and perches on. I
have seen it thus come to him
not less than a dozen times
within half-an-hour, without
any food being oflfered. It
runs very fast, and when on
the ground, and the lure is
thrown comparatively near,
it prefers this mode of pro-
gression to using its wings.
Live Rats have several times
been turned out of the cage-
trap to this Bird, but before
running very far were invari-
ably pounced upon." Other
instances of the docility of
the Golden Eagle might be
adduced.
Of the boldness, or rather
familiarity, of this species, the
from the writer already quoted, is a proof: —
he says, " who was eye-witness to the fact,
hunting among the Belfast mountains,
following statement,
" A sporting friend,"
assures me that when out
many years ago, an Eagle, which, from the darkness of its plumage,
he considered was the Golden, appeared above his Hounds as they
came to a fault on the ascent to Davis (the highest of the chain),
after a good chase. As they came on the scent again, and were at
full cry, the Eagle for a short time kept above them, but at length
advanced, and carried off the Hare when at the distance of from
three to four hundred paces before the Hounds."
Fig. 1007 is a spirited delineation of an Eagle brooding over her
callow young, which are well supplied with game ; instances, in-
deed, are on record (as that of a peasant in Kerry, and of a man at
Glenariff, in Antrim), of persons supporting their family for a con-
THE GOLDEN EA GLE.
3S1
siderable length of time on the produce of the industry of the parent
Birds, which continue to brin.sf food to their younr;, mailing up for
the recurring abstraction. Young Lambs, Hares, Rabbits, and
Grouse, forn? the chief articles of provision. Low, in his "Fauna
Orcade'nsis," says, that they do not abstain from pork in the Ork-
neys, but occasionally seize both old and young Swine. A clergy-
Fig. IC07. — Tlie Golden Eagle and her young.
man told him that he had seen one, mounted in the air, with a pretty
large Pig in her talons, which she let fall alive when he fired at
her. Martin, in his " Description of the Western Islands of Scot-
land," published in 1716, speaking of this Bird, says : — " The Eagles
are very destructive to the Fawns and Lambs. The natives observe
that it fixes its talons between the Deer's horns, and beats its wings
constantly about its eyes, which puts the Deer to run continually
Fig. 1008.— The Golden Eagle (Male Bird).
till it falls into a ditch or over a precipice, where it dies, and so be
comes a prey to this cunning hunter. The Eagle never engages in
a perfectly solitary chase, e.\cept when the female is confined to her
eggs or her young. At that season the proper prey of these Eagles
is generally so abundant that the male is able to provide for his own
wants and those of the family, without the assistance of the female.
At other times they unite their ex-
ertions, and are always seen cither
together or only at a short distance
from each other. It is said that
the one beats the bushes, while the
other, perched on an eminence,
watches the escape of the prey."
Pennant adds his authority to
part of IMartin's statement, and
says that the Eagles in the island
of Rum have nearly extirpated the
Deer that used to abound there.
He also states that Eagles seem to
give a preference to the carcasses of
Cats and Dogs. " Persons who
make it their business to kill these
Birds lay that of one or other by
way of bait, and then conceal them-
selves within gun-shot. They fire
tlie instant the Eagle alights, for
she that moment looks about before
she begins to prey."
Martin, in the work just quoted,
relates the following anecdote ; and
one very similar is also related by
Sir Robert Sibbald : — "There's a
couple of large Eagles who have
their nest on the north end of the
isle [St. Kilda]. The inhabitants
told me that they commonly make
their purchase in the adjacent isles
and continent, and never take so
much as a Lamb or Hen from the
place of their abode, where they
breed. I forgot to mention a singu-
lar providence that happened to a native of the Isle of Skye, called
Neil, who, when an infant, was left by his mother in the field, not far
from the houses on the north side of Loch Portrie ; an Eagle came in
the meantime and carried him away in its talons, as far as the south
side of the loch, and there laid him on the ground. Some people
that were herding Sheep there perceived it, and hearing the infant
cry, ran immediately to its rescue, and, by good providence, found
him untouched by the Eagle, and carried him home to his mother.
He is still living in that parish, and, by reason of this accident, is
distinguished among his neighbours by the surname of Eagle."
Ray mentions an instance of a child a year old being seized by an
Eagle in one of the Orkneys, and carried to the eyry, about four
miles distant. But the mother, who was aware of its situation,
pursued the Bird thither, found her child in the nest, and took it
home unhurt. Other instances are related, but we confess we regard
them with suspicion.
Elevated on some lofty pinnacle (Fig. 1008), or soaring in the sky,
"towering in his pride of place," the Eagle gazes below and
around, and marks his prey at an astonishing distance. His won-
derful powers of vision have supplied the poets with apt suggestions,
as have also his powers and ferocity. Homer, speaking of Menelaus,
describes him as —
"The field exploring with an eye
Keen as the eagle's — keenest eyed of all
That wing the air, whom, though he soar aloft,
The leveret 'scapes not, hid in tliickest shades.
But down he swoops, and at a stroke she dies."
' //., xvii. C74. — CowPER.
The eye of the Eagle is indeed large, compared with the skull,
though the mere bulk of the eye is a "fallacious test, and, as in the
Woodcock, Owl, &c., is often connected with nocturnal or crepus-
cular vision. Fig. 1009 represents a preparation of the skull and
eyes of the Golden Eagle ; and Fig. loio represents. A, the bony ring
of the orbit of the eye ; H, the crystalline lens of the same Bird ; a,
the anterior surface, somewhat less convex than the posterior one.
The Golden Eagle is common in many parts of the Continent,
where, in level districts, it frequents extensive forests. It is found
in France, in the forest of Fontainebleau, as well as on the moun-
tains of Auvergne and the Pyrenees; it is abundant in the Tyrol,
Russia, Sweden, Franconia, and Suabia, but is rare in Holland.
Of the havoc it occasions where common, some idea may be formed
from the statement of Bechstein, that in one eyry in Germany the
skeletons of 300 Ducks and forty Hares were found ; and these were,
in all probability, the relics of such prey only as it could carry to its
nest, the remains of the larger game, Sheep, Fawns, Roebucks, &c.,
S82
THE IMPERIAL AND SEA-EAGLES.
being- left after the feast on the spot where the animals were
slaughtered. The present species is found in various parts of Asia.
We have seen specimens from India, and Colonel Sykes enumerates
it among the Birds of the Dukhun. Nor is it to the Old World that
tliis Eagle is confined. It inhabits North America from the tem-
perate to the Arctic regions, where, according to Wilson, it is
Fig. loio.— Parts of Eye of Eagle.
Fig. 1009.— Skull of an Eagle.
sparingly dispersed, breeding on high precipitous rocks, and always
preferring a mountainous country. Dr. Richardson, in his " Fauna
Boreali-Americana," mentions it with a query, as breeding in the
recesses of the sub-alpine country which skirts the Rocky Moun-
tains, and as seldom seen farther to the eastward. It is the Koeoo
of the Cree Indians. This Eagle "is held by the aborigines of
America, as it is by almost every other people, to be an emblem of
might and courage ; and the
young Indian warrior glories
in his Eagle-plume as the
most honourable ornament
with which he can adorn
himself. Its feathers are
attached to the calumets, or
smoking-pipes, used by the
Indians in the celebration of
their solemn festivals, which
has obtained for it the name
of the Calumet Eagle. In-
deed, so highly are these
ornaments prized, that a warrior will often e.^change a valuable
Horse for the tail-feathers of a single Eagle.
The age attained by the Eagle is very great ; one that died at
Vienna is said to have lived in confinement one hundred and four
years.
As is the case with all ^e: FaIconid(S,W\Q young and old Birds
differ in the colour and markings of the plumage, a circumstance
which, before it was clearly understood, led to the erroneous multi-
plication of species, as already mentioned.
The old Birds have the top of the head and back of the neck
covered v.'ith slender-pointed feathers of a bright golden red ; all the
other parts of the body are obscure brown, more or less blackish,
according to the age of the individual ; inside of the thighs and
feathers of the tarsus clear brown ; no white feathers among the
scapulars ; tail deep grey, regularly barred with blackish-brown,
and terminated at the end by a large band of that colour ; beak
horn-colour ; iris brown ; cere and feet yellow. Length about three
feet ; expanse of wings about eight feet. Female three feet and
a-half in length ; expanse of wing nine feet.
Young Birds of one or two years old, the Ring-tail Eagle of
various writers, have all the plumage of a ferruginous or clear
reddish-brown, uniform on all parts of the body. Lower tail-coverts
■whitish; inside of the thighs, and feathers of the tarsus, 'white ;
tail white from the base to three-fourths of its length, but after-
wards brown to the end. In the third year the adiilt plumage is
assumed. The females, as in all the Falconidm, exceed the males
in size, contrary to the general law.
The nest of the Golden Eagle is composed of sticks, twigs, rushes,
heath, &c., and is generally placed upon the jutting lodge of some
inaccessible precipice : here it rears its young, generally two, some-
times three, in number, feeding them with the bleeding morsels of
the yet warm victim. In forests the nest is placed near the
summit of a lofty tree.
The liii'KKiAL Eacle {Aquila imj)cria!is, Tcmminck ; Aquila
/leliaca, Viedlot).— This species is closely allied to the Golden
Eagle, but has longer wings and largo white scapulary feathers. It
is extremely powerful, fierce, and destructive. The Imperial Eagle
inhabits the mountain districts of the south of Europe and the
adjacent countries of Asia, but is never seen in the British Islands.
(See Fig. loii.)
Fig. loil. — The Imperial Eagle.
In the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London, at Regent's
Park, living specimens of this Bird will be found in the Vulture's
aviary. There is a good series of examples, obtained Irom different
localities in Europe and Asia, to be seen there.
The White-headed Sea-Eagle {Haliaetus leucocepkalus);
Bald Eagle, Latham and Wilson ; Falco ossifragus (young), Wil-
son. — The characters of the genus Haliai'tus may be summed up as
follows : — Bill elongated, strong, straight at the base, curving in a
regular arc, in advance of the cere, to the tip, and forming a deep
hook ; nostrils transverse, large, lunate. Wings ample ; the fourth
quill-feather the longest. Legs having the tarsi half-feathered, the
front of the naked part scutellated, and the sides and back reticu-
lated. Toes divided to their origin ; the outer one versatile. Claws
hooked and strong, grooved beneath ; claw of hind-toe the largest,
and next that of the inner toe. (See Fig. loi 2, the Head and Foot of
the White-headed Eagle.)
Of the present genus, several species, generally called Fishing,
or Sea-Eagles, are known, as the Chilian Sea-Eagle {H. agtiia),
the Cape Fishing-Eagle, of South Africa {H. voci/er), the Sea-
Eagle, Erne, White-tailed Eagle, or Cinereous Eagle {H. albicilla,
Selby) of Europe and the British Isles : the Australian Sea-Eagle,
{^H. lencogaster,) and the White-headed Eagle of America. It is
the latter that will more particularly engage our present attention.
This species (like its British representative, the White-tailed Sea-
Eagle) varies greatly in its plumage at different stages of life :
hence the Cree Indians, who term the species Meekeeshew, add
other epithets by way of distinction. The mature Bird is called
Wapustiquan-Meekeeshew, or White-headed Eagle ; the immature
Bird, Appisk-Meekeeshew, or Black-headed Eagle ; and the year-
ling Bird, Meekeeseeseesh.
This noble Bird, emblazoned on the national standard of the
United States of America (not much to the satisfaction of Benjamin
Franklin), is spread throughout nearly the whole of the northern
division of the New World, and is common along the course of the
larger rivers, and at their embouchures, as well as along the coast
of inland lakes and of the sea.
" The celebrated cataract of Niagara," says Wilson, " is a noted
place of resort for the Bald Eagle, as well on account of the fish
procured there, as for the numerous carcasses of squirrels, deer,
bears, and various other animals, that, in their attempts to cross
the river above the falls, have been dragged into the current, and
CO
LU
CO
THE SEA-EAGLES.
3^3
precipitated down that tremendous gulf, where, among the rocks
that bound the rapids below, they furnish a rich repast for the vul-
ture, the raven, and the subject of the present account."—" Formed
by nature for braving the severest cold ; feeding equally on the pro-
duce of the sea and of the land ; possessing powers of flight
capable of outstripping even the tempests themselves ; unawed by
anything but man ; and from the ethereal heights to which he soars,
looking abroad at one glance over an immeasurable expanse of
forestst fields, lakes, and ocean deep below him, he appears indif-
Fig. 1012. — Head and Foot of White-headed Eagle.
ferent to the change of seasons, as in a few minutes he can pass
from summer to winter, from the lower to the higher regions of the
atmosphere, the abode of eternal cold, and thence descend at will
to the torrid or to the arctic regions of the earth : he is therefore
found at all seasons in the countries he inhabits, but prefers such
places as have been mentioned above, from the great partiality he
has for fish." — " In procuring these, he displays, in a very singular
manner, the genius and energy of his character, which is fierce,
contemplative, daring, and tyrannical ; attributes not exerted but
on particular occasions, but, when put forth, overpowering all oppo-
sition. Elevated on the high, dead limb of some gigantic tree, that
commands a wide view of the neighbouring shore and ocean, he
seems calmly to contemplate the motions of the various feathered
tribes that pursue their busy avocations below — the snow-white gulls
slowly winnowing the air, the busy Triiiga coursing along the
sands, silent and watchful cranes intent and wading, clamorous
crows, and all the winged multitudes that subsist by the bounty of
this vast magazine of nature. High over all these hovers one whose
action instantly arrests his whole attention. By his wide curvature
of wing and sudden suspension in air, he knows him to be the fish-
hawk, settling over some devoted victim of the deep. His eye
kindles at the sight, and, balancing himself with half-opened wings
on the branch, he awaits the result. Down, rapid as an arrow,
from heaven descends the distant object of his attention, the roar of
its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the deep, making the
surges foam around. At this moment the eager looks of the eagle
ai all ardour ; and, levelling his neck for flight, he sees the fish-
haivk once more emerge struggling with his prey, and mounting in
the air with screams of exultation. These are the signal for the
eagle, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase, and soon
gains on the fish-hawk. Each exerts his utmost to mount above
the other, displaying in these rencontres the most elegant and sub-
lime atrial evolutions. The unencumbered eagle rapidly advances,
and is just on the point of reaching his opponent, when, with a
sudden scream, probably of despair and honest execration, the
latter drops his fish ; the eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if
to take a more certain aim, descends like a wOiirlwind, snatches it
in his grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten
booty silently away to the woods." It is this eloquent descriptive
passage which the representation, Fig. 1013, is intended to illus-
trate.
Fig. 1013. — ^Vhite•headed Sea-Eagle and Fish-Hawk.
This is not the only mode in which the White-headed Eagle pro-
cures his sustenance. Young Lambs and Pigs, Ducks, Geese,
Swans, and various Sea-Fowl, arc attacked and carried away. Mr.
J. Gardiner stated to Wilson, that he had seen one flying with a
Lamb ten days old, but which, from the violence of its struggles, it
was obliged to drop at the height of a few feet from the ground.
He adds that, by running up and hallooing, he prevented it from
again seizing the Lamb, whose back it had broken, and to whose
misery he put an instant termination. The dam seemed astonished
to see its offspring suddenly snatched up, and borne off by a Bird.
Sheep, if old or sickly, are also subject to the attacks of these
tyrants of the feathered race ; nor do they reject carrion, keeping
the Vultures (over which they often exercise their despotism) at a
respectful distance, waiting till they have gorged their fill and de-
parted. Now and then they procure fish for themselves in shallow
places, wading in the water, and striking at them with their beak.
They have been known even to attack children. We have quoted
Wilson's animated description of the attack of the White-headed
Ea^^le upon the Fish-Hawk or Osprey ; and, in justice to Mr. Audu-
bo^, we will transcribe his equally graphic details of a different
conflict : — " To give you," he writes, " some idea of the nature of
this Bird, permit me to place you on the Mississippi, on w^hich you
may float gently along, while approaching winter brings millions of
water-fowl, on whistling wings, from the countries of the north, to
seek a milder climate in which to sojourn for a season; The eagle
is seen perched, in an erect attitude, on the summit of the tallest
tree by the margin of the broad stream. His glistening but stern
eye looks over the vast expanse ; he listens attentively to every
sound that comes to his quick ear from afar, glancing every now
and then on the earth beneath, lest even the light tread of the fawn
may pass unheard. His mate is perched on the opposite side, and,
should all be tranquil and silent, warns him, by a cr)', to continue
patient. At this well-known call he partly opens his broad wmgs,
inclines his body a little downwards, and answers to her voice m
tones not unlike the laugh of a maniac. The next moment he re-
sumes his erect attitude, and again all around is sdent. Ducks of
many species— the teal, the widgeon, the mallard, and others— are
seen passing with great rapidity, and following the course of the
384
THE OSPREY, OR FISH-HA WK.
current, but the eagle heeds them not ; they are, at that time, be-
neath his attention. The next moment, however, the wild trumpet-
like sound of a yet distant but approaching swan is heard. A
shriek from the female eagle comes across the stream, for she is
fully as alert as her mate. The latter suddenly shakes the whole of
his body, and, with a few touches of his bill, aided by the action of
his cuticular muscles, arranges his plumes in an instant. The
snow-white bird is now in sight ; her long neck is stretched forward ;
her eye is on the watch, vigilant as that of her enemy ; her large
wings seem with difficulty to support the weight of her body,
although they flap incessantly ; so irksome do her exertions seem,
that her very legs are spread beneath her tail to aid her in her
flight. She approaches, however. The eagle has marked her for
his prey. As the swan is passing the dreaded pair, starts from his
perch the male bird in preparation for the chase, with an awful
scream, that, to the swan's ears, brings more terror than the report
of the large duck-gun. Now is the moment to witness the display
of the eagle's powers. He glides through the air like a falling star,
and, like a flash of lightning, comes upon the timorous quarry,
which now, in agony and despair, seeks, by various manoeuvres, to
elude the grasp of his cruel talons. It mounts, doubles, and
willingly would plunge into the stream were it not prevented by
the eagle, which, possessed of the knowledge that by such a strata-
gem the swan might escape him, forces it to remain in the air by
attempting to strike it with his talons from beneath. The hope of
escape is soon given up by the swan. It has already become much
weakened, and its strength fails at the sight of the courage and
swiftness of its antagonist. Its last gasp is about to escape, when
the ferocious eagle strikes with its talons the under side of its wing,
and, with unresisted power, forces the bird to fall in a slanting di-
rection upon the nearest shore. It is then that you may see the
cruel spirit of this dreaded enemy of the feathered race, whilst, ex-
ulting over his prey, he, for the first time, breathes at ease. He
presses down his powerful feet, and drives his sharp claws deep
into the heart of the dying swan ; he shrieks with delight as he feels
the last convulsions of his prey, which has now sunk under his
efforts to render death as painful as it possibly can be. The female
has watched every movement of her mate ; and if she did not assist
him in capturing the swan, it was not from want of will, but merely
that she felt full assurance that the power and courage of her lord
were quite sufficient for the deed. She now sails to the spot where
he eagerly awaits her ; and when she has arrived, they together
turn the breast of the luckless swan upwards, and gorge themselves
with gore."
The White-headed Eagle is seldom seen alone, but generally in
company with its mate ; the union continues during life ; they hunt
for the support of each other, and feed together. The nest is
usually placed on some tall tree, with a massive towering stem des-
titute of branches for a considerable height. It is composed of
sticks, clods, weeds, and moss, and measures five or six feet in
diameter ; and being annually augmented by fresh layers (for it is
used year after year), it is often as much in depth. The eggs are
from two to four in number, and of a dull white. The attachment
of the parents to their young is very great ; and they provide
abundantly for their support, bringing home Fish, Squirrels,
young Lambs, Opossums, Racoons, &c. Incubation commences in
January.
This Eagle requires at least four years before it attains the full
beauty of its plumage, and acquires the white head and neck ; but
it breeds the first spring after birth. Colour of adult : — general plu-
mage of a deep chocolate, approaching black ; head, neck, tail,
and upper tail-coverts white.
_ The Osprey, Fish-Hawk, or Bald Buzzard {Pandwn hal-
iaehis) ; Le Balbusard, Buffon. — The generic characters of the
genus Pandion are these : — beak rounded above ; cere hispid ;
nostrils lunulated ; tarsi naked, and covered anteriorly with rigid
reticulated scales. Toes five, outermost versatile. Claws large,
much curved, equal, and rounded underneath ; under surface of
toes very rough, with sharp pointed scales. Wings long and
ample, second and third quill-feathers the longest. (See Fig. 1014,
the Head and Foot of the Osprey.) Fig. 1015 represents this Bird.
The Osprey is widely spread, being dispersed over Europe and a
great part of Asia, as well as North America, but is everywhere a
Bird of passage. Being strictly Piscivorous, it is only in the
vicinity of lakes and rivers, and along the coast, that it is ordi-
narily met with. In England, according to Montagu, this Bitd is
more abundant in Devonshire than in any other district. In Ireland
it occasionally visits the lakes of Killarney. In Scotland it appears
to be more common. Mr. Selby observed several on Loch Lomond,
where they are said to breed, and upon Loch Awe, where an eyrie
is annually established upon the ruins of a castle near the southern
extremity of the lake, and another in a similar situation nearly oppo-
site to the gorge or egress of the River Awe. On the continent this
Bird annually visits the larger rivers and lakes of Russia, Germany,
and the middle districts of Europe, whence it passes southwards on
the approach ot winter. In its habits it appears to be partially
gregarious, several pairs associating together, and in harmony pur-
suing their occupation. In America, the Fish-Hawk, according to
Wilson, arrives on the coasts of New York and New Jersey about
the 2ist of March, and retires to the south about the 22nd of Sep-
tember. — " On the arrival of these birds in the northern parts of the
United States of America in March, tlicy sometimes find the bays
and ponds frozen, and experience a difficulty in procuring fish for
Fig. 1014. — Head and Foot of Osprey.
Fig. 1015. — The Osprey.
many days ; yet there is no instance on record of their attacking
birds or inferior land-animals with intent to feed on them, though
their great strength of flight, as well as of feet and claws, would
seem to render this no difficult matter. To the white-headed eagle
the arrival of these fish-hawks brings promise ot gain ; we have
shown the tyrannical conduct of the former; sometimes, however, a
THE OSPREY—THE HARPY EA GLE.
.^f'S
number of the fish-hawks make common cause against their oppres-
sors, and succeed in driving them from the scene of action." — "The
first appearance of the tish-hawk in spring is welcomed by the
fishermen as the happy signal of the approach of those vast shoals
of herring, shad, &c., that regularly arrive on the coast, and enter
the rivers in prodigious multitudes. Two of a trade, it is said, sel-
dom agree : the adage, however, will not hold good in the present
case, for such is the respect paid to the fish-hawk, not only by this
class of men, but generally by the whole neighbourhood where it
resides, that a person who should attempt to shoot one of them
would stand a fair chance of being insulted. This prepossession in
favour of the fish-hawk is honourable to their feelings. They asso-
ciate with its first appearance ideas of plenty and all the gaiety of
business ;' they see it active and industrious like themselves ; inoffen-
sive to the productions of their farms, building with confidence, and
without the least disposition to concealment, in the middle of their
fields and along their fences, and returning year after year regularly
to its former abode."
The flight of this Bird is easy and graceful, and its plunge, when
sweeping down to its finny prey, inconceivably rapid. Audubon
says that it never strikes at a Fish leaping out of the water. In
the Gulf of Mexico, where these Birds are numerous, and where
shoals of Flying-Fish are continually emerging from the sea to
escape the pursuit of the Dolphins, he observed that the Fish-
Hawks never made a sweep at them, but would at once plunge
after them, or other Fish, while swimming in their usual mode
near the surface. When it plunges into the water in pursuit of a
Fish, it sometimes proceeds deep enough to disappear for an
instant, throwing the water around into foam ; on rising, it
mounts a few yards into the air, shakes off the spray, and flies
off to its nest with its booty, or to an accustomed tree, there to
satisfy its appetite, when, without longer repose, it again launches
into the air, and sails, circling at a great height over the waters.
The nest of the Fish-Hawk is built on a tree, and consists of a
mass of sticks, seaweed, grass, turf, &c., and being repaired every
year, is sometimes a fair cartload. Among the interstices of the
materials, other Birds are permitted to nidify, and several pairs of
Grakles, or Crow-Blackbirds, may be often seen taking up their
abode around the margin and sides of the structure, "like humble
vassals round the castle of their chief," laying their eggs, rearing
their young, and living together in the utmost harmony.
The Osprey breeds in May ; and both parents are devoted to
their young, defending them from any assailant with indomitable
resolution, and using both beak and talons with terrible eiTect. The
young are generally three in number. The eggs are yellowish-white,
irregularly spotted with yellowish-brown.
The Osprey is about two feet in length, and about five feet three
or four inches in expanse of wing. The plumage is very compact
and imbricated ; bill brownish-black, blue at the base ; cere light
blue, iris yellow. Feet pale greyish-blue, claws black. General
colour of the upper-parts dusky-brown ; tail barred with pale
brown ; upper part of head and neck white, with a brown mark on
the crown, and a brown stripe from the bill down each side of the
neck. Under-parts of the neck brownish-white, streaked with dark
brown. Under-parts generally white.
Some species of the Osprey are found in the East Indies, and in
America. The Haliastiir indits, or Pondicherry Eagle, called the
Brahman Kite, feeds upon Fish, small Birds, and Animals, Crabs,
and even carrion. It is sacred to Vishnu, the god of the Hindoos.
The Barred H.-tjmatornis {Hcsmatornis zmdulatus). — The
genus Hamatortiis, which contains several species, was first cha-
racterised by Mr. Vigors. Beak rather strong, moderately elon-
gated: upper mandible straight at the base, very much curved at
the apex ; nostrils oval and oblique. Wings long, and rather
rounded. Feet weak for an Eagle ; tarsi rough, reticulated with
scales ; toes rather short ; claws strong ; tail moderate and
rounded.
To this genus belongs the Bacha Eagle of South Africa {H.
bacha) ; the Manilla Haematornis {H. holosJ>tliis) ; and the Barred
Hffimatornis {H. undulatus), a native of the Himalayan Moun-
tains.
The description of the latter is as follows : — Back and wings
intense brown ; head crested with feathers, white at the base, black
at the point. Wing-coverts marked with small white spots ; quill-
feathers marked with white towards the base of the inner web.
Under-parts brownish-red ; breast with wavy bands of brown ; ab-
domen with white spots, margined with a ring of brown. Cere,
base of beak, and legs yellow ; claws black. Length about 2 feet
7 inches (male) ; female a third larger.
Of the habits of this species little is known : probably they
resemble those of the African species, which preys habitually on the
Daman, or Cape Hyrax, watching for its victims as they emerge
from their retreats, and instantly darting upon them. (See
Fig. 1016.)
The Harpy Eagle {Harpyia destrtictor).—1\\(t Harpy Eagle
constitutes the type of a distinct section among the-Birds of prey,
a section first established by Cuvier, and adopted by most natu-
ralists. The species comprehended in this genus, Harpyia, are
exclusively American : they arc characterised by the enormous
thickness and strength of the tarsi, which are feathered half-way
down ; the wings are short and rounded ; the beak is strongly
hooked, as are the talons also, and of formidable magnitude. Com-
paring the Harpy with the Golden Eagle, we observe the former to
Fig. loi6. — The Barred Ho^matornis.
be distinguished not only by shorter, but by more rounded wings,
by tarsi far more robust, and only partially feathered, by more
powerful talons, and by a more stout and curved beak : the physiog-
nomy of the two Birds is also very different ; both have a stern, but
glistening eye, indicative of courage and ferocity ; of both the port
is royal, but the arrangement of the feathers of the head in the
Harpy in some degree reminds us of the Great-eared Owl. In the
Golden Eagle the head and neck are covered with long, narrow-
pointed feathers, which fall over each other, and yet preserve their
distinctness of appearance. On the contrary, the feathers of the
neck and sides of the head in the Harpy Eagle are broad and
rounded at their anterior margin, and capable of being puffed up ;
while on the back of the head, the feathers, still of the same cha-
racter, but longer, form a crest, which the Bird can raise or depress
at pleasure. The middle feathers of this crest are shorter than the
more lateral, so that when erected it is lowest in the centre, and
rises at each side somewhat in the form of ears or tufts ; but the
proud deportment and the fierce glance of the eyes redeem the Owl-
like character thus given to the head. Often have we watched the
splendid Harpy Eagle, formerly in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society, as he has sat upright on his perch, and motionless as a
statue, unmoved by every attempt to intimidate him, or disturb his
dignified composure, while the gleam of his eye, fixed steadily upon
us, betokened at once daring and energy. In strength none can
equal him ; in courage and ferocity none can excel him. But we
have seen the Harpy Eagle under other circumstances : we have
seen him feasting on his slaughtered prey, with his talons buried in
the body, and his beak crimson with gore ; on our approach, instead
of quitting it, he has expanded his ample wings over it, so as to
conceal it, and assumed a menacing attitude, as if prepared to
contest the possession of it to the utmost ; and such was the ferocity
afid power displayed, as to convince us that any attempt at inter-
ference (had it been practicable) would have been a most dangerous
undertaking. The Harpy Eagle is a native of Guiana and other
parts of South America, where it frequents the deep recesses of
the forests, remote from the abodes of man. Of its habits, how-
ever, in a state of nature, we have but little information. It is feared
for its great strength and fierceness, and is reported not to hesitate
in attacking individuals of the human race ; nay, that instances
have been known in which persons have fallen a sacrifice, their
skulls having been fractured by the blows of its beak and talons.
This may be an exaggeration, but certainly it would be a hazardous
experiment to venture unarmed near the nest of a pair of these
formidable Eagles. Hernandez states that this species not only thus
ventures to assault man, but even Carnivorous animals. According
to Mandruyt, it makes great destruction amongst the Sloths, which
tenant the branches of the forest, and are ill-fitted to resist so
formidable an antagonist ; it also destroys Fawns, Cavies, Opos-
sums, and other quadrupeds, which it carries to its lonely retreat,
there in solitude to satiate its appetite. Monkeys are also to be
? D
386
THE HARPY EAGLE.
numbered among its victims ; but the Sloth is said to constitute its
ordinary prey. Of its niditication we know nothing. As the Eagles,
however, lay only from two to three eggs, it is reasonable to suppose
that this species is not an exception to the rule.
It has been correctly observed by Mr. Selby, that the members of
the Aquiline division of the Raptorial order do not possess the same
facility of pursuing their prey upon the wing which we sec in the
Falcons and Hawks ; for though their flight is very powerful, they
are not capable of the rapid evolutions that attend the aerial attacks
of the above-named groups, in consequence of which their prey is
mostly pounced upon on the ground. The shortness of the wings of
Fig. 1017. — The Harpy Eagle.
the Harpy Eagle, when compared with those of the Golden Eagle
of Europe, and their rounded form and breadth, though well adapt-
ing them for a continued steady flight, render them less efficient as
organs of rapid and sudden aerial evolutions than those of the
latter ; but as it inhabits the woods, and does not prey upon Birds,
but upon animals incapable of saving themselves by flight, its
powers of wing (or rather the modification of those powers) are in
accordance with the circumstances as to food and locality under
which it is placed. If the Harpy Eagle soars not aloft, hovering
over plains and mountains, it threads the woods, it skims amidst
the trees, and marks the Sloth suspended on the branch, or the
Monkey dozing in unsuspicious security, and with unerring aim
strikes its defenceless victims. Mr. Selby, commenting on the
fierceness of a pair of Golden Eagles in his possession, and their
readiness to attack every one indiscriminately, observes that when
living prey (as Hares, Rabbits, or Cats) are thrown to them, the
animal is " instantly pounced on by a stroke behind the head, and
another about the region of the heart, the bill appearing never to
be used but for the purpose of tearing up the prey when dead." It
is precisely in this manner that the Harpy Eagle deals with its
victims ; death seems the work of an instant ; the strongest Cat,
powerless in his grasp,
is clutched, and expires.
Nor will this surprise any
one who has contemplated
the power seated in the
talons of this Bird. Strong
as are the talons of the
Golden Eagle, great as is
the muscular development
of its limbs, and formid-
able as are its claws, they
seem almost trifling com-
pared with those of the
Harpy Eagle. In the mu-
seum of the Zoological
Society are skeletons of
both these Birds, which it
is interesting to compare
together. The thickness
of the bones of the limbs
in the latter, and especi-
ally of the tarsus, which is
more than double that of
the Golden Eagle, and the
enormous size of the talons,
are suflncient to convince
the obser\'er of the ease
with which, when living,
the fierce Bird would bury
its sharp-hooked claws in
the vitals of its prey, and
how vain resistance when
the fatal grasp was taken.
In its native regions the
Harpy Eagle is said to
be by no means common ;
were it so, the destruction
occasioned by its presence
would, it might be natu-
rally expected, preponde-
rate over the renovation of
the species which consti-
tute its habitual food, and
the balance which nature
has established between
the destroyed and the de-
stroying, the sanguinary
and their victims, be thus
disarranged. No doubt
that (as is the case with
all Carnivorous animals)
its numerical ratio in a
given space is proportion-
ate to that of the animals
on which it is destined
habitually to feed. Where
the Sloth is most abundant,
there will most abound the
Harpy Eagle. We there-
fore see in this, as in all
cases, a compensating ac-
tion in nature.
The general colour of
this noble Bird is slate-
black ; the head is light
slate-grey, passing into
dusky-black on the crest ; the under-parts are white, with a broad
band of dark slate-colour across the chest. The tail is barred with
black and slate-colour. The beak and claws are black ; the tarsi
yellow. (See Fig. 1017.)
In the collection of the Zoological Society of London, at their
Gardens in Regent's Park, are numerous specimens of EagleSj in-
cluding those already named. From their "Guide" for 1879, we
extract the following particulars, in addition to the description of
the Eagles in their possession, already named. Others will be
iound under .the head of Vultures : —
THE LAMMERGEYER.
3S7
The Wedge-tailed Eagle {A. audax).—'Y\\c series of Wedge-
tailed Eagles is rather numerous, being constantly replenished by
the liberality of the Society's Australian correspondents. The
Wedge-tailed Eagle represents our Golden Eagle in Australia, and
is found in every part of that continent. Mr. Gould, in his great
work on the " Birds of Australia," gives us the following notes on
its habits :—" The natural disposition of the Wedge-tailed Eagle
leads it to frequent the interior portion of the country rather than
the shores or the neighbourhood of the sea. It preys indiscrimi-
nately on all the smaller species of Kangaroo which tenant the
plains and the open crowns of the hills, and whose retreats, from
the wonderful acuteness of its vision, it descries while soaring and
performing those graceful evolutions and circles in the air so fre-
quently seen by the residents of
the countries it inhabits ; neither
is the noble Bustard, whose
weight is twice that of its enemy,
and who finds a more secure
asylum on the extensive plains
of the interior than most ani-
mals, safe from its attacks ; its
tremendous stoop and powerful
grasp, in fact, carry inevitable
destruction to its victim, be it
ever so large and formidable.
The breeders of Sheep find in
this Bird an enemy, which com-
mits extensive ravages among
their Lambs ; and consequently,
in its turn, it is persecuted un-
relentingly by the shepherds of
the stock-owners, who employ
every artifice in their power to
effect its extirpation ; and in
Tasmania considerable rewards
are ofl^ered for the accomplish-
ment of the same end. The
tracts of untrodden ground, and
the vastness of the impenetrable
forests will, however, for a long
series of years to come, afford it
an asylum secure from the in-
roads of the destroying hand
of man ; still, with every one
waging war upon it, its numbers
must necessarily be considerably
diminished.
The Tawny Eagle {Aquila
■nccvioides'). — This Eagle is nearly
allied to the Imperial Eagle
already described. (See Fig.
101 1, afife.) It is a native of
Asia and Africa, extending into
Southern Europe, and is rather
scarce in captivity.
The Lajimergeyer Grif-
fon, OR Bearded Vulture
{Gypaetiis barbaius). — Among
the Raptorial Birds, classed by
naturalists under the Aquiline
section, are many which have
neither the bold bearing nor the
ferocity and great powers of the
true Eagles, represented by the
Golden Eagle or the Harpy.
Some form a series of interven-
ing links between the Eagles
and the Buzzards and Kites,
whilst others appear to hold an
intermediate station between the
Eagles and the Vultures. Among
the latter may be instanced the
Lammergeyer, which various
writers, according to their differ-
ent views, assigned to the Vul-
tures on the one hand or to the Eagles on the other. Storr, a natu-
ralist of great eminence, rescued it from the intermediate situation
in which it previously stood, and founded for its reception a new
genus, to which he gave the title of Gypaetus (yi''!//, a Vulture ;
atToQ, an Eagle), thereby alluding to its intermediate situation,
though it still appears to come within the pale of the Aquiline
family. The characters of the genus are these : — head and neck
clothed with feathers ; nostrils covered with bristly hairs, w'hich
form a sort of pendent tuft or beard ; bill elongated and hooked ;
tarsi short, and feathered to the toes, which are of considerable
strength, and armed with sharp, but slightly curved . talons. (See
Fig. 1018.)
The Lammergeyer, or, as it is sometimes called, the Bearded
Vulture, which equals or exceeds the largest Eagle in size, is found
throughout the whole of the great mountain-chains of the Old
World, being in fact very widely dispersed. Jt occurs in the
Pyrenees, and in the Alps of Germany and Switzerland, where it is
notorious for its destructiveness among the Lambs (hence its name)
and Kids which are fed on the green slopes of the lower ranges.
The intermediate situation assigned to the Lammergeyer. and
which is aptly expressed in the generic appellation Gypaetus, is
clearly indicated in its form and general habits. Of a powerful and
robust make, it has neither the bill nor the talons of the Eagle, the
former being elongated, and hooked only at the tip, and the latter
comparatively small ; yet it prefers to prey on victims which it has
^^J^
Fig. 1018.— The Lammergeyer.
itself destroyed, or upon the flesh of animals recently slaughtered
388
THE LAMMERGEYER—THE CARACARA.
Children, indeed, are said to have often fallen sacrifices to its
rapacity. Young' or small animals are easily destroyed, for, thoug-h
elongated, the beak is hard and strong, and well adapted for
lacerating the victim ; but larger animals, instead of being at once
g'rappled with, are, as it is said, insidiously assaulted while upon the
edge of some precipice or steep declivity, the Bird unexpectedly
sweeping upon them with fury, and hurrying them into the abyss,
down which it plunges to glut its appetite. As illustrative of the
boldness of the Lammergeyer, Bruce relates that, attracted by the
preparations for dinner which his servants were making on the
summit of a lofty mountain, a Bearded Vulture " slowly made his
advances to the party, and at length fairly seated himself within the
ring they had formed. The affrighted natives ran for their
lances and shields, and the bird, after an ineffectual attempt to
abstract a portion of the meal from the boiling water, seized a large
piece in each of his talons from a platter that stood by, and carried
them off slowly along the ground as he came." Returning in a
few minutes for a second freight, he was shot.
There is little in the general aspect of this Bird to remind one of
the Vulture, j'et the character of the head and the general contour
of the body are strikingly different from those of the Eagle ; there
is a want of dignity and quiet grandeur in its attitude ; and the
glance of its small red eye, though keen and cruel, is deficient in
that expression of daring and resolution which we admire in the
feathered monarch. The bristly beard which depends from the
lower mandible, tends also to give a peculiar character to its
physiognomy. Of the nidification of the Lammergeyer little is
ascertained, except that it selects the most inaccessible pinnacles
as the site of its eyrie. Pallas states that it is known to breed on
the high rocks of the great Altaic chain, and beyond the Lake
Baikal. The eggs are two in number, marked with brown blotches
on a w'hite ground.
In length this extraordinary Bird measures about four feet from
the bill to the tail, and from nine to ten in the expanse of its wings.
Larger admeasurements have been given by various writers, which
are probably exaggerated — none of the numerous specimens which
we have seen exceeding our statement. The tarsi are short and
almost hidden by the feathers of the thighs ; the iris is bright red ;
the wings are ample, the second and third quill-feathers being the
longest ; the tail is graduated : the head is clothed with feathers,
and from the sides of the under-mandible proceeds a row of black
bristles, which form a beard or pencil at its angle, and a layer ol
similar bristles, beginning at the eye, covers the nostrils. The
general colour of the upper surface is dark greyish-brown, the
centre of each feather having a longitudinal dash of white. The
neck and the whole of the under-surface are white, tinted with
reddish-brown. The young Birds are darker in the general hue of
their plumage than the adult, and the white spots are larger and
less defined ; in this stage it has been mistaken for a distinct
species.
The flight of the Lammergeyer, as its great bodily powers, its
ample wings and tail, sufiiciently indicate, is sweeping and majestic.
It sails round the Alpine summits, whence it marks its quarry from
afar, and, collecting all its energies for the onset, glides like an
arrow upon its prey. If, however, it be allured from its aerial
altitude by the carcass of some animal, it no longer emulates the
Eagle in its pounce, but calmly descending to some neighbouring
crag, it then sets out, flying with heavy wings, at a short distance
from the ground, towards its repast, to be joined by others of its
species.
It would appear that in Europe this noble Bird was formerly
much more common than at present. It was once, as M. Tem-
minclc remarks, abundant on all the high mountains of Tyrol,
Switzerland, and Germany, various hunters in the iSth century
having killed their forty, fifty, or sixty Lammergeyers. The
chasseur Andreas Burner had killed sixty with his own hand. In
Sardinia it is still far from being rare. Specimens have been
received from the north of Africa, and also from the Cape of Good
Hope, differing in no respect from individuals belonging to the
European Alps.
It occurs in the lofty mountains of Central Africa, and towards the
borders of the Red Sea ; and in Asia, tenants the chain of the
Caucasus, the Himalayan, Siberian, and Persian mountains. The
Lammergeyer is the Avoltoio barbuto of the Italians ; and the
Weisskopfige Geier Adler of the Germans. According to Bruce,
the Abyssinians call it Abou Duch'n, or Father Longbeard. He
figures it under the title of Nisser, the Ethiopic for Eagle. It forms
the sub-family of GypaefiticB of modem naturalists.
Passing from the Lammergeyer, various other aberrant forms, as
the naturalist terms them, meet our attention, and claim a few
remarks. Of these, some are half Vulturine in form as well as in
habits.
The Aquiline Ibycter {Ibyder aqutliniis).—YLea.A and foot. In
the genus Ibycter the beak is convex above ; the lower mandible
notched at the apex and sub-acute ; the cheeks, throat, and crop
featherless ; the claws acute. (See Fig. 1019.)
The Aquiline Ibycter, the Petit Aigle d'Araerique of Buffon, is a
native of South America, but of its peculiar habits we have no de-
tails. Gmelin regards it as the Red-throated Falcon of Latham.
The colours of this Bird are well contrasted; the beak is cerulean
blue ; the cere and feet are yellow ; the iris is orange. The plumage
above, deep blue ; below, red passing into white ; the feathers of
the neck are of a purplish tint inclining to rufous ; the claws are
black.
Fig. loig. — Head and Foot of Aquiline Ibycter.
The Black Daptrius, or Caracara {Ibycter or Daptrius atcr).
— Head and foot. It is not quite clear that this Bird is generically
separable from the preceding. The beak is shorter and stouter
than in the Ibycter, and the tarsi longer; but in other respects the
characters closely correspond. They are evident links between the
Eagles, perhaps the Sea or Fishing Eagles, and the Vultures.
The present species is the Iribin noir of Vieillot ; and the Caracara
noir, Falco aterrimus of M. Temminck. Back with bluish reflex-
ions ; tail white at its base and rounded ; beak and claws black ;
cere dusky ; space round the eyes naked and flesh-coloured ; feet
Fig. 1020. — Head and Foot of Black Daptrius.
THE BRAZILIAN CARACARA.
389
yellow. Length about seventeen inches. There are several other
varieties of the Ibycfer. (See Fig. 1020.)
The Brazilian Caracara, or Carrancha {Polyborus bra-
sinensis). — Head and foot. The generic characters of Polyborus
are these : — Beak compressed above, lower mandible entire and ob-
tuse ; cere large, and covered with hairs ; cheeks and throat feather-
less ; crop woolly.
The best account of the Caracara is given by ]\Ir. Darwin ("Voy-
ages of the Adventure and Beagle" vol. iii.), who had many oppor-
tunities of observing these Birds in a state of nature, and whose
delineation of their habits is very interesting : — Speaking of the
"Carrion Hawks," as he terms them, which frequent the extra-
tropical parts of South America, he says, " The number, tameness,
and disgusting habits of these birds make them pre-eminently
striking to any one accustomed only to the birds of Northern
Europe. In this list may be included four species of Caracara: —
The Turkey Buzzard (a vulture, Vultur aura) ; the Gallinazo (a
vulture, Cathartes atratus) ; and the Condor.
" The caracaras are, from their structure, placed among the
eagles : we shall soon see how ill they become so high a rank. In
their habits they well supply the place of our carrion-crows, mag-
pies, and ravens, a tribe of birds totally wanting in South America.
To begin with the Polyborus brasilicnsis. — This is a common bird,
and has a wide geographical range ; it is most numerous on the
grassy savannahs of La Plata, where it goes by the name of carrancha,
and is far from unfrequent through the sterile plains of Patagonia.
In the desert between the rivers Negro and Colorado numbers con-
stantly attended the line of road to devour the carcasses of the e.K-
hausted animals which chanced to perish from fatigue and thirst.
Although thus common in these dry and open countries, and like-
wise on the arid shores of the Pacific, it is nevertheless found in-
habiting the damp impervious forests of West Patagonia and Tierra
del Fuego. The carranchas, together with the Polyborus chi-
7nango, constantly attend in numbers the estancias and slaughter,
ing-houses. If an animal dies on the plain, the gallinazo com-
mences the feast, and then the two kinds of caracara pick the
bones clean. These birds, though thus commonly feeding together,
are far from being friends. When the carrancha is quietly seated
on the branch of a tree or on the ground, the chimango often con-
tinues for a long time flying backwards and forwards, up and down,
in a semicircle, trying each time at the bottom of the curve to strike
its larger relative. The carrancha takes little notice, except by
bobbing its head. Although the carranchas frequently assemble in
numbers, they are not gregarious, for in desert places they may be
seen solitary, or more commonly in pairs. Besides the carrion of
large animals, these birds frequent the borders of streams and sea-
beaches to pick up whatever the w'aters may cast ashore. In Tierra
del Fuego and on the west coast of Patagonia they must exclusively
live on such supplies. The carranchas are said to be very crafty,
and to steal great numbers of eggs. They attempt also, together
with the chimango, to pick off the scabs from the backs of horses and
mules. The poor animal on the one band, with its ears down, and
its back arched, and, on the other, the hovering bird eyeing at the
distance of a yard the disgusting morsel, form a picture which has
been described by Captain Head with his own peculiar spirit and
accuracy. The carranchas kill wounded animals ; but Mr. Bynoe
saw one seize in the air a live partridge (ortyx ?), which escaped,
and was for some time chased on the ground. I believe this cir-
cumstance is very unusual ; at all events there is no doubt that the
chief part of their sustenance is derived from carrion. A person
will discover the necrophagous habits of the carrancha by walking
out on one of the desolate plains and there lying down to sleep.
When he awakes, he will see on each surrounding hillock one of
these birds patiently watching him with an evil eye. It is a feature
in the landscape of these countries which will be recognised by
every one who has wandered over them. If a party goes out hunt-
ing with dogs and horses, it will be accompanied during the day
by several of these attendants. After feeding, the uncovered craw
protrudes ; at such times, and indeed generally, the carrancha is an
inactive, tame, and cowardly bird. Its flight is heavy and slow,
like that of an English rook. It seldom soars, but I have twice
seen one at great height gliding through the air with much ease.
It runs in contradistinction to hopping, but not quite so quickly as
some of its congeners. At times the carrancha is noisy, but is not
generally so ; its cry is loud, very harsh, and peculiar, and may be
likened to the sound of the Spanish guttural g, followed by a rough
double r. Perhaps the Gauchos from this cause have called it
carrancha. Molina, who states that it is called Tharu in Chile,
says that when uttering this cry it elevates its head higher and
higher, till at last, with its beak wide open, the crown almost
touches the lower part of the back. This fact, which has been
doubted, is quite true. I have seen them several times with their
beads backwards in a completely inverted position. The carrancha
builds a large coarse nest, either in a low cliff, or in a bush or lofty
tree. To these observations I may add, on the high authority of
Azara, that the carrancha feeds on worms, shells, slugs, grass-
hoppers, and frogs ; that it destroys new-fallen lambs, and that it
P" h"": *'''= gnlhnazo t.ll that bird is compelled to disgorge the
severnl 1 ^^ 'f"" fi^ ''^''' .^"-^""^^cd. Lastly, Azara states that
large birds, even such as herons. All these facts show that it is a
bird of very versatile habits and considerable ingenuity."
Inn ;i; ^^rf ''"■^• T ^^"ancha, measures about twenty-two inches in
length. The who e upper surface of the head is black, with the
fea hers slightly elongated backwards, and capable of being par!
tially elevated in the shape of a pointed crest. "^The entire n^cck s
of a light brownish-grcy, which also forms the ground-colour on the
breast and shoulders, but with the addition on these parts of nume^
rous transverse w'avy bars of a deeper brown. Ncariy all the rest of
the plumage is of a tolerably uniform shade of black.sh-brown with
the exception of the tail, which is at the base of a dirty white with
numerous narrow, transverse, undulated bands of a dusky hue' and
in Its terminal third, black without any appearance of banding-' The
beak is horn-coloured at the tip, and bluish at the base • the iris
hazel ; the cere and naked cheeks of a dull red ; the legs yellow and
the claws black. (See Fig. 1021.) Several changes, however, 'take
place in the plumage of the Bird as it advances in age.
Fig. 102 1. — Head and Foot of Brazilian Caracara.
With respect to the Polyborus Chimango, noticed by Mr. Dar-
win, and which is smaller than the Carrancha, we may observe tliat
it is common on both sides of the same continent. It is found in
Chiloe and on the coast of Patagonia, but does not appear to in-
habit Tierra del Fuego. It feeds on carrion, and is the last Bird to
leave the carcass, and, as Mr. Darwin says, may be often seen
within the bare ribs of a Cow or Horse, like a Bird in a cage. "The
Shimango," he adds, " often frequents the sea-coast, and the bor-
ders of lakes and swamps, where it picks up small fish. It is truly
omnivorous, and will even eat bread when thrown out of the house
with other offal. I was assured that they materially injure the
potato crops in Chiloe, by grubbing up the roots when first planted.
In the same island I myself saw them by scores following the
plough, and feeding on the worms and lar\'a; of insects. I do not
believe they ever kill birds or quadrupeds. They are more active
than the carranchas, but their flight is heavy ; I never saw one soar. ■
They are very tame, but are not gregarious ; they commonly perch
on stone walls, and not upon trees, and frequently utter a gentle
shrill scream."
Mr. Darwin notices a third species of Polyborus, of rare occur-
rence, and which he only met with in one valley of Patagonia. The
fourth species to which he alludes is the Polyborus nova: zelandicz, or
Milvago australis. This Bird, he remarks, is exceedingly numerous
over the whole of the Falkland Islands, which appear to constitute its
metropolis. He was informed by the Sealers, that they are found on
the Diego Ramirez rocks, but never on the mainland of Tierra del
390
THE BRAZILIAN EA GLE—THE CYMINDIS.
Fuego, nor on Georgia, or the more southward islands. In habits
and manners they resemble in many respects the Carranchas, living
on the flesh of dead animals, and on marine productions, which
latter on the Ramirez rocks must constitute their principal, if not
their sole subsistence.. They are ordinarily tame and fearless, and
confidently haunt the precincts of houses for offal. When, he adds,
a hunting-party kills any animal, a number of these Birds soon col-
lect, and wait patiently, standing on the ground on all sides. After
gorging themselves, their uncovered craws are largely protruded,
giving them a disgusting appearance.
" They readily attack wounded birds: a cormorant in this state
having taken to the shore, was immediately seized on by several,
and its death hastened by their blows. The Beagle was at the
Falklands only during the summer, but the officers of xXvt Adve7iture ,
who were there in the winter, mention many extraordinary instances
of the boldness and rapacity of these birds. They actually made an
attack on a dog that was lying asleep close to one of the party ; and
the sportsmen had difficulty in preventing the wounded geese from
being seized before their eyes. It is said that several together wait
at the mouth of a rabbit-hole, as is the practice also of the car-
ranchas, and seize on the animal when it comes out. They were
constantly flying on board the vessel when in the harbour; and it
true Eagles ; they evidently compose a distinct group. The fol-
lowing species seem to exhibit an alliance with the Buzzards and
Harriers, which they resemble in form and modes of life.
The Urubitinga, or Brazili.vn Eagle of Latham {Morpknus
urub!ii>!ga).—HQ.a.A and foot. The characters of the genus Morph-
jiiis may be thus summed up: -beak convex above ; nostrils ellip-
tical ; tarsi elevated, scutellated anteriorly ; sometimes feathered
toes rather short ; claws acute.
The Urubitinga is a native of Brazil and Guiana, frequenting
water, humid grounds, and inundated places, where it seeks its prey,
consisting of small animals. The general plumage is dusky black,
the wings being waved with ash-colour, the tail-coverts and base of
tail white ; the beak is strong ; the eyes large ; the cere and legs
are yellow ; claws black. The young are blackish yellow below,
each feather having a central dash or spot of blackish brown. The
throat and cheeks are marked with brown streaks on a whitish
ground. (See Fig. 1022.)
The Crested Morphnus.or IIuppart {Morphnus occipitalis).
— Head and foot. This is the Aigle-Autour, Noir Hupp^ d'Afrique,
the Falco occipitalis of Daudin. Its tarsi are closely feathered to
the toes. This species is a native of Africa, where it seems to be
almost universally spread. It equals a Raven in size. The plumage
Fig. 1022. — Head and Foot of
Brazilian Eagle.
Fig. 1023. — Head and Foot of
Crested Morphnus.
Fig. 1024. — Head and Foot of
Hook-billed Cymindis.
was necessary to keep a good look-out, to prevent the leather being
torn from the rigging, and the meat or game from the stern. These
birds are very mischievous and inquisitive ; they will pick up almost
anything from the ground ; a large-sized glazed hat was carried
nearly a mile, as was a pair of heavy balls (bolas), used in catching
cattle. Mr. Usborne experienced, during the survey, a more
severe loss in their stealing a small Kater's compass, in a red
morocco leather case, which was never recovered. These birds are,
moreover, quarrelsome and very passionate, tearing up the grass
with their bills from rage. They are not truly gregarious, and do
not soar. Their flight is heavy and clumsy, but on the ground they
run with extreme quickness, very much like pheasants. They are
noisy, uttering several harsh cries, one of which is like that of the
English rook ; hence the sealers always so call them. It is a
curious circumstance that when crying they always throw their
heads upwards and backwards, after the same manner as the car-
rancha. They build on the rocky cliffs of the sea-coast, but only in
the small islets, and not in the two main islands. This is a singular
precaution in so tame and fearless a bird. The sealers say that the
flesh of these birds, when cooked, is quite white, and very good
eating."
These rapacious Birds arc, as the above details sufBciently prove,
Vulturine in their habits, and have no immediate relationship to the
is black, and a crest of long feathers ornaments the back of the
head. (See Fig. 1023.)
The Hooked-billed Cymindis {Cymindis /lamatus).— Beak
and foot. There are, says Cuvier, Raptorial Birds in America with
a beak like the preceding species, with tarsi short and reticulated,
and half covered anteriorly with feathers, and with wings shorter
than the tail, and whose distinctive feature consists in the nostrils
being nearly closed, bearing the appearance of a narrow slit. Of
these, one is the present species, which, however, has the tarsi
scutellated anteriorly, and the upper mandible very much hooked.
This Bird inhabits Brazil, and when adult is of a uniform lead-
colour, the cere and feet being yellow. Length about seventeen
inches. The young have the plumage of a sombre brown, each
feather being bordered and blotched with red ; the cheeks are
marked with yellowish rashes, and a stripe of the same colour
runs below the eyes ; the front of the neck is whitish. (See Fig.
1024.)
The Cayenne Cymindis {Cymindis cayennensis). — Head and
foot. This species, which inhabits Cayenne, has a small tooth-like
projection on the edge of the beak where it begins to curve down.
The adult is white, with a blue-black mantle, the head ash-coloured,
and the tail barred with four white bands. In the young the mantle
is variegated with brown and red, and the head is white with a few
THE SECRETARY BIRD.
391
black dashes. It is the Petit Autour de Cayenne of Buffon.
(See Fig. 1025.)
Grey Asturina {Asfun'na cinerea). — Head and foot. Generic
characters : — beak convex above ; nostrils lunulate ; tarsi short and
somewhat slender; claws long and very acute.
The Grey Asturina is a native of Guiana. The general plumage
is of a bluish ash-colour, with whitish bands on the under-part of the
body. The tail, which is white at the point, is traversed by two
black bands. Beak blue ; cere yellow. (See Fig. 1026.)
The Short-toed Circaetus {Circacttis brachydacfyltis). —
Head and foot. This Bird is the Aigle Jean-le-Blanc of Tem-
minck ; Falco gallicus, Gmelin ; Falco leticopsis, Bechstein.
The genus Circaetus, says Cuvier, holds an intermediate station
between the Fishing Eagles, the Osprey, and the Buzzards : the
wings resemble those of the Eagles and Buzzards, while the tarsi
Fig. 1025. — Head and Foot of Cayenne Cymiiidis.
*f*"%H viy
are reticulated, as in the Osprey. The external toe is united to the
middle by a short tncmbrane.
The Short-toed Circaetus, or Jean-lc-Blanc, is a native of Europe
and Asia ; it is found in the great fir-forests on the eastern pans of
northern Europe, but is elsewhere not very common. It is, in fact,
never seen in England or Holland, and is rare in France. It is
occasionally observed in Italy.
In size, this species exceeds the Osprey, but its toes are propor-
tionally short, though powerful. Its manners are those of a Buz-
zard ; it feeds on Snakes and other Reptiles, and small quadrupeds,
rarely on Birds or domestic poultry. It builds its nest on the
highest trees, and the eggs are two or three in number, of a lustrous
grey, and spotless. Colonel Sykes notices it among the Birds of
the Dukhun, and states that in the stomach of a female which he
shot were found the remains of a Snake and two I-lats. Its length
was thirty inches.
Description of Old Male. — Head very large ; below the eyes a
space clothed with white down ; summit of the head, cheeks,
throat, breast, and belly white, but variegated with a few spots of
bright brown ; back and coverts of the wings brown, but the origin
Fig, 1026.— Head and Foot of Grey Asturina. .
Fig. 1027. — Head and Foot of Short-toed Circaetus.
of all the feathers of a pure white ; tail square, grey-brown, barred
with deeper brown, white below; tarsi long and greyish-blue, as are
the toes ; beak black ; cere bluisli ; iris yellow.
Of Female. — Less white than the male. The head, the neck, the
br^st, and the belly are marked with numerous brown spots, which
are very much approximated.
Of Young. — Upper parts darker, but the origin of the feathers
pure white; throat, breast, and belly of a red-brown, little or not at
all spotted with white ; bands on the tail nearly imperceptible ; beak
bluish ; feet greyish-white.
There are numerous species of these Birds.
The Secretary Bird {Serpentarius reptilivorotts! or Secre-
tariiis). — Among the aberrant forms of the Aquihne group must be
placed this extraordinary Bird, forming the only species of the
sub-family of the Serpentarincs, or Serpent-eaters, which to natu-
ralists has been a sort of " Petrum sca^idali ei lapsis offensionis."
Some have placed it among the Vultures, others among the Gallina-
ceous Birds, and others among the Wading Birds, as did Vieillot,
after repeatedly changing his opinions.
That naturalists should have assigned it to the Gallinaceous or
the Wading orders, with the former of which it has nothing in
common, and with the latter only the elevation of the tarsi, is.
392
SECRETARY BIRDS.
indeed, not a little surprising. With respect to the Vultures, it
exhibits but little affinity to them. Fig. 1028 represents the head
of the Secretary in two views ; the short abruptly hooked beak, the
large eye, the overhanging brows, with a row of strong black
bristles, the breadth of the head across the top of the skull, and the
occipital plumes are anything but characteristic of the Vulture;
Fig*. 102S. — Head of Secietary Uird.
whereas in many of the genera intermediate between the Eagles
and the Hawks, we trace these characteristics, conjoined with that
length of limb which fits them for terrestrial habits, and which is
carried to its ultimate in the Secretary Bird.
It is among these aberrant terrestrial Falco7iidcB, feeding on
Reptiles and small quadrupeds, that we consider the genus Gypo-
gcratnis to stand. The generic characters of this genus are as
follows : — Bill rather slender, shorter than the head, strong, very
much hooked and curved nearly from its origin ; cere extending
almost naked over the cheeks ; nostrils diagonal, oblong ; tarsi
long and slender ; toes short, rough below, hind-toe articulated
higher than the anterier toes ; wings long, armed near the elbow-
joint with obtuse spurs ; five first quill-feathers the longest and
nearly equal ; occipital plume ; the two middle tail-feathers longer
than the others.
It is not quite clear whether there may not, in reality, be three
distinct species of Secretary : one inhabiting the regions of South
Africa : one, Senegambia ; and one, the Philippine Islands, north
of Borneo. In some interesting observations on the genus Gypo-
gera?2us,hy Mr. Ogilby (" Zool. Proceeds.," 1835, p. 104), that
naturalist gives certain distinctive characters, from which it would
appear that the Philippine Bird at least (whatever the Senegambian
may hereafter prove to be) is distinct from the South African.
South African Secretary [G. capeiisis, Ogilby). — " With the plume
of long cervical feathers commencing upon the occiput spreading
irregularly over the upper part of the neck, narrow throughout the
greater part of their length, as if the vane had been cut on each
side, close to the shaft of the quill, spreading only at the point."
Senegambia Secretary {G. gambietisis, Ogilby). — "With the
cervical crest commencing some distance below the occiput,
arranged in two regular series, one on each side of the neck, with
the intermediate space clear, and composed of long spatule-shapcd
feathers, much broader throughout than in the last species, though
similarly decreasing in width towards the root. In both these
species the two middle feathers of the tail are considerably longer
than the others."
Philippine Secretary {G. fhilip-pensis, Ogilby).— "With the
cervical crest spread irregularly from the occiput to the bottom of
the neck, the longest feathers being those situated the lowest, which
is just the reverse of what we observe in Gyp. gambietisis, and
with the two e-xterior tail-feathers the longest, so that the tail
appears forked." This is apparent not only in Sonnerat's figure,
but is expressly mentioned in his detailed description, and, if con-
firmed, is clearly indicative of a specific distinction. Inhabits
the Philippine Islands. Described and figured in Sonnerat's
"Voyage a la Nouvelle Guinee," p. 87, t. 50. Speaking of the
manners of this Bird, Sonnerat says, " that it is sociable, and lives in
a state of domesticity ; that it hunts rats, and might, in this point
of view, become useful in the colonies, where it would probably not
be difficult to multiply it. Although he erroneously describes the
bill and feet of the Secretary (Philippine) as resembling those of
Gallinaceous Birds, (fowl, turkey, &c.), he states that it feeds on
flesh, and ought consequently to be placed in the ranks of the Birds
of Prey, among which, he adds, it forms an entirely insulated
genus." The colours of the three species or varieties here indi-
cated, do not seem to be materially different in other respects. It
is to the South African species or variety that our details more par-
ticularly apply.
This singular Bird is termed, in allusion to its habits, Slangen-
vreeter, or Serpent-eater, by the Dutch colonists of the Cape,
and its Hottentot name has the same meaning : Snakes, in fact,
constitute its principal food, and in the attack and defence it
displays the greatest coolness and address. The Slangen-vreeter,
says Sparrman, has a peculiar method of seizing upon Serpents.
When It approaches them, it always takes care to hold the point of
one of its wings before it, in order to parry off their venomous bites ;
sometimes it finds an opportunity of spurning and treading upon its
antagonist, or else of taking it up on its pinions and throwing it
into the air: when by this method of proceeding it has at length
wearied out its adversary, and rendered it almost senseless, it then
kills it, and swallows it without danger.
Sparrman, it is true, did not himself see the scene which he de-
scribes ; but his account is confirmed by Le Vaillant, who thus gives
the results of his own observations, which go to prove, contrary to
Buffon's statement, that the Secretary Bird is bold and courageous.
" In descending from a mountain into a very deep bog (fondriere),
I perceived, nearly perpendicularly below me, a bird which raised
and lowered itself very rapidly, with very extraordinary motions.
Although I well knew the Secretary, and had killed many of these
birds at Natal, it was impossible for-me to recognise it in the ver-
tical situation in which I found myself, and I only suspected that it
was one from its bearing. Having found means, by favour of some
rocks, to approach sufficiently near, noiselessly, and without being
discovered, I found that this bird was a Secretary combating a ser-
pent. The fight was very sharp on both sides, and the skill (la ruse)
equal on the part of each of the combatants. But the serpent,
which perceived the inequality of its strength, employed that adroit
cunning which is attributed to it, in order to save itself by flight and
regain its hole ; while the bird, divining its intention, stopped it
at once, and throwing itself before the serpent by one spring, cut off
its retreat. Wherever the reptile essayed to escape, there it always
found its enemy. Then, uniting skill with courage, it erected itself
fiercely to intimidate the bird, and presented, with a frightful hiss, a
menacing gape, inflamed eyes, and a head swollen with rage .and
poison. Sometimes this offensive resistance suspended hostilities
for an instant ; but the bird soon returned to the charge, and cover-
ing its body with one of its wings, as with a shield, struck its
enemy with the other, with the bony protuberances of which I have
already spoken, and which, like small clubs, overpowered it the
more surely, inasmuch as it presented itself to the blows. In effect,
I saw it reel and fall extended : then the conqueror threw himself
upon it to finish his work, and with one blow of the bill split its skull.
At this moment, having no further observations to make, I killed it.
I found in its crop (for it has one, which nobody has stated), on dis-
secting it, eleven rather large lizards, three serpents, as long as
one's arm, eleven small tortoises, very entire, many of which were
about two inches in diameter, and, finally, a quantity of locusts
(sauterelles) and insects, the greater part of which were sufficiently
whole to deserve being collected and to be added to my specimens.
The lizards, the serpents, and the tortoises had all received the
stroke of the bill on the head. I observed besides, that, indepen-
dently of this mass of aliments, the craw (poche) of the animal con-
tained a species of pellet, as large as a goose's ^%%, and formed of
the vertebrae of serpents and lizards which the bird had devoured
previously, scales of small tortoises, and the wings, feet, and corse-
lets of different scaraba;i. Doubtless when the undigested mass is
become too large, the Secretary, like other birds of prey, vomits it
and gets rid of it. It results from the superabundant quantity of
nourishment which this specimen had secured, that in attacking the
serpent of the bog it was not hunger which had stimulated it to the
combat, but the hatred and antipathy which it bears to these rep-
tiles. Such an aversion as this is of an inappreciable advantage
in a country where the temperature wonderfully favours the multi-
plication of an infinity of noxious and venomous animals. In this
point of view the Secretary is one of nature's real benefactions ; and
indeed its utility and the services rendered by it are so well recog-
nised at the Cape and in its neighbourhood, that the colonists and
Hottentots respect it and do not kill it : herein imitating the Dutch,
who do not kill the stork, and the Egyptians, who never injure the
ibis. The Secretar)' is easily tamed, and when domesticated, every
kind of nourishment, cooked or raw, agrees with it equally.
" The eggs ordinarily amount to from two to three, nearly as large
as those of a goose, and white, like those of a hen. The young
remain a long time before they quit the nest, because, their legs
being long and slender, they sustain themselves with difficulty.
They may be observed, even up to the age of four months, unable to
progress, except by leaning on their heels ; which gives them a
strikingly clumsy and ungraceful air. Nevertheless, as their toes
are not so long nor their claws so curved as the other birds of prey,
they walk with much more facility than those. So that when they
Ik
CO
THE PEREGRINE FALCON.
393
have attained the age of seven months they maybe seen to develop
easy and graceful movements which suit well with their noble
bearing." •
M. Lesson, in his description, quotes the account of Mr. Smith,
who relates, "that one day he saw a Secretary take two or three
turns on the wing at a little distance from the place where he was.
The bird soon settled, and Mr. Smith saw that it was attentively
examining an object near the spot where it had descended. After
Secretary Birds.
approaching it with great precaution, the Secretary extended one of
its wings, which the bird continually agitated. Mr. Smith then dis-
covered a large serpent raising its head, and appearing to wait the
approach of the bird to dart upon it ; but a quick blow of the wing
soon laid it prostrate. The bird appeared to wait for the serpent's
raising itself, in order to repeat the blow ; but this the serpent, it
seems, did not attempt, and the Secretary, walking towards it,
seized it with the feet and bill, and rose perpendicularly into the
air, whence the bird let the serpent fall on the ground, so that it
might be securely destroyed."
The Secretary was so called by the Dutch from the plumes at the
back of its head, which reminded them of the pen stuck behind the
ear, according to the custom of the " gens de cabinet" in Holland,
and the name has since been generally adopted. These Birds, at
least in South Africa, are not gregarious, but live in pairs, and build
on high trees or in dense thickets. Their gait is a singular stalk,
reminding of a person moving along on elevated stilts ; but they run
with great swiftness, and are not to be approached without diflSculty
by the sportsman.
The general colour of this species is a bluish-grey ; the primary
and secondary quill-feathers are black ; so are also the feathers of
the thighs, and those composing the crest. The two long middle
tail-feathers are grey, becoming black towards their extremities, and
ending in a white tip, as do the rest of the tail-feathers, which are
otherwise black. Length of head and body, including the tail, three
feet in the adult. (See Fig. 1029.)
The True Falcons— Sub-family Falconintz.
Among all the Raptorial Birds, none are more bold and daring
than the Falcons, though there are certain exceptions. All are
formed for rapid flight, and pursue their prey with extreme velocity,
or soaring above, descend upon it with a swoop, bearing it to the
ground. Some, as the Kestrels, which feed principally on Frogs and
Mice, not excluding insects, sail in the air performing easy circles,
and often appear motionless over one spot for a considerable time ;
when, perceiving their prey, they make a sudden and rapid descent.
and pounce upon it with unerring certainty. Rut the Nobler Falcons
as they are termed— viz., the Peregrine and Gcr-Falcon, which prey
chiefly on Birds, as Pigeons, Grouse, Sea-fowl, (Src, strike their
victim on the wing, and carry it in their talons to their eyry.
The Falcons are distinguished by the following characters- the
beak is short, strong, and abruptly hooked, the edge of the upper
mandible, near the curve, being furnished with a tooth-like projection
The wings are long and pointed, the second quill-feathcr being the
longest. The tarsi are of
moderate length, but stout ;
the toes are long and power-
ful, and armed with large,
sharp, retractile claws. The
eye is full, bright, and
beautiful ; the contour of the
body graceful and vigorous;
the plumage close and com-
pact. The muscles of flight
are remarkably developed,
as indicated by the breadth
of the sternum, the depth of
the keel, and the strength
of the furcula, and of the
clavicular or coracoid bones.
Fig. 1030 represents the
sternum of the Peregrine
Falcon and its appendages :
a, the expanse of the ster-
num ; b, the keel ; c, the
furcula ; d, the clavicular
or coracoid bones ; e, the
scapula broken off. Fig.
1031 represents the head
of the Peregrine Falcon as
illustrative of the generic
characters of the group ;
Fig. 1032, the foot.
The Peregrine Falcon
{Falco ^eregriniis). — Tliis
beautiful and once highly
valued Bird is very widely
spread, being found in most
of the bold and rocky dis-
tricts of Europe, Asia, and
North America. Every-
where it seems to be a Bird
of passage, whence its spe-
cific name ^eregyinus. As
regards the British Islands,
it is common in Scotland
and Wales, building on high precipitous rocks bordering the
sea-coast. It frequents similar situations in Devonshire and Corn-
wall, where it is called the Cliff-Hawk : and we have seen fine
specimens procured on the Needles in the Isle of Wight. In many
parts of Ireland it is abundant. " In the four maritime counties of
Ulster," says Mr. Thompson, "it has many eyries: and in Antrim.
Fig. 1030. — Ereast-bonc of Peregrine Falcon.
whose basaltic precipices are favourable for this purpose, seven, at
least, might be enumerated ; of these one only is inland : at the
Gobbins, regularly frequented by a pair, there were two nests in one
year within an extent of rock considerably less than a mile." There
are eyries also at the Horn in Donegal, and many other places.
The Peregrine Falcon is, however, often seen inland, and has been
known to take up its temporary residence on St. Paul's Cathedral
and Westminster Abbey, making havoc among the flocks of Pigeons
in the neighbourhood. We once saw a Pigeon in Leicester Square
struck and carried off by one of these Birds. In the days of falconry
the courage, power, docility, and swiftness of the Peregrine Falcon
rendered it a great favourite, and according to age, sex, &c., it
received different appellations. When wild or yet unreclaimed, it
3E
394
THE PEREGRINE FALCON.
was termed a Haggard ; hence the sentence in Shakspcare (" Much
Ado about Nothing"), "As coy and wild as Haggards of the rock."
(See Fig. 1033.) The young Bird was called Eyess, a corruption
of the French word niais ; it was also named Red Hawk, from
the colour of its plumage during the first year. The male Bird was
termed Tiercel, Tersel, or Tassel; "Tassel-gentle," a reclaimed
male. The female was called " Falcon " par e.xcellence. This
Bird has by some writers been called the Lanner ; but the true
Lanner, which is a distinct, though an allied species {Fa/co laiia-
riiis), is found only in Asia and the south-eastern parts of Europe,
and has never been seen wild in the British Islands. It is to the
Peregrine Falcon that Pennant alludes {and after him Bewick), when
treating of the Lanner he remarks, " this species breeds in Ireland."
Besides these names the Peregrine Falcon has various other appella-
I'ig. 1031. — Head of Peregiinc Falcon.
Fig. 1032. — Foot of Peregrine Falcon.
Fig. 1033.— The Peregrine Falcon.
tions, as the Slight Hawk and the Passenger Falcon. In America
it is termed the Duck-Hawk, from the havoc it makes among Wild
Ducks ; and also the Great-footed Hawk, from the size and strength
of its talons. Of the prowess and daring of the Peregrine many
instances are on record. Mr. Thompson (" Mag. Zool. andBotan.,"
vol. ii., p. 53) observes, that "Mr. Sinclair, when on one occasion
e.xcrcising his dogs on the Belfast mountains towards the end of
July, preparatory to grouse-shooting, saw them point ; and on com-
ing up he started a male peregrine falcon off a grouse {Tcirao
scufici/s) ^ust killed by him ; and very near the same place he came
upon the female bird, also on a grouse. Although my friend lifted
both the dead birds, the hawks continued flying about ; and on the
remainder of the pack (of grouse), which lay near, being sprung by
the dogs, either three or four more grouse were struck down by
them, and thus two and a-half or three brace were obtained by means
of these wild birds, being more than had ever been procured out of
a pack of grouse by his trained falcons." The Peregrine Falcon
attacks its prey only while on the wing, seldom pursuing it into
dense cover ; and it has been observed that Birds thus driven to
shelter by the Peregrine Falcon are so terrified, that rather than
venture again on wing they will allow themselves to be captured by
the hand. Even the Blackcock has been known to be thus taken.
Mr. Thompson says the strike of this species is more fatal than its
clutch, and that when flown at Rooks it has been known to strike
down several in succession before alighting to prey on one ; and he
adds, "An eye-witness to the fact assures me that he once saw a
falcon strike down five partridges out of a covey one after the
other: but such occurrences are rare." Mr. Selby, in his "British
Ornithology," gives a similar instance of daring to that related by
Mr. Thompson, from the account of Mr. Sinclair. "In e.xercising
my dogs upon the moors previous to the commencement of the
shooting season, I saw a large bird of the hawk genus hovering at
a distance, which upon approaching I knew to be a peregrine
falcon. Its attention was now drawn towards the dogs, and it
accompanied them while they beat the surrounding ground. Upon
their having found and sprung a brood of grouse, the falcon im-
mediately gave chase and struck a young bird before they had pro-
ceeded far upon the wing. My shouts and rapid advance prevented
it from securing its prey. The issue of this attempt, however, did
not deter the falcon from watching our subsequent movements ; and
another opportunity soon offering, it again gave chase and struck
down two birds by two rapidly repeated blows, one of which it secured
and bore off in triumph." The flight of this Falcon when pursuing
its quarry is astonishingly rapid. Montague has reckoned it at one
hundred and fifty miles an hour; and Colonel Thornton, an expert
Falconer, estimated the flight of one in pursuit of a Snipe to have
been nine miles in eleven minutes, without including the frequent
turnings. Audubon, in his " Birds of America," states that he has
seen this Falcon come at the report of a gun, and carry off a Teal
not thirty steps distant from the sportsman who had killed it, "with
a daring assurance as surprising as unexpected."
This singular aptitude in the Wild Bird to join men and Dogs in
their pursuit of game, availing itself of their assistance, shows at
once the little trouble, comparatively speaking, requisite for reclaim-
ing and training it. A knowledge of the service rendered by Dogs
and men in putting up game, thereby giving it the opportunity of
striking it, is intuitive. In disposition it is confident and docile ;
and with patience, kind treatment, and proper management, its
training is soon effected.
The Peregrine Falcon breeds on the ledges of precipitous rocks,
laying four eggs, of a reddish-brown colour, with darker blotches
and variegations.
With respect to the distribution of this species in America, Dr.
Richardson, who describes an old male from Melville Peninsula,
lat. 68° N., says ("Fauna Boreali-Americana "), "The peregrine
being a rare bird in the wooded districts of the fur countries where
the trading-posts are established, I did not procure a specimen on
the late expeditions ; but I have frequently seen it whilst on the
march across the Barren Grounds." Of the two specimens figured
by Edwards, one was from Hudson's Bay and the other was caught
off the entrance of Hudson's Straits. Captain Parry likewise brought
home several male and female specimens from Melville Peninsula,
some of which are preserved in the British Museum. It is a summer
visitor of the northern parts of America, and frequents the coasts of
Hudson's Bay and the Arctic Sea, with the Barren Grounds, but
is very seldom seen in the interior. It preys habitually on the Long-
tailed Ducks [Anas g/aciaiis), which breed in great numbers in the
Arctic regions, arriving in June and departing in September.
Captain Parry observed it, in his second voyage, following flocks of
the Snow-Bunting on the coast of Greenland, near Cape Farewell.
It frequents the shores of New Jersey and Pennsylvania in the
winter, and is celebrated there for the havoc it makes among the
Water-fowl. Mr. Ord states that the Ducks which are struck by it
are lacerated from the neck to the rump ; it gives the blow in pass-
ing, and returns to pick up its Bird. According to Captain King,
it is found at the Straits of Magalhaens.
Like all the Fakonidce, this Bird undergoes successive variations
THE ART OF FALCONRY, OR HAWKING.
395
of colouring' before attaining its permanent livery. When young,
the plumage on the back inclines to rufous, the middle of each
feather only having a tint of deep bluish-ash, and the undor-parts
being white, with brown longitudinal dashes. The colouring of the
adult is as follows : — Head and
back of the neck blackish-lead
colour, which colour, as it ex-
tends over the back, assumes a
more ashy tinge ; below the eye
is a large triangular mark of
dark lead colour, pointing down-
wards, and commonly called the
moustache : this mark is a com-
mon feature in many others of
the genus. ' The throat and
breast are white, with a few
slender dashes of brown ; the
under-parts are dirty-white, with
fine transverse bars of brown.
The tail is alternately barred with
bluish-grey and black. Cere,
eyelids, and tarsi yellow ; iris
dark hazel-brown ; claws black.
Fig. 1034 represents " a hawk
on fist," with hood and bells:
Fig. 1035, going to the field ;
Fig. 1036, "casting off" the
Hawk, [and Fig. 1037 's illus-
trative of the death of the quarry.
gaged the most earnest attention, and is still a common amuse-
ment among the Turks, in some parts of Asia Minor, among the
Persians, Circassians, and the wandering hordes of Turkomans
and Tartars. Hawking appears to have been introduced into Eng-
land from the North of Europe during the fourth century. Our
Saxon ancestors became passionately fond of the sport, but do not
appear to have made great progress in the art of training the Birds.
In the eighth century, one of the kings of that race caused a letter
to be written to Winifred, Archbishop of Mons, begging the digni-
Fig. 1034. — Hawk on Fist.
Falconry, in former days, en-
Fig. 1035.— Going to the Field.
tary to send him some Falcons that had been well trained to kill
Cranes. The month of October was more particularly devoted to
that sport by the Saxons. We are indebted to our fierce invaders,
the Danes, for many improvements in Falconry. Denmark, and
still more Norway, were always celebrated for their breeds of Hawks,
and the natives of these countries had attained an extraordinary
degree of skdl in the art of training them. In the eleventh century,
when Canute, Kmg of Denmark and Norway, ascended the English
throne, the sport became more prevalent. We are not aware of
what restrictions were imposed under the Saxon or Danish monarchs,
but after the conquest by William of Normandy none but persqns of
the highest rank were allowed to keep Hawks. Cruel laws, with
respect to field-sports, were framed and rigorously executed by the first
princes of our Norman dynasty. According to the liberal views of
those times, the people were held
anything except the air of heaven
utterly ;inworthy of partaking
- -ri - ir r , '" common with their noble OD
pressors. The life of a serf was of less value in the eyes of a Nor.
i-u^.'^^'-"-'
Fig. 1036. — Casting off the Hawk.
man baron than that of a Buck, a Hound, or a Hawk ; and in those
days the mass of what we now call the "people" were serfs and
slaves. As to the keeping of Falcons, the great expense attending
it put it entirely out of the power of the commonalty ; but the pro-
hibitive Norman law was probably meant at first to extend to such
of the Saxon landholders as were rich, and remained free, but had
no rank or nobility according to the conqueror's estimation. In the
days of John, however, every frccma?z was most liberally permitted
to have eyries of Hawks, Falcons, Eagles, and Herons, in his own
woods. In the year 1481 was printed the " Book of St. Albans," by
Juliana Berners, sister of Lord Berners, and prioress of the nunnery
of Sopewell. It consisted of two tracts, one on Hawking, the other
on^Heraldry. The noble dame obtained from her grateful contempo-
raries the praise of being "a second Minerva in her studies, and
another Diana in her diversions. "i.. Her subject was well chosen ;
Hawking was then the standing pastime of the noble, and the lady
abbess treated it in the manner most likely to please. The book
became to Falconers what Hoyle's has since become to whist-players ;
but the dame Juliana's had, moreover, the merit of paying proper
homage to the jealous distinctions between man and man, as then
established. According to the " Book of St. Albans," there was a
nice adaptation of the different kinds of Falcons to different ranks.
Thus, such species of Hawks were for kings, and could not be used by
any person of inferior dignity ; — such for princes of the blood, such
others for the duke and great lord, and so on, down to the knave or
servant. In all, there were fifteen grades ; but whether this number
was so small owing to the species of Birds, or because it included all
the factitious divisions of society then recognised, we cannot well
determine. We have too much respect for the patience of our
readers to follow the dame through all her directions, to which
additions have been made in the 15th and 17th centuries. We
would rather accompany the trained Hawks into the field.
396
THE ART OF FALCONRY. OR HAWKING.
Strut, in his industrious work on the " Sports and Pastimes of the
English, " gives one or two engravings, from very old pictures,
representing ladies followed by Dogs, and running on foot, with
their Hawks on their fists, to cast them off at game. Indeed, John
of Salisbury, who wrote in the 13th century, says that the women
even excelled the men in the knowledge and practice of Falconry,
Fig. 1037. — Death of the Heron.
whence he ungallantly takes occasion to call the sport itself frivol-
ous and effeminate. Taking altogether, however, a hunting party
of this kind, composed of knights and dames, mounted on their
piaffing manage horses,
" Ryding or hawking by the river,
With grey goshawk in hand," (Chaucer)
and with their train of Falconers in appropriate costume, and their
well-broken Dogs, and the silver music of the bells, mingled with a
variety of other sounds, must have been a pleasant enough scene to
behold, or to form part of.
For most species of game, it appears that Spaniels, Cockers, or
other Dogs were required to rouse the Birds to wing. When at a
proper elevation, the Hawk, being freed from his head-gear, was
cast off from the sportman's iist, with a loud whoop to encourage
him. But here great science was required ; and it was frequently
made matter of an.Kious and breathless debate as to whether the far
jettie or the jettee serre should be adopted. These terms, like
many more employed in those days m Hawking and hunting, were
derived from the French. Jeter signifies to throw or cast off. The
far jettee meant to cast off the Hawk at a distance from the quarry
it was to pursue ; and the jettee serre to fly it as near to the Bird, or
as soon after the destined prey had taken wing, as possible. But
many considerations were involved in these decisions : — the species
of the quarry, the peculiar properties of the Hawk on hand at the
time, — the nature of the country,— the force and direction of the
wind, and numerous other circumstances, had to be duly pondered.
When the Hawk was cast off, it flew in the direction of the game,
and endeavoured to surmount it, or get above it, in its flight. To
obtain this advantage, when Herons and other Birds strong on the
wing were pursued, the Hawk was obliged to have recourse to scal-
ing, or ascending the air by performing a succession of small circles,
each going higher and higher, like the steps of a winding corkscrew
staircase. In whatever way it was performed this was called "the
mount." At times, both the pursuer and pursued would fly so high
as almost to be lost in the clouds. When the Hawk reached a pro-
per elevation above the game, he shot do\vn upon it with all his
force and velocity, and this descent was technically called "the
stoop," or "the swoop." John Shaw, Master of Arts, of Cam-
bridge, who published a strange book called "Speculum Mundi "
(The World's Looking-glass), in that learned city, 1635, informs us
that the Heron, or Hernsaw, "is a large fowle that livcth about
waters," and that hath a marvellous hatred to the Hawk, which
hatred is duly returned. " When they fight above in the air, they
labour both especially for this one thing, that one may ascend and
be above the other. Now if the hawk getteth the upper place, he
overthrowcth and vanquisheth the heron with a marvellous earnest
flight." It should seem, however, that this was not always the
case, and that the Heron sometimes received the Hawk on its long
sharp bill, and so transfixed and killed it. When the Hawk closed
or grappled with its prey (which was called binding in Falconry),
they generally tumbled down from the sky together; and the object
of the sportsman was, cither by running on foot or galloping his
Horse to get to the spot as soon as they should touch the earth, in
order to assist the Hawk in its struggle with its prey.
We believe all Birds of the Falcon genus naturally strike their
prey with their talons, or claws; but in Fig. 1038, we see a Hawk
Fig. 103S. — Hawking for Wild Ducks.
striking and binding a Wild Duck with its beak. So correct a
dehneator as Reidinger was not likely to make a mistake ; and, in-
deed, we see it mentioned in one of the books we have consulted,
that a Hawk, well-reclaimed and enlured, would kill the smaller
game with its beak, or the strong percussion of its breast-bone, and
then hold or bind it with its beak.
The Falcons, it should be observed, were taken into the field with
hoods over their eyes, and with little bells on their legs ; and the
sportsman carried a lure, to which the Bird had been taught to fly by
being fed regularly upon or near it with fresh-killed meat. "When
the hawk," says Master Gervase (1615), "is passingly reclaimed, you
must bring her to lure by easy degrees ; first by dainties, making
her jump upon your fist, then to fall upon the lure, when held out to
it, and then to come at the sound of your voice ; and to delight her
the more with the lure, have it ever garnished, on both sides, with
warm and bloody meat."
These lures seem to have been of various sorts. In very old
times, a " tabur-stycke," which was merely a piece of wood rounded
and besmeared with blood, was in use j but with the progress of
THE GYR-FALCON.
397
civilisation, abetter lure, called a "hawker," was introduced. The
hawker was a staff about twenty-two inches long, cased at the upper
part with iron, having- a bell, " ratlicr of sullen tone than musical,"
and the fit'-ure of a Bird, with outstretched wings, carved at the top.
When this instrument was agitated, a reclaimed Haw^k would de-
scend to it from the clouds ; but we believe, for a Bird of the highest
training, nothing more was required than to shake the tasselled
hood in the hand of the sportsman, and to use the voice.
"Oh ! for a falconer's voice, to lure this tassel gentle back again,"
is put by Shakspeare into the mouth of Juliet, and the same de-
lineator of nature makes Hamlet exclaim, by way of answer to
Horatio, in the language of the Falconer calling in his Hawk, " lUo,
ho, ho, boy! come, bird, come." It may interest some to hear,
that in the twenty-seventh year of his reign, Henry VIII. issued a
proclamation in order to preserve the Partridges, Pheasants, and
Herons, " from his palace at Westminster to St. Giles's-in-the-
Fields, and from thence to Islington, Hampstead, Highgate, and
Hornsey Park." Any person, of whatsoever rank, who should pre-
sume to kill or in anywise molest these Birds, was to be thrown into
prison, and visited by such other punishments as should seem meet
to his highness the king.
It is worthy of remark that Henry VIII. removed the royal Hawks
(which had been kept there during many reigns) from the Mews at
Charing Cross, and converted that place into stables. According
to Stowe, the king of England's Falcons were kept at the Mews
in Charing Cross as early as 1377, or the time of the unhappy
Richard II. The term "Mews," in Falconer's language, meant
strictly a place where Hawks were put at the moulting season, and
where they cast their feathers. The name, confirmed by the usage
of so long a period, remained to the building at Charing Cross,
though Henry VIII. had so changed its destination as to make it
inapplicable. But what, however, is much more curious is this, —
that when in modern times the people of London began to build
ranges of stabling at the back of their streets and houses, they
christened those places " Mews," after the old stabling at Charing
Cross, which, as we have shown, was misnamed from the time the
Hawks were withdrawn from it. In accidental modes like this many
an old word is turned from its original meaning, which eventually
is altogether lost.
The old travellers Marco Polo and Father Rubruquis give graphic
descriptions of Hawking among the Mongol Tartars during the
13th century, which sport was conducted in a style of barbaric mag-
nificence. The Klian had, among other Birds of prey. Eagles
trained to stoop at Wolves ; and such was their size and strength,
that none, however large, could escape from their talons. Recent
travellers in Central Asia make frequent mention of Hawks and
Hawking. Mr. Johnson, in his " Indian Field-Sports," describes
the sport as carried on by the princes and nobles of India. The late
Sir John Malcolm, in his delightful little work called " Sketches of
Persia," also gives some very animated descriptions of these sports.
He frequently partook in them during his journeys and embassies to
the court of the Shah. In speaking of his stay at Abusheher (a place
on the Persian Gulf), he says — " The huntsmen proceeded to a large
plain, or rather desert, near the sea-side ; they have hawks and
greyhounds ; the hawks carried in the usual manner on the hand of
the huntsman ; the dogs led in a leash by a horseman, generally
the same who carries the hawk. When an antelope is seen, they
endeavour to get as near as possible ; but the animal, the moment it
observes them, goes off at a rate that seems swifter than the wind :
the horsemen are instantly at full speed, having slipped the dogs.
If it is a single deer, they at the same time fly the hawks : but if a
herd, they wait till the dogs have fixed on a particular antelope.
The hawks, skimming along near the ground, soon reach the deer,
at whose head they pounce in succession, and sometimes with a
violence that knocks it over. At all events they confuse the animal
so much as to stop its speed in such a degree that the dogs can
come up ; and in an instant men, horses, dogs, and hawks sur-
round the unfortunate deer, against which their united efforts have
been combined. The part of the chase that surprised me most was
the extraordinary combination of the hawks and the dogs, which
throughout seemed to look to each other for aid. This, I was told,
was the result of long and skilful training.
" The antelope is supposed to be the fleetest quadruped on earth,
and the rapidity of the first burst of the chase I have described is
astonishing The run seldom exceeds three or four miles, and often
is not half so much. A fawn is an easy victory ; the doe often runs
a good chase ; and the buck is seldom taken. The Arabs are, in-
deed, afraid to fly their hawks at a buck, as these fine birds, in
pouncing, at times impale themselves on its sharp horns.
" The hawks used in this sport are of a species I have never seen
in any other country. This breed is called cherkh, is not large, but
of great beauty and symmetry. * * •
"The novelty of these amusements interested me; and I was
pleased, on accompanying a party to a village, about twenty miles
from Abusheher, to see a species of hawking peculiar, I believe, to
the sandy plains of Persia, on which the hubara, a noble species of
a smalUhrnh ^fl> H ^'"'.°'', ^^""^ P'^'"=' ^'^^^^ '' ^as no shelter but
fvPr^ i t called geetuck. When we went in quest of them, we
nwL-= ^ ^^ ^^°."' ^I'^^'^y- ''^" ^^'e" mounted. Two kinds of
Sfiffl "'^"f.fyfo"- this sport; the first, the cherkh (the same
. f 11 .^ ""' the antelope , attacks them on the ground, but will
no follow them on the wing ; for this reason, the bhyrec/ a hawk
well known in India, is flown the moment the hubara rises
As we rode along, in an extended line, the men who carried the
cherkhs, every now and then unhooded and held them up, that thev
might look over the plain. The first hubara we found afforded us a
proof of the astonishing quickness of sight of one of the hawks •
she fluttered to be loose and the man who held her gave a whoop as
he threw her off his hand, and then set off at full speed We all did
the same. At first we only saw our hawk skimming over the plain
but soon perceived, at the distance of more than a mile, the beautiful
speckled hubara, with his head erect and wings outspread runnine
fonvard to meet his adversary. The cherkh made several unsuccess-
ful pounces, which were either evaded or repelled by the beak or
wings of the hubara, which at last found an opportunity of rising
when a bhyree was instantly flown, and the whole party were again
at full gallop. We had a flight of more than a mile, when the
hubara alighted and was killed by another cherkh, who attacked him
on the ground. This bird weighed ten pounds. We killed several
others, but were not always successful, having seen our hawks twice
completely beaten during the two days that we followed this fine
sport."
_ To those who wish to enter more fully into the mysteries of Hawk-
ing, we recommend Turbcvill among the old writers, and Sir John
Sebright (" Observations on Hawking") as the best modern autho-
rity on the subject.
The Gvr-Falcon; Jer-Falcon, or Iceland Falcon (/"a/fo
gyr-fa/co).— This Bird has already been alluded to in the descrip-
tion of the Peregrine Falcon. It is a Bird of from twenty to twenty-
three inches in length, white, with the whole upper part of its plu-
mage marked with dark grey spots ; the bill is blue, and the cere and
feet yellow, the tarsi being clothed with feathers about half-way
down. (See Fig. 1039.) This large and powerful Falcon is found in
Fig. 1039.— Head of the Gyi- Falcon.
all the northern parts of both hemispheres, but it is most abundant
in the colder regions of North America. It appears always to have
been a scarce Bird in this country ; for, in the palmy days of Fal-
conry, great sums were expended in procuring these Birds from
Norway and Iceland ; but in the opinion of Falconers, the Birds
from the latter country belonged to a distinct species, which they
called the Iceland Falcon. From the great strength and courage of
the Gyr-Falcon, they were used in the pursuit of large Birds, such as
Cranes, Storks, Herons, and Wild Geese. In the territories of the
Hudson's Bay Company, it usally preys on the Ptarmigan, but also
destroys Plovers and Ducks, and will even attack Geese as already
mentioned.
The Hobby {Falco subbidcd). — This Bird presents a great general
resemblance to the Peregrine Falcon, but measures only from twelve
to fourteen inches. The flight is very rapid, and it was formerly
employed in the pursuit of small Birds. In a state of nature its food
consists principally of small Birds and Insects ; but Skylarks are
said to form its favourite prey. It is a summer visitor to this country,
and is not very abundant here ; but it appears to be distributed over
nealy the whole of the Eastern Hemisphere. It builds its nest in
trees, and lays three or four eggs of a bluish-white colour, blotched
with greenish-brown. Occasionally it dispenses with the trouble of
building, and takes possession of the deserted nest of a Crow.
The Merlin {Falco cssalon). — This small but beautiful and
high-spirited Falcon is a native of Europe, and breeds in the British
Islands ; Mr. Selby has found its nest frequently in the upland moors
of Northumberland. Dr. Heysham mentions three instances that
came to his knowledge of Merlins' nests in Cumberland, where he
says the Bird remains all the year. It breeds in several parts of
398
THE -MERLIN—THE KESTREL.
Wales, and, according^ to IMr. Eyton, on the mountain of Cader
Idris. It is indigenous in Ireland, breeding on the mountains of
Londonderry, Mourne (Down), Claggin (Antrim), Clonmcl (Tippe-
rary), Youghal (Cork), and other places. The nest is loosely made
upon the ground among the heath. Larks, Thrushes, Fieldfares,
and Partridges constitute the prey of this species, which it strikes
with great address. According to Mr. Thompson, it frequents the
sea-shore in pursuit of Dunlins {Tringa variabilis), which it has
been seen to kill.
Merlins were formerly used in the field ; and, as the author of the
"Book of Falconrie" says, they become "passing good hawkes
and verie skilful ; their property by nature is to kill thrushes, larks,
and partridges. They flee with greater fierceness and more hotely
than any other hawke of prey. They are of greater pleasure,
and full of courage, but a man must make greater care, arid
take good heed to them, for they are such busie and unruely
things with their beakes, as divers times they eate off their
own feet and tallons very unnaturally, so as they die of it.
And this is the reason and true cause, that seldom or never
shall you see a mewed or entermewed merlyn. For that in the
mew they do spoyle themselves, as I have before declared."
Sir J. Sebright says that the Merlin will take Blackbirds and
Thrushes, and that he may be made to wait on — that is, hover near
till the Bird be pursued and started again ; " and though a merlin
will kill a partridge, they are not strong enough to be effective
in the field." (" Observations on Hawking.")
From its habit of sitting on a bare stone, or portion of rock, on
the mountain moorlands, this Bird has acquired the name of Stone
Falcon, Rochier and Faucon de roche of the French, and Steinfalke
of the Germans. The general plumage of the young is brown ; when
fully adult, the back and wings are of a bluish-ash colour, each
feather having a central dash of black ; the under-parts are rufous,
with oblong blackish spots. Length of male eleven inches, of female
twelve inches and a-half. The female resembles the immature male
in having a brown plumage. The eggs, four in number, are reddish-
brown, mottled with a deeper tint. (See Fig. 1040.)
Fig. 1040. — Merlins.
The Kestrel {Fa?co f/juucuniius ; Ccrchncis iimiuticiila).—
This Falcon, often called Windhover, Stannel, and Stonegall, is very
common in our islands, and is spread over Europe, Asia, and Africa.
This probably is the KtyxP'C of Aristotle, and the Tinnunculus of
the Latins (Pliny, " Nat. Hist.," .x., 37). It is the Foutivento, Cani-
bello, Tristunculo, Acertello Falchetto di Torre, Gheppio, and
Gavinello of the modern Italians ; Cercrelle, Quercerelle, Cresser-
elle, and Epervier des Alouettes of the French ; Turmfalke, Roethel-
geyer, Mausefalke, Winewachl, Rittl-weyer, and Wannen-wehr of
the Germans ; Kyrko-falk of the Swedes ; and Cudyll coch of the
ancient British.
The Kestrel is a Bird of considerable powers of flight, but, unlike
the little Merlin, seldom takes its prey in the air ; unless, indeed,
when it gives chase to insects, as the Cockchafer, &c., for it is
chiefly on Mice, Frogs, &c., that it feeds. Mr. Selby, indeed, says
that bird-catchers have seen it making a dash at their decoy-birds,
and that he has himself caught it in a trap baited with a Bird ; and
Mr. Thompson ("Birds of Ireland," "Mag. Zool. and Botan "
vol. 11., p. 57) says, that though it is generally pursued by Swallows
he once saw u the pursuer. " On September 22, 1832, when walking
with a friend m the garden at Wolf hill, near Belfast, a male kestrel
m full pursuit of a swallow appeared in sight over the hedgerow, and
continuing the chase with extreme ferocity, lost not the least way by
the swallow's turnings, but kept within a foot of it all the time, at
one moment passing within five or si.x yards of our heads. It is idle
Fig. 1041. — Kestrels.
to conjecture how long the foray may have lasted before we witnessed
it, but immediately on the kestrel's giving up the chase, the swallow,
nothing daunted, became again, accompanied by many of its species,
the pursuer and tormentor, and so continued till they all disappeared.
The kestrel was probably forced to this chase by the particular
annoyance of the swallows, they and the martins being more nume-
rous this day at Wolfhill than they had been during the season."
It is thus that the large White-headed Eagle is teased by the little
King-bird or Tyrant Flycatcher [Tyrannus intrepidus), &x\6. even
forces him to retreat. The Kestrel, as the same writer states, has
been so far trained by Mr. W. Sinclaire as to attend and soar above
him like the Peregrine Falcon, and fly at small Birds let off from the
hand.
This species is often seen high in the air, with outspread tail and
winnowing pinions, suspended over one spot ; its keen eye is survey-
ing with careful scrutiny the ground below — not a Mouse, nor a
Frog, nor a Lark on her nest, escapes its glance ; having fixed upon
its victim, down it drops, clutches its prize, and flies rapidly to its
usual haunt. The destruction of Field-mice by the Kestrel ought
to recommend it to the farmer, especially as it attacks neither
Pigeons nor Poultry; unfortunately it is often confounded by the
ignorant with the fierce Sparrow-Hawk (indeed, we have generally
heard it so called), which will devastate the dovecote and pounce
upon young Chickens.
The Kestrel generally usurps the nest of a Crow or Magpie in
which to lay its eggs and rear its young. It breeds also on inland
and marine cliffs, church towers, &c. We have many times seen it
fly in and out of the fissures of the perpendicular limestone rocks of
the Peak of Derbyshire, and about Buxton. The eggs are four in
number, pale reddish-brown, mottled with a darker tint. The
colouring is as follows : —
Male. — Top of the head bluish-grey ; upper parts reddish-brown,
regularly sprinkled with angular black spots ; lower parts white,
slightly tinged with reddish and with oblong brown spots ; tail ash-
coloured, with a wide black band towards its extremity, and termi-
nated with white ; bill bluish ; cere, space round the eyes, iris, and
feet yellow. Length about fourteen inches.
Female. — Larger than the male ; all the upper parts of a brighter
reddish ; lower parts yellowish rusty, with oblong black spot ; tail
reddish, with nine or ten narrow black bands, and with a large
THE SPARROW-HAWKS.
399
band of that colour near its extremity, which is terminated with red-
dish-white.
The You)ig\\ZL.\e. the top of the head, the nape, and the mantle
brown-rusty streaked with black ; these streaks form the angle of
the back : on the first quills are seven reddish and whitish spots ;
tail reddish, undulated with grey-ash and transversely striped as in
the female : throat reddish-white ; at the opening of the bill a small
black stripe, which is prolonged on the upper part of the neck ; the
rest of the lower parts whitish-rusty, with oblong black spots ; iris
brown ; cere yellowish-green.
Allied to the Kestrel is the Red-legged FALCON {Falco yesper-
tiiiiis), which is the rarest of all the British Falcons. It is, how-
ever, common in many parts of the continent, but only a few speci-
mens have been shot in this country.
The Bengal Falcon {Hicrax cccrukscens). — Allap of the
Javanese ; Falco bengalcnsis, Brisson. This beautiful little Falcon
is gencrically distinguished by the edge of the upper mandible
being bidentate, and the tarsi scutellated anteriorly. (See Fig.
1042, the head and foot.) It is a native of Java, and also, as it is
Fig. 1042. — Head and Foot of Bengal Falcon.
stated, of Bengal. Small as it is, for it does not exceed six and a
half inches in length, it is nevertheless bold and active, and pursues
prey equal to itself in size with great determination. Its general
colour above is glossy bluish-black ; forehead, throat, breast, and
a line continued from the bill over the eye down the sides of the
neck, white with a ferruginous tint. Under-parts ferruginous ;
plumes of thighs long and silky ; wings reaching only half-way
down the tail. (See Fig. 1043.)
Fig. 1043. — The Bengal Falcon.
In the East, where Falconry is still a favourite sport with the
natives of rank, many species of these Birds are trained for this pur-
pose. Amongst these our Peregrine Falcon takes a very high place,
but it is considered interior to a nearly allied species, the Falco
peregrinator, which is called the Shaheen, or Sultan Falcon. It is
generally used in the pursuit of the Partridge and the Florikin [fitis
auritai), a species of Bustard which is common in India , and, in-
stead of being cast from the hand like the Peregrine Falcon, is
trained to fly in circles, high over the heads of the Falconers, until
the game is started, when it descends upon the quarry with the
velocity of an arrow. Several other large species of Falcons are used
in falconry in different parts of India. The best known of these is
the Luggur, or Juggur {F.jiiggur), which is usually slipped from
the hand in pursuit of Partridges, Florikins, and even Herons. The
Lanner {Falco la7iartus\ another large species, was formerly im-
ported into Europe from the East, and trained to the pursuit of
Kites. Several small species are also t mined in that country ; and
amongst these, the Birds of the genus Hicrax, some of which are
scarcely bigger than a Thrush, are distinguished for their courage.
These are employed in the pursuit of Quails and other Birds of cor-
responding size ; and the mode in which they are started after their
game, as described by Captain Mundy, is rather curious. "The
falconer holds the little well-drilled savage within the grasp of his
hand, the head and tail protruding at either end, and the plumage
carefully smoothed down. When he arrives within twenty or thirty
yards of the quarry, the sportsman throws his hawk, much as he
would a cricket-ball, in the direction of it. The little creature gains
his wings in an instant, and strikes his game after the manner of a
bhause." The Bhause is the same as our Goshawk.
The Sparrow-Hawks— Sub-family, Accipitrince.
The Acci_pitrina, or Sparrow-Hawks, form another sub-family of
the Falconidce. They have the beak short, hooked from the base ;
wings short ; fourth quill-feather the longest. Though the Hawks
differ in flight and their mode of attacking their prey from the Fal-
cons, they are equally daring and impetuous, and one in particular,
the Goshawk, v^-as among the most valued of the Falconer's Birds ;
it was termed "falcon gentil," and was flown at Pheasants, Wild
Geese, and even Hares. Instead of soaring after the manner of the
true Falcons, the short-winged Hawks, as the Falconer calls them,
dart along with arrow-like impetuosity in pursuit of their prey,
threading woods, glens, and ravines ; they strike it obliquely, over-
taking it by their swiftness, and clutching it in their talons, bear it
off in triumph.
The Sparrow- Hawk {Accipiter nisiis ; A. fringinarius).—
Generic characters of the genus Accipiter : — beak short ; nostril
sub-oval ; tarsi elongated, smooth, anteriorly scutellated. {Fig.
1044, head and foot of Sparrow-Hawk.)
The Sparrow-Hawk isL'Epcrvier of the French ; Falco palombino
and Sparviere da fringuelli of the Italians ; die Sperber of the Ger-
mans ; Sparfhoek of the "Fauna Suecica;" Falco nisus of
Linnaeus ; and Gwepia of the ancient British.
This species is notorious for its destructiveness and daring. It is
lii* >ii«4 '
V
Fig. 1044.— Head and Foot of Sparrow-Hawk.
400
THE SPARROW-HAWK— THE GOSHAWK.
spread throughout the whole of Europe, and is common in the
wooded parts of our islands ; it is well known as one of the terrors
of the farm-yard. The female, which much exceeds the male in
size, is fatal to Partridges and Pigeons. The Sparrow-Hawk flies
low, skimming with great rapidity, and pounces on its prey with un-
erring aim ; in the days of Falconry it was accounted the best Bird
for Landrails.
This Hawk builds in trees and thorn-bushes, making a shallow
flat nest of twigs ; occasionally it occupies the deserted nest of a
Crow, and in the Orkneys it breeds on the rocks and sea-cliffs. The
eggs, five in number, are of a whitish tint, blotched at the larger end
with reddish-brown. In a nest examined by Mr. Selby were found a
Lapwing, two Blackbirds, a Thrush, and two Green Linnets, re-
cently killed. No Hawk is more pertinacious in the pursuit of its
quarry than the Sparrow-Hawk ; it has been known to follow its
terrified prey through open windows, into rooms, barns, and churches,
undeterred by the presence of man. The male measures about
twelve inches in length. The upper parts are of a dark-bluish ash-
colour ; the cheeks, throat, and chest rufous, which colour breaks into
obscure bars as it proceeds to the under surface ; beak blue-black,
cere greenish-yellow, tarsi yellow, and tail greyish -brown, with three
transverse dusky bands. The female is fifteen inches in length ; the
upper surface is of a browner tinge than in the males, and the throat
and under-parts are greyish-white, the former having small longitu-
dinal dashes, the latter regular transverse bars of reddish-brown.
The young differ very considerably in having the general plumage
brown, the feathers at the back of the neck and the scapularies
being blotched with white, and the under-parts yellowish-white, with
irregular longitudinal dashes of brown. The nestlings are at first
covered with snow-white down. (See Fig. 1045.)
Fig. 1045.— The Sparrow-Hawk.
The Goshawk {Ashir ■palumbarius). — The genus Astur differs
from Accipiter in the proportionate shortness of the tarsi. This
beautiful and high-spirited Hawk is the Autour and Atour of the
French ; Astore (Zinan) and Girifalco (Bonaparte) ; Sparviere da
columbe and Sparviere Terzuolo of the Italians ; Grosser gepfeilter
Falck and Hunerhabicht of the Germans ; Hebog Marthin of the
ancient British.
The Goshawk is rare in the British Islands, but is more abundant
in the forest districts of the continent, inhabiting Denmark, Sweden,
Russia and Switzerland, France and Germany. It extends also
into Asia.
Mr. Yarrell says: "The few that are used for hawking are
obtained from the continent. Colonel Thornton, who kept them
constantly in Yorkshire, procured some of his specimens from Scot-
land. Dr. Moore, in his catalogue of the birds of Devonshire, says
that it is found occasionally in Dartmoor ; but I can find no record of
its appearance further west in England, nor any notice of it in Ire-
land. A fine adult male was trapped by a gamekeeper in Suffolk,
in March, 1843 ; and Mr. Doubleday, of Epping, has sent me word
that he received a young bird from Norfolk in the spring of the same
year. Mr. Selby mentions that he had never seen a recent speci-
men south of the Tweed, but states that it is known to breed in the
forest of Rothiemurcus, and on the wooded banks of the Dee. Mr.
Low says that this species is pretty frequent in Orkney ; but as he
speaks of it in connection with sea-beaten rocks without shelter or
woods, is there not reason to suspect that Mr. Low was mistaken,
and that the birds he saw were peregrine falcons ? — the more so as
several recent visitors to these northern islands have observed pere-
grines, but no goshawks." ("British Birds.") Prince Bonaparte
has noted the Goshawk as not common in the neighbourhood of
Rome.
The Goshawk frequents the deep solitudes of forests, preying upon
Hares, Squirrels, and the larger kinds of Birds. It makes its nest
in lofty trees, preferring, it is said, the fir, laying three bluish-white
eggs marked with reddish-brown. The flight of this Hawk is low
and rapid, and it strikes its prey as it skims along with terrible
force ; but should the quarry take to covert and there conceal itself,
it ceases pursuit, and waits in patience on some perch commanding
a view of the spot, till the game takes wing. In this way it will
remain hour after hour on the watch : and an instance is on record
of a trained Goshawk which drove a Pheasant to cover one evening,
remaining stationary till ten the next morning, when, on the Fal-
coners finding her and taking her away, the poor Pheasant, which
all that time had not dared to stir, but had remained fixed to the
place under the influence of terror, at once took wing and flew off.
(See Fig. 1046.)
mi^-^
Fig. 1045.— The Goshawk,
A full-grown female Goshawk can secure a Hare with ease. With
regard to using these Birds, the late Mr. Hoy, who was experienced
in their training, informed Mr. Bartlett, that " their habits and
mode of flight were much better suited to an enclosed district than
those of the peregrine falcon. When used or taken into the field,
the wing of a bird or the thin end of an ox-tail is generally held in
the hand to engage their attention, which they are constantly biting
and tearing without being able to satisfy their appetites, as that
would render them unfit for work. They do not require to be
hooded, but have bells attached to the legs for the purpose of giving
notice of their situation when they alight (which would otherwise be
difficult to ascertain), and a leathern strap by which they are held;
it is also necessary to have spaniels to hunt up the birds, upon the
appearance of which the hawk flies from the hand with incredible
swiftness direct at the game, generally taking it at the first attempt ;
but should the hawk fail, it will perch on some elevated situation,
and remain until the game is again started, and is rarely known to
miss a second time. When the hawk has captured the game, he is
rewarded with a small piece of meat, or a pigeon's head, to induce
him to give up his prey. If the hawk be allowed to range at
pleasure, by whistling it will return with a swiftness truly astonish-
ing, and finding it cannot stop suddenly to settle without striking
you with great force, it will glide past, form a circle round you, and
alight with the greatest ease and the most gentle manner upon the
hand." ("Mag. Nat. Hist.," 1839, p. 603.) These Hawks, be it
observed, never ascend in gyrations and make the swoop for which
the Peregrine Falcon is so celebrated. The Goshawk is dis-
tinguished both for beauty of colour and elegance of contour.
The female measures about twenty-four inches in length, the male
nineteen or twenty. The beak is bluish-black, the cere wax-yellow,
the irides bright yellow ; the whole of the upper surface and tail-
feathers dark greyish-brown ; in the females the colour inclines to
clove-brown, the upper surface of the tail-feathers barred with darker
brown ; the nape of the neck, throat, breast, belly, and thighs nearly
white, with spots, transverse bars, and undulating lines of dull
VARIETIES OF HA TVES.
401
black; under tail-coverts white; -lore, checks, and ear-coverts,
greyish-brown, forming an elong-ated dark patch on the side of the
head ; the legs and toes yellow ; the claws black.
North America produces a closely allied species, distinguished by
a darker colour on the head, and a greater multitude of zig-zag
lines and dashes on the under-parts. It was met with by Dr. Richard-
son in the Hudson's Bay territories, and is figured in his " Fauna
Boreali- Americana."
The Laughing Hawk {Dccdalion cachintians). — Head and
Foot. In this genus the beak is short, the tarsi moderate, and re-
ticulated anteriorly. This species, which is a native of South
America, has obtained its specific name from its peculiar cry. It
tenants the neighbourhood of lakes or sheets of water, and lives upon
reptiles and fish. Its general plumage is white ; the back and
wings, and the space round the eyes with a nuchal intervening band,
being brown ; head crested. It is the Nacagua of Azara. (See
Fig. 1047.)
Fig. 1047. — Head and Foot of
Laughing Hawk.
Fig. 1048. — Head and Foot of
Bidentate Harpagus.
The Chanting Hawk {Melierax ca?iorus ; Accipikr mtisicns ;
Falco niusictis, Daudin.) — It is somewhat strange to find a Song-
bird among the feathered tyrants of the air, whose cries are in
general wild, shrill and discordant. The present species, however,
is an exception, and stands pre-eminent and alone, the minstrel of
its race. It is, as Cuvier says, " the only known bird of prey which
sings agreeably." In size it equals a Goshawk ; its plumage is grey
above, white barred with brown on the lower part of the back and on
the under-parts of the body. It is a native of Africa, and preys upon
large Birds, Hares, and other animals ; it builds in trees. Accord-
ing to Le Vaillant, it "utters its strain every morning and evening, and
not uncommonly continues it the whole night ; each strain is con-
tinued in a loud tone for more than a minute, and after a pause it
begins anew. While it is singing, it is so regardless of its safety
that any one may approach very near it ; but at other times it is
suspicious, and takes to flight on the slightest alarm," (" Oiseaux
d'Afrique," i., 120.) (See Fig. 1049.)
The Bidentate Harpagus {Harpagus b!'denfaf!is).—Yie&6.
and Foot. This Bird, representing the genus Harpagus, is in all
essentials a Hawk, but with a double tooth on each side of the beak
as in the genus Terax. It may be regarded as a link between the
Hawks and the Falcons. It is a native of Brazil and Guiana, but of
its habits we have no details ; length about thirteen inches. Upper
surface slate-colour : throat white ; under-parts red, undulated with
yellowish : lower tail-coverts white ; tail brownish, barred with dirty-
white. (See Fig. 1048.)
Hawks and Falcons often attack each other, and sometimes two
of the same species fight, Audubon gives an animated account of
the conflict which he witnessed between two Red-tailed Hawks of
America respecting a Hare which one had killed. Fig. 1050 illus-
trates the mode of their aerial contests.
Exotic species of the Hawks, or ^cc?)4;/'/-;«(Z7, arc tolerably numer-
ous. South America particularly appears to possess a great many
Birds belonging to this group, one of which has just been described;
Fig. 1049.— Tlie Chanting Hawk.
■'im
*fe#
j<7,|
Fig. 1050.— Hawks fighting.
and several species are inhabitants of Australia. Amongst the latter,
ose beautiful species, the Astur novcB-hollandicB, is generally of a
pure-white colour.
In India, one or two species of this group are trained for falconry.
The commonest of these is the %\Yi\sXZ.\Mic7-onisus badius), which is
said by Mr. Jerdon to be more often trained in India than any other
Hawk. The Besra [Accipitcr virgafus) is a less abundant Bird,
but is in high esteem amongst the native Falconers. These Birds,
and also some of the true Falcons, are often taken by a snare, which
is thus described by Mr. Jerdon : — " This is a small thin net, from
four to five feet long, and about three feet broad, stained of a dark
colour, and fixed between two thin pieces of bamboo by a cord on
which it runs. The bamboos are fixed lightly in the ground, and a
living bird is picketed about the middle of the net, and not quite a
foot distant from it. The hawk makes a dash at the bird, which it
sees struggling at its tether ; and, in the keenness of its rush, either
not observing the net, from its dark colour, or not heeding it, dashes
into it ■ the two side sticks give way, and the net folds round the
bird so cflectually, as to keep it almost trom fluttering." a„ t„^,.„
An Indiaa
3F
403
THE KITES.
species of Goshawk {Astur trivirgatus), inhabiting Assam, is said
by M'Clelland to haunt the water-side, and to seize sucli fishes as
come to the surface.
The Kites— Sub-family MihtncB.
In the 'sub-family Milviiia;, or Kites, the beak is moderate,
compressed, rather hoolied from the base ; tail forked ; wings long
and ample ; tarsi short. The Birds of this section are remarkable
for the ease, grace, aud buoyancy of their flight ; they sweep
through the air in wide circles, sailing on outspread wings, and
often mount to such a height as to become nearly invisible. Tlieir
vast wings and broad-fork tail give them great advantage. Unlike
the Falcons, however, they do not make an impetuous swoop upon
their victim, but skim it from the surface of the earth, or even water,
and be.'ir it away in their talons. Moles, Reptiles, Rats, Mice, and
young ] jultry are their habitual prey, but they do not refuse carrion ;
they ha ; not the daring of the Hawks and Falcons.
The rt^lTE, OR Glead, [lili'/vus ictiiius ; M. regalis). — Milan
Royal of the French, from Belon to Buffon ; Pojana, Milvio, Nicchio,
and Nibbio of the Italians ; Rother Milan of the Germans ; Glenta of
Brunnich ; Glada of the " Fauna Suecica;" Kite, Fork-tailed Kite,
Glead or Glede (Pennant says from the Saxon " Glida") of the Eng-
lish ; Barcud of the ancient British. In some of the counties of Eng-
land it is called the Puttock, a name also sometimes bestowed
provincially upon the common Buzzard. In Essex it is called the
Crotched-tailed Puddock.
The Kite is distributed over the greatest part of Europe and Asia,
and the northern districts of Africa. In our islands it appears to be
less common than formerly : in Ireland it is not known. Formerly
it was very abundant in the southern counties of England, and
Clusius states that when he was in London an amazing number of
Kites flocked there for the offal thrown into the streets ; they were
so tame that they took their prey in the midst of crowds, and it was
forbidden to kill them.
The Kite, says Mr. Selby, " is proverbial for the ease and grace-
fulness of its flight, which consists of large sweeping circles
performed with a motionless wing, or at least with a slight and
almost imperceptible stroke of its pinions, and at very distant in-
tervals. In this manner, and directing its course by the aid of the
tail, which acts as a rudder, its slightest motion producing an
effect, it frequently soars to such a height as to become almost in-
visible to the human eye." Its appearance, as it wheels over the
farm-yard with eyes intent upon the broods of Chickens and Duck-
lings, is by no means hailed with pleasure, either by the feathered
dependants of the farm or the good man who owns them. The
Poultry set up loud cries of execration, the Hens call their broods
beneath their wings, and chanticleer prepares for battle ; the very
Dogs are roused, and the men run for their guns. Finding prepara-
tions made to receive him, the marauder generally makes off; but
if he has swept away a Chicken before the alarm is given, he is
almost sure of repeating his visit, and is oftentimes so successful as
Fig. 1051.— The Kite.
to destroy a whole brood. Leverets, Rabbits, young game, and
small Alamtnalia are also the prey of this species ; it has been
known to skim off dead fish and other floating animal substances
from the surface of the water with the greatest address. The Kite
builds its nest in the forked branch of some tall forest-tree, and
constructs it of sticks and twigs, lining it with wool, hair, and other
soft materials. The eggs are three in number, rather larger than
those of a Hen ; they are of a dirty-white, with reddish-brown spots
at the large end. The female defends her nest vigorously.
The Kite (male) is about twenty-six inches in length ; beak horn-
colour; cere and irides yellow; feathers of the head and neck
greyish-white, streaked along the shaft with ash-brown ; feathers of
the back and wing-coverts dark brown in the centre, broadly edged
with rufous : inner web of some of the tertials edged with white ;
primaries nearly black ; upper tail-coverts rufous ; tail-feathers red-
dish-brown, the inner webs barred with dark brown ; chin and
throat greyish-white, streaked with dusky; breast, belly, and thighs
rufous-brown, each feather with a central longitudinal streak of
dark brown ; under tail-coverts plain rufous-white ; tarsi and toes
yellow ; claws black. The females are larger than the males. (See
Fig. I05i,and Fig. 1006, p. 380, a«/e, of the Milan Royal). Another
species of Kite, the Black Kile (M. nigcr), forms the only other
species commonly occurring in Europe.
The Swallow-tailed Hawk {Nauclcrus fiircatus).~1\v&
extreme length of the wings and tail, and the strongly forked outline
of the latter, characterise the genus Nauclerus. (See Fig. 1052.)
Fig. 1052. — The Swallow-Liikd Hawk.
This beautiful Kite, remarkable for its grace and case on the
wing, is a native of North America; and is described very graphi-
cally both by Wilson and Audubon. According to the latter, only
" a solitary individual of this species has once or twice been seen in
Pennsylvania. Farther to the eastward the Swallow-tailed Hawk
has never, I believe, been observed. Travelling southward along
the Atlantic coast, we find it in Virginia, although in very small
numbers. Beyond that state it becomes more abundant. Near the
falls of the Ohio a pair had a nest, and reared four young ones, in
1820. In the lower parts of Kentucky it begins to become more
numerous ; but in the States farther to the south, and particularly in
parts near the sea, it is abundant.' In the large prairies of the
Attacapas and Oppellousas it is extremely common. In the States
of Louisiana and Mississippi, where these birds are abundant, they
arrive in large companies in the beginning of April, and are heard
uttering a sharp plaintive note. At this period I generally remarked
that they came from the westward, and have counted upwards of a
hundred in the space of an hour, passing over me in a direct
easterly course. At that season and in the beginning of September,
when they all retire from the United States, they are easily
approached when they have alighted, being then apparently
fatigued, and busily engaged in preparing themselves for continuing
their journey by dressing and oiling their feathers. At all other
times, however, it is extremely difficult to get near them, as they
are generally on wing through the day, and at night rest on the
higher pines and cypresses bordering the river blulfs. the lakes, or
SWALLOW-HAWKS— THE BUZZARDS.
403
the swamps of that district of country. Tliey always feed on tlio
wing-. In calm and warm weather they soar to an immense height,
pursuing the large insects called musquito hawks, and performing
the most singular evolutions tliat can be conceived, using their tail
with an elegance of motion peculiar to themselves. Their principal
food, however, is large grasshoppers, grass-caterpillars, small
snakes, lizards, and frogs. They sweep close over the fields, some-
times seeming to alight for a moment to secure a snake, and, hold-
ing it fast by the neck, carry it off, and devour it in the air. When
searching for grasshoppers and caterpillars it is not difficult to ap-
proach them under cover of a fence or tree. When one is then
killed and falls to the ground, the whole flock come over the dead
bird, as if intent upon carrying it off. An excellent opportunity is
thus afforded of shooting as many as may be wanted ; and I have
killed several of these hawks in this manner, firing as fast as I could
load my gun. The swallow-tailed hawk pairs immediately after its
arrival in the southern states ; and as its courtships take place on
the wing, its motions are then more beautiful than ever. The nest
is usually placed on the top branches of the tallest oak or pine tree
situated on the margin of a stream or pond. It resembles that of
a carrion crow externally, being formed of dry sticks, intermixed
with Spanish moss, and is lined with coarse grasses and a few
feathers. The eggs are from four to six, of a greenish-white colour,
with a few irregular blotches of dark brown at the larger end. The
male and female sit alternately, the one feeding the other. The
young are at first covered with buff-coloured down. Their next
covering exhibits the pure white and black of the old birds, but
without any of the glossy purplish tints of the latter. The tail,
which at first is but slightly forked, becomes more so in a few weeks,
and at the approach of autumn exhibits little difference from that
of the adult birds. The plumage is completed the first spring.
Only one brood is raised in the season. The species leaves the
United States in the beginning of September, moving off in flocks,
which are formed immediately after the breeding season is over."
(See Fig. 1052.)
This species, according to Mr. Nuttall, will, like the Honey-
Buzzard, prey upon Locusts and Wasps, and their larvae, and make
a regular attack on their nests. M. Vieillot states that it visits
Peru and Buenos Ayres. Mr. Yarrell gives it a place among the
British Birds on the authority of two specimens, one killed at
Balachoalist, in Argyleshire, in 1772, and another taken alive in
Shaw-gill, near Hawes, in Wensleydale, Yorkshire, in 1805. Ap-
parently to avoid the violence of a tremendous thunderstorm, and
the clamorous persecution of a flock of Rooks which attacked it
at the same instant, it took shelter in a thicket, where it was seized
before it could extricate itself, on the 6th of September. The person
who caught it kept it a month ; but a door being accidentally left
open, it make its escape. It first alighted on a tree, at no great
distance, from which it soon ascended in a spiral flight to a great
elevation, and then went steadily off in a southerly direction as far
as the eye could trace it. (" Linn. Trans.," vol. xiv.)
Bill bluish-black ; cere light blue ; iris black ; tarsi light greenish-
blue ; claws flesh-coloured. The general plumage above is glossy
black, with blue and purple reflexions ; the head, the neck, and all
the under-parts are white, tinged with bluish-grey. Length two feet ;
the female is similar to the male.
The Black-v/inged Swallow-Hawk {Elanus melatio-
■ptcriis). — In this genus the tail is only slightly forked, and the tarsi
are not only short, but semi-plumed.
The Black-winged Swallow-Hawk is Le Blac of Vaillant. It is
Fig. 1053.-- -The Black-winged Swallow-Hawk.
common throughout the whole of Africa, from Egypt and Barbary
to the Cape. It is found in Syria, and in some parts of India alone
the Ganges, and in the mountain chain of upper Hindostan. It is
said to live principally upon insects, which it catches with great
address while on the wing. Its size is that of the Sparrow-IIawk ;
the plumage is silky ; general colour above ash-grey ; the shoulders
black ; under-parts and greater part of taiLivhite ; bill black ; tarsi
yellow. (See tig. 1053.) .
The Lead-coloureu Ictinl\, or kriE Falcon ilctinia
^//COTtoz).— Heaa and Foot. There is some doubt as to the posi-
tion of this genus ; Vieillot, who founded it, regarded it as approach-
ing the Kites. Mr. Vigors referred it to the Buzzards or Harriers.
An alhed species (Falco mississippiensis, Wilson) is regarded by
its describer as a Kite. (See Fig. 1054.)
The Lead-coloured Ictinia is a native of America ; its powers of
wing are very great, and it flies to an astonishing eleva- on, often
remaining for a long ti.i e poised
or stationary. It feeds mi.oh on the
larger kinds of Insects, ai.d sweeps
along rapidly in the chase. To
these it adds Reptiles and small
Quadrupeds. The b.ack and wings
are of a slate-blue ; the head and
under-parts whitish spotted with
brown ; iris fine red.
W'ilson, speaking of its relative,
the Mississippi Kite, states that
it feeds on Insects, and sails in
the air with the Turkey- Vulture
— one looking out for carrion,
the other for Insects. " For seve-
ral miles," he adds, "as I passed
near Bayo Manchak, the trees
were swarming with a kind of
cicada, or locust, and here I ob-
served numbers of this hawk
sweeping about among the trees,
like swallows, evidently in pursuit
of these locusts ; yet when we con-
template the beak and talons of
this bird, both so sharp and power-
ful, it is difficult to believe that
they were not intended by nature
for some more formidable prey
than beetles, locusts, and grass-
hoppers ; and I doubt not but
mice, lizards, snakes, and small birds furnish him with an occa-
sional repast." — "The long pointed wings and forked tail point
out the affinity of this bird to that family or sub-division of the Falco
genus distinguished by the name of Kites, which sail without
flapping the wings, and eat from their talons as they glide along."
In India the Kite is represented by the Govinda {M. go: I'/ida).
These are very numerous in Calcutta. The Bird will stoop down in
an instant after any garbage that may be thrown into the street,
seizing the fragments without alighting, and carrying them up into
the air. It will also alight amongst the Crows, to feed upon any
larger pieces of carrion ; and the alliance between these scavengers
is rarely broken ; although it is said that sometimes, when very
hungry, a Kite will seize upon a Crow. The Govinda Kite is exceed-
ingly bold, descending upon his food in the midst of the most
crowded street, and occasionally even stooping upon a dish of meat
on its way from the cook's shop.
Among the living specimens of the Kite in the collection of the
Zoological Society at Regent's Park, London, are the following:^
The Common Kite [Mih'ies regalis) ; the Indian Kite {M. govii'uia);
the Black Kite {M. afer) ; the African Black Kite (J/, ccgyptius),
already described. Beside these are the following :— ■
The Caracara {Polyborus brasilicnsis); FORSTr.R's MilvaGO
{i/ihago leucuriis). — These Birds represent a grou,i of Raptorial
Birds altogether peculiar to America, in which are included several
species.
The Forster's Milvago is exceedingly common in the Falkland
Islands. Mr. Darwin, in his well-known "Naturalist'sVoyage," gives
many details of the tameness and voracity of this " Carrion Hawk,"
as he calls it. Both of these species have been already referred to.
In the British Museum there are numerous specimens of Kites, in-
cluding some from Australia.
The Buzzards— Sub-family Buteonmcs.
The Buzzards, forming the sub-family of the Buteoiiina;, like the
Eagles, have the basal portion of the ridge of the upper mandible
nearly straight as far as the extremity of the cere, which covers more
of the bill than in the Eagles. The bill is broader at the base than
in the other Hawks, and compressed towards the tip, with the sides
sloping, and but slightly convex, and the lateral margins distinctly
festooned. The wings are long, broad, and rounded, with the third
and fourth quills usually- the longest. The legs are short and robust,
Fig. 1054. — The Lead-coloured
Ictinia, or Kite Falcon.
404
THE BUZZARDS.
with the tarsi sometimes naked, and scutellatcd both in front and
behind, frequently featliered in front half-way, and occasionally
completely clothed with feathers to the base of the toes. The latter
are rather short, and by no means so robust as those of the Ean-Ies.
The Buzzards greatly resemble the Eagles in their general form ;
but some of them also present affinities to the Hawks and Kites,
both in structure and habits. They are generally regarded as the
least active of the Hawk family, but proceed with considerable
rapidity when progressing in a direct course; and often, like the
Eagles, ascend to a great height in the air, and then sail in circles
with extended wings. When searching for prey, the Buzzards, like
the ordinary short-winged Hawks, fly along at but a small elevation ;
their food consists principally of small Birds and Quadrupeds, upon
which they pounce on the ground, rarely pursuing Birds on the wing.
They also feed upon Reptiles, Insects, and Worms.
These Birds occur in all parts of the world ; but they are most
abundant in the Western Hemisphere, especially in South America.
Three species are known to occur in Europe, including the Bee
Haw^k, or Honey-Buzzard {Fcrttis apivorus), which is placed by
some authors amongst the Kites. All these species are found in
Britain.
The Buzzard {Bufeo vulgaris). — This species is common in all
the wooded countries of Europe and the adjacent parts of Asia. It
is not rare in England, but more so in Scotland. In Ireland it is
abundant. It occurs in the fur-countries of North America. This Bird
is termed La Buse by the French ; Falco Bottaone and Pagana by
the Italians ; Mause Falk and Wald Geyer by the Germans ; and
Bod teircaill by the ancient British. It is the Quidfogel of the
" Fauna Suecica."
The Buzzard has little of the daring impetuosity of the nobler
Birds of prey, though its strength and size are considerable. It is
inactive in disposition, and is generally seen perched on the branch
of a tree ; whence, on perceiving its prey, it takes wing, gliding
rapidly and silently on its victim. (See Fig. 1055.) We have fre-
Fig. 1055.— The Buzzard.
quently observed it sailing with easy undulations over fallow-lands
bordering woods, evidently in quest of food. Rabbits, Hares, Rats,
Reptiles, and small Birds are its prey. Mr. Thompson found this
species sailing about the basaltic precipices in the county of Lon-
donderry, and obtained a pair of young from a nest previously
occupied by Ravens, on a ledge midway down a precipice, at
Rosheen mountain, near Dunfanaghy. It breeds also on the range
of inland rocks called Salagh Braes, and on another similar locality
in Antrim ; and also on the promontory of Fairhead in the same
county. It builds on rocks also in Scotland. Generally speaking,
however, the Buzzard builds in tall trees, selecting the most re-
tired part of the wood ; often it appropriates the deserted nest of a
Crow. The eggs are three in number, larger than those of a Hen,
and of a greenish-white, slightly spotted with pale brown. It defends
its young with great resolution, and as its strength is considerable,
its homestead is not to be assailed with impunity. The young are
very vociferous. The colour of the Buzzard is subject to consider-
able variety, few individuals exactly coinciding in their markings.
The upper parts are usually of a deep brown ; the inferior, of a
yellowish-white, with brown or reddish stains and dashes ; the tail is
barred; the bill is lead-colour ; the cere, tarsi, and iris yellow. Male
twenty inches in length ; female twenty-two.
Dr. Richardson (" Fauna Boreali-Americana ") states that the
common Buzzard arrives in the fur countries in the middle of April ;
very soon afterwards begins to build its nest, and having reared its
young, departs about the end of September. It haunts the low alluvial
points of land which stretch out under the high banks of a river,
and may be observed for a long time motionless on the bough of a
tree watching for some small Quadruped, Bird, or Reptile to pass
w'ithin its reach. As soon as it espies its prey, it glides silently into
the air, and, sweeping easily but rapidly down, seizes it in its claws.
When disturbed it makes a short circuit, and soon settles on another
perch. One of Dr. Richardson's specimens had two middle-sized
Toads in its crop. It builds its nest on a tree, of short sticks, lining
it with Deer's hair. The eggs are, he says, from three to five in
number, and he remarks that it was seen by the Expedition as far
north as the fifty-seventh parallel, and that it most probably has a
still higher range. He gives a description of two : one, a male,
shot on the 17th of June, at the nest, which contained three eggs,
on the plains of the Saskatchewan ; and another a female, killed at
the nest also, near Carlton, May zz.
A second British species, the Rough-legged Buzzard [B. lagopits),
which is distinguished from the former by its feathered tarsi, is by
no means so well known here as the common Buzzard ; and, indeed,
it is only to be regarded as a winter visitor from the north. It is,
however, generally distributed over the continent of Europe ; has
been found in Africa as far south as the Cape of Good Hope ; and
also occurs in many parts of the United States. It is a rather larger
Bird than the common Buzzard, which, however, it closely resem-
bles in its habits and food, although it appears to prey upon animals
of rather larger size, such as Rabbits and Wild Ducks. It breeds
in the northern regions, and migrates southwards for the winter.
Its nest is said to be built in high trees.
The Honey-Buzzard {Perm's apivorus). — Head and Foot. La
Bondree and Buse Bondr^e of the French ; Wespen-Busard of the
Germans; Frosch-geyerl of Kramer; Slaghok of the "Fauna
Suecica ; " Muse-Haeg and Muse-Baage of ]3runnich ; and Bod-y-
mel of the ancient British. (See Fig. 1056.)
Fig. 1056.— Head and Foot of the Honey-Buzzard.
Mr. Vigors observes that the genus Perm's is distinguished by
the singular character of the lorum that surrounds the eye being
covered with feathers, instead of being naked, as in the other Fal-
conidcB, or furnished only with hairs. In other respects, also, he
states the genus differs from that of Buteo ; the tarsi are reticulated
anteriorly, and the third quill-feather the longest.
THE HARRIERS— THE VULTURES.
The Honey-Buzzard is very rare in England, but more common in
the warmer countries of Europe, where it is migratory. It is found
in Asia, and specimens have been received from various parts of
India. We believe one instance only of its having been killed in
Ireland is on record. The Bird in question was shot by R. G. Bom-
ford, Esq., in his demesne of Annandale, near Belfast. Mr. Thomp-
son states that the bill and forehead were covered with Cow-dung,
from the search the Bird had evidently been making for Insects.
The stomach contained some of the larva; and fragments of Coleop-
tera and various Caterpillars. It is in fact chiefiy upon Caterpillars
and the larva; of Bees and Wasps that the Honcy-Buzzard feeds,
together with other Insects, not, however, to the exclusion of Moles,
Mice, Rats, small Birds, Reptiles, and Slugs.
According to Vieillot the Honey-Buzzard flies low, but runs on the
ground with great celerity. It breeds in tall trees, making a nest
of twigs with an inner layer of wool ; the eggs are two or three in
number, of an ashy-grey, dotted at each end with small red spots,
and surrounded in the middle with a broad blood-red zone, or mot-
tled all over with two shades of orange-brown.
The Honey-Buzzard is a Bird of passage, emigrating from Europe
on the approach of winter ; it is about the size of the common
Buzzard, but more slender : the top of the head is bluish ash-colour,
the upper-surface generally deep brown, with a greyish tint ; the
secondary quill-feathers are barred alternately with dusky-brown
and grey ; under-surface whitish, with triangular reddish bars or
dashes ; tail crossed by three bars of dark brown.
The Harriers — Sub-family Circincs.
The CircintB, or Harriers — which have the eyes and ears of larger
size than those of the rest of the family — are considered to approach
most closely to the Owls, although it does not appear that they are
at all nocturnal in their habits. They have the bill short, of mode-
rate strength, and compressed, with the sides sloping, and the
lateral margins slightly festooned or sinuated. The wings are long,
and more or less pointed, the third and fourth quills being the
longest ; and the whole of the plumage is soft and downy, some-
what like that of the Owls, the resemblance to which is increased in
some species by the presence of a sort of ruff, which runs from
behind the eyes to the chin. Tlie tarsi are long and slender, and
the toes are rather short.
Of this group three species are recorded as British. These are —
the Common or Ring-tailed Harrier {Circus cyanetis), the Marsh
Harrier, sometimes called the Moor Buzzard ((7. CBriiginosiis), and
Montagu's Harrier (C a'neraceus). Of these, the first only, the
Ring-tailed Harrier {C. cyaneus, Fig. 1057), can be called common ;
40s
Fig. 1057, — Head of the Common Harrier.
but this species is generally distributed in all parts of the country.
In this Bird the wings are about two inches shorter than the tail ; the
male is of a light bluish-grey colour, and eighteen or nineteen inches
long ; and the female, which is about two inches longer than her
partner, is brown above, and pale yellowish-red beneath. The
Marsh Harrier is about two inches longer than the common Harrier ;
it is by no means abundant, although it occurs in most parts of
England and Wales. Montagu's Harrier is rather smaller than the
common species, from which it is easily distinguished by the great
length of the wings, that reach to the extremity of the tail. This
Bird also occurs in various parts of England, but is not very plen-
tiful.
The Harriers in general feed upon small Quadrupeds, such as
young Hares, Rabbits, Rats, &c.. Birds, Reptiles, and sometimes
Insects and Fishes. When searching for their prey, they fly gentlv
along, at a small elevation, and appear to beat over every part of
the .surface of the ground, like a Dog hunting for game ; to this
habit, no doubt, they are indebted for their name of Harriers. They
wnpuXBirds'^.non?h'P'''^"P°"''^'^ ^^°""^ = but some species
Tecn^to canturo PnfM.! -""v: '"'"'^ '''<^ <^°'"'"0" "••>"'" has been
SsnhcMe ind n, ■'^''f '" "'" ™^"""- They are found in both
the world\t the nnn' K ^'"'^'■■■'''^ '°"'"^^ thc Warmer regions of
?rLrc^'tsll^\To;gsffu^ro"r''^h^eath''^j;dTh^e' ne't """^ °" "'S
merely of a few%ticks;with a sh^ hnin^of g^a'^ssTs' metrrs'e^^e^
this scanty provision ,s dispensed with, and the eggs a^ laU^ on the
bare ground. Occasionally, however, thc nest is raised -,mtl.°frl^
the ground, in a bush. Tl(e eggs are th?ee or four in number?
THE Vultures— Family Vulturidec.
Although the parallels which some distinguished naturalists in
the present day have attempted to draw between ManZlllTJ^^
Birds sometimes appear to be rather overstrained, there are some
instances in which they are too palpable to be overlooked. The
FalcomdcB represent the Lions, Tigers, Cats, and Musteline groups •
and m the present family, a foul-feeding race to whom the most
loathsome carrion is acceptable, we may trace an analogy to the
Hysna, Jackal, and Wild Dog : alike scavengers of the earth
which they clear of putrescent animal remains, the noisome reiec-
tanea, which would otherwise corrupt the air with pestilential exha-
lations. Providence has placed them in those countries where their
services, disgusting as they are, are nevertheless essential From
the earliest times the Wild Dogs and the Vultures have been noto-
rious for their participation in the feast of carrion, the repast of the
slam : ^
iroXXoii£ li Kvveg kiu yvTrig tSovrai
Tpwujv." — Hoiuerus, //iai/, lib. xviii., line 271.
And again, Ovid —
" Unguibus et rostro tardus trahet ilia vultur,
Et scindent avidre perfida coida canes."
Vultures are, however, less ferocious in their disposition than
Wild Dogs or Hyaenas, and seldom attack living prey. Where the
dead are, there are they gathered together : sailing on wide and
ample wmgs, they sweep from the higher regions of the air to their
repast, and gorge themselves until scarcely able to rise from the
ground.
In these Birds the beak, hooked at the point, varies in strength
and form. In the more typical species the head and neck arc
denuded of feathers, or only covered with a little down, while round
the bottom of the latter is a ruff of soft or slender feathers, arising
from a loose fold of skin, within which they can withdraw the neck
and even the greatest part of the head, while they remain in a semi-
torpid state, motionless as statues, during the digestion of their
meal.
On the breast and over the crop the skin is bare, or at most
scantily covered ; the limbs are of moderate strength, but the toes
are feeble, and unarmed with formidable talons ; and they seldom
attempt to remove their carrion food, but continue with it till satis-
fied. The plumage generally consists of stiff large feathers over-
lying each other, and forming an almost shot-proof defence. The
wings are ample. It has been a matter of much discussion as to
whether it is by their extraordinary powers of vision, or by the keen-
ness of their scent, that Vultures detect their food. It has been fre-
quently noticed, that when the sky seems clear, when not a wing-
can be seen in the glowing expanse above, no sooner does an animal
fall — no sooner has the hunter slain and left his quarry — than, as if
suddenly called into existence, multitudes of Vultures are observed
pouring from the sky and thronging to the feast.
The ancient classic writers teem with passages attributing to thc
Vulture an acute and discriminating scent :
"Nare sagaci
AtJra non sanum, motumque cadavere sentit."
LUCAN.
' "... Per auras . . . long& ducuntur odore volturii cadaveribus."
Lucretius.
And Pliny, speaking of the senses, says: "Ex sensibus ante cstera
homini tactus ; deinde gustatus ; reliquis superatur a multis, aquila;
clariils cernunt, vultures sagaciijs odorantur." With the experience
of the ancients agree the experiments of Mr. Waterton, while Mr.
Audubon as strenuously maintains that it is on sight alone that the
Vulture depends, and such appears to be the opinion of Le Vaillant. -
"Desirous," says this naturalist, "of observing how so great a
number of vultures could congregate together in so short a time, I
concealed myself one day in a thicket, after having killed a large
gazelle, which I left upon the spot. In an instant a number of
ravens made their appearance, fluttering about the animal, and
loudly croaking. In less than a quarter of an hour these birds were
reinforced by the arrival of kites and buzzards ; and immediately
after^vards 1 perceived, on raising my head, a flight of birds at a
prodigious height, wheeling round and round in their descent
4b6
SENSES OF THE VULTURES
These I soon recognised to be vultures, which seemed, if I may so
express myself, to escape from a cavern in the sky. They seemed
almost to precipitate themselves from the clouds to share the spoil,
but my presence caused them speedily to disappear. Thus then it
is that the vultures are called upon to participate their prey: the
first carnivorous birds that discover a Cafcass rouse the others which
happen to be in the environs by their cries and actions. If the
nearest vulture does not spy his prey from the lofty region of the
air in which he swims by means of his wide-spread wings, he per-
ceives at least the subaltern and more terrestrial birds of prey pre-
paring to take possession of it : but perhaps he himself has suffi-
cient power of vision to enable him to discover it ; he descends
hastily and with a wheeling flight, and his fall directs the other
♦ Fig. 105S. — Egyptian Vultures.
vultures who witness his evolutions, and who have, no doubt their
instinct sharpened with regard to everything that concerns' their
food." Notwithstanding this, and various experiments by Mr.
Audubon, we by no means concur in the attempted deduction that
the Vulture is destitute of the powers of smell. Professor Owen,
in his account of the dissection of the olfactory organs of the Turkey-
Buzzard, thus concludes : "The above notes show that the vulture
has a well-developed organ of smell ; but whether he finds his prey
by that sense alone, or in what degree it assists, anatomy is not so
well calculated to explain as experiment." (" Zool. Proceeds.,"
1S.57. P- 35-)
_ Professor Owen's details are appended to the following observa-
tions on the habits of the Turkey-Buzzard, called John Crow in
Jamaica, where a fine of five pounds was imposed upon those who
destroyed the Bird within a stated distance of the principal towns.
The writer is Mr. W. Sells : " It has," he says, " been questioned
whether the vulture discovers its food by means of the organ of
smell or that of sight. I apprehend that its powers of vision are
very considerable, and of most important use to the bird in that
point of view ; but that it is principally from highly organised olfac-
tories that it so speedily receives intelligence of where the savoury
morsel is to be found, will plainly appear by the following facts. In
hot climates the burial of the dead commonly takes place in about
twenty-four hours after death, and that necessarily, so rapidly does
decomposition take place. On one occasion I had to make a post-
mortem examination of a body within twenty hours after death,
in a mill-house, completely con-
cealed, and while so engaged
the roof of the mill-house
was quickly studded with these
birds. Another instance was
that of an old patient and
much-valued friend who died
at midnight ; the family had
to send for necessaries for the
funeral to Spanish Town, dis-
tant thirty miles, so that the
interment could not take place
till noon next day, or thirty-six
hours after his decease, long
before which time, and a most
painful sight it was, the ridge
of the shingled roof of his
house, a large mansion of but
one floor, had a number of these
melancholy-looking heralds of
death perched thereon, besides
many more which had settled
on trees in its immediate vi-
cinity. In these cases the
birds must have been directed
by smell alone, as sight was
totally out of the question."
In opposition to the above
opinion, it has been stated by
Mr. Audubon that Vultures and
other Birds of prey possess the
sense of smell in a very inferior
degree to Carnivorous Quad-
rupeds ; and that, so far from
guiding them to their prey
from a distance, it affords them
no indication of its presence
even when close at hand. In
confirmation of this opinion,
he relates that he stuffed the
skin of a Deer full of hay and
placed it in a field, and that in
a few minutes a Vulture lighted
near it, and directly proceeded
to attack it ; but finding no
eatable food, at length quitted
it. He further relates that a
dead Dog was concealed in
a narrow ravine, twenty feet
beneath the surface of the
ground around it, and filled
with briars and high canes ;
that many Vultures were seen
sailing in all directions over
the spot, but that none dis-
covered it. We may remark
upon the above experiments
that the Deer was doubtless
seen hy the Birds, but it does
not follow that they might not
also have smelt the hide,
though inodorous to the human nose; in the second case, the Birds
had undoubtedly been attracted by the smell, however embar-
rassed they might have been by the concealment of the object which
caused it. We have in many hundred instances seen the Vulture
feeding upon small objects under rocks and bushes, and in other
situations, where it was utterly impossible that the Bird could have
discovered it but through the sense of smell ; and we are to recollect
that the habit of the Vulture is that of soaring aloft in the air, and
not that of foraging upon the ground.
The inference we have drawn from experiments, anatomy, and
analogy, is, that both the eye and the olfactory organs of the Vulture
(and we may add the Crow, the Raven, &c.) aid this Bird in its
pursuit of food. We generally find every sense in due degree sub-
THE TURKEY-BUZZARD— THE BLACK VULTURE.
407
servient to the necessities, habits, and appointed work of animals '•
hence, where odour is a prevailing- characteristic of food, that the
organs of the animal intended to devour that food should be insen-
sible to it, seems an anomaly.
The Egyptian Vulture {Neophi-on pcrcnopterus). — Vautour
Ourig-ourap of Vaillant ; Rachamah, or Pharaoh's Chicken, of Bruce
and others ; Avoltoio aquilina and Caporaccajo of the Italians ;
Maltese Vultur, Latham. This species is found in Spain, Portugal,
Malta, Turkey, and in the Archipelago ; abundant in Africa, Arabia,
Persia, and Southern Russia. In October, 1825, one of these Birds,
gorged with food, was shot near Kilve, Somersetshire ; and another
of the same species was seen, but escaped. The utility of these
Birds in Egypt and other parts of the East, in clearing the streets of
filth of every description, a task which they undertake in common
with the Pariah Dogs, has been often alluded to by travellers. Nor
were the services of this Vulture less valued in ancient than in
modern times ; it was among the number of the sacred animals of
Egypt, and is often accurately represented on their monuments.
Hence the appellation of Pharaoh's Chicken. A constant attendant
on the caravan as it pursues its way from town to town ; an assi-
duous frequenter of the shambles ; an industrious searcher for car-
rion, it merits, at least as far as public utility is concerned, the
regards of the community ; nor are its services overlooked : if not
reverenced in the present day as a deity, it is still protected as a
benefactor. In the neighbourhood of Gibraltar, and in the south of
Spain generally, flocks of this Vulture are annually seen ; most pro-
bably they winter in Africa, but of this we have no decided informa-
tion. Captain S. E. Cook says that he saw them, near Seville, fol-
lowing the track of the plough, like rooks, in order to devour the
grubs in the upturned soil. (See Fig. 1058.)
The long and ample w'ings of the Egyptian Vulture give it amazing
powers of flight, and enable it to soar with great buoyancy. Like
the rest of the family, however, when gorged to repletion with its
foul diet, it becomes so sluggish and unwieldy as scarcely to be able
to raise itself from the ground, and indeed in this state may be easily
captured ; not that the task would be very pleasant, so strong and
disgusting is the effluvium which it emits.
Bruce considers this Bird to be the Rachamah of Scripture (see
the Appendi.x to his " Travels "), such being the name by which it
is now known in Egypt. In size the Egyptian Vulture somewhat
exceeds a Raven, its length being 2 feet 5 or 6 inches, and the ex-
panse of its wings about 5 feet 8 or 9 inches. When in complete
plumage it is of a uniform white, with the exception of the greater
quill-feathers, which are black. The forehead, cheeks, and throat
are naked, the skin being of a livid yellow. The eyes are dark. The
bill is slender and straight, abruptly hooked at the tip. This state
of plumage is acquired by successive changes, the first livery being
umber-brown, which is gradually exchanged at each moult for
lighter and lighter tints, till the purity of the white is complete. It
breeds in the clefts of rocks and on elevated places ; its eggs are
stated to be three or four in number, and of a white colour. Fig.
1059 represents the head of this species.
F!g. 1059. — Head of Egyptian Vulture.
The TuRKEY-buzzARD, American Vulture, or Turkey-
Vulture {Cathartes aura). — This species is spread through South
America and the southern section of the United States. It is com-
mon in Jamaica and other West India islands.
According to Wilson, the Turkey-Buzzard is gregarious, roosting
in flocks on the limbs of large trees ; rows of them may be seen on a
summer morning spreading out their wings to the rising sun, and
remaining in that posture for a considerable time. They are, he
adds, often seen in companies soaring at an immense height, par-
ticularly previous to a thunder-storm. His observations allude to
this Bird as observed by him in New Jersey. Mr. Darwin, on the
contrary, states that " the turkey-buzzard is a solitary bird, or at
most goes in pairs. It may at once be recognised frorn a long dis-
tance by its lofty soaring and most elegant flight. It is well known
to be a true carrion feeder. On the west coast of Patagonia, amon?
the thickly-wooded islets and broken land, it lives exclusively on
what the sea throws up, and on the carcasses of dead seals ; and
wherever these animals are congregated on the rocks, there the
vu tures may bo seen." Mr. Watcrton observes, that though tlocks
collect as to a common feast, still he does not consider the Turkey-
Buzzard to be gregarious, properly speaking-that is, they do not
torm a colony, like Rooks, but each pair pursues its separate inter-
ests. We suspect that this applies to most other Vultures which
congregate round the grand object of attraction— their' putrid
banquet.
The Turkey-Buzzard breeds in May, in the deep recesses of the
solitary swamps of New Jersey, as Wilson informs us, the female
making no nest, but laying her eggs in the hollow of some decayed
stump of a tree or log ; the eggs are three or four in number, of a
dull white, blotched, especially at the larger end, with chocolate
brown and dashes of black. The male often watches while the
female is sitting, and, if not disturbed, the same pair will occupy the
same breeding-place for many years in succession. The young are
at first clothed with whitish down. Botli young and old, if moU'^stt-d,
disgorge the offensive contents of their stomachs, so that it is not
safe to attempt to touch them.
The Turkey- Vulture is two feet and a-half in length. The bill is
light horn-colour ; the nostrils arc wide slits ; the eyes are dark ;
the head and neck, for about an inch below the ears, are naked, the
skin being reddish, wrinkled, and beset with short hairs, but the
neck is not so much carunculated as that of the Black Vulture.
From the back of the head to the neck-feathers the space is covered
with down of a sooty-black colour; the fore part of the neck to the
crop is bare. The general colour of the plumage is glossy brownish-
black, with green reflexions ; bill elongated, feeble, and curved only
at the point. (See Fig. 1060.)
Fig. 1060. — The Turkey-BuzzarJ.
The Black Vulture, or Gallinazo {Cathartes atratus). —
The Gallinazo inhabits South America and the warmer parts of the
northern division of that continent ; and in South Carolina, Savan-
nah, Georgia, &c., maybe seen in numbers sauntering about the
streets or sunning itself on the tops of houses; multitudes maybe
often observed in the fields, congregated round the carcass of any
dead animal, and blackening the ground like a flock of Rooks : they
keep up a continual hissing while engaged in their feast, from which
it is not easy to drive them, having become confident from long and
universal tolerance.
Wilson says that the Black Vultures are indolent in their habits,
loitering for hours together in one place. They do not associate
with the Turkey-Buzzard, from which they differ not only in their
much darker colour and other details, but also in flight. They rise
flapping their wings, and then sail with them extended nearly hori-
zontally ; while the Turkey-Buzzard seldom flaps its wings ; and
when sailing they form an angle with the body upwards. The
Black Vulture on the ground hops along very awkwardly ; but the
Turkey-Buzzard moves with an even gait : the latter, unless pressed
by hunger, will not cat of a carcass until it becomes putrid ; the
former is not so fastidious, but will devour animal food without dis-
tinction.
According to Mr. Darwin, the Gallinazo has a different range in-
South America from the Turkey-Buzzard, " as it never occurs to the
southward of latitude 41°. Azara states that there existed a tradi-
tion that these birds at the time of the Conquest were not to bo
found at Monte Video, but that they subsequently followed the in-
habitants from the more northern districts. At the present day
they are numerous in the valley of the Colorado, which is 300 miles
due south of Monte Video. It seems probable that this additional
migration has happened since the time of Azara. The gallinazo
generally prefers a humid climate, or rather the neighbourhood of
fresh water : hence it is extremely abundant in Brazil and La Plata,
4o8
THE GRIFFON AND CINEREOUS VULTURES.
■while it is never found on the desert and arid plains of Northern
Patagonia, excepting near some stream. These birds frequent the
■nhole Pampas to the foot of the Cordillera, but I never saw or heard
of one in Chile : in Peru they are preserved as scavengers. These
vultures certainly may be called gregarious, for they seem to have
pleasure in society, and are not solely brought together by the
attraction of a common prey. On a fine day a flock may often be
observed at a great height, each bird wheeling round and round
without closing its wings, in the most graceful evolutions. This is
clearly done for sport-sake, or perhaps is connected with their matri-
monial alliances."
The Gallinazo builds its nest in the large trees of the low swamps.
Its length is twenty-six inches. The head and part of the neck are
covered with a black, wrinkled, carunculated skin, beset with short
black hairs, and downy behind ; the nostrils are oblong slits. The
general colour is dull black, except the primaries, which are whitish
on the inner vane, with a cream-white bar on the outer vane of the
first four.
The Califomian Vulture {Cathartes californianus) is the largest
of these rapacious Birds, and chiefly frequents the region of the
Rocky Mountains.
The Griffon Vulture, or Tawny Vulture {Gyps fiilvus ;
Vultur ficlvus). — ^This large species, which may be regarded as an
example of the more typical forms of this group of Birds, is a native
of Silesia, the Tyrol, Dalmatia, Spain, the Pyrenees and Alps,
Turkey, the Grecian Archipelago, Arabia, Syria, Persia, and Africa.
It is Le Griffon of the French ; Weisskopfiger Geier of the Ger-
mans ; Avoltoio di color costagno of the Italians.
Like all its tribe, the Griffon feeds upon dead carcasses, to which
it is attracted in considerable numbers, and when once it has made
a lodgment upon its prey it rarely quits the banquet while a morsel of
flesh remains ; so that it may be sometimes seen perched upon the
Fig. 1061.— The Griffon Vulture.
putrescent mass for several successive days. It never attempts to
carry off any portion in its claws, not even to satisfy its young, but
feeds them by disgorging the half-digested morsel from its maw
— the ordinary manner indeed in which the Vultures rear their young,
and which is very different fromi that of the Eagles, Falcons, Hawks,
&c., who bring living or yet reeking prey to their nest, and tear it
up for their brood.
Occasionally this Vulture attacks sickly animals incapable of de-
fending themselves : but this is only when no other mode of satisfy-
ing its appetite presents. After gorging itself to repletion, the
Griffon assumes an unchanged attitude, and patiently waits till the
process of digestion is complete : if disturbed, it is incapable of
flight until it has freed its maw from the oppressive load.
The powers of wing possessed by the Griffon are very great, and
it often soars to such a pitch as to become invisible to human sight.
In captivity it is apathetic, or at least is only roused to animation
by the calls of hunger ; and having feasted, it resumes its listless
composure. Head and neck covered with close white down ; lower
part of the neck surrounded by a ruff of long, slender, white
feathers ; a space on the middle of the breast is covered with white
down. General colour fulvous or yellowish-brown, verging towards
buff; quill and tail feathers blackish-brown : length upwards of four
feet ; female larger than the male. The general plumage of the
young is yellow, variegated with markmgs of grey, and the down of
the neck is more or less brown. (See Fig. 1061.)
The Cinereous Vulture ( Vuliurcinercus; Viilturmonackus).
— Gyps cincrc2is, Savigny ; Vautour arrian and Vautour noir of the
French ; Grauer Geier of the Germans. This species is a native of
the forests of Hungary, the south of Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, Western
Asia, Egypt, and India. In its habits, though the beak is stouter,
and the claws more curved than in most Vultures (the Sociable and
Pondicherry Vultures resembling it in these particulars), the Cinere-
ous Vulture agrees with the rest of its race. Tcmminck states that
its food consists of carrion, but never of living animals, towards
which it manifests fear. Bechstein, on the contrary, states that
in the winter this Vulture descends from the mountain-ranges into
the plains, where it attacks not only Hares, Goats, and Sheep, but
even Deer. The farmers are said to suffer severely from its depreda-
tions, for it will frequently pick out the eyes of a Sheep ; but, as it is
not shy, often pays the penalty of its life to the watchful hunter, who
is well paid for shooting the marauder.
Back of the head and neck denuded of feathers ; the skin of a
bluish cast ; on the rest of the neck a yellow down ; sides of the neck
furnished with curled feathers, and an ample tuft of long loose fea-
thers at the insertion of the wings ; general colour chocolate-brown ;
tarsi half-plumed. Length near four feet ; female rather larger.
(See Fig. 1062.)
Fig. 1062. — The Cinereous Vulture.
The Sociable Vulture ( F?/////r, or Otogyps attricularis).^
Oricou of Le Vaillant ; T'Ghaip of the Hottentots. This noble
Bird, a native of South Africa, is said by Le Vaillant to be gregari-
ous in its habits, numbers associating together in building their
nests in the fissures of craggy rocks, two or three nests being some-
times in the same fissure or cavern, side by side, and others in ad-
jacent crevices : hence the title of Sociable, a title which Dr. A.
Smith considers to be founded on error. He never met with more
than one nest actually occupied on the same tree (not fissure of a
rock). The mistake has probably originated in a new nest being
occasionally built adjoining to an old one which had been deserted
on account of its having become unserviceable. The Bird, he adds,
seems but little disposed to sociability ; more than two are rarely
seen together, and if four occur in the neighbourhood of a carcass,
the number is considered as great ; while of the Griffon Vulture it is
by no means uncommon to see a hundred or even more congregated
THE PONDICHERRY, CHINESE, AND KOLBE VULTURES.
409
where carrion exists. Head and neck red and naked ; folds of skin
originatinsf behind the cars and passing down the sides of the neck ;
ruff of feathers at the lower part of the neck black ; goneral plumage
blackish-brown; feathers of the undcr-pavts long and narrow, cover-
ing a fine white down. Length nearly four feet ; expanse of wings
ten feet. (See Fig. 1063.)
The Pondicherry Vulture ( Vitlhir calvus ; Vtdtiir ^onti-
ccrra>tt/s). — This species, which offers nothing differing from its
race in habits and food, is found abundantly in various parts of
India, as Bengal, &c. Colonel Sykes met with it in the Dukhun.
It is solitar}', more than two being seldom if ever seen together.
The top of the skull is remarkably broad and flat; a fold of skin,
Fig. 1063. — The Sociable Vulture.
arismg below the ears, runs down each side of the neck, which is
flesh-coloured and naked, a few scattered hairs being dispersed over
It ; ruff at the base of the neck composed of short rounded feathers.
Crop covered with down; plumage generally blackish-brown.
Length thirty-si.x inches. (See Fig. 1064.)
The Chinese Vulture ( Vu/tur le!icono/tis).—\ beautiful speci-
men of this Vulture has been living in the gardens of the Zoological
Society. It equals a Turkey in size : the general colour is brownish-
black ; lower part of the back, under side of wings, and inner side
of thighs white ; when the wings are closed, the white of the black
is not seen. Head brownish-black, witli short black hairs; back of
the neck covered with whitish down ; the front of it bare and of a
livid flesh-colour ; ruff at the base of the neck dirty-white ; white
feathers from each side lap over the crop ; cere blackish ; bill horn-
colour ; iris dark. In aspect and manners this species is similar to
the rest of its race ; and in captivity it is contented. (See Fig. 106^.)
Kolbe's, or South African Vulture {Vu/tur kolhii; Gyps
kolbii). — This species is generally dispersed through Africa and
India; it occasionally visits Sardinia. In South Africa it is very
Fig. 1065. — The Chinese Vulture.
Fig. 1064. — The Pondicherry Vulture.
Fig. 1066. — Kolbe's Vulture.
3G
410
THE INDIAN VULTURE— THE CONDOR.
numerous. Dr. A. Smith, speaking of Kolbe's Vulture, the VuUur
atiriciilaris, and another species, the Vultitr occipitaUs, says,
"The three foregoing birds feed exclusively on carrion. The
Viiltiir kolbii, though not the most powerful, is by far the most
courageous species, and while it is feeding neither of the others will
venture to approach its prey. Its numbers, moreover, are very great
as compared with those of the two other species, hundreds of them
appearing wherever there is carrion to attract them. So numerous
are they, indeed, that when an ox, a horse, or other large quad-
ruped lies dead, they assemble in hundreds, and in a few hours the
whole of the carcass is consumed. At such a time many of these
Fig. 1067. — The Indian Vulture.
Fig. Io68. — Condors.
rapacious birds may be observed so exceedingly gorged, as to be
quite unable to fly ; when they may be beaten to death with sticks :
but their assailants run the hazard of being severely wounded with
the strong beaks of the birds, which even in this state will defend
themselves with the greatest vigour."
Kolbe's Vulture is closely allied to the Griffon Vulture, which it
closely resembles in colouring, but is less in size. In Kolbe's Vul-
ture tine feathers of the wings of the lower parts are all rounded at
the end : in the Griffon Vulture they are long and pointed. In
Kolbe's Vulture the ruff is neither so long nor so abundant as in the
Griffon ; the plumage of the adult is nearly of a whitish Isabella
colour ; while that of the adult Griffon is of a uniform bright brown
throughout. (See Fig. 1066.)
The Indian 'Vvsi.ivky. {Vulture indiais ; Gyjis indicus). — Tliis
Vulture is common throughout the whole of India. It is a voracious
Bird, and may be seen lingering on the sea-shore, preying on dead
Fish, and the putrescent exuvise of the waters, left by the waves on
the beach. Flocks follow armies, and multitudes assemble on the
battle-field, for " where the slain are, there are they."
Head and neck destitute of feathers ; all the upper plumage
yellowish ash-colour, varied with brown and greyish-white ; undcr-
parts yellow ; breast covered with close down of a brown tint ; bill
black, lighter at the point ; naked skin of the head rusty ash.
Length forty-two inches. Colonel Sykes says these Birds " congre-
gate in flocks of twenty or thirty. On a dead camel or horse or
bullock being thrown out on the plain, numbers of these vultures are
found assembled round it in an incredibly short time, though they
may not have been seen in the neighbourhood for weeks before."
(See Fig. 1067.)
The Condor {Sarcoratnphus gryphus). — The exaggerated ac-
counts of the earlier writers and the naturalists, who painted this
Bird as rivalling the Rukh or Roc of Oriental fable, have given
place to the moderate details of sober-minded observers, and we no
longer look upon this Vulture as the winged guardian of the moun-
tain-mines, within whose depths were entombed "gems and bar-
baric gold," the freightage of a thousand royal argosies, treasures,
" Which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind."
We no longer imagine it the giant of the winged race, dimming the
light of the sun by its wide-spread pinions, or, by their mighty
rushing as it sweeps down from some lofty pinnacle, or the upper
regions of the sky, deafening and stupefying the terror-stricken
beholders.
To the scrutiny of the Baron Von Humboldt, and of M. Bonpland,
we owe the reduction of the Bird to its proper dimensions. Nestling
in the most solitary places, often
upon the ridges of rocks, which
border the lower limit of perpetual
snow, and crowned with its extra-
ordinary comb, the Condor for a long
time appeared to the eyes of Hum-
boldt himself as a winged giant, and
he avows that it was only the mea-
surement of the dead Bird that dis-
sipated this optical illusion. The
grand scenery amid which it is found
had a precisely contrary effect on
Lieutenant Maw, who in describing
his descent into the deep and narrow
valley of Magdalena, says, " Whilst
descending, several condors hovered
round us, and about the rocks on
which they build their nests : but so
vast was the scale of the rocks and
mountains, that even these immense
birds appeared quite insignificant,
and I doubted for a time that they
were condors."
The Condor, a native of the Andes
of South America, is an example of
the genus Sarcoramphus, charac-
terised by the fleshy carbuncles or
comb-like appendages at the base
of the beak and the forehead, and
the nakedness of the neck, and the
size and oval form of the nostrils,
placed on the anterior edge of the
cere : the third quill-feather is the
longest. This genus is peculiar to
the New World, and contains, be-
sides the Condor, the King- Vulture
and the Californian Vulture.
The elevation chosen by the Condor
as its breeding-place and habitual
residence varies from 10,000 feet to
THE CONDOR— THE KING-VULTURE.
411
15,000 above the level of the sea; and here, on some isolated
pinnacle or jutting ledge, it rears its brood and looks down upon
the plains below for food. (See Fig. 1068.) It is generally seen
singly or in pairs — seldom in large companies ; though among the
basaltic cliffs of the St. Cruz, Mr. Darwin found a spot where scores
usually haunt. "On coming," he says, "to the brow of the pre-
cipice, it was a fine sight to see between twenty and thirty of these
great birds start heavily from their resting-places, and wheel away
in majestic circles." It appears that many clusters of rocks or
high precipitous crags are named after these Birds ; the appella-
tions, in the language of the Incas, meaning the "Condor's look-
out, " the " Condor's roost," the " Condor's nest," &c.
High over the loftiest pinnacles may the Condor often be seen
soaring, borne up on outspread wings, describing in its flight the
most graceful spires and circles. " Except when rising from the
ground," says Mr. Darwin, " I do not recollect ever having seen
one of these birds flap its wings. Near Lima I watched several for
nearly half an hour without once taking off my eyes. They moved
in large curves, sweeping in circles, descending and ascending with-
out once flapping As they glided close over my head, I intently
watched from an oblique position the outlines of the separate and
terminal feathers of the wing ; if there had been the least vibratory
movement, these would have blended together ; but they were seen
distinct against the blue sky. The head and neck were moved fre-
quently, and apparently with force ; and it appeared as if the ex-
tended wings formed the fulcrum on which the movements of the
neck, body, and tail acted. If the bird wished to descend, the
wings were for a moment collapsed ; and then, when again ex-
panded with an altered inclination, the momentum gained by the
rapid descent seemed to urge the bird upwards with the even and
steady movement of a paper kite. In case of any bird soaring, its
motion must be sufficiently rapid so that the action of the inclined
surface of its body on the atmosphere may counterbalance its
gravity. The force to keep up the momentum of a body moving in
a horizontal plane in that fluid (in which there is so little friction)
cannot be great, and this force is all that is wanted. The move-
ment of the neck and body of the condor we must suppose sufficient
for this. However this may be, it is truly wonderful and beautiful
to see so great a bird hour after hour, without any apparent exer-
tion, wheeling and gliding over mountain and river."
The Condor feeds, like other Vultures, on carrion, dead Llamas,
Mules, Sheep, &c. When gorged with food they sit sullen and
drowsy on the rocks, and, as Humboldt says, will suffer themselves
to be driven before the hunters rather than take wing ; but he adds
that he has seen them when on the look-out for prey, especially on
serene days, soaring at a prodigious height, as if for the purpose of
commanding the most extensive view. The same writer states that
he never heard of any well authenticated instance of these Birds
commencing an attack on man, or of their carrying away children
(according to vague report) ; that he often approached within a few
feet of them as they sat on the rocks, but they never manifested any
disposition to assault him : and the Indians at Quito assured him
that men have nothing to fear from them. This scarcely applies to
other animals. "Besides feeding on carrion," says Mr. Darwin,
" the condors will frequently attack young goats and lambs. Hence
the shepherd-dogs are trained, the moment the enemy passes over,
to run out, and, looking upwards, to bark violently." Two of them
will sometimes attack the Vicugna, the Llama, the Heifer, and even
the Puma, persecuting the quadruped till it falls beneath the
wounds inflicted by the beaks of its assailants. The Condor is, in-
deed, amazingly strong, and extremely tenacious of life. An
author relates the account of a struggle between one of his Cornish
miners and a Condor gorged with food, and therefore not in the
best state for the fray ; the man began by grasping the Bird round
the neck, which he tried to break ; but the Bird, roused by the un-
ceremonious attack, struggled so violently as to defeat the plan ;
nor after an hour's struggling, though the miner brought away
several of the wing-feathers in token of victory, does it appear that
the Bird was despatched.
According to Mr. Darwin (and Humboldt states the same), " the
condor makes no sort of nest, but in the month of November
and December lays two large white eggs on a shelf of bare
rock.i .On the Patagonian coast I could not see any sort of nest
among the cliffs where the young were standing. It is said the
young condors cannot fly for an entire year. At Concepcion, on
the 5th of March (corresponding to our September), I saw a young
bird, which, though in size little inferior to an old one, was com-
pletely covered with down like that of a gosling, but of a blackish
colour. After the period when the young condors can fly, and
apparently as well as the old birds, they yet remain at night on the
same ledge and hunting by day with their parents. Before, however,
the young bird has the ruff turned white, it may be often seen
hunting by itself." Mr. Darwin considers it probable that the
Condor breeds only once in two years ; but this is a question that
has not yet been determined.
At the age of two years the Condor is not yet black, but of a
yellowish-brown ; and up to this time the female has no appearance
of a ruff: hence, ignorant of the change in the plumage of this
Bird, many travellers talk of two species of Condor.
The feathers of the Condor are so close and firm, and overlap
each other so regularly, as to throw off a bullet, unless it hits point
blank. The general colour of the adult male is glossy black, with
a tmge of grey. The greater wing-coverts, except at the base and
tips, and the secondary quill-feathers, are white ; and a white ruff
of downy feathers encircles the base of the neck. This part, as well
as the head, is bare, the skin being coarse and wrinkled, and of a
dull reddish colour, with a tinge of purple. A large firm comb
surmounts the forehead, and the skin at the back of the head folds
into irregular wrinkles, converging into a sort of loose wattle beneath
the bill, which, as in the Turkey, is capable of being dilated at
pleasure. The tail is broad and somewhat wedge-shaped. Length
about four feet ; expanse of wing about nine feet ; tarsi powerful.
The female wants the comb, and the greater wing-coverts are
blackish-grey.
The Condor is captured by the lasso, or taken in various traps
and stratagems. According to Mr. Darwin, the Chilcnos are in
the habit of marking the trees in which they roost, frequently to the
number of five or six together, and then at night climb up and noose
them. They are such heavy sleepers, he adds, that this is not a
difficult task. Lieutenant Maw saw the Condor's quill used as a pen
in the Cordillera (Toulea).
The '^mG-\VLTV&-e.{Cathartes ^af>a ; Sarcoramf>hus ^af>a.).~
This beautiful species is a native of the intertropical regions of
America, and is seen occasionally in Florida, probably its most
northern limit. It is not, like the Condor, a mountain Bird, but
tenants the low humid forests bordering rivers and savannahs, where
animal life is abundant, and where decomposition rapidly succeeds
death. It is amidst the most luxuriant scenery that this monarch
of the Vultures reigns ; the Turkey-Buzzard and Gallinazo being in
subjection under him. Waterton, in his amusing work relates, that
while sailing up Essequibo, he observed a pair of King-Vultures
sitting on the naked branch of a tree, with about a dozen of the
common species, waiting to begin the feast upon a Goat, killed by
a Jaguar, but which he had been forced to abandon. The pair
seemed rather to tolerate the presence of the rest, than to asso-
ciate with them on terms of familiarity. The same traveller,
having killed a large Serpent, caused it to be carried into the forest
Kig. 1069. — ^The King-VuUuie.
as a lure for one of these Vultures w^hich he wished to obtain. He
watched the result. "The foliage," he says, "where I laid the
snake was impervious to the sun's rays ; and had any vultures
passed over that part of the forest, I think I may say with safety,
that they would not have seen the body through the shade. For the
first two days not a vulture made its appearance at the spot, though
I could see a vulture aura gliding on apparently immovable pinions
at a moderate height over "the tops of the forest trees. But during
412
THE OWL FAMILY.
the afternoon of the same day, when the carcass of the serpent had
got into a state of putrefaction, more than twenty of the common
vultures came and perched upon the neighbouring trees, and the
next morning, a httlc before six o'clocl;, I saw a magnificent king
of the vultures. There was a stupendous mora-tree close by, whose
topmost branches had either been dried by time or blasted by the
thunder-storm. Upon this branch I killed the king of the vultures
before it had descended to partake of the savoury food which had
attracted it to the place. Soon after this another king of the vul-
tures came, and after he had stuffed himself almost to suffocation,
the rest pounced down upon the remains of the serpent, and stayed
there till they had devoured the last morsel."
Though this species is mostly seen alone, or in pairs, travellers
state that in Mexico it is sometimes observed in flocks. The
general account, that the other Vultures stand patiently by till their
monarch has finished his repast, and which appears to be not with-
out foundation, may be easily accounted for by the superior strength
and courage of this species.
The colours of the King-Vulture are very splendid. The naked
skin of the head and neck is deeply tinged with mingled scarlet,
orange, and violet : beneath the eye are several deep wrinkles con-
verging to a fold of skin, extending obliquely downwards along the
reck. Over the cere of the beak hangs a loose comb of bright
orange ; the circle round the eyes is scarlet, in singular contrast
with the pearl white of the iris ; the ruff round the bottom of the
neck is soft, downy, and of a delicate grey. The general plumage
is of a bright fawn-colour ; the quill-feathers, the greater coverts,
and tail-feathers glossy black. Length about two feet and a-half ;
expanse of wings upwards of five feet. The young Birds of the
year have a dull bluish plumage, and a violet head and neck : in the
second year their plumage is dusky, marked with longitudinal white
spots ; in the third year the permanent colouring is nearly assumed,
and is completed on the subsequent change of feathers. (See
Fig. 1069.)
The Bateleur Eagle {Helofarsus ecatidatus). — In the collec-
tion of the Zoological Society of London there are specimens of this
Eagle. The brilliant coral colour of its legs and cere (the naked
base of the beak), and the alternation of chestnut, grey, and black
in its plumage in the adult Bird, would be sufficiently striking, even
if the excessive shortness of the tail did not give it the appearance
of being absolutely deficient of that important organ. The Bateleur,
or Short-tailed Eagle, is found in Africa, in the southern regions of
which it is by no means uncommon. In Abyssinia, a curious
variety, with the back almost white, occurs, which has been some-
times considered as a distinct species. The Society have lately
possessed specimens of this interesting Bird.
In the preceding pages we have given descriptions of some of the
best known and characteristic species of the Raptorial Birds (except-
ing of the Owls, which immediately follow). IJut we must remind
our readers that comparatively few of these have come under notice,
and consequently we refer them to the collection in the British
Museum for stuffed, and to the gardens of the Zoological Society
for living specimens, which unitedly present some two or three
thousand for the study of the naturalist.
The Owls— Family Strigidm.
The Birds of this family have large heads, and great projecting
eyes directed forwards, and surrounded by a circle or disc, more or
less developed, formed of loose and delicate feathers, the margin
consisting of feathers of a firmer texture and more definite outline.
Fig. 1070. — Ilcid of Barn-Owl.
The beak is hooked and raptorial ; the claws are curved, sharp, and
retractile ; and the outer toe is versatile, in order to strengthen the
grasp. The plumage is full and soft, generally spotted, barred, and
clouded with different shades of tawny, brown, and yellow. IMany
species have the top of the head garnished with elongated plume-
lets, or tufts, capable of being erected or depressed ; they rise from
the margin of the disc over each eye, and are commonly, but of
course erroneously, called ears or horns. (Sec Fig. 1070, the head
Fig. 1071. — Head of Horned Owl.
of the common Barn-Owl, exhibiting the facial disc; Fig. 1071,
head of the Horned Owl, showing the tufts ; Fig. 1072, the foot of
the Barn-Owl. In Fig. 1073,0 represents one of the feathers of
disc, magnified.)
The Owls, some few excepted, are crepuscular and nocturnal in
their habits ; they come forth with
the dusk of evening to prowl for
food ; they winnow the air with
silent pinions, their ears attentive
to every slight sound, and their
eyes quick to discern their creep-
ing prey, on which they glide with
noiseless celerity.
The organic endowments of
these nightly marauders are in
admirable concordance with their
destined mode of life. Let us
look at the common Barn-Owl as
a type of the family. The eyes,
we observe, are large and staring,
but they are incapable of bear-
ing the strong light of day ; the
iris is irritable, and the pupil
almost completely contracted ; the
lids are half closed, and the tneiii-
braaa nicfitans almost con-
stantly drawn over the ball, like
a delicate curtain ; but when twi-
light sets in, the eyes display a
very different appearance — the
lids are wide open, the curtain is
folded back, the pupil is widely
dilated, and they gleam with lus-
Flg. 1072.— Foot of Barn-Owl.
Fig. 1073.— External Ear of OwL
ORGANS OF THE OTFL TRIBE.
trous effulgence. In all British Birds, and, we believe, as a gene-
ral rule, tiie bony ring of the eyeball 'is convex externally ; but in
the Owls it is concave, and lengthened — the transparent cornea
being placed, as it were, at the end of a tube, the whole resembling
the glass used by watch-makers. Fig. 1074 represents, i, the bony
ring of the Snowy Owl : 2, the cr)'stalline lens of the same Bird;
the anterior surface being less convex than the posterior one. The
facial disc of feathers materially aids vision by concentrating the
Fi^. 1074. — Bony Ring and Lens of Snowy Owl.
rays of light. Mr. Yarrell observes that the extent of vision enjoyed
by the Falcons is probably superior to that of the Owls, but that
the more spherical lens and corresponding cornea give to the eyes
of the latter an intensity better suited to the opacity of the medium
in which their power is required to be exercised. They may be
compared to the eyes of " a person near-sighted, who sees objects
with superior magnitude and brilliancy when within the prescribed
limits of his natural powers of vision from the increased angle these
objects subtend."
We have previously said that Birds have no external ears (see p.
376), but in the Owls, whose sense of hearing is exquisite, and who
-MiiiMVT^r.*^.,. .
Fig. 107;. — Drum of Ear
in Owls.
Fig. 1076. — External Ear of Owl.
Fig. 1077. — Head of young Bavn-Owl.
listen for their prey, we find an exception to the general line. If
we part the feathers forming the back part of the rim of the disc,
we shall find the large auditory orifice enclosed between two valves
of thin skin, from the edges of which proceed the feathers in ques-
tion. The leaves of this double valve are capable of being thrown
wide apart, so as to concentrate as well as admit every slight vibra-
tion, the eifect of which is increased by the widely-diffused cavities
connected with the internal chambers. The drum of the ear is very
thin and transparent, and its vibrations are conveyed to those wind-
ing hollows called the labyrinth, by a single ossiculum, as in Rep-
tiles. In order to distend, support, or relax the drum, there is a
cartilaginous organ stretching from the side of the passage almost
to the middle of the membrane, while there is another cartilage
413
I divided into three branches, of which the middle one being the
longest, is jonied to the top of the cartilaginous organ before men-
tioned (see Fig. 1075), and assists in bearing up the external mem-
brane (the drum). The cartilage joins the top of the ossiculum or
columella, which is a very fine, light, bony tube, the bottom of
which expands into a plate, fitting into the foramen ovale (the en-
trance to the labyrinth), to which it is braced all round by very slen-
der muscles. Figs. 1073, atile, and 1076, represent the external ear of
the Owl ; Fig. 1077, t'^e head of a young Barn-Owl. The head is so
turned as to expose the auditory passage and valvular ossiculum.
a, the cranium ; b, the nostril on the beak ; c, the neck ; d, the eye ;
c, the termination of the external skin surrounding the orifice of the
ear ;/, the anterior flap or opercular fold of the ear ; g, part of the
tympanic or quadrate bone ; h, membrana tym^ani, or drum of the
ear.
From the loose texture of their soft full plumage, and from the
laxity of tlio quill-feathers (of which the outer edges are fringed by a
pectinated line of delicate lashes, the terminations of the barbs), the
flight of the Owl, though buoyant and easy, is by no means distin-
guished for velocity, like that of the Falcon ; the wings gently fan
the air j they present no rigid edges ; they do not cut it with the
Fig. 1079.— Skull of Horned Owl.
Fig. 107S. — Breast-bone of Wood-Owl.
whistling stroke of the pinions of the Hawk or Dove ; no rustling
sound is heard as the Owl skims lightly by ; and in accordance with
this condition of the plumage and feathers of the wing, is the de-
velopment of the sternum and its appendages. Variation of course
exists in different species, but the keel (see Fig. 1078) is less deep
and projects less forward than in the Falcon ; the furcula is less
arched, more slender, and more
distinctly triangular ; and the
coracoid or clavicular bones
are less robust and straighter ;
the whole is less solid and ex-
pansive. Fig. 1079 represents
the skull of the Strix otus,
showing the orbit, and below
it, (7, the large auditory orifice.
The Owls prey generally
upon small Vertebrate animals,
principally Birds and Quadru-
peds, and some are expert
fishers. They also share with the Goatsuckers in the destruction
of the larger species of Night-flying Insects, such as Moths and
large Beetles. Their treatment of their prey depends greatly upon
its size ; if it be small they transfer it at once from their claws to
their bill, and swallow it whole : but if they seize upon a booty
which is too large to be disposed of in this manner, they carry it
off to some resting-place, where they tear it to pieces, and thus
devour it. The indigestible portions of the prey, such as feathers,
bones, &c., are collected into small pellets in the stomach, and
disgorged.
The Owls are solitary Birds, and retire during the day to holes in
trees, rocks, or old buildings, where they roost and breed. With the
twilight their activity commences ; they then take their noiseless
flight in search of food ; and as this consists, to a very considerable
extent, of the small animals which, under the denomination of
ve>-min, are generally regarded as enemies to the human race, the
Owls should be placed amongst the number of our friends, instead of
being looked upon, as they are by many, with a superstitious eye, as
ominous of some dire calamity. It must be confessed, indeed, that
their voices are none of the sweetest ; and the superstitious peasant
who hears the Owl shrieking about the village churchyard, or in
some solitary place, when every other sound is hushed, may perhaps
be excused for feeling some little awe on the occasion.
The Owls are divided into four sub-families — viz., the Strigiiia;, or
True Owls ; the Otina, or Owlets ; the Bubonincr, or Horned Owls ;
and the Surnincs, or Hawk Owls. The following affords a descrip-
tion of some of the most important species.
The Barn-Owl {Strix flammca).—T\\\% is the Effraie, Frcsaie,
and Petit Chathuant Plombe of the F'rench ; Barbagianni, Alloco
Commune e Bianco, of the Italians ; Schleierkauz, Perlschlierkautz,
and Perl-Eule of the German; De Kerkuil of the Netherlands;
Barn-Owl, White Owl, Church Owl, Gillihowlet, Howlet, Madge
414
THE BARN-OWL.
Howlet, Madge Owl, Hissing Owl, and Screech Owl of the modern
British ; and Dylluan wen of the ancient British.
This beautiful Bird is spread throughout the temperate and
warmer regions of Europe. It is common in England and Ireland,
but less so in Scotland ; in the high northern latitudes of the con-
tinent it is not known. The Barn-Owl conceals itself during the
day in deep recesses among ivy-clad ruins, in antique church-towers,
in the hollow of old trees, in barn-lofts, and similar places of seclu-
sion. At night it sallies forth for prey, which consists of Mice,
Rats, Moles, and Shrews, but, we believe, never Birds. Hence it is
persecuted by the farmer in vain, who suspects that it thins his dove-
cot, and little knows the extent of the services which the Bird
renders to him. " If," says Mr. Waterton, " this useful bird caught
its food by day, mstead of hunting for it by night, mankind would
have ocular demonstration of its utility in thinning the country ot
Fig, loSo. — The Barn-Owl, and its young
mice, and it would be protected and encouraged everywhere. When
it has young it will bring a mouse to the nest every twelve or fifteen
minutes" (that is, during the night) ; and he adds, " formerly I could
get very few j'oung pigeons till the rats were e.xcluded from the
dovecot ; since that took place it has produced a great abundance
every year, though the barn-owl frequents it, and is encouraged all
round it ; " and he afBrms that the Pigeons neither regard it " as a
bad or suspicious character."
Mr. Thompson (" Mag. Zool. and Botan.," vol. ii., p. 178) ob-
serves that " the white (barn) owl is a well-known visitor to the
dovecot, — and in such a place, or rather a loft appropriated to
pigeons, in the town of Belfast, I am informed by an observant
friend, that a pair once had their nest ; this contained four young,
which were brought up at the same time with many pigeons. The
nests containing the latter were on every side, but the owls never
attempted to molest either the parents or their young. As may be
conjectured, the owl's nest was frequently inspected during the pro-
gress of the young birds ; on the shelf beside them neverless than
six, and often fifteen mice and young rats (no birds were ever seen)
have been observed, and this was the number they had left after the
night's repast. The parent owls, when undisturbed, remained all
day in the pigeon-loft." In further proof, it may be urged, that the
remains of Rats, Mice, and occasionally Beetles, have been found,
to the exclusion of feathers, in the stomachs of most Owls when
examined. Such remains were found in the stomachs of all those
opened by Mr. Thompson, and of such are the pellets cast by the
Owls invariably composed. The Owl and all the Hawk tribe cast
up the indigestible parts of their prey, as bones, feathers, hair,
claws, &c., in the form of pellets, as already mentioned ; and in the
long-tenanted haunt of an Owl these generally accumulate. The
Owl quarters the ground for food with great regularity, and drops
upon it with unerring aim. Selby says it occasionally utters loud
screams during its flight ; and Mr. Yarrell says it screeches but
does not generally hoot. But Sir Win. Jardine asserts that he shot
one in the act of hooting, and that at night, when not alarmed,
hooting is its general cry. It snores and hisses, and when annoyed
snaps its bill loudly.
The Barn-Owl constructs a rude nest ; the eggs are three or four
in number, and of a white colour, and, strange to say, the female
often lays a second time before the young are able to leave the nest
— hence young Owls have been found late in the autumn, and even
in December. Mr. Blyth, in the " Field-Naturalist's Magazine "
(vol. i.), says, " A nest of the barn-
owl in this neighbourhood (Toot-
ing) contained two eggs ; and when
these were hatched two more were
laid, which were probably hatched
by the warmth of the young birds ;
a third laying took place after th^
latter were hatched : and the nest
at last contained six young owls, of
three different ages, which were all
reared." (See Fig. 1080.)
The plumage of the Barn-Owl
is very beautiful ; the upper parts
are bright yellowish, varied with
grey and brown zigzag lines, and
sprinkled with a multitude of small
whitish dots ; face and throat
W'hite ; lower parts in some indi-
viduals rusty-white, sprinkled with
small brown dots ; in others bright
white, marked with small brown-
ish points ; in others again, with-
out the slightest appearance of
spots ; feet and toes covered with
very short down ; iris yellow.
Length about thirteen inches ; no
horn-like tufts. In the female all
the tints are brighter. The young
are covered with a thick white
down, and remain long in the nest
The species of this sub-family of
StrigincB, although not very numer-
ous, are generally distributed in all
parts of the globe, but their habits
are everywhere nearly the same.
A Javanese species — the Pholidus
badius, or Wowo-Wiwi, which re-
sides in the thickest forests of that
island, the haunts of the Tiger — is
said by the natives to show the
greatest familiarity towards that
formidable Quadruped, even alight-
ing on his back ; for what purpose
is not stated.
The second sub-family is that of
the Otmcc, or Owlets, in which the facial discs are complete, or
nearly so (Fig. 1081), and the head is usually furnished with two
small tufts. These small Owls, like the Sti-igina:, are found in all
parts of the world, and the species enjoy a very wide geographical
range. Thus the common British species are not only found in all
parts of Europe, but also in Asia, Africa, and the United States of
Fig. loSl.— Head of thf lx)ng-cared Owl.
THE LONG-EARED OWL— THE GREAT EAGLE-OWL.
41S
Americi ; and some of those which occur rarely in Europe, are met
with abundantly in the last-nicntioncd locality.
Most of thciii are strictly nocturnal in their habits, retirinj^ during
the day to the shelter of tliick woods, and are said to breed generally
in the deserted nests of other Birds. One of the l?ritish species,
however, the Short-eared Owl {Of us (^/-rtc/yo///j-), which is not un-
common in many places, especially in winter, is found resting during
the day amongst high grass and herbage, or in the stubble-fields,
and its nest, formed of a little dry grass and moss, is placed on the
ground in similar situations. This Bird is also remarkable in its sub-
family, from its habit of seeking food by day, and it does not appear
to be at all incommoded even by the light of the sun. In the Orkneys,
where, according to Mr. Low, it is very abundant, it is exceedingly
bold and impudent during the breeding season, stealing Chickens
from before the doors, pursuing Pigeons in the open day, and per-
forming various feats of the same nature which are very unusual
with the Owls. The same naturalist states that he found the remains
of a Grouse in the nest of a Bird of this species, although it would seem
almost impossible for the little Owl to kill and carry off a Bird so
much larger and heavier than itself. Its ordinary food, however,
appears to consist, like that of the majority of our Owls, of Mice ;
and when these are abundant, the Birds have been seen to collect
in particular fields in considerable numbers.
It is found in both hemispheres, and is recorded to occur in India.
In the most northern parts, both of the eastern and western conti-
nents, it is only a summer visitor, and a great number of individuals
migrate in the summer from this country to the north of Europe, re-
turning again in the autumn.
The Long-eared Owl {Otus z'lilgar/s. Fig. 1081), is, next to the
Barn-Owl, the most abundant of the British Owls. It is a perma-
nent resident in this country, and does not appear to perform even
the partial migration executed by the Short-eared Owl.
To this sub-family also belong the Hooting Owls {Syrniuni), dis-
tinguished from the preceding species by the absence of the ear-
tufts, of which two species occur in Britain. The commonest of
these is the Tawny Owl {S. striduld), which inhabits the wooded
parts of the country, and always remains concealed during the day,
coming forth at night in pursuit of the small animals which consti-
tute its food, and giving utterance to a most dolorous cry, resem-
bling the syllables hoo-hoo-hoo. It feeds on Leverets, young
Rabbits, and all the smaller animals, including Frogs, Insects, and
Earth-Worms ; and from the testimony of several observers, it not
unfrequently captures Fishes in the water. It breeds, according to
some naturalists, in the deserted nests of other Birds ; but also, ac-
cording to others, in the holes of trees, where it makes little or no
nest, and often lays its eggs upon the rotten wood at the bottom of
the hole. The Tawny Owl does not appear to occur in America ;
but in the northern parts of that continent it is replaced by an allied
species, the Syrin'uin {A^ycfa/a) tenginalmi, of which specimens
are occasionally found in Britain and on the continent of Europe,
especially in the north. The habits of this species appear to be very
similar to those of the Tawny Owl.
Fig. 10S2. — Head of the Great Eagle-Owl.
In the third sub-family, that of the Buboiiina;, or Horned Owls,
the facial discs are imperfect, and the head is large and broad, and
furnished with a pair of long horn-like tufts (Fig. 1082). These
Birds are distributed in all parts of the world. They vary greatly in
size, some of them being the largest, and others amongst the smallest
members of the family of the Owls, They are most abundant in the
warmer parts of the world ; and of the two well-known European
species, only one extends its range far to the north. This is the
great Eagle-Owl, of which the following is a description.
The Gre.\t Eagle-Owi, {Bichi) w«.v/w//jr).— This species is the
Strix bubo of Linna;us ; Le grand Due of the French ; Gufo, Cufo
grandc, and Gufo realo of the Italians ; Schuffut, Uhu, Grosse
ohreule Huhu of the Germans ; Uff of tlie " Fauna Suecica ; " Buhu
of the Lower Austrians ; Great Owl, or Eagle-Owl, of Willoughby,
Ray, and Pennant.
The Great Owl is the largest of the Slrigida;, and is most pro-
bably the ^vat- of Aristotle, and the Jitibo funcbris mentioned by
Pliny, and of which the appearance upon two occasions within the
walls of Rome occasioned no little alarm, a lustration being per-
formed each time to purify the city. Butler thus humorously
alludes to the circumstance : —
" The Roman Senate, when within
The city walls an owl was seen,
Did cause their clergy with lustrations
(Our Synod calls humiliations)
The round-faced prodigy t' avert
From doing town and countiy hurt."
The Great or Eagle-Owl is a native of the extensive forests of
Hungary, Russia, Germany, and Switzerland, and is said to occur
eastward as far as Kamtschatka. It is rare in France, and never
seen in Holland. Pennant states that it has been shot in York-
shire, and Latham adds Kent and Sussex as localities in which it
has been found ; it is said to have been seen also in Orkney. In
Mr. Stewart's " Catalogue of the Birds of Donegal," is the remark,
that " four of these birds paid us a visit for two days after a great
storm from the north, when the ground was covered with snow.
They have not been since seen here. As I am informed that a pair
of them breed in Tory Island, about nine miles to the north of this
coast, it is probable that they came from that island : I have heard
of them nowhere else." Young Roes and Fawns, Hares, Rabbits,
Rats, and Moles, Reptiles, and winged game are the prey of this
species. From its lonely retreat in some deep forest glen, some rift
among hoary rocks, where it reposes in silence during the day, this
winged marauder issues forth at night, intent upon its victims, its
harsh dismal voice resounding at intervals through the gloomy
solitudes of a wild and savage scene.
The Eagle-Owl makes its nest in the fissures of rocks, in old
ruined and deserted castles, and similar places. The eggs are two
or three in number, round, and white. The young are abundantly
supplied with food, and the broods of Partridges and Moor-Fowlare
sadly thinned to supply their wants.
This noble Bird is upwards of two feet in length. The upper-
surface is barred, waved, and streaked with black on a mingled
brown and yellow ground. The throat in the m^le is white; the
Fig. 1083.— The Great Owl.
'4i6
THE VIRGINIAN HORNED OWL.
under-surface is yellow, with longitudinal dashes of black on the
chest, and fine transverse bars below ; tarsi feathered to the toes ;
beak and claws black ; iris fine orang-e colour. (See Fijj. 1083.)
The ViRC.iN'iAN Horned Owl {Bubo vi>-g/jn'an!cs).—t)uc de
Virginie of Butfon ; Netowky-omesew of the Cree Indians, according
to Sir. Hutchins ; Otowuck-oho, of the Crees of the plains of the
Saskatchewan, according to Dr. Richardson.
The species is a native of North America, being found in almost
every quarter of the United States, and in the Fur-countries where
the timber is of large size.
Wilson thus describes the haunts and habits of the Virginian
Homed Owl : — " His favourite residence is in the dark solitudes of
deep swamps, covered with a growth of gigantic timber ; and here,
as soon as the evening draws on, and mankind retire to rest, he
sends forth such sounds as seem scarcely to belong to this world.
* * * Along the mountain shores of the Ohio, and amidst the
deep forests of Indiana, alone and reposing in the woods, this
ghostly watchman has frequently warned me of the approach of
morning, and amused me with his singular exclamations ; some-
times sweeping down and around my fire, uttering a loud and
sudden ' Waugh O ! Waugh O ! ' sufficient to have alarmed a whole
.garrison. He has other nocturnal solos, one of which very strik-
ingly resembles the half-suppressed screams of a person suffocating
or throttled." Wilson treats this visitation like a philosopher ; but
after reading his description and that of Nuttall (" Ornithology of
the United States "), we shall cease to wonder at the well-told tale
in " Fauna Boreali-Am'ericana," of the winter night of agony en-
dured by a party of Scottish Highlanders who, according to Dr.
Richardson, had made their bivouac in the recesses of a North
American forest, and inadvertently fed their fire with a part of an
Indian tomb, which had been placed in the secluded spot. The
Fig. 1084. — The Virginian Horned Owl.
startling notes of the Virginian Horned Owl broke upon their ear,
and they at once concluded that so unearthly a voice must be the
moaning of the spirit of the departed, whose repose they supposed
they had disturbed.
The flight of this Bird is elevated, rapid, and graceful. It sails
with apparent ease in large circles, and rises and descends without
the least difiicu2;y, by merely inclining its wings or its tail as it
passes through the air. Now and then it glides silently close over
the earth, with incomparable velocity, and drops as if shot dead on
the prey beneath. At other times it suddenly alights on the top of
a fence, stake, or dead stump, and utters a shrie'-- so horrid, that the
woods around echo to its dismal sound. Durinj; - utterance of the
deep gurgling cries so well described by Wilson, it moves its body,
and particularly its head, in various grotesque ways, and at intervals
violently snaps its bill. Its food consists of various Gallinaceous
Birds, half-grown Turkeys, Domestic Poultry of all kinds. Ducks,
Grouse, Hares, Opossums, and Squirrels ; and whenever chance
throws a dead Fish on the shore, this Bird feeds on it with peculiar
avidity. The Virginian Horned Owl is very powerful, and equally
spirited. Mallards, Guinea-Fowl, and common Fowls fall an easy
prey, and are carried off in its talons to the depths of the woods.
When wounded, says Audubon, it exhibits a revengeful tenacity of
spirit, scarcely surpassed by the noblest of the Eagle tribe ; disdain-
ing to scramble away, it faces its enemy with undaunted courage,
protruding its powerful talons, and snapping its bill. Its large
goggle eyes open and shut in quick succession ; and the feathers
of its body are puffed up, and swell out its apparent bulk to nearly
double the natural size. In some districts it is a great nuisance to
the settler, making sad havoc among his stock of Poultry. Among
some of the Indian nations a sort of reverential horror is entertained
towards this Bird, and the priests and conjurors have adopted it as
the symbol of their office, carrying about with them a stuffed speci-
men with glass e)'es, which excites general awe. This Bird usually
constructs a bulky nest in the forked branch of a tree, composed ex-
ternally of crooked sticks, and lined with coarse grass and feathers.
The eggs are three or four in number, and of a dull white.
In size this species is nearly, if not quite, as large as its European
representative, the Eagle-Owl, and in the general style of colouring
is similar, the upper parts being waved and mottled with black and
brownish-red ; a tinge of grey as the ground-colour prevails on the
lower part of the back ; the throat is pure white ; the rest of the
under-surface is marked by innumerable narrow transverse dusky
bars, on a reddish ground-colour, thinly interspersed with white ;
beak and claws black ; iris bright orange ; facial disc brown with a
margin of black. (See Fig. loS^.)
The other European species of BuhoiiincB, the Little Horned Owl
{Scops aldrovandi), appears to be almost confined to the southern
parts of the continent, and it is said to be most abundant in the
countries bordering the Mediterranean. Even in these countries, how-
ever, it is a Bird of passage, and crosses to the African continent at
the approach of winter. It is found also in the southern parts of Asia,
at least as far to the eastward as India. Specimens have occurred,
but very rarely, in this country. This Bird measures only seven
or eight inches in length ; its food consists principally of Mice and
Insects ; it nestles in the cavities of rocks, or in the holes of trees,
and lays from two to four eggs.
Amongst the Indian species, which are tolerably numerous, we
may notice the Kctiipa Jlavipes, which is somewhat diurnal in its
habits, and is said to frequent especially the borders of streams,
into which it plunges sometimes to a considerable depth in pursuit
of Fish. The note of an allied species, the Ketupa ceyloneiisis, is
a hoarse hollow laugh, resembling the syllables Haw, Haw, Haw,
Ho 1 which is described as most disagreeable and repulsive. The
Bubo beiigaleiisis feeds principally upon Rats ; and Colonel Sykes
has described an instance in which one of these Birds was found to
mm Wr^'ik T
Fig. 10S5. — Head of the Snowy Owl.
have swallowed a Rat whole, the head and part of the body being in
the stomach, and partially decomposed : whilst the tail was still
hanging out of the mouth. This species is said to build in trees,
forming a nest of sticks.
In the sub-family of the Surnincs, or Hawk-Owls, with which the
family of the Strigida concludes, we find an approach to the struc-
ture of the Diu7-nal Raptores. They agree with the BubonincB in
having the facial discs imperfect ; but are distinguished from those
Birds by the comparatively small size of the head, and the absence of
the horn-like tufts. The eyes are also smaller in proportion than in the
THE SNOWY OWL— THE HA WK-OWL.
417
Fig. 10S6.— Ear of the Snowy Owl
more typical Owls, and the external ear is smaller and less compli-
cated (Fig-. 1086). Tlicse differences in structure are evidently con-
nected with the diurnal habits of the Birds composing this group,
which are for the most part confined to the Arctic regions of both
hemispheres, at least during the summer; and as at that season
there is no night in those regions, a strictly nocturnal Bird would
find himself very inconveniently
situated. At the approach of
winter these Birds move a little
soutlnvards, and some of the
species are then found in Bri-
tain and the milder parts of
Europe.
The best known species is
the Snowy 0\\\{Siirnia nycfca.
Fig. 1085), which is said to be
a permanent resident, and even
to breed, in the Shetland Isles.
Ne.\t to the Eagle-Owl it is
the largest British species of
the family ; it preys upon Birds
and small Quadrupeds, which
it appears to swallow whole.
It flies with great rapidity,
and generally frequents open
ground, reposing and breeding
amongst rocks, which harmonise so well with its colour that it
cannot be easily detected. The habits of the other northern species
appear to be very similar.
The genus AtJioie, belonging to this sub-family, is for the most
part confined to the warm regions of tlie earth. Several species are
found in different parts of India, where some of them are very
troublesome from the continual noise they make. The cries of one
species, the Athene scufiilafa, are said to resemble those made by
a Cat when undergoing the process of strangulation. They are
rather small Birds, and their food consists principally of Mice and
Beetles. The Burrowing Owl, which belongs to this species, will be
subsequently described.
The Hawk-Owl {Surnia funcrea). — Tliis is the Strix uhila,
Linn. ; Sfrix fiuierca, Gmel., Forst. ; Strix hudsonta, Gmel. ;
Strix canadensis et freti Iiudsojiis, Bris. ; Strix hudsonia,
Wils. ; Strix nisoria, Meyer ; Chouette de Canada et Chouette
Eperviere, ou Caparacoch, and Chouette a longue queue de Siberie,
Bufion (Eul 463, a very good figure of this species, under the
erroneous name of the Ural Mountains Owl) ; Chouette Eperviere,
Sonn. ; Sperbereule, Meyer, Naum. ; Habichtseule, Bechst. ; Platt-
kopfige and Hochkopfige Habichtseule, Brehm. ; Hawk-Owl of
Pennant and Wilson ; Little Hawk-Owl of Edwards ; Canada Owl
of Latham ; Paypaw theecawsew or Cobadecootch of the Cree
Indians ; Theechazza of the Copper Indians and Chepewyans ; and
Ood no ha:oot of the Esquimaux.
The Hawk-Owl is a native of the Arctic regions of both con-
tinents ; it sometimes appears in Germany during the winter, re-
tiring northward on the return of spring. It seldom visits France ;
and though one settled and was taken on board a collier vessel a few
miles off the coast of Cornwall, in 1830, it does not appear to have
been ever seen within the shores of our island. Wilson says that
this species is rare in
Pennsylvania and the
more southern of the Uni-
ted States, its favourite
range being along the
borders of the Arctic re-
gions, making occasional
excursions southward when
compelled by severity of
weather, and consequent
scarcity of food. The
facial disc of the Hawk-
Owl is very limited ; its
head is comparatively
small, and the face nar-
row, approaching in re-
semblance to that of some of the Harriers (Circus). It preys more-
over by day, its eyes being adapted for a dull light, and its flight is
steady. From these circumstances it has obtained its English ap-
pellation. Fig. 1087 represents the head in profile. From the
writer alluded to, we learn that it is bold and active, and will follow
the fowler, carrying off his game as soon as shot.
According to Dr. Richardson, the Hawk-Owl remains all the
winter in high northern latitudes, and is rarely seen so far south as
Pennsylvania, and then only in severe winters. Wilson saw only
two specimens in the United States. It is a common species
throughout the Fur-countries, from Hudson's Bay to the Pacific, and
is more frequently killed than any other by the hunters, which may
be partly attributed to its boldness and its habit of flying about by
day. In the summer season it feeds principally on Mice and In-
Fig. 10S7.— Head of Hawk-Owl.
ntih^ f H ^ " s^ow-clad regions, which it frequents in winter,
neither of these are to be procured, and it then preys mostly on
I tarmigan. It is a constant attendant on the flocks of Ptarmigan
in their spring migrations to the northward. It builds its nest on
a ree, of sticks, grass and feathers, and lays two white eggs.
When the hunters are shooting Grouse, this Bird is occasionally It-
tracted by the report of the gun, and is often bold enough, on a Bird
being killed, to pounce d.nvn upon it, though it may be unable from
its size to carry it off. It is also known to hover round the fires
made by the natives at night. ,
The colouring is as follows :— Forehead dotted with white and
Fi?. loSS.— The Hawk-Owl.
Fig. 10S9.— The Ural OwL
3H
4i8
THE URAL OWL— THE BURROWING OWL.
brown ; outer margin of the facial disc black ; upper parts marked
with brown and white spots of various forms : on the borders of the
wings are similar white spots disposed on a brown ground ; throat
whitish ; the other lower parts white, transversely striped with ashy
brown ; at the insertion of the wings a great spot of blackish-brown ;
tail-feathers ashy-brown, striped at considerable distances with
transversal narrow zigzags ; bill yellow, varied with black spots ac-
cording to age ; iris bright yellow ; feet feathered to the claws.
Total length about fifteen inches. The colours of the female are
less pure than those of the male, and she is rather larger— measur-
ing seventeen or eighteen inches. (See Fig. 1088.)
The Ural Owl {Surnia iiraIensis).—Strix urahnsis, Pallas;
La Chouette des Monts Urals, Sonnini ; Die Ural Habichtseule,
Bechstein.
This rare species is a native of the Arctic regions of the Old
World, Lapland, the north of Sweden, Norway, Russia, Hungary,
and Japan. It is occasionally seen in Germany.
In the Ural Owl the tail is long, and far exceeds the tips of the
folded wings ; the tarsi are rather short and robust. Leverets, Rats,
Mice, Grouse, Ptarmigans, and other Birds, are the prey of this
species. It constructs its nest in tlie hollows of decayed trees, often.
Fig. 1090. — Burrowing Owls and Prairie Dog?,
it is said, near the dwellings of man ; the eggs are three orfour in
number, and of a pure white. The head of this Owl is of consider-
able size ; the facial disc large, and of a greyish-white marked with
some blackish hairs ; the marginal circle of the disc is composed
of white feathers spotted with brownish -black. Top of the head,
nape, back, and wing-coverts, marked with great longitudinal spots
disposed on a whitish ground; all the under parts w^hitish, marked
in the middle of each feather with a large longitudinal stripe of
brown. Quill and tail-feathers banded with brown and white
alternately; seven bands on the tail. Beak yellow, nearly hidden
in the long hairs of the face. Iris brown ; tarsi and toes covered
with hairs of a white colour freckled with brown ; claws very long,
and yellowish Total length about two feet. (See Fig. 1089.)
The Burrowing Owl {Athene ciciiiciilaria ; Pholeoptynix
ciinicularia ; Noctua cuniciclaria, &=<:.)— This singular little Owl
(if the species be identical) is widely spread through the American
continent, everywhere inhabiting burrows ; it is diurnal in its habits,
as well as terrestrial ; is of slender contour, and walks about with
ease elevated on long naked tarsi ; the facial disc is circumscribed.
C. L. Bonaparte thus describes the strange economy of this Bird :—
" In the trans-Mississippian territories of the United States, the
burrowing owl resides exclusively in the villages of the marmot or
prairie dog, whose excavations are so commodious as to render it
unnecessary that our bird should dig for himself, as he is said to do
in other parts of the world where no burrowing animals e.xist. These
villages are very numerous, and variable in their extent, sometimes
covering only a few acres, at others spreading over the surface of
the country for miles together. They are composed of slightly-
elevated mounds, having the form of a truncated cone, about two
feet in width at the base, and seldom rising as high as eighteen
inches above the surface of the soil. The entrance is placed either
at the top or on the side, and the whole mound is beaten down ex-
ternally, especially at the summit, resembling a much-used foot-
path.
" From the entrance, the passage into the mound descends verti-
cally for one or two feet, and is thence continued obliquely down-
wards, until it terminates in an apartment, within which the indus-
trious marmot constructs, on the approach of the cold season, a
comfortable cell for his winter's sleep. This cell, which is composed
of fine dry grass, is globular in form, with an opening at top capa-
ble of admitting the finger ; and the whole is so firmly compacted,
that he might, without injury, be rolled over the floor.
" In all the prairie-dog
villages the burrowing owl is
-.--:,- seen moving briskly about, or
else in small flocks scattered
among the mounds, and at a
distance it may be mistaken
for the marmot itself when
sitting erect. They manifest
but little timidity, and allow
themselves to be approached
sufficiently close for shoot-
ing ; but if alarmed, some or
all of them soar away and
settle down again at a short
distance; if further disturbed,
their flight is continued until
they are no longer in view,
or they descend into their
dwellings, whence they are
difficult to dislodge.
" The burrows into which
these owls have been seen
to descend on the plains of
the river Platte (a tributary
to the Missouri), where they
are most numerous, were evi-
dently excavated either by
the marmot, whence it has
been inferred by Say that
they were common though
unfriendly residents of the
same habitation, or that our
owl was the sole occupant
of a burrow acquired by the
right of conquest. That the
latter idea is correct was
clearly presented by the ruin-
ous condition of the burrows
tenanted by the owl, while the
neat and well-preserved man-
sion of the marmot showed
the active care of a skilful
and industrious owner. We
have no evidence that the
owl and marmot habitually
resort to one burrow ; yet wo arc well assured by Pike and others
that a common danger often drives them into the same excavation,
where lizards and rattlesnakes also enter for concealment and safety.
The owl observed by Vieillot in St. Domingo digs itself a burrow
two feet in depth, at the bottom of which its eggs are deposited on a
bed of moss, herb stalks, and dried roots."
Mr. Darwin states that the Burrowing Owl, on the plains of Buenos
Ayres, e.xclusively inhabits the holes of the Bizcacha, or Viscacha,
but that in Banda Oriental it is its own workman.
The general colour of this Owl above is light burnt umber,
spotted with whitish ; the wings are darker ; the lower part of the
breast and under parts whitish. Length about ten inches. (See
Fig. 1090.)
In the British Museum a great variety of specimens of Owls may
be found ; and in the collection of the Zoological Society at Regent's
Park, London, are living specimens of members of this family, in-
cluding most of those already named. Beside these are the Wood-
Owl [Syrnium aliico), and many other members of the group.
Among the Eagls-Owls in that collection, are the European Owl
[Bubo maximus), and the Virginian Owl [Bubo virgiiitanus) already
described.
PERCHING BIRDS.
419
CHAPTER XXV.
CLASS II.— AVES, OR BIRDS; ORDER PASSERES, OR INSESSORES-PERCHING BIRDS.
.-" \,i
OR reasons already stated at page 378,
aiite, we have adopted an arbitrary classifi-
cation oi Autophagi and Iiisessorials, as a
general rule, in describing the class Aves, or
Birds ; at the same time, claiming a full license
to deal with the subject without adhering to a
strict view of Zoological classification. Perhaps
our best reason for doing so is the fact that
almost every naturalist has adopted his own plan,
simply because nature presents, in no case, any very
broad distinctions. It is this circumstance, indeed,
that has given rise to the modern theory of " Evolution of
Species," which has been so much discussed, praised, and
deprecated.
At the head of this chapter we have used two terms — one,
Pi!sse?-cs, derived from the Latin, passer, a Sparrow ; and the other,
Inscssores, also from the Latin, insessus, or "perched," the Spar-
row forming the type of the section.
But the term "Insessores" must be defined rather by negations
than any positive characters : it includes all Birds which are neither
Raptorial, nor Gallinaceous, nor Waders, nor Swimmers ; yet do its
subjects feed on every kind of diet, from flesh to grain, and they
exhibit every variety of habits and manners, from those of the vora-
cious Raven to those of the tiny Humming-Bird or brilliant Honey-
sucker ; consequently their beak, plumage, limbs, and digestive
organs are as diversified as their modes of life. Take, for example,
the Parrot and the Cuckoo — and yet these are both examples not
only of one order, but of one tribe.
Leaving all this, however, we may proceed to observe that the
security and firmness with which Birds perch have often excited
surprise, and no doubt led many to conjecture that there must be
some peculiarity in the mechanism from which such tenacity of
Fig 1091. — Lircl asleep.
grasp proceeds. Fig. logi represents a Bird in a perched attitude
asleep, with the leg dissected, after Borelli, and in which the
mechanism is shown ; but much more clearly by Fig. 1092, the
anatomy of the leg of the Bird at rest — nothing can be more simple,
yet more effective, a is a muscle which arises from the haunch-
bone, and becoming suddenly tendinous, passes over the outer angle
of the thigh-joint (analogous to our knee) at b ;
then winding down the bone, being diverted
from its straight course, and firmly bound down
so as not to slip, it passes posteriorly over the
angle of the tarsal joint, c, and proceeds down
the back of the tarsus to the under side of the
toes, d, into the bones of which slips from it are
respectively inserted. From this arrangement it
is evident that when the bones of the leg and
thigh are bent together (the joints forming acutcr
angles) by the weight of the sleeping Bird, the
tendon will be stretched more and more over the
angles d and c, and the toes become more
strongly drawn together or clasped. Hence
Birds can rest as easily, perhaps more so, on one
leg than on both, and, as is well known, it is on
one leg only that most sleep perched ; while the
flexibility of the neck allows it to be turned back
upon the body, and the head brought under the
wing, so as to throw the centre of gravity more
over the feet, and thereby increase the stability.
Fig. 1093 relates to a different subject, and ex-
hibits the Vibrissa:, or Bristles, round the base of the beak of the
Roller. Most Birds which feed on Insects are distinguished by a
fringe of bristles at the base of the beak, not unlike the whiskers
of the Cat, and evidently intended to aid them in capturing their
prey. These bristles are larger in the
Night-Jars than in most other Birds ;
but are very distinct in our small In-
sectivorous feathered tribes generally,
as the Nightingale, Red-breast, Shrike,
Flycatcher, and the Roller, selected by
way of example. To these vibrissa;
we shall have to make frequent allu-
sion.
The Passerine or Insessorial Birds
have been variously divided. Accord-
ing to some they embrace the four fol-
lowing sub-orders — viz., the FlSSlROS-
TRES {fisstis, cleft, and rostri/m, ?
beak) ; the Texuirostres [tenuis,
slender, orslender-beaked); Dentiros-
TRES {dens, a tooth, or tooth-beaked) ;
and CoNiROSTRES {conns, a cone,
or cone-beaked). We shall commence
with
Sub-order I. — Fissirostres,
OR Cleft-beak Birds.
General Characters. — The Fissi-
rostres are characteribed by having
the gape-line continued far back, usually reaching under the eyes.
They are generally Insectivorous Birds, and many of them take
their prey on the wing ; the gape is accordingly usually furnished
with bristles, which, by enlarging the space occupied by the
mouth, greatly facilitate the capture of Insects, as already explained.
The Nocturnal Fissirostres, as forming a continuous group, in
many of their habits, with the Owls, which were described at the
conclusion of the last chapter, afford a natural transition from the
^RaJ>iores.
Fig. 1092. — Leg of Bird,
perched.
Fig. 1093.— Head of Roller, showing the Vihriss*.
420
THE GOATSUCKERS.
The Goatsuckers, or Night -Jars— Family Cap-imulgidcs.
The Birds comprising tlie present family are Crepuscular and
Nocturnal in their habits ; they spend the hours of day in repose,
surrounding themselves from observation in the gloom of woods, or
amidst the dense foliage of trees ; coming forth at evening to feed
upon such Insects as, like themselves, are roused from inertion by
the advance of darkness. They take their prey upon the wing, and
perform during the chase the most elegant aerial evolutions. Their
eyes are large and of the true nocturnal character ; the beak is
small, but the gape is enormous, extending below the eyes, remind-
ing us of the mouth of a toad (sec Fig. 1094, the head of the com-
Fig. 1094. — Head of the
Night-Jar.
Fig, 1005. — Foot of the
Night-Jar.
mon Night-Jar) ; its margin is fringed with strong vibrissae ; the
wings are long and pointed ; the tarsi usually very short ; the hind
toe is, in some genera, united close to the base of the inner toe, and
directed almost as equally forwards ; the middle of the three an-
terior toes is the longest, and in the genus Capriiniilgiis is armed
with a long claw, having a comb-like (pectinated) inner margin.
(See Fig. 1095, the foot of the Night-Jar.)
The plumage is full and soft, and beautifully variegated with dots,
bars, dashes, and zigzag marks of mingled giey. brown, fawn-
colour, black, and white ; difficult to describe, and almost as difficult
to imitate. Rapid and abrupt as is the flight of these Birds, still it
is noiseless ; resembling in that respect the flight of the Owl, and
from the same cause — the laxness, the want of rigidity in the quill-
feathers : but, from the form of the wing, the flight is of a different
character. Some have the sides of the head adorned with tufts of
soft feathers.
The Night-Jar, or GoxT?,vcii^v. {Caprimulgus europcBus).—
This is the Goatsucker, Jar-Owl, Churn-Owl, Fern-Owl, Dor-
Hawk, Night-Hawk, and Wheel-Bird of various writers. Aiyo0i]\jig
of the Greeks ; Caprimulgus of the Latins ; Calca-botto Piattaglione,
Porta quaglie, Boccaccio, and Cova-terra of the modern Italians ;
Chotacabras of the Spaniards ; Tette-chevre, Engoulevert, and
Fig. 1096,— The Night-Jar, or Goatsucker.
Crapaud volant of the French ; Milchsauger, Geiss-milcher, Nacht
Rabe, Nacht Shcwalbi, and Tagschliifer of the Germans ; Nats-
kraffa, Natskarra, and Quallknarren of the " Fauna Suecica ;"
Natravn, Nat-skade, and Aften-bakke of Brunnich ; Muckenstecker
and Nachtrabb of Kramer; Adcryn y droell and Rhodwr of the
ancient British. It is typical of the sub-family CaprimulgincB.
An evil name has this beautiful Bird had from the earliest times,
and among almost all European nations. Aristotle, who describes
it under the title AtyoQiiXtjg. accuses it of flying upon Goats and
sucking them (whence its name) ; and adds, as a common report,
that the teat of the Goat afterwards becomes dry, and the animal
itself blind. .Elian's version is nearly to the same effect, and so
also is Pliny's. In France the same erroneous opinion has long
been entertained, and also in Italy, as well as in Germany and Eng-
land : in short, it seems to be a superstition of universal prevalence.
In our country it is not the udder of the Goat, but that of the Cow,
that it is supposed to drain (a nefarious practice attributed also to
the poor little Hedgehog) ; and not this only, for, as White says,
(" Selbome"), "the country-people have a notion that the fern-owl
or churn-owl, or eve-jar, is very injurious to weaning calves, by in-
flicting, as it strikes at them, a fatal distemper. Thus does this
harmless, ill-fated bird fall under a double imputation which it by
no means deserves : — in Italy, of sucking the teats of goats, whence
it is called Caprimulgus ; and with us, of communicating a deadly
disorder to cattle." The disease in question is in reality occa-
sioned by the ravages beneath the skin of the Maggots of a species
of Fly [cvstfus) ; and if the Fern-Owl was ever seen making a sweep
near the suffering Calves, that is, as it would appear, striking at
them, it was in order to snap at some Insect, from the torments of
which the Calf would be gladly freed.
The Night-Jar preys upon Moths, Chaffers, and other large
Insects, and may be often seen, when the sun begins to set, darting
in chase of its food, displaying almost unequalled rapidity of flight,
and the most rapid and surprising evolutions ; yet it flits along
noiseless as a shadow, not a rustle is heard ; on many occasions,
in days past by, we have watched this interesting Bird thus occu-
pied, and we have seen it settle, and with head depressed almost to
the perch on which it rested, and swollen quivering throat, utter its
jarring vibratory note, and again give chase to its prey. White
says, and though we never observed it ourselves, we fully believe it,
that " when a person approaches the haunt of the fern-owls in an
evening, they continue flying round the head of the obtruder, and by
striking their wings together above their backs, in the manner that
the pigeons called smiters are known to do, make a smart snap :
perhaps at that time they are jealous for their young, and their noise
and gesture are intended by way of menace."
It is not often that this Bird utters its churring sound in the air ;
but usually when perched, a bare branch, high palings, or the ridge
of any building being chosen as a resting-place. The Fern-Owl
does not perch across the branch, as Birds in general do, but
lengthwise, and rests upon it instead of grasping it, and that with
the head low, so as almost to touch it. The male sometimes utters
a small squeak repeated four or five times, when playfully chasing
his mate through the boughs of trees.
Much has been said and written respecting the pectinated claw on
the middle toe of the Fern-Owl, but its use has not yet been expli-
citly determined. White supposed it to serve in the capture of its
prey ; but that the Bird should strike at its prey with its little feet
and short legs is out of the question : when observed by White to
bring its foot to its beak during flight, might it not have been clear-
ing its bill and vibrissae of the hard wing-cases and limbs of the
Beetles it had captured ? In which case the worthy historian of
Selborne w-ould indeed have seen what he relates, incorrect as we
deem his inference. It is remarkable, however, that other Birds, of
very different habits, as the Heron, &c. , have the claws similarly
pectinated : may not this modification be connected with their mode
of perching on the bare branches of trees ? These are queries yet to
be decided ; certainly the serrations, whether in the Fem-Owl or the
Heron, have nothing to do with the seizure or retention of prey ; in
fact, the comb-like teeth are directed obliquely forwards, not back-
w'ards, as they ought to be, if intended as retainers of struggling or
slippery captives.
The Fern-Owl, or Night-Jar, is a Bird of passage, arriving on our
island in May, and departing in September ; it is spread over all
the southern and middle districts of Europe, and retires to pass the
winter in Africa. Woods skirting heaths, or common lands, plan-
tations of oak, or rows of sycamores near farm-houses, are the
favourite spots which it haunts. It builds no definite nest, but lays
its eggs on the ground among fern or heath, or under the protec-
tion of shrubs ; they are two in number, marbled with white, yellow-
ish-brown, and grey.
The plumage of this Bird is beautifully diversified with a rich and
intricate commingling of grey, black, brown, rufous, and yellowish,
in dots, dashes, and zigzag bars, the latter being conspicuous on
the under parts and tail. Length almost ten inches.
The Great Ibijau, or Grand Goatsucker {Nyctihius
grandis). — Caprimulgus grandis, Latham ; Grand Crapaud vo-
lant de Cayenne, Buffon. The principal character of the genus
Nyctibius consists in an obtuse tooth on each edge of the upper
mandible of the beak.
This Bird is a native of South America, and in general habits re-
sembles the Night-Jar ; being Nocturnal and Insectivorous, pursuing
its prey on rapid pennons ; during the day it haunts hollow trees,
THE NIGHT-HA WK—THE WHIP-POOR- WILL.
^21
especially in the neiy;libourhood of water. The bill is much de-
pressed, and broad at the base ; the tail is rather rounded ; the hind
toe is stout and flattened. The general plumage is brown, speckled
with black, fulvous, and white ; the ground-colour is deepest on the
breast ; head, neck, and lower parts Isarrcd. Length nearly thirteen
inches. (See Fig. 1097.)
Fig. 1097. — The Great Ibijau.
The Nyctibiusjaniaicens:s, or PoTOO, is said to be of a sedentary
disposition, perching on a post or dead tree to look out for passing
Insects.
The Night-H.\wk (Cho7-dciIcs americanus). — Caprinutlgus
aincricanus , Wilson ; C. virginianiis, Prince of Musignano and
Canino. Edge of beak smooth ; tail forked. This Bird is common
in the United States of America, and ranges in summer through the
Fur-countries of the north, even to the remotest Arctic islands. It is
the Musquito-Hawk described in Parry's first voyage. Its manners,
as described by Wilson, remind us closely of those of our own
Night-Jar : it is a Bird of strong and vigorous pinions, and in dull
and cloudy w-eather is abroad during the day, giving chase, like the
Swallow, to its Insect prey, sometimes at a considerable height,
sometimes skimming over marsh and meadow, and uttering shrill
squeaks as it dashes along. Often from an elevation of sixty or
eighty feet, will the male, hovering over the female engaged in the
duty of incubation, dart suddenly down, head foremost, with incon-
ceivable rapidity, and as suddenly wheel up, uttering, at the moment
he makes the turn, a loud vibratory booming sound, produced by
the sudden expansion of his capacious mouth as he sweeps through
the air. Having mounted, he again repeats the aerial feat, with
the same impetuosity and the same sound as before. The female
lays her eggs on the bare ground ; these are two in number, of a
dirty white, thickly marbled and dashed with dark olive-brown.
(See Fig. 1098.) Like our British species, this Bird perches length-
wise on the branches of trees, or on the edge of fences. During
the time the female is sitting she will permit a person to approach
her within a foot or two before she attempts to stir, and then, like
our Lapwing, feigns lameness, and flutters and tumbles about, keep-
ing just before the pursuer, till she has drawn him to a distance
from the spot ; when, just as he hopes to succeed in catching her,
she mounts and disappears in an instant. The young when just
hatched are very shapeless, and covered with fine brownish down.
When the Night-Hawk is wounded and captured, it opens its mouth
widely, utters a guttural whizzing noise, and strikes with its wings,
but never with the bill or claws. The general ground-colour of the
plumage is dark liver-brown glossed with greenish ; head, neck,
and wing-covens spotted with yellowish-brown ; back and tcrtials
mottled with brownish-white and greyish-brown ; a band of white
across the middle quill-feathers; a white broad arrow-shaped mark
on the throat, and a white dotted stripe above the eyes. Plumage
below barred with brownish-white and dark-liver brown ; tail
barred ; claw of middle toe serrated. Length nine inches and
a-half.
Fig. 109S.— Night-Hawks.
The Whip- poor-Will {Caf>}-!mu7gus vocifcrus). — This species,
universally spread over all the United States of America, has re-
ceived its name from the singularity of its notes, which seem to
articulate the words Whip-poor-Will with considerable distinctness,
the first and last syllables being uttered with great emphasis ; and
when two or more males meet, they seem as if endeavouring to
overpower each other by the vehemence of their vociferations. At
these times, and indeed generally, they fly low, skimming round the
house or barn, and alighting on stacks, palings, or the roof. To-
wards midnight they generally become silent, unless a clear moon-
light, when they are heard without intermission till morning. It is
about the 25th of April, according to Wilson, that this Bird is heard
in Pennsylvania, and at Kentucky about the 14th, commencing its
call as the dusk begins to set in ; and hundreds are sometimes heard
at once in different parts of the wood, striving to outdo each other.
Early in June, when the young appear, the notes of the male usually
cease ; but towards the latter end of the summer they are again
occasionally heard, though with less vehemence and emphasis than
in the spring. Early in ""September the Birds all move southwards,
performing a regular migration.
The favourite haunts of this species are high, drj', barren or hilly
situations ; they seldom visit low marshy tracts, or the low lands of
the sea-coast ; they abound in the barrens of Kentucky, where in
April and May their confused clamour is incessant every evening,
and, as Wilson asserts, extremely agreeable to the inhabitants, who
are lulled to sleep by their voices, to which, especially on the
approach of dawn, the full-toned " tooting " of the Pinnated Grouse
forms a pleasing bass.
The food of this species of Caprimulgiis consists of various sorts
of Insects ; its flight in the pursuit is rapid, zigzag, and noiseless ;
but it utters during the time a low murmuring sound. Its general
habits and mode of perching resemble those of our British Night-
Jar.
422
THE CHUCK-WILV S-WIDOW~THE OIL-BIRD.
The female lays her eggs on the bare ground, and puts every
"ruse" in practice to decoy intruders from her young, which are
little shapeless things covered with a down-like mould, and scarcely
to be seen amidst the withered leaves. It would appear that, if the
young be disturbed, the parent Bird removes them to a more secure
locality. During the day, the Whip-poor-Will, unlike the Night-
Hawk, is completely confused by the light, and it sits sleeping on a
low branch or log, or even on the ground, and that so soundly, that
with caution a person may pass within a vcr)' short distance of it
without disturbing it. When startled, however, it flies off, but only
to a short distance, and soon again, if unmolested, settles into
tranquil slumber.
The plumage of this species is soft : the general colour of the
upper parts is dark brownish-grey, streaked and minutely sprinkled
with brownish - black ; cheeks brownish-red ; quill-feathers and
coverts dark-brown, spotted in bars with light-brown : the three
lateral tail-feathers white at the tips. A yellowish-white transverse
band across the fore-part of the neck ; under parts paler than the
upper, and mottled. Length nine inches. (See Fig. 1099.)
Fig. 1099.— The Whip-poor-Will.
The Chuck-Will's- Widow {Cap}-iiniilgus caroUnc7isis). —
The name of this species is taken from its cry, which it utters with
great clearness, repeating the sound Chuck-Will's-Widow loudly
and distinctly si.x or seven times in succession, then stopping and
repeating it again. It is to the southern parts of the United States
of America that this Bird pays its annual visit, coming from Mexico,
and perhaps still warmer climates, where it sojourns during the
winter. Louisiana, Florida, and the lower portions of Alabama and
Georgia, are the districts in which it chiefly abounds. Ravines,
swamps, and extensive pine-ridges are alike resorted to by the
Chuck-Will's-Widow, its food abounding equally in all those places,
which also aiford it ample means of safety during the day. It prin-
cipally roosts in the hollow of decayed trees or prostrate logs, and
often in company with Bats, which cling to the sides of the cavities.
"\yhen surprised in such situations," says Audubon, " instead of
trying to effect their escape by flying out, they retire backwards to
the farthest corners, rufBe all the "feathers of the body, open the
mouth to its full extent, and utter a hissing kind of murmur ; when
seized and brought to the light of day, they open and close their
eyes in rapid succession, as if it were painful for them to encounter
so bright a light ; they snap tlieir little bills in the manner of fly-
catchers, and shufHe along as if extremely desirous of making their
escape." During the hours of dusk they are all animation, and dis-
play the most rapid and varied evolutions in the air, wheeling,
sweeping along, mounting and descending with admirable ease and
grace. The mode of incubation resembles that described of the
other species, and the manner of perching is the same. The young,
and also the eggs, if meddled with, arercmoved to another spot.
"When the Chuck-Will's-Widow," says Audubon, "either male or
female, for each sits alternately, has discovered that its eggs have
been touched, it rufSes its feathers, and appears extremely dejected
for a minute or two, after which it emits a low murmuring cry,
scarcely audible to me as. I have lain concealed at a distance of
eighteen or twenty yards; At this time I have seen the other parent
reach the spot, flying so low over the ground that I thought its little
feet must have touched it as it skimmed along. After a few low
notes and some gesticulations, I have witnessed each take an egg in
its large mouth, and 'ooth fly off together, skimming closely over the
ground, until they disappeared among the branches and trees. But
to what distance they remove their eggs I have never been able to
ascertain, nor have I ever had an opportunity of witnessing the
removal of the young. Should a person coming upon the nest when
the bird is sitting, refrain from touching the eggs, the bird returns
to them and sits as before : this fact I have also ascertained by
observation." The Chuck-Will's-Widow arrives in Georgia about
the middle of March, and in Virginia early in April, and immedi-
ately gives notice of its arrival by its evening call, numbers keeping
up the chorus during the hours of twilight, and through the night if
It be clear. They leave the United States towards the end of
August. The colours of the plumage of this elegant Bird consist
of yellow, ferruginous, and blackish-brown, blended and mingled
together ; the head and back are dark-brown, minutely mottled witli
yellowish-red, and longitudinally streaked with blaek ; the wings
are barred with yellowish-red and brownish-black, and minutely
sprinkled wHh the latter colour. Tail similarly barred and sprinkled :
the inner webs of the three outer feathers white. Under parts
blackish, sprinkled with yellowish-red: a slight band of whitish
across the fore-part of the neck. (See Fig. 11 00.}
Fig. 1 100.— The Chuck-Will's-Widow.
An allied sub-family is that of the Podagen'/icv, a group of Birds
very nearly allied to the true Goatsuckers, but differing from them
in the structure of their feet, the tarsi being usually rather long, and
the inner toe longer than the outer one. The middle toe, as in the
Capritniilgina;, has a serrated claw, and the bill is much depressed
and weak. These Birds are found in South America and Africa,
but scarcely anything is known of their habits. The species of the
genus Podager, the South American forms of the group, are said to
fly in large flocks in the day-time, and to nestle, like the Goat-
suckers, on the ground.
The Guacharo, or Oil-Bird [Sfeaform's caripcvsis, Hum-
boldt). — This extraordinary Bird (type of the sub-family Stca-
forniyicB) was discovered by Baron Humboldt in the cavern of
Caripe, called Cueva del Guacharo, in the province of Cumana,
which it haunts in thousands ; and either the same or closely allied
species was seen by him in a ravine, traversed by two natural
bridges, of the valley of Icononzo (Cordilleras), visited by himself
Fig. nor.— The Guacharo.
and Bonpland on their way from Santa Fe de Bogota to Popayan
and Quito. The Bird is also found in Guadaloupe and Trinidad.
It is in a deep ravine that these Birds congregate, flitting in the
gloom, like foul spirits, as if unwilling to meet the light of " garish
day." They were described by the Indians (who call them Cacas) as
being about the size of a Hen, and having the eyes of an Owl, with
crooked beaks. The colour of their plumage is uniform throughout,
and of a brownish-grey, whence Humboldt rightly conjectures that
THE OIL- BIRD.
423
they belong to the CafrimulgidcB, of which there are many varieties
ill this region.
With respect to the Cueva del Guacharo, it is not actually in the
valley of Caripe, but at the distance of three leagues from the con-
vent, and is pierced in the vertical profile of a rock ; the entrance is
to the south, forming a vault eighty feet broad and seventy-two high.
The rock surmounting the cavern is covered with trees of gigantic
height, and all the luxuriant profusion of an intertropical climate ;
and it is worthy of observation that this luxuriance of vegetation
penetrates even into the vestibule of the cave. The travellers saw
with astonishment plantain-leaved heliconias eighteen feet in height,
the praga-palm, and tree-arums follow the banks of the river even
to the subterranean places. The party went forwards for about 430
feet without being obliged to light their torches. Where the light
began to fail, they heard from afar the hoarse cries of the Guacharo.
These Birds quit the cave only at nightfall, especially when there is
moonlight ; and Humboldt remarks that it is almost the only Fru-
givorous Night-Bird yet known. It feeds on very hard fruits (an
exception to the rule among the Capriinulgida:^ ; and the Indians
assured him (though we place little dependence on their statement)
that it does not pursue either the hard-winged Insects or the Moths
that serve as the food of this tribe of Birds. It is, he states, difficult
to form any idea of the horrible noise made by thousands of the
Guacharo in the dark recesses of the cavern, whence their shrill and
piercing cries strike upon the vaulted rock, and are repeated by the
echo in the depths of the grotto. By fixing torches of copal to the
end of a long pole, the Indians showed the nests of these Birds fifty
or sixty feet above the heads of the explorers, in funnel-shaped
holes, with which the cavern-roof is pierced like a sieve.
Once a year, near Midsummer, the Guacharo cavern is entered by
the Indians. Armed with poles, they ransack the greater part of
the nests, while the old Birds hover over the heads of the robbers,
as if to defend their brood, uttering horrible cries. The young
which fall down are opened on the spot. The peritoneum is found
loaded with fat, and a layer of the same substance on the abdomen
forms a kind of cushion between the Bird's legs. At the period
above-mentioned, which is generally known at Caripe by the desig-
nation of" the oil-harvest," huts are built by the Indians with palm-
leaves, near the entrance and even in the very porch of the cavern.
There the fat of the young Birds
just killed is melted in clay pots
over a brushwood fire ; and this
fat is named butter or oil (man-
teca or aceite) of the Guacharo.
It is half-liquid, transparent, in-
odorous, and so pure that it will
keep above a year without be-
coming rancid. In the kitchen
of the monks of the convent of
Caripe no other oil is used, and
Humboldt never found that it
imparted a disagreeable taste or
smell to the aliments. The
quantity of very pure manteca
collected does not exceed 150 or
160 bottles, each being sixty
cubic inches ; the rest, which is
less transparent, is preserx-ed in
large earthen vessels ; the whole
hardly seems to correspond with
the immense annual carnage of
Birds. The use of the Guacharo
oil is very ancient, and the
race of Guacharo Birds would
have been extinct long since if
several circumstances had not
contributed to its preservation.
The natives, withheld by super-
stitious fears, seldom dare to
proceed far into the recesses of
the cavern. Humboldt had great
difficulty in persuading them to
pass beyond the outer part of
the cave, the only portion of it
which they visit annually to col-
lect the oil ; and the whole
authority of the Padres was
necessary to make them pene-
trate as far as the spot where
the floor rises abruptly at an in-
clination of sixty degrees, and
where a small subterraneous cas-
cade is formed by the torrent.
In the minds of the Indians this
cave, inhabited by nocturnal
Birds, is associated with mystic
ideas, and they believe that in
the deep recesses of the cavern the souls of their ancestors sojourn.
They say that man should avoid places which are enlightened
neither by the sun nor the moon ; and " to go and join the Gua-
charoes" means to rejoin their fathers— in short, to die. At thij
entrance of the cave the magicians and poisoners perform their
exorcisms to conjure the chief of the evil spirits. It appears, also,
as another cause of preservation, that Guacharo Birds inhabit
neighbouring caverns too narrow to be accessible to man, and from
these, perhaps, the great cavern is repeopled ; for the missionaries
declared that no sensible diminution of the Birds had been observed.
Fig. 1 102. — The Long-eared Podargus.
Young Birds of this species have been sent to the port of Cumana,
and have lived there several days, but without taking any food — ■
the seeds offered to them not suiting them. The crops and gizzards
of the young Birds opened in the cavern contained all sorts of
hard and dry fruits, which are conveyed to them by their parents ;
these are preserved, and under the name of semilla del Guacharo
(Guacharo seed) are considered a celebrated remedy against intcr-
Fig. IIOJ. — The Pai^vian Po.largus.
424
VARIETIES OF THE PODARGI—THE MORE-PORK BIRD.
mittent fevers, and sent to the sick at Cariaco and other low
localities where fever prevails. Our limits will not allow us to pursue
Humboldt's description farther ; and we must content ourselves with
referring the reader to the " Narrative " for many interesting details
respecting the cavern itself and the surrounding scenery.
The Long-eared Podargus {Podargus, or Batrachostomtis
at/rit!is).—Tht genus Podargus is one of the aberrant groups of
the Capr!7nulg'ida:, and as its structure departs to a certam extent
from the typical form presented by our common Night-Jar, so also
it exhibits a corresponding difference with regard to habits and
manners. Exclusively confined to Australia and the islands of the
Indian Archipelago, the genus Podargus contains several recog-
nised species. They are nocturnal in their habits, appearing stupe-
fied by day. The formation of the wing renders their flight less
buoyant and undulating than in the typical Night-Jars, though it is
at the same time rapid ; and the enormous gape of the beak, con-
joined with its strength, enables them to take in the largest Insects.
The French give the name of Crapaud volant, or Flying Toad, to
the common Night-Jar, in allusion to its wide gape; but the de-
pressed form of "the head and the enormous width of the gape of
these Birds give them a much better claim to such a title ; and
indeed, witho'ut much impropriety, they may be regarded as repre-
sentatives among the feathered race of those nocturnal dusky Insec-
tivorous Reptiles.
In the genus Podargus the eyes are large and staring ; the bill
is robust, and the tip and margins of the upper mandible fold over
those of the lower ; the ridge of the upper mandible is elevated and
arched ; vibrissa scanty ; tarsi short ; the middle claw not serrated,
nor the Iiind toe directed forwards : they perch in the ordinary man-
ner. Many have phimelcts produced by the elongation of the ear-
tufts. The colouring of the plumage is sombre, and composeil of
deep tones of brown, black, grey, and tawny yellow blended to-
gether. (See Fig. 1 102.)
The Long-eared Podargus is a native of Sumatra ; in its aspect it
is very Owl-like. Its head is voluminous, its eyes large, and the
gape of its bill is enormous ; and the elongation of the ear-plumes
adds to the singularity of its appearance. It is a recluse Bird, and
active only during the hours of darkness. It forms the type of the
sub-genus Batrachostojnus.
The Papuan Podargus {Podargus papiiensis).—Th\% is an-
other species of the present genus, and is destitute of elongated
ear-tufts. It appears to be nearly related to a Japanese species,
described by Dr. Horsfield under the title of Podargus javancnsis
(which will be presently described), and is very characteristic of the
group to which it belongs. As we have already observed, the
!Night-Jar is a Migratory Bird throughout every part of Europe ;
but whether the species of the genus Podargus obey a similar law
is not very clear. It is not unlikely, however, that those peculiar to
Australia pass periodically from one district to another, as is the
case with the greater number if not all the feathered tenants of that
vast continent ; which, according to the statements of travellers,
mitrrate from region to region according to the season, and regularly
Fig. 1 104. — The Cold-River Podargus.
return to their summer breeding haunts, summer there answering to
our winter. In North America, the Night-Hawk, the Whip-poor-
Will, and other CaprimulgidcB are migratory. With respect to
nocturnal habits, the members of the genus Podargus are more
confused by light than the ordinary CaprimulgidcB, if wo except
that strange Bird the Guacharo : they haunt the solitudes of the
woods, and the sombre but intermingled tints of their plumage
screen them from observation. At night they issue forth on their
aerial chase, and retire with the first streaks of day to their wonted
seclusion. (See Fig. 1103.)
The Cold-River or Tawny-shouldered Podargus {Po-
dargus humeralis). — This species is a native of Australia : above,
it is variegated with ashy-brown and yellow ; the head and sides of
the back are conspicuously striped with black ; the forehead and
dorsal plumage lightly dotted and banded with white. The plumage
of the under parts is transversely striped with narrow lines of black, on
a dirty-yellow ground. Length, twenty inches. (See Fig. 1104.)
In the " Zoological Proceedings" for 1840, p. 163, will be found
the description of a closely allied but smaller species, under the
name of Podargus hracJiypterus, or lilacrorhynchus, which in-
habits the district of the Swan River, Western Australia, but without
any account of its habits or manners ; indeed there is much in the
economy of the whole of these strange-looking Birds which remains
yet to be ascertained.
The Podargus cuvierii\% the " More-pork" Bird of the Australian
colonists. It is called thus because of the resemblance of its note to
the words More-pork.
The J.avanese Podargus {Podargus javancnsis, Horsfield).—
Cliabba-wonno of the Javanese, or Burong saiang : see "Cata-
logue of a Collection of Birds from Malaya," by T. C. Eyton, lisq.,
" Zool. Proceeds., i8jg," p. loi. The general colour of this Bird
is ferruginous or rufous, with a tint of buff-vellow, varied bv undu-
lating transverse bands of dark-brown ; a collar of pale yellowish-
white, variegated with two narrow bands of deep brown, passes
V\'g. 1 105. — The Javanese Podargin.
round the lower part of llie neck, and from this collar several large
irregular white marks are disposed in an interrupted series from the
root of the wing to the middle of the back ; on the breast and under
parts several white feathers are scattered. The tail, which is
rounded, is marked with strong transverse bands ; the feet are
rufous ; the claws blackish ; the bill obscure, yellow, and rather
shining. Length, nine inches.
This species, which is a native of Java, is of small size compared
with the Podargi generally, but it agrees with them in form and
style of colouring. It tenants the depths of extensive forests, pass-
ing the hours of day in sleep, and rousing up on the approach of
night to commence its chase of Insect prey. (See Fig. 1105.)
The Fork-t.ailed Go.atsucker {Psalurus macroptcrus). —
The genus Psalurus closely approaches the genus Caprimulgus
in its principal characters : the vibrissa: of the bill are strong ; the
tail is excessively long, and deeply forked. This singular Bird is a
native of Paraguay and Brazil : a bright ruddy derai-coUar orna-
ments the back part of the neck ; the two external tail-feathers in
the male are greatly elongated, far surpassing the others ; but in
the female these feathers are not so excessively produced. The
Fork-tailed Goatsucker flies with great rapidity, expanding and
closing its tail as it skims along. It is Crepuscular and Nocturnal,
and, like our Night-Jar, gives chase to Insects, on wl:ich it feeds.
(See Fig. 1106.)
VARIETIES OF THE GOATSUCKERS.
425
The African Long-tailed Night-Jar {Scotornis cUma-
iiirus). — In the genus Scotornis the outer toe is shorter than the
inner ; the vibrissas of the beak are strong and numerous ; the tail
is lengthened and graduated.
The present species, which is common in Senegal, appears to be
larger than it really is, from the great length of the tail, which
measures nine inches, of which three inches and a-quarter are
occasioned by the two middle tail-feathers exceeding the others.
Fig. 1 106. — The Fork-tailed Goatsucker.
The vibrissse are longer than the bill : of the quill-feathers the third
is longest. The ground-colour of the plumage is light ferruginous
brown varied with dark freckles. The chin and a stripe from the
angle of the gape white ; the lesser wing-coverts have at their tips
a broad band of white, and the greater have a terminal spot of
cream-colour much smaller than the former. The ground-colour of
the five primary quills is entirely black, without any rufous, their
tips only being freckled with grey ; but they are crossed in the
middle by a snowy-white broad band beginning in the inner web of
the first and terminating on the outer web of the si.xth quill ; the
remaining quills are varied with black and rufous and tipped with
white. The tail is variegated in the usual manner, the middle pair
of feathers having about twenty very slender transverse bars, but
much undulated, while the outer margin of the exterior feather and
the tips of that and of the next are pure white. No grey in the
plumage. Total length, including the tail, thirteen inches. (See
Fig. 1 107.)
The Leona Night- Jar [Macrodipteryx africanus). — Ca;pri-
viiilgus macrodipterus, Afzelius ; C. loyigzpentizs, Shaw ; Pennon-
winged Night-Jar ; Long-shafted Goatsucker. This curious Bird is
remarkable for two long elastic shafts issuing from the middle
of the wing-coverts, and varying in length from eight or ten to
twenty inches ; they are tipped with a broad web for three, four, or
five inches, and occur only in the male. What may be their use is
difficult to imagine. Mr. Swainson (" Birds of Western Africa"),
after stating that the female is entirely destitute of these long-shafted
or supplementary feathers, proceeds to observe that the fact is im-
portant, as " it goes far to prove that they arc not essential to the
economy of the species ; for if otherwise, both sexes would possess
them, unless it be contended— a supposition highly improbable— that
the male feeds in one manner and the female in another. In the
absence of all information on this point, we arc led to conclude that
they are more ornamental than useful, given to the male sex as
attractive decorations to the female, in a similar manner as the
Fig. 1107. — The African Long-tailed Night-Jar.
Fig. IIoS.— The Leona Night-Jar. j
426
THE SWALLOW FAMILY.
flowing- feathers of the Paradise-bird are known to distinguish the
male sex. In their texture they are remarkably flexible, moving
about with the least breath of wind." The inner web at the end
is two inches broad in the middle ; the outer web is scarcely half an
inch. (See Fig. 1108.)
The Leona Night-Jar is a small species, measuring, from bill to
end of tail, about eight inches. The wings are long, exceeding the
tip of the tail, which latter is even, and consists of ten feathers ; the
bill is feeble ; the vibrissa strong. The colour of the plumage con-
sists of mingled tints. Upon each web of every primary quill-feather
is a row of nine rufous and nine black spots. The secondary quill-
feathers are black, with four rufous bands ; the middle tail-feathers
are grey, speckled with black points, and crossed by six black bars ;
the outer web of the lateral tail-feather on each side is fulvous-
white, with about ten black spots at equal distances from each other.
Some of the scapulars have a broad cream-coloured stripe, which
forms a connected series when the feathers lie over each other.
The male has a few obscure white mottles about the throat
and ears.
The Nacunda {Pro'Uhera diurna : Podager fiacunda ; Capri-
miilgus diurjius, Wied.) — The genus Pro'Uhera differs from Capri-
vnilgiis in the paucity of the vibrissae round the gape of the beak,
in the great length of the wings, the shortness of the tail, and the
size and complete nakedness of the tarsi.
The Nacunda is a native of Brazil and Paraguay, and is, to a
great extent at least, diurnal in its habits, being seen abroad in
cloudy days in flocks of fifteen or twenty, skimming over the ponds in
pursuit of Insects, precisely in the manner of Swallows.
The plumage above is a mixture of grey-brown, yellowish-red, and
brownish-black, with great spots of blackish-brown, and wide
Fig. 1 109. — The Nacunda.
borders of yellowish-red. The chin is pale yellow, striped with grey
brown. The tail is marked with brownish-black and bright yellow,
and crossed with nine or ten transverse bands speckled with brownish-
black. Plumage beneath, white ; streaked with grey brown on the
chest ; below spotless.
Numerous specimens of the various species of the Caprimulgldir
may be seen in the British Museum, and in that of the Zoological
Society of London.
The Swallows — Family Hirundinidce.
The present family comprises an extensive and very natural group
of Birds, distinguished for their powers of flight and insectivorous
appetite. The limbs are short and comparatively feeble, but the
toes are furnished with sharp hooked claws for the purpose of
clinging to walls or the sides of rocks. In the Swifts, which form
the family Cypselidcs, the toes are all directed forwards. In the
true Swallow the hind-toe is reversible ; the wings are long and
pointed, and the quill-feathers of firm texture ; the general plumage
is close set, always smooth, sometimes burnished and glossy ; the
beak is small, depressed, broad at the base, and with a wide gape.
The food, consisting of the smaller species of Insects, is always
taken on the wing ; and they often completely fill the throat with
their Insect prey, so as to distend it like a pouch, doubtless in order
that their nestlings may have a full supply at each visit. The whole
of the active existence of these Birds is, in fact, passed upon the
wing; they skim along with marvellous rapidity; quarter their
ground over meadows, lakes, and rivers ; wheel round barns and
steeples, and dash along apparently as untired when evening closes
as when they began their aerial evolutions with the first dawn of
day. They feed and drink on the wing, and pursue each other in
sportive chase, performing the most rapid and beautiful evolutions.
The British species of the Hiriindiiiida; arc the Chimney-
Swallow {Hirimdo rustica), the Martin, or Window-Swallow {H.
vrbica), the Sand-Martin {H. riparia), and the Swift {Cypseliis
apus), family Cypselidcs. We may add the White-bellied Swift of
Gibraltar, or Alpine Swift {Cypsches alpinus), as a rare and acci-
dental visitor. All our Swallow tribe are Birds of passage ; they
come in spring, and depart in autumn, winging their way to the
south, and passing the winter in Africa, the great rendezvous of the
Migratory Birds of Europe.
Fig. 1 1 10 represents a group of British Hinindinida; ; a, the
Swallow ; b, the Martin ; c, the Sand-Martin ; d, the Swift.
The Swallow {Hiruiido rustica). — "The swallow," says Sir
H. Davy, " is one of my favourite birds, and a rival of the nightin-
gale ; for he glads my sense of seeing as much as the other does
my sense of hearing. He is the joyous prophet of the year, the har-
binger of the best season ; he lives a life of enjoyment amongst the
loveliest forms of nature ; winter is unknown to him, and he leaves
the green meadows of England in autumn for the myrtle and orange
groves of Italy and for the plains of Africa."
The Swallow is too well known to need a very detailed descrip-
tion. It makes its appearance in our island about the middle of
April, though sometimes a few stragglers arrive earlier, before the
spring has fairly opened ; and, as they disappear, should the
weather set in cold, we are inclined to suspect that they retrace
their passage to a warmer latitude, and return with the great body
on their way northwards. Who has not watched the Swallow on
the wing ? who has not marked its rapid flight, now smoothly
skimming along, now executing sudden turns and abrupt and
intricate evolutions with astonishing celerity ? The Swallow
delights to quarter the surface of pasture-lands, new-mown
meadows, streams, and ponds, attracted by the abundance of Insects
on which it feeds, a smart snap of its bill, easily distinguishable by
an attentive ear, accompanying the capture of its prey. If the
weather be warm, it dips in the water as it passes along, and
emerges shaking the spray from its burnished plumage uninterrupted
in its career.
The Swallow breeds twice a year, choosing different situations
as they may present themselves ; we have known them frequently
attach their nest to the inside of tall old chimneys ; we have seen
them building in barns and outhouses against the beams or rafters ;
and we v/ell remember a pair or two annually building in a wheel-
wright's workshop, undisturbed by the noise of hammer, axe, and
saw, to the satisfaction of the good man, who left a place open for
their entrance and exit when his workshop was shut. Mr. Selby
says that where coal-pits abound the Swallow sometimes fixes its
nest against the side of a deserted shaft, a circumstance we have
once or twice noticed. The nest is open at the top, and composed
of clay or mud, worked up by a glutinous exudation from the mouth
of the Bird into a proper consistence. It is lined internally with a
bed of feathers. The eggs are five in number, of a white colour,
speckled with reddish-brown.
" The swallow," says White, " is a delicate songster, and in soft
sunny weather sings both perching and flying on trees in a kind of
concert, and on chimney-tops." Its notes are indeed pleasing, but
are hurried and twittering, and are generally uttered at sunrise,
when the weather is warm and genial.
The Swallow brings out her first brood about the last week in
June or the first in July, and her second brood towards the middle
and end of August. During the month of September the young of
the last incubation have acquired full strength of wing; and at the
end of that month, or in the beginning of October, the great migra-
tory movement southwards commences. Multitudes from various
quarters now congregate together, and perch at night in clusters on
trees, barns, house-tops, but especially among the reed-beds of
marshes and fens, round which, as evening draws on, they may be
observed wheeling and skimming, now sinking, now rising and
wheeling again, all the while uttering their garrulous concert,
till, as
" Evening draws o'er all
Her gradual dusky veil,"
they finally settle down, and all is quiet and silent. It is strange
that so excellent an observer of nature as Gilbert White should have
entertained the opinion that Swallows hybemate submerged in
marshes, or secreted in holes and caverns, like Bats ; and the more
so as the ancients were well aware of their migratory movements,
and of their winter residence in Africa.
It is a remarkable circumstance in the history of our Hirun-
dijitda, that they return annually to the same place, and resume and
repair their old nests, or, if they have been destroyed, build others
in their stead ; but the question arises. Is not this, to a greater or
less extent, the same with all our summer visitors ? Do they not
return to their old haunts ? and if they do not repair their nests,
which are always spoiled by the winter's rains and snows, do they
not return to the same hedge-row, the same copse, the same garden ?
THE SWALLOW FAMILY.
427
Even with respect to non-migratory Birds we think we have ob-
served a tendency to build in the vicinity of their former nest, espe-
cially if unmolested ; indeed, in the case of the Hedge-Sparrow
{^Accentor modular is) we have reason, from personal experience, to
believe it to be so.
The Swallow is very assiduous in the nurture of her young. She
leads them, as soon as they are able to leave the nest, to the ridge
of the barn or house-top, where, settled in a row, and as yet unable
to e-xert their pinions in flight, she supplies them assiduously with
food. In a few days they begin to trust to their wings, and follow
their parents, who feed them during their afirial evolutions ; but in a
little time they depend on their own exertions.
Fig. ilio.— Group of British Swallows.— (r, the Swallow; h, the Martin ; r, the Sand-Martin ; i1, the Swift
The forked character of the tail easily distinguishes the Swallow
from the rest of our British HincndinidcB. The forehead and throat
are rich chestnut ; the whole of the upper surface and the breast are
black with reflexions of steel blue and purple : a white spot on the
inner web of all the tail-feathers except the two middle. Under-
surface white with a wash of reddish-brown.
The Swallow of Palesiine. — The common Swallow appears
to have a most extensive range ; not only does it visit Europe, but
Asia Minor, Palestine, and the adjacent country, and in the earliest
times its habits of regular migration were observed. and understood ;
hence the expression — "The stork in the heaven knoweth her
appomted times; and the turtle and the crane and the swallow
observe the time of their coming" (Jeremiah viii. 7). From a
passage m Aristophanes we learn that among the Greeks the arrival
of the Crane pointed out the time of sowing, that of the Kite the
time of Sheep-shearing, and that of the Swallow the time to put on
summer clothes. According to the Greek Calendar of Flora, kept
by Theophrastus at Athens, the ornithian winds blow and the Swal-
low comes between the 28th of February and the 12th of March.
(See Fig. 11 12.)
The Cliff-Swallow {Hirundo /ulva).—T\ic Republican Swal-
low of Audubon. This elegant species is a native of the western
parts of the United States of America, and it is only recently, com-
paratively speaking, that it has
ventured within the domains of
. , civilised man. It is now familiar
■ • in different localities of Ohio and
^- ' Kentucky, and in the western part
of New York. Like all the other
American Swallows, it passes the
winter in Tropical America, and
arrives at its northern breeding-
places in April. This species is
gregarious in its habits, and num-
bers construct their symmetrical
nests in clusters, as seen in Fig.
1 1 13. At the dawn of day they
commence their labours, collect-
ing the mud of which the exterior
is formed, and persevere in their
work until near mid-day, when
they relinquish it for some hours,
employing the time in the capture
of Insects and in aerial gambols.
In unsettled countries these Birds
avail themselves of the sides of
rocks under the shelter of over-
hanging ledges ; but in civilised
districts they evince a predilec-
tion for the abodes of man, build-
ing against the walls of houses,
under the eaves of the roof, though
they have not in the least changed
their style of architecture. The
nest is hemispherical, five inches
in diameter at its attachment to
the wall, from which it projects six
inches, having the entrance at the
end of a short neck-like projection
somewhat turned downwards. It
is lined with dried grass and straw.
The whole is completed in three
or four days. The Cliff-Swallow
is more closely related to our Mar-
tin in form, habits, and manners,
than to our Chimney-Swallow ; it
is active and rapid, feeding on the
wing. Its note is peculiar, and
may be imitated by rubbing a
moistened cork around the neck
of a bottle.
This Swallow is characterised
by its even tail. Instead of hav-
ing the lower part of the back
white, like our Window-Swallow
or Martin, it is of a pale ferrugin-
ous tint, as is also the forehead ;
a narrow black line extends over
the bill to each eye ; the upper
parts generally arc glossy violet-
black; thebreast is pale rufous ash-
colour; the under parts dirty white.
Length, five inches and a-half.
Eggs, four in number ; colour,
white spotted with dusky-brown.
The American Barn-Swal-
low {Hiru}ido r///«).— This spe-
cies is the representative of our Chimney-Swallow m the United
States of America, and is a universal favourite. It builds in barns
and outhouses, but never in chimneys. It is very customary to ht up
boxes for it to nestle in, and the country-people have a superstitious
idea that if they permit the Swallows to be shot their Cows will give
bloody milk, and moreover that the barn they tenant will never be
struck with lightning ; so at least was Wilson assured, who adds,
" I nodded assent ; for when the tenets of superstition lean to the
side of humanity, one can readily respect them. . . ,
"Early in May," says this admirable writer, "they begin to
build. From the size and structure of the nest, it is nearly a week
428
THE SWALLOW TRIBE.
before it is completely finished. It is in the form of an inverted
cone, with a perpendicular section cut off on that side by which it
adheres to the rafter ; at the top it has an extension of the edge, or
an offset, for the male or female to sit on occasionally ; the upper
Fig. iiii. — Swallow and Nest.
diameter is about six inches by five, the height externally seven
inches. This shell is formed with mud mixed with fine hay, as
plasterers do mortar with hair to make it adhere the better; the
mud seems to be placed in regular layers from side to side ; the
Fig. 1 1 1 2. —The Swallow of Palestine.
shell is about an inch in thickness, and the hollow of the cone is
filled with fine hay well stuffed in, and above that is laid a handful
of downy feathers. Though it is not uncommon for twenty or even
thirty to build in the same barn, yet everything seems conducted
with great order and affection ; all seems harmony among them, as
if the interest of each wore that of all. Several nests are often
within a few inches of each other, yet no appearance of discord or
quarrelling takes place in this peaceful and affectionate community."
They have generally two broods in the season. The male twitters
with great sprightliness, and thus cheers his mate during her task
of incubation. The flight of this species is rapid and circuitous, and
varied by the most complicated and zigzag evolutions. The Ameri-
can Barn-Swallow differs from our European Swallow in having the
under parts and the lining of the wing of a bright chestnut in the
male, and of a rufous-white tint in the female. Length, seven inches.
(See Fig. 1114.)
Fig. 1 1 13. — Nests of the Clitf Swallow.
Fig. 1 1 14. — The American Barn-Swallow.
The Martin, or Window-Swallow {Hirundo nrhicd). —
Who is not acquainted with this elegant little Bird, and with its
clay-built nest, the "pendent bed and procreant cradle," which it
makes under the eaves of our houses ? It is the temple-haunting
Martlet of Shakspeare, the guest of summer, that
" does approve
By his loved niansionry that the heaven's breath
Smells wooingly."
The Martin, or, as White calls it, the House-Martin, usually
appears a few days later than the Swallow, repairing to its old
quarters, where, after examining the shell of its nest, it gives some
time to play, sporting and gambolling, and chasing its Insect food.
Towards the middle of May it sets itself seriously to work in re-
storing the dilapidated tenement, or constructing a new one. The
crust or shell is made of clay or mud, tempered with glutinous
saliva, and lined with straws, grass, and feathers. The eggs are
from three to five, and of a pinkish-white. We may often observe
rows of these clay-built homesteads under the eaves of barns or
farmhouses ; and it is interesting to see two or three little heads
peeping out of each, watching their parents as they wing their way,
and dash by in pursuit of Insects, or querulously receiving the food
which, arresting their career for an instant, their parents bring
them. During the season of incubation the male utters his soft
guttural song, sometimes while on the wing, sometimes while cling-
ing to the nest, or even in it, as if to cheer his faithful mate, patient
in her appointed duties. Two broods are generally produced every
year, the first leaving the nest in July, the second in August or the
beginning of September.
The flight of the Martin differs from that of the Swallow, in being
more smooth and uniform, with fewer and less abrupt turns and
evolutions ; it is very rapid, but scarcely so much so as in the latter
species.
Towards the end of September, and at the beginning of October,
Martins assemble in multitudes, day after day increasing their
numbers, till at last they swarm in myriads, the air appearing
crowded with them, and the roofs of barns and houses and the
larger branches of the trees literally covered by them. This "re-
union" is preparatory to their departure, which takes place towards
the end of the month, flock after flock leaving, till, by the 6th or 8th
of November all have disappeared. The Martin is distinguished by
the less forked character of the tail, and by the pure white of the
rump, breast, and under-surface. The head, back, and wings are
purplish-black. The tarsi are covered with white down to the very
claws. (See b. Fig. mo, p. 427, ante, in group of British Swal-
lows.)
The Sand-Martin {Hirundo ri;paria). — The Sand-Martin, or
Bank-Swallow, is the smallest of our British Hiriindimda: , but it
certainly makes its appearance the earliest, often about the end of
March. Its flight is less impetuous than that either of the Swallow
or House-Martin, and more vacillating, though still brisk and
THE SWIFTS.
429
Fig. 1 1 15. — Head of Bank
Swallow.
animated. In Spain, from the manner in which it flies, this species
is called by the countrj'-people the Mountain Butterfly (Papillon de
Montagna), and it is sold in the markets at Valencia for the table.
It is fond of skimming over the surface of water, and flat heaths
and commons: seventy years ago White says, "Some few sand-
martins, I see, haunt the skirts of London, frequenting the dirty
pools in St. George's Fields and about Whitechapel ;" and we have
seen them in flocks over the Serpentine in Hyde Park. The query
is, where do these individuals make their nests ? for, unlike the
Swallow or Martin, this species bores with its bill deep holes in
abrupt precipitous sand-banks, at theextremity of which it makes an
inartificial nest of hay, straw, and feathers. A convenient spot is
often colonised by scores of these Birds, we may say hundreds ; we
have seen steep sand-cliffs in Cheshire and other places, especially
if overhanging a rivulet, loopholed by their burrows in the most
extraordinary manner, and in close array ; and Professor Pallas says
that on the high banks of the Irtish their nests are in some places
so numerous, that when disturbed the inmates come out in vast
flocks and fill the air like flies. These burrows are sometimes three
feet in depth, and more or less tortuous ; and it is surprising that
so small a Bird should be so efficient a miner. Its beak, however
(see Fig. 11 15), instead of being
soft and tender, as White describes
it, is uncommonly hard and sharp,
and well calculated for working on
the loose-textured material sub-
jected to its action. The Bird
clings with its claws to the face of
the cliflf, and pegs away with its
miniature pickaxe, making greater
progress than could be expected ;
as it proceeds, it scrapes out
with its feet the sand detached by
its bill, and so continues its labours till the requisite depth is at-
tained.
This species is decidedly gregarious, and may be seen flying
about, not only in company with others of its own species, but with
Swallows and IMartins, busy in the chase of prey. (See c, Fig. mo,
p. 427, ante). It probably breeds twice if not thrice in the season.
The general colour of this species is Mouse-brown above, white
beneath. The eggs, five in number, are white.
The Purple Martin {Prague, or Fliruiido purpurea).— 1\i\%
well-known Bird, says Wilson, " is a general inhabitant of the
United States (of America), and a particular favourite wherever he
takes up his abode." It arrives in the southern frontiers late in
February or early in March, reaches Pennsylvania about the ist of
April, and extends its migrations as far north as the country round
Hudson's Bay, where it is first seen in May and disappears in
August.
" The summer residence of this agreeable bird is universally
among the habitations of man, who, having no interest in his de-
struction, and deriving considerable advantage as well as amuse-
ment from his company, is generally his friend and protector.
Wherever he comes he finds some hospitable retreat fitted up for his
accommodation and that of his young, either in the projecting
wooden cornice, on the top of the roof, or sign-post, in the box
appropriated to the blue-bird {Saxicola sialis) : or, if all these be
wanting, in the dove-cot, among the pigeons. In this last case he
sometimes takes possession of one tier of the premises, in which
not a pigeon dare for a moment set its foot. Some people have
large conveniences formed for the martins, with many apartments,
which are usually fully tenanted and occupied every spring ; and in
such places particular individuals have been known to return to the
same box for several successive years. Even the solitary Indian
seems to have a particular respect for this bird. The Chactaws and
Chickasaws cut off all the top branches from a sapling near their
cabins, leaving the prongs a foot or two in length, on each of which
they hang a gourd or calabash, properly hollowed out for their con-
venience. (See Fig. 1116.) On the banks of the Mississippi the"
negroes stick up long canes with the same species of apartment
fixed to their tops, in which the martins regularly breed. Wherever
I have travelled in this country, I have with pleasure seen the hos-
pitality of the inhabitants to this favourite bird."
The Purple Martin is the terror of Crows, Hawks, and Eagles,
uniting with the King - Bird in attacking them ; and so well
is this known to the lesser Birds and to the domestic poultry,
that as soon as they hear the Martin's voice engaged in fight, all
is confusion.
" To observe with what spirit and audacity this bird sweeps round
the hawk or the eagle is astonishing. He also bestows an occa-
sional bastinading on the king-bird when he finds him too near his
premises, though he will at any time instantly co-operate with him
in attacking the common enemy."
" The flight of this bird is remarkably graceful, easy, and rapid ;
he darts along with the swiftness of an arrow, and wheels and turns
with the most surprising address. His usual note' is loud and
musical, resembling the syllables ' ^etio-^etio-^aw,' but is fre-
quently succeeded by others more low and guttural. Most of the
swallow tribe feed upon the smaller insects. This species, on the
contrary, preys on wasps, bees, and even largo beetles, as gold-
smiths {Cetonia), &c., which are swallowed whole "
Fig. n 16.— Purple Martins and Nest.
"At the approaching dawn," says Nuttall, "the merry martin
begins his lively twitter, which, continuing for half a minute, sub-
sides until the twilight is fairly broken. To this prelude succeeds
an animated and incessant musical chattering, sufficient, near the
dwelling, to awaken the soundest sleeper. His early vigils are
scarcely exceeded by the domestic cock: the industrious farmer
hears the pleasing call to labour, and associates with the favourite
bird the idea of an economical, cheerful, and useful guest. In the
middle States, from the 15th to the 20th of April, the martins begin
to prepare their nest, which is usually made of small green or
dry leaves, straw, hay and feathers, laid in considerable quantities.
The eggs, pure white, are from four to six, and without spots. They
rear two broods in the season. Several pairs also dwell harmoni-
ously in the same box. The male, very attentive to his sitting mate,
also takes part in the task of incubation ; and his notes at this
time have apparently a peculiar and expressive tenderness."
The male Purple Martin is dark-bluish glossy purple : the wings
and forked tail are brownish-black. The female and young are
bluish-brown, and have the belly whitish. Tail considerably forked.
Length, about eight inches. Alar extent, sixteen.
There are numerous other species of the Swallow family resident
in America, in the East Indies, and other parts of Asia. Their
habits generally resemble those of the British species.
The Swifts— Family CyJ>selidcB.
The Swifts, formerly included amongst the Swallows, and
Fig. U17. — Head of the Common Swift.
placed as a sub-family of the HirundinidcB by Mr. G. R. Gray,
appear to possess distinctive characters of sufficient importance to
entitle them to rank as a separate family — that of the Cypsclida.
They resemble the Swallows in their general form, and the structure
of the bill (Fig. 11 17) is very similar; but the feet are different from
those of any other Bird, all the four toes being directed for\vards
(Fig. Ill 8). The nostrils are very large, oblong, and furnished
with an elevated margin ; and the wings are extremely long and
narrow. The Swifts also differ from the Swallows in the struc-
ture of the trachea, the inferior larynx being destitute of those
430
THE SWIFTS.
muscles which confer t.ieir powers of melody upon the true Sing-
ing-Birds ; and this has induced some naturalists, who have
adopted the characters derived from the presence or absence of
these peculiar organs as a means of dividing the
Passerine Bird-s into two sections, to place the
Swifts and Swallows at a considerable distance
apart. According to the views of these authors,
the nearest allies of the Swifts are the Humming-
Fig. iiiS.— Footof Birds, with which they also agree in the structure
Common Swift, of the sternum, that organ being destitute of
posterior notches in both groups.
In their habits the Swifts closely resemble the Swallows, but
perhaps even e.\cel those active and graceful Birds in activity and
swiftness of flight.
The Swift {Cypselus apus). — Cyfsehis imirartHs, Temminck ;
Hiruiido apiis, Linnaeus; Provincial, Screech, Develing, Black
Martin, Screamer, Squeeler ; Moutardier, Martelet, Martinet Noir,
ou Grand Martinet, of the French : Rondone, Dini, and Dardano
of the Italians ; Ring-swala of the Swedes ; Thurm Schwalbe of the
Germans ; Gier Zwaluw of the Netherlanders ; Martin dil of the
ancient British.
This species is the largest of the British Hirundtnid(Z, but its
weight is proportionately small to its e.xtent of wing ; the former
being scarcely one ounce, the latter measuring eighteen inches.
Length eight inches. (See d. Fig. mo, ante.)
From its form, the Swift is the most rapid in its flight of our
Swallow tribe ; the air is its home. On the ground, from the short-
ness of its tarsi, it can only crawl ; and from the length of its wings,
unless it avails itself of some trifling elevation, it finds difliculty in
rising, and does not succeed until after one or tw^o trials. On the
ground, however, the Swift never willingly settles. Its feet, armed
with sharp curved claws, are admirably adapted for clinging to the
slightest roughness on the surface of rocks or towers, in the dark
crevices of which it rears its j'oung. The Swift is the latest of its
tribe to visit us, and the earliest to depart, appearing about the
middle of April, and retiring southwards in August ; and rearing only
one brood.
There are few village steeples round which these Birds may not
be seen wheeling and screaming during the fine evenings and
mornings of June and July, now soaring aloft, now dashing round
the angles of the building with astonishing address and velocity.
It is interesting to watch them ; on the wing they feed— they drink
— they collect the materials of their nests — and enjoy the pleasures
of existence. From dawn, till darkness commences, are they thus
engaged, excepting the females brooding over their eggs in dark-
ness ; these are ever and anon visited by their mates, who wing
their way repeatedly close past the crevices where the nests are
placed, uttering a scream as they glide by, which is ansvt-ered by a
low murmur of complacency.
The nest of the Swift is composed of dry grass and light straws,
interwoven and held together by a viscous substance ; and lined
with feathers, silk, and linen threads, skimmed from the ground
during flight. The eggs are white, and from two to four in number.
When the female, says'White, has sat hard all day, she rushes forth
just as it is dusk, relieves her weary limbs, snatches a scanty meal,
and returns to her work of incubation. The same writer notices the
pouch full of Insects under the tongue, which, when these Birds are
wantonly shot, is usually discovereii. It is in this way that all our
British Swallows store up food for their young.
In Derbyshire, the Swift, the Swallow, and the Martin, haunt the
precipitous rocks of limestone, and there build and breed, as we
have abundantly experienced. The Swift, short as is its stay in
these latitudes, is spread over the greater part of Europe. It visits
Lapland, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden ; in which last country
Professor Nilsson states that it makes its nest in hollows of trees in
the woods. Its eastward range appears to be as far as the moun-
tain-lake Baikal. At Erzeroum it has been observed in numbers
from May till September. Mr. Yarrell states that he has never seen
this species in any collection brought from India. It has been noted
at Madeira. Montagu extends its southward range in Africa as far
as the Cape ; Temminck limits it to the tropics. In our own
country it has been remarked that Swifts are less plentiful with us
than they formerly were.
With the exception of the throat, which is dusky grey, the plumage
is sooty black with a greenish tinge. The tail is forked. The
plumage is close and firm.
The Large-winged Swallow {Macropteryx longipennis,
Swainson). — Head and foot. Generic characters : — Tarsus remark-
ably short and naked ; anterior toes long, and nearly equal ; hinder
toe very short. Tail long and forked. Locality, India.
The present species, given as an example of the genus Macro-
pteryx, is of an obscure glossy green above ; the throat, breast, and
lower part of the back light grey ; belly, spot on the scapulars, and
line over the eye, white ; ears rufous ; front with an incumbent
crest.
Mr. Swainson, whose description this is, and who has given an
elegant figure of the Bird in the second series of his "Zoological
Illustrations," inquires whether the A'/y-ww^/oAVec/io of Dr. Horsfield
(Sambor-galeng of the Javanese), which is described by him in the
13th vol. of " Linn. Trans." as eight inches and a-half in length, is
not the female of this species ? Mr. Swainson considers the genus
Macropteryx intermediate between the typical Swifts and the
Swallows. To the first, he remarks, it is allied by its strong scan-
sorial feet ; to the latter by the length and fixed position of the hind-
toe, and the depression of the bill. (See Fig. 1 1 19.)
Fig. II 19. — Head and Foot of Large- winged Swallow.
The Long-winged Swift {Chcetura macropiera). — Generic
characters : — Feet as in the genus Macroptcryx ; but the tarsus
longer than the middle toe. Tail short and even, with the shafts
prolonged into acute points. (See Fig. 1120.)
Fig. I120. — Long. winged Swift.
The Long-winged Swift is brown, with the wings and tail glossed
with greenish-blue, the back being of a grey white, the chin and
under tail-coverts snowy ; the tail is even. This species and the
Hiru7ido albicollis are two of the largest species yet discovered of
a very singular group of Swifts which have the tail-feathers
spined, and even more rigid than those of the Woodpeckers : by
this structure, as Mr. Swainson remarks, the Birds can remain for
a considerable time in the most perpendicular situations. The ex-
panded tail, he adds, thus acts as a powerful support, which is
further increased by the size and strength of the claws, these last
being much longer than those of ordinary Swallows. Most of the
species are natives of America.
The White-banded Swallow {Hinindo fasciata). — Hiron-
delle a ceinture blanche, Buffon. This Bird, which is extremely
rare, is a native of South America. According to Buffon it is some-
times seen perched on floating trees in the rivers of Guiana. (See
Fig. 1121.)
Mr. Dallas remarks that of the White-bellied Swift {Cypselus
fnelba), only a few specimens have been killed in this country, but in
the southern parts of the continent it occurs abundantly every year.
It may readily be distinguished from the common species by its
larger size and the whiteness of the lower surface ; the plumage of the
upper parts is of a greyish-brown colour. Its habits are the same as
those of the common species; and, indeed, all the Birds of this
family agree so closely in this respect, that, with very few exceptions,
one description will apply generally to the whole.
Amongst these exceptions, we may notice that many, perhaps
most, of the exotic species, such as the Indian Swift, Cypselus
affinis, the Tachortiis phcBiiicobia, or Palm Swift of Jamaica, and
even the North American Chimney Swift {Acantkylis pelasgia).
THE ESCULENT SWALLOW.
431
rear two or three broods in a season ; and the Birds of some of the
species, such as the Jamaica Palm Swift just referred to, and the
Indian Palm Swift {CyJ>scius bafassiciisis), and the species of the
Fig. 1 121. — White-banded Swallow.
fenus Dendrochelidon, attach their nests to the trunks of trees,
ome of the species, also, like our common Martin, construct their
nests of mud ; but these habitations are usually composed of the
same materials as those of the common Swift, more or less agglu-
tinated together by the viscid secretion produced by the peculiar
glands of the mouth. The nests of the common Swift generally ex-
hibit this character to a certain e.xtent, as already explained ; but
many of the species, especially those which attach their nests to the
surface of the supporting body, make a much greater use of the
glutinous secretion ; and some of the genus Collocaiia construct the
great bulk of the nest of this material.
To this genus Collocaiia belong the following species : —
The Salangane, or Esculent Swallow {Hirujido or Collo-
caiia esculeiita ; the Lawet of the Javanese), and the Linchi
[Hirutido ox Collocaiia fuciphaga ; the Linchi of the Javanese).
— These two species, with others not clearly defined, are the con-
structors of those singular nests which are prized as luxuries by the
Chinese, and form so considerable an article of commerce.
The Lawet is brown above, whitish beneath, and at the end of the
tail, which is forked. The Linchi is rather smaller than the
Fig. 1 122. — The Esculent Swallow and Nest.
former, being about five inches long ; its under parts are white, and
its wings are longer in proportion. (See Fig. 1122.)
Much has been written about these Birds and their nests, till,
from clashing opinions, the subject has become involved in difficulty.
According to Lamouroux, there are three species which make edible
nests, the most valuable being those of the smallest species, which
he states is distinguished by the feet not being covered with down ;
it is never found inland, but always on the sea-coast. The nest is
clear and white, and composed, as he believes, of sea-plants of an
order termed by him Gclidia, which by boiling or steeping in water
may be almost wholly reduced to jelly. Others consider the nest
^Lt s°rt°f. fish-spawn ; others as composed of inspissated sea-
foam, or the juice of .a tree ; and others of Molluscous animals.
To give an idea of these nests (several of which, varying in clear-
rP<f.'nn°w^""'P°% "' T '"^i''^ examined), we may describe them as
resembling in form that of the Chimney Swallow, being concave,
shallow, and lined with feathers ; but the' crust or shell^instead of
^nlH^n!^?^'' A "'■ f ,5°'?''''""^'^ '" appearance like fine manna as
ufncl^L Q r-^^cf ' '''°P'' approximating, however, to coarse
isinglass. Sir G. Staunton says-" In the Cass, a small island of
Sumatra, we found two caverns running horizontally into the side of
'^ '"^'l ' f,," 'n. •'•'"'^ "'^re a number of those birds'-nests so much
prized by the Chinese epicures. They seemed to be composed of
fine filaments cemented together by a transparent viscous matter,
not unhke what is left by the sea upon stones alternatelv covered bv
the tide, or those gelatinous animal substances found' floatinsr on
every coast. The nests adhere to each other, and to the sides of the
cavern, mostly in horizontal rows, without any break or interruption
and at different depths from fifty to five hundred feet. The same
sort of nests are also said to be found in the deep caverns at the
foot of the highest mountains in the middle of Java, at a distance
from the sea."— " The value of these nests is chiefly ascertained by
the uniform fineness and delicacy of their texture, those that are
white and transparent being most esteemed, and fetching often in
China their weight in silver."
Montbeillard, who in 1741 visited the Straits of Sunda near Java
and went ashore on an islet called the Little Toque, discovered a
deep cavern in the rocks on the brink of the sea, the mouth of which
was darkened by multitudes of Swallows pouring out in swarms,
and the roof of the cavern was covered with their nests. He de-
scribes them as softening in water, and as composed of Fish-spawn,
resembling half-melted glue which floats on the sea, and adds^
fi, u'^f'"?'^^ threads of this viscous substance are seen hanging to
the bills of these birds, and which have been supposed, without founda-
tion, to be extracted from the stomach in the breeding-season " It
was perhaps this passage that induced Sir E. Home to examine the
gastric glands of a species of Swallow of a very large size, and which
he regarded as the Edible Swallow, brought from Java by Sir T S
Glands of Stomach in Birds.
Raffles. In this species he found the gastric glands projecting, and
splitting into several portions like the petals of a flower, and argues
that their development is to supply a secretion for the formation of
the nests. Fig. 1123 shows — a, the gullet and gizzard of the Java
Swallow laid open ; B, the gastric glands magnified 225 times ; C,
the same glands in the common Swallow; D, the same glands in
the Blackbird ; E, similar glands in the pylorus of the human
stomach, magnified 900 times. Against the inference of Sir E.
Home it is objected, and with force, that it does not appear that the
432
THE TODIES-THE KINGFISHERS.
Swallow he examined (double the size of our Swallow) was one of
the edible species, and that we have not the shadow of proof from
analogy to conclude that these gastric glands, for whatever reason
they might be developed, secrete the materials of the nest. The
most probable theory is, that whatever else may be used, the Bird,
as is the case with the Swallow and Swift, employs a viscid saliva
as a cementing medium ; as M. Reinwardt, a celebrated professor,
who resided a considerable time in Java, and made some careful re-
searches upon the subject, came to the conclusion that the Bird
consolidates, if it does not wholly form, its nest with a viscous and
glutinous fluid, secreted by its very large parotid (salivary) glands.
Mr. Crawford, formerly British resident at the Court of the Sultan of
Java, and who superintended the collection of these nests (for they
are claimed as royal property, and form a valuable branch of the
revenue of the State) at Karang-Bolang for several years, has given
an interesting commercial history of them too long to be quoted.
We may observe, however, that about 27,000 pounds, the chief part of
the best quality, were then annually exported from Java, but a still
greater quantity from the Suluk Archipelago ; that much was also ex-
ported from Ceylon and New Guinea ; and that altogether about
30,000 tons of Chinese shipping were engaged at that time in the
traffic, freighted with property worth in the Archipelago nearly
^300,000. The danger attendant upon the collecting of the nests in
the awful caverns is described as imminent in the extreme.
The Todies— Family Todidm.
The Todies have had various places assigned them by naturalists ;
as have also the genus Eurylaimus : some have formed of them
two sub-families of the Coracida;, or Rollers. As, however, they
are few in number, they may be Ijriefly described here under the
sub-families of the Todina; and EiirylaimincB.
The Todies, genus Todus, are characterised by a peculiar flatness
or depression of the bill, which has a wide gape margined with
vibrissa. The breadth varies ; in some (as the Eiirylaiini) it is very
broad, somewhat resembling the bill of the Podargi, with a boat-
like upper mandible. The wings are rounded ; the tarsi of mode-
rate length ; the two outer toes are united as far as the last joint.
The habits of these Birds are little known.
The Green Tody [Todus viridisj. — Generic characters : — ^Bill
Fig. 1 124. — The Green Todies.
lengthened ; broad throughout, suddenly contracting at the tip ;
very flat. Vibrisss few and weak ; tail short ; tarsi weak ; toes
short. Locality, Tropical America.
The Green Tody inhabits the islands of Jamaica, Hayti, and
others in the West Indies. It is said to be a Bird of recluse habits,
haunting the borders of retired marshes, and, as Sloane says,
" melancholy places," sitting with its head crouched between its
shoulders ; and suffering itself to be approached within a few feet.
number and of
much exceed a
whitish beneath
and gazed at for minutes together before it will move. " It keeps
much about houses in the country parts, flics very low, and probably
may be easily tamed." These Birds, says Lesson, live upon Insects
which they catch in the mud or the water; "they are, in truth,
water moucherollcs, and their wide and flattened bill, furnished
with asperities, or teeth, permit them to sift the mud and retain the
prey ; they also seek for small insects under the moss or on the
ijanks of rivulets." The nest is built on the ground, of cotton down,
feathers, moss, and other soft materials ; the eggs are five in
a blue colour. This little Bird, which does not
Wren in size, is of a fine bright green above,
the throat is scarlet ; the sides rosy ; the under
tail-coverts yellow. (See Fig. 1124.)
The Javanese Eurylaimus {Eurylatmiis javanicris ; sub-family
Eurylaimhicr.') — Generic characters : — Bill broader than the head ;
under mandible very thin ; nostrils basal, transverse, oval ; wings
rounded; tail rounded. Fig. 1125 displays the characters of the
^_ bill and feet in this genus,
which is restricted to India
and the Indian Archipelago.
The Javanese Eurylaimus is
a native of Java and Sumatra ;
it frequents the banks of rivers
and lakes, feeding on Insects
and Worms. It builds its nest
pendant from the branch of a
tree which overhangs the water.
In Java it tenants the most
remote and inaccessible wastes
covered with extensive forests
and abounding with rivers and
marshes. General colour, rich
vinous purple ; forehead black ;
liack of the neck brown ; wings
blackish-brown, with a yellow
streak between the coverts and
secondaries ; and bordered
with yellow, which extends un-
derneath the shoulders. Tail-
coverts black, with yellow tips ;
tail-feathers black, with a
white mark, the two middle ex-
cepted. Bill irregularly varie-
gated and striped ; the ridge
yellowish ; the edges black.
Tarsi dusky yellowish. (See
Fig. 1x26.)
Fi".
1125. — Bill and Foot of the
Eurylaimus.
Fig. 1126. — The Javanese Eurylaimus.
In the British Museum are several specimens of the Todies ; as
the San Domingo, Todus subulatus ; the Jamaican, or Todus viridis,
just described ; the Porto Rican, T. hy^ochondricus ; the Collared
Eurylaimus, E. lunaius, &c.
The Kingfishers — VsxWxXy Haley onidcs, or A kedini'des.
In this family are included several genera which differ much in
their habits and modes of life ; some resembling our well-known
Kingfisher in the metallic brilliancy of their plumage, as well as in
their darting upon Fishes, which constitute their food ; others again.
THE KINGFISHERS.
-133
with a fuller and less glossy plumage, feeding on Reptiles, Insects,
and small Quadrupeds, and never plunging into the water after
prey.
They are divided into three sub-families — viz., the Alcedititnw,
or True Kingfishers; the G^£?/i«/;>/^, orjacamars ; sxidiBucconincs,
or Puff. Birds.
Varying in minor details, all generally present the following
characters: — the beak is lengthened and pointed; the tarsi are
short ; the toes feeble, and the outer and middle are united as far
as the last joint. In some there are only two anterior toes, the in-
nermost being deficient.
In the Bucconina: the toes are arranged in pairs, in the same way
as in the Scansorial Bird, with which they were formerly united by
naturalists.
The Gigantic Kingfisher (Dacelo gigasj. — This remarkable
Bird (one of the aberrant forms of the family) is a native of Austra-
lia. The plumage is full and soft ; and the feathers of the head are
elongated into a crest. The bill is large, long, powerful, and
swollen at the side ; the edge of the upper mandible is bowed in
near the point, which latter is acute and bends over the point
of the lower mandible. The tarsi are stout ; the toes armed with
sharp claws ; the wings are rather long, advancing when folded
half-way down the tail — this is long, broad, and somewhat rounded.
The eyes have a forward situation, being placed close to the base of
the beak, imparting a sharp, cunning, and even fierce expression
to the aspect, and well depicting the disposition of the Bird, which
is daring and rapacious. Among the wooded mountain districts in
many parts of Australia, and especially those which border the
Murrumbidgee River, this species is very common, and may be ob-
served sitting on the watch for its prey, which consists of Insects,
small Quadrupeds, and Reptiles. Ever and anon it breaks out into
a singular abrupt laugh, somewhat resembling the syllables ^'a//-
yak-ya/i, commencing in a low and gradually rising to a high and
loud tone, startling when heard amidst the solitudes of the woods.
From this wild and discordant cry it has obtained from the colonists
the title of the "laughing or feathered jackass." The natives at
Yas called it gobera ox gogobera. One seldom laughs without being
answered by a second ; and among Diurnal Birds it is the first which
is heard in the morning, and the last at the close of evening ; it rises
with the dawn, when the woods re-echo with its gurgling laugh, and
at sunset they are heard again in dissonant chorus.
Unqualified for plunging in the stream, this Bird is vigilant in the
pursuit of Reptiles and Insects. Snakes are a favourite food, and it
may often be seen flying to a tree with one of these Reptiles in its
beak, holding it just behind the head. Generally the Snake is
Fig. 1 127. — Gigantic Kingfisher.
killed before being carried away ; but sometimes the Bird is ob-
served on the branch to break the Reptile's head to pieces with its
strong sharp beak. Occasionally, as it is asserted, the Gigantic
Kingfisher will kill young Chickens, and carry away eggs ; but its
services in destroying Reptiles compensate the settler for these petty
depredations. The general colour above is olive-brown : beneath
whitish, with obscure dusky bars on the breast ; top of the crest
brown ; a white belt above each eye goes round the occiput ; and a
broad white collar extends from the throat over the sides of the
neck ; the tail banded with black and ferruginous white at the tip.
Total length, one foot six inches. (See Fig. 1127.)
The Co.mmon Cr.a.r-Eater {Halcyon ci/inamomina) is a New
Zealand species. The general plumage is of a delicate fawn-
colour ; the wings and tail changeable blue-green ; ear-feathers
sea-green, whence a narrow black line extends round the back of
the neck. Total length, ten inches.
The Belted Kingfisher {Alccdo a/o'o«, Linn.)— The Belted
Kingfisher is a native of America, from Hudson's Bay to Mexico,
and is a constant resident in the States of Louisiana, Mississippi,
Arkansas, and all the districts that lie to the south of North
Carolina, whence it migrates southwards during severe winters.
The flight of this Bird is very rapid, and in the course of its excur-
sions, if it passes over a pool, it suddenly checks itself in its
career, poises in the air like a Kestrel, and inspects the water
beneath, watching the movements of the Fishes ; it then dashes
spirally down headlong into the water, seizes a Fish, and alights
on the nearest tree or stump, where it swallows its prey in a mo-
ment. The Bird makes its nest in deep holes in dry banks. The
extremity is made capacious ; and here, on a few sticks and fea-
thers, the eggs are deposited, five in number, and of a pure white.
The parents are very attentive to their young, and the female cm-
ploys various artifices to draw the intruder from her brood. The
same e.xcavation is used by the same pair year after year in suc-
cession.
The plumage is close and compact. General colour above, light-
blue, the shaft of each feather blackish ; a white spot before the eye.
and a streak of the same below it; quill-feathers brownish-black,
barred with white ; secondaries blue on the outer web. Two middle
tail-feathers blue ; the rest brownish-black barred with white ; a
broad collar of white from tl.e throat over the sides of the neck ; a
blue band across the breast ; sides mottled with blue ; under parts
white. Total length, twelve inches and a-half. The feathers of
the head are long, narrow, and pointed, and form a crest capable of
being elevated and depressed. (See Fig. 1128.)
Fig. 1 128. — The Belled Kingfisher.
The Common Kingfisher (^/cc^fo ispida).—Th\s\s the Martin-
Pecheur of the French ; and also Pescheur, Martinet Pescheur,
Tartarin, Artre, and Mounier, according to Belon ; Piumbino,
Ucello del Paradiso, Pescatore, Pesoatore del Re, Martino Pesca-
tore, Ucello di Santa Maria, and Vitriolo of the Italians, according
to Belon ; Ucello della Madonna, Ucello Santa Maria, Piombmo,
and Alcione of the same, according to the Prince of Musignano;
Gemeine Eisvogel (Bechstein) and Grosser Kleiner und Fremder
Eisvogel (Brehm) of the Germans ; Glas y dorian of the ancient
British.
The Kingfisher is common in most parts of Europe ; and there
are few of our streams and rivers flowing through fertile meads,
abounding with Fish, over which this beautiful but voracious Bird
may not be seen glancing backwards and forwards, its metallic
hues glittering in the sun. Occasionally it hovers at a moderate
elevation over the water, and then darts down with astonishing
434
THE KIKGFISHERS.
velocity and suddenness on some unwary Fish, which, heedless of its
foe, ventures near the surface, and which is seldom missed by the
keen-eyed Bird. The ordinary manner, however, in which the
Kingfisher captures its finny prey is by remaining quietly perched
on some stump or branch overhanging the water, and then intently
watching with dogged perseverance for the favourable moment in
which to make its plunge ; it marks the shoals of Minnows glidmg
past— the Trout lurking beneath the concealment of some stone or in
the shadow of the bank— the Roach and Dace pursuing their course.
But the instant the Fish rises to take an Insect, the Bird plunges
into the w^ater and seizes its prey, afterwards returning to its resting-
place to feed. Its mate is its only companion, and both labour as-
siduously in the support of their young. The place chosen for
incubation is the bank of the river where it is steep or overhangmg,
and here it either constructs, or appropriates to itself, a burrow two
or three feet in extent, bearing diagonally upwards. At the end of
the gallery is a little chamber, and here, without making any nest,
the female lays her eggs, from five to seven in number, and of a
clear pinky-white. While engaged in the work of incubation the
female is supplied by her industrious mate, and as the fish-bones and
scales are disgorged (for, like Owls, the Kingfisher recasts the mdi-
gestible parts'of its food), a circle of these rejectanea surround the
eggs, which, after the young are hatched, is greatly increased, and
hence has arisen the supposition that of pellets of fish-bones is the
nest composed. The young are clamorous for food, uttering an in-
cessant cry ; they soon acquire their brilliant plumage, and when
able to leave their abode, follow their parents, and, resting on a
branch in some lonely retreat, tax their industry. They are, how-
ever, soon able to fish for themselves.
The Kingfisher performs a sort of limited migration : when winter
sets in, and drives the Fish from the shallows to deep and sheltered
bottoms, freezes the mill-dams, or coats with ice the sluggish basin
worked out by the river's current in rich alluvial soil, these Birds
wander from the interior to the coast, and frequent the mouths of
rivulets, entering large navigable rivers, dikes near the sea, and
similar places, especially on the southern portion of our island.
The colouring of this beautiful Bird is as follows :— Bill blackish-
brown, reddish at the base. Behind each eye is a patch of light
orange-brown, succeeded by a white one. From each corner of the
under mandible proceeds a streak of verditer blue, tinged with ver-
digris green. Crown of the head deep olive green, the feathers
tipped with verdigris green. From the nape of the neck to the
tail is a strip of verditer blue feathers, tinged in some shades
with verdigris green. Chin and throat yellowish-white. Breast,
belly, and vent orange-brown, palest tovv'ards the under tail-
coverts. Tail greenish-blue ; the shafts of the feathers black. Legs
pale tile red. The irides are hazel. The bill of the female is not
so long as in the other sex. The colours also are deeper and more
of a green shade. Length, seven inches. The sexes, however, are
not easily distinguished. (See Fig. 1129.)
Fig. 11:9. — The Common Kingfisher.
Some extraordinary superstitions have been held in regard to the
Kingfisher both in ancient and modern times. Some writers have
attributed to it the power of allaying the violence of the waves of the
sea. A modern superstition gives the Bird the power of determining
the north, and also the direction of the wind. Its feathers have been
variously esteemed as lucky for fair weather at sea, securing the
affections of a fickle sweetheart, and as an antidote to witch-
craft.
The Sacred Kingfisher {Todirainjihus sacer). — The Sacred
Kingfisher (with other allied species) is a native of the islands of the
South Seas. These Birds inhabit woods, and perch almost con-
stantly on the cocoa-palms. Their nourishment appears to consist
almost exclusively of small Flies ; these they catch, when settling o;i
the spathes loaded with the flowers of the palm. The islanders
name these Birds O-tatare, and used to regard them as sacred,
severe penalties being inflicted on those who destroyed them. In the
islands of Tahiti, Borabora, &c. , the present species is very common,
frequenting the cocoa-nut trees, which form girds on the shores of
those islands. Its flight is short, and it is not timid. According to
Latham it has been found in Dusky Bay, New Zealand.
The total length of this beautiful Bird is about nine inches. Bill
black, white at the origin of the lower mandible ; summit of the
head covered with brownish-green feathers, which form a sort of
hood, separated by a large white streak which rises on the front,
passes above the eyes, and continues behind the occiput. A large
black line springs from the eye, and taking a tinge of green and
then of brown, forms a border to the white line and circumscribes it.
Throat, breast, and all the upper part of the body pure white ; a very
large, whitish, demicollar, waved with light brown and very light
chestnut, occupies the upper part of the mantle, and is bordered with
black ; the back, coverts of the wings, rump, upper part of the tail
and wings, are uniform bluish-green ; primaries brown and blue on
their external edges, secondary lapped with brown ; tarsi black.
(See Fig. 1130.)
*^^.k'W§'
Fig. 1 130. —The Sacred Kingfisher.
There arc numerous other species of the Alcedinina found in Java,
India, Senegal, &c., specimens of which may be seen in the British
Museum, and which we have not space to describe.
The JacamaRS— Sub-family GalbulitKE.
The sub-family GalbuUiKS, or Jacamars, approaches nearly to
the Bee-eaters {Meropida), to be presently described. The
Jacamars are handsome Birds, and adorned with bright colours.
The following affords an illustration of this sub-family. They
are peculiar to the Tropical parts of South America and the West
Indies.
The Paradise Jacamar {Galbula paradisea); the Swallow-
tailed Kingfisher of Edwards.— The genus Galbula is distinguished
by its metallic plumage ; by the bill being very long, perfectly
straight, and greatly compressed ; wings short ; tail lengthened and
graduated ; toes in pairs (zygodactylous), or the hind-toe wanting :
nostrils with a few strong bristles. Cuvier, who places the Jacamars
in the Scansorial order, observes that in either points they approach
the Kingfishers; and both Mr. Vigors and Mr. Swainson, as well as
Mr. G. Gray, assigned them to the family of the latter. The
Jacamars are recluse Birds, tenanting extensive woods ; " they
o-enerally sit on low naked branches in the forest paths, whence they
dart upon butterflies, spearing them with their long bill ; their
haunts, indeed, may frequently be known by the ground being-
strewed with the beautiful wings of their victims, the body of which
THE BEE-EATERS.
43 S
alone they devour. "While, as already stated, the species are
usually American, the Paradise Jacamar is a native of Surinam : its
size somewhat exceeds that of a Lark ; the general colour is golden
green • the throat, neck, and lesser wing-covcrts are white ; the head
violaceous brown ; the bill and feet, the latter of which are feathered
to the toes, black ; the two central tail-feathers are the longest. (See
Fig. 1 131.)
Fig. :i3l. — The Paradise Jacamar.
The Bee-eaters— Family Mero^idce.
The MerofidcB, or Bee-eaters, make the nearest approach to the
Tenuirostral Birds, at the same time that, in their habits, they
present some resemblance to the Swallows. They have the bill
elongated and curved ; the nostrils partly concealed by short bristles
(see Fig. 1132); the w'ings long and pointed ; and the tail long and
Ijroad, with the two middle feathers usually produced considerably
beyond the rest. The tarsi are very short, and the toes long ; the
two lateral toes are more or less united to the middle one, from
which character the Birds were placed by Cuvier amongst his
Syndactyli.
These Birds are confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, in the
Tropical parts of which they are most abundant. They feed on
Insects, which they capture in the air, and are especially partial to
Bees and Wasps, whence their English name of Bee-eaters, and the
Europe ; it is common in Sicily, Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey, &c.,
whence it retires into Africa on the approach of winter. In .Spain,
which it enters by way of Gibraltar, it appears duiing the first week
in April, in ilocks of forty or fifty, somclimcs at considerable eleva-
tion, at other times skimming low, and uttering a shrill whistle
heard at a considerable distance. They thus give chase to various
Insects, Bees, Wasps, Beetles, Grasshoppers, and Butterflies,
catching them on the wing with great address. Bee-eaters haunt
rivers and streams, and may be seen coursing up and down in pur-
suit of their prey, and glittering in the sun with metallic effulgence.
They abound on the rivers Don, Volga, and Yaik, in Southern
Russia, and are common in Syria and Arabia. In their habits these
Birds much resemble the Kingfisher : they breed in holes, which
they burrow in steep banks overhanging the river, at the extremity
of which, in a nest, according to Selby, composed of moss, &c., the
eggs are laid : these are of a pure white, and from five to seven in
number. It is observed also that, like the Kingfisher, which recasts
the bones and scales of Fishes, these Birds disgorge the wing-cases
and other indigestible parts of their Insect food rolled up in the
shape of small pellets.
From the earliest times the Bee-eater has been notorious for
thinning the hive of its industrious inhabitants. Aristotle notices
this circumstance ; and Virgil, in his "Georgics," directs that the
bee-hives must be secured from the Lizard, the Swallow, and the
Bee-eater.
According to Latham this Bird is called in Egypt Melino-orghi,
or Bee's enemy. It is there eaten for food, as Ray states it is in
Italy, where he saw it sold in the markets. The Bee-eater is not
only found in Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa ; it is also a native
of the Cape of Good Hope. The colouring of this Bird is as
follows : — Forehead yellowish-white, merging into bluish-green ;
back of the neck and upper part of the back rich chestnut, passing
into brownish amber yellow. Ear-coverts black ; wings greenish,
with an olive tinge, and a large band of brown across the middle.
Quill-feathers fine greenish-blue, ending in black. Throat bright
yellow, bounded by a line of black. The under parts generally
glossy greenish-blue. Irides red. Length, eleven inches. (See
Fig- 1133O
Fig. 1 132. — Head of the Common Bee-eater.
French Giiepiers. They are beautiful Birds, generally adorned
with bright colours, amongst which green usually predominates.
We take the following as an example.
The European Bee-eater {Alerops a^iasier).— This brilliant
species, which occasionally wanders as far westward as the British
Isles, is a summer visitant to the southern and eastern countries of
Fig. 1 133. — The Bee-eater.
The Puff-Birds— Sub-family Bucconiiice.
In the sub-family of the Bucconincs, or Puff-Birds, the bill is very
stout and conical, and inflated at the base, which is furnished with
several tufts of strong bristles ; the tip of the upper mandible is
curved or hooked ; the nostrils are concealed by the plumes and
bristles of the forehead ; the tarsi are about the length of the outer
anterior toe, which is the longest; and the toes are arranged in
pairs, in the same way as in the Scansonal Birds with which the
Bucco,iina were formerly placed. The name of Puff-Birds is given
to them from the manner in which their plumage is puffed out ; a
character which gives them a dull, heavy appearance. This aspect
is in accordance with their mode of life, as they are solitary and
436
THE TROGONS, OR COUROUCOUS.
melancholy Birds, inhabiting- the recesses of the forests of Tropical
America, where they perch upon the branches of trees to look-out
for the Insects which constitute their food. They are said to perch
in the same spot for months together. They also occasionally creep
upon the bark of trees in search of Insects, supporting- themselves
■with the tail when in this position, like the Woodpecker. They
nestle in holes of trees.
The Great-billed Puff-Bird is an instance of this sub-
family. It has a large head, short tail, and large beak. It is a
native of Brazil. The length is about eight inches. Plumage black
and white, except the belly and vent, which are tinged with blue.
Fig. 1134 represents this Bird.
■t-e.^'. --=-
Fig. 1 134.— Great-billed Puff-Bird.
The Trogons, or Couroucous— Family Trogo7iidce.
The Trogons constitute a family of Birds, the members of which
are peculiar to the hotter regions of America and of India, and its
adjacent islands, Ceylon, Java, Borneo, Sumatra, &c. , one species
only having as yet been discovered in Africa. Among the most con-
spicuous of the feathered tribes for beauty and brilliancy of plumage,
the Trogons stand confessedly pre-eminent. The metallic golden
green of some species is of dazzling effulgence ; in others less
gorgeous : the delicate pencillings of the plumage, and the con-
trasted hues of deep scarlet, black, green, and brown, produce a
rich and beautiful effect.
Tfie Trogons are zygodactyle ; that is, they have their toes in
pairs, two before and two behind, like Parrots and Woodpeckers ;
the tarsi are short and feeble, the beak is stout, and the gape w-ide ;
the general contour of the body is full and round, and the head
large ; the plumage is dense, soft, and deep ; the wings are short
but pointed, the quill-feathers being rigid ; the tail is long, ample,
and graduated, its outer feathers decreasing in length ; in some
species the tail-coverts are elongated, so as to form a pendent
plumage of loose feathers.
Of solitary habits, the Trogons (or Couroucous) frequent the most
secluded portions of dense forests, remote from the abodes of man.
For hours together they sit motionless on some branch, uttering
occasionally a plaintive melancholy cry, especially while the female
is brooding on her eggs. Indifferent during the day to every object,
listless or slumbering on their perch, they take no notice of the
presence of an intruder, and may indeed be often so closely ap-
proached as to be knocked down by a stick ; the bright glare of the
sun obscures their sight, and they wait for evening, the dusk of
twilight being their season of activity.
Fruits, with Insects and their larva;, constitute their food. Formed,
most of them at least, for rapid but not protracted flight, they watch
from their perch the Insects flitting by, and dart after them with
surprising velocity, returning after their short chase to the same
point of observation. Some, however, are almost exclusively Frugi-
vorous. Many species are certainly migratory. M. Natterer
observes, respecting the Pavonine Trogon {Trogoti pavo7ii>i!ts,
Spix), which inhabits, during a certam season of the year, the high
woods along the upper part of the Amazon and Rio Negro, that he
found the contents of its stomach to consist principally of the fruit of
a certain species of pjalm, and that it arrives in those districts when
its favourite food is ripe, but that when the trees no longer yield
an adequate supply it retires to other districts.
Like the Parrots and the Woodpeckers, the Trogons breed in the
hollows of decayed trees, the eggs being deposited on a bed of wood-
dust, the work of Insects ; they are three or four in number, and
white. The young, when first hatched, are totally destitute of
feathers, which do not begin to make their appearance for two or
three days : and their head and beak appear to be disproportionately
large. They are said to rear two broods in the year.
Azara, speaking of the Surucua Trogon, a native of Paraguay and
the Brazils, informs us that it is seen only in the largest woods, and
that it " generally remains on the upper portions of the trees,
without descending to the lower branches or to the earth ; it sits a
long time motionless, watching for insects which may pass within
its reach, and which it seizes with adroitness ; it is not gregarious,
but dwells either in solitude or in pairs ; its flight, which is rapid,
and performed in vertical undulations, is not prolonged. These
birds do not migrate, and are never heard except in the breeding
season ; their note then consists of the frequent repetition of the
syllables j>ce-o, in a strong, sonorous, and melancholy voice ; the
male and female answer each other. They form their nest on the
trees, by digging into the lower part of the nest of a species of ant,
known by the name of cupiy, until they have made a cavity suffi-
ciently large, in which the female deposits her eggs, of a white
colour, and two, or, as some assert, four, in number."
The American Trogons have their beak of moderate size, with
serrated (or saw-like) edges, and furnished at its base -with bristles ;
the upper surface (of the males at least) is of a rich metallic green,
the under parts being more or loss universally scarlet or rich yellow.
The outer tail-feathers, in the majority of the species, are more or
less barred with black and white.
In the Indian Trogons the beak is larger and stouter, with smooth
edges, having a tooth near the tip of the upper mandible. The eyes
are encircled by a large bare space of richly coloured skin ; the
upper surface is brown, the lower more or less scarlet, and the outer
tail-feathers exhibit no tendency towards a barred style of marking,
excepting in one species, Diard's Trogon {Trogon Diardii), in
which the three outer tail-feathers are finely powdered with black.
The African species {Trogon ?!ari?ui, Le Vaill.) closely approxi-
mates to its American relatives ; but its three outer tail-feathers are
unbarred. This species inhabits the dense forests of Caffraria ;
during the day it sits motionless on a low dead branch, and it is
only in the morning and evening that it displays activity. Locusts
and other Insects are its principal food.
Of all the Trogons none are so magnificent as the Resplendent
Trogon (Trogon .-esplendensj, to be presently described. This
Bird, as stated by Mr. Gould, " is to be found only in the dense and
gloomy forests of the southern states of Mexico." Little known to
Europeans, except within the last few years, the brilliant plumes
which fall over the tail (and which, as is the whole of the upper sur-
face of the body of this Bird, are of the richest metallic golden
green) were made use of by the ancient Mexicans as ornaments on
their head-dresses; and gorgeous must a head-dress be, composed
of such feathers — soft, flowing, of dazzling lustre, and three feet in
length. Mr. Gould observes that M. Temminck was the first who
figured the present species ; but that celebrated naturalist con-
founded it with the Trogon pavoniincs of Dr. Spix, a Brazilian species
to which it is nearly allied, but from which it differs in having a soft
silky crest, of long full feathers, and the plumes of the tail-coverts
extremely long, whereas in the Pavonine Trogon there is no crest,
and the tail-coverts do not extend above an inch or two, at most,
beyond the tail.
In Fig. 1135 is represented a group of Trogons. On the topmost
branch are perched a pair, male and female, of the Trogo7i
resplendejis. The middle Bird towards the left hand is the lYogon
pavonhius. The lower figure on the left hand is the Trogon
Diardii; and that on the right, the Trogon temnurus. The follow-
ing is a description of some of the family.
The Resplendent Trogon (Trogon resj>lende7is). — Male and
female. (See the top Birds in group of Trogons, Fig. 1135.)
Male : — Beak gamboge-yellow ; head coverd with long filamentous
plumes, forming a rounded crest ; from the shoulders spring a number
of lance-shaped feathers, which hang gracefully over the wings ; from
the rump are thrown off several pairs of narrow flowing plumes, the
longest of which in fine adults measure from three feet to three feet
four inches ; the others gradually diminishing in length towards the
rump, where they again assume the form of the feathers of the
back : these plumes, together with the whole of the upper surface,
throat, and chest, are of a most resplendent golden green ; the
breast and under parts are of a rich crimson scarlet ; the middle
feathers of the tail black ; the six outer ones white for nearly their
THE TROGONS.
437
Li 1 ti, ti,Airhaqps beino- black; feet brown. Totallensrth,
7''°''h ' hfl to he en^o the tS.l twcke to fourteen inches ; wing,
^'°w/nlnP- tarsi one encrth of he longest plume, about three leet.
''fimaleo; Young of 'the fear -.-These have only rudiments of the
coverts fine scarlet ; bill black.
,%
Fig- 1 1 35.— Group of Trogons.
It was of the brilliant feathers of these and other Trogons that the
ancient Mexicans made their famous mosaic pictures. They were
probably kept in one of the two houses which formed the Royal
Menagerie of ancient Mexico, one of these houses being appropriated
to Birds which did not live by prey ; the other to Birds of prey.
Quadrupeds, and Reptiles. Three hundred men, according to
Cortes, were employed to take care of these Birds, besides their
physicians, who watched their diseases, and applied timely remedies.
Of the three hundred attendants, some procured their food, others
distributed it, others took care of the eggs at the time of incubation ;
whilst others, at certain seasons, picked their plumage— for the king
not only delighted in the sight of so many species, but was very
careful of their feathers, for the sake of the works in the fabrication
of which they were used. _ v rvi j njr 1 n»,V
The Mexican Trogon {Trogonmextcanus). — Old Male : — BeaK
bright yellow ; throat and ear-coverts black, gradually blending
witTr the srreen' that covers the chest and the whole of the upper sur-
face Two middle tail-feathers green with black tips, the two next
on each side wholly black ; the three outer on each side black, with
white tips- wings black, the whole of which, with the exception ot
the nrimari'es, is'finely dotted with grey ; a crescent of white encircles
flip rhpst- breast, belly, and under tail-coverts fine scarlet ; feet
tne cnesi , u , Uo\-jn. Total length, eleven to
twelve inches ; wing, five inches and
three-quarters ; tail, seven inches
and three-quarters. Fig. 1136 re-
presents (upper figure) a young male,
and (lower figure) a female. They
are indigenous to the north of
Mexico.
Young Male :— Distinguished from
the adult by the grey freckles on the
wings being rather stronger, and
more inclined to brown on the secon-
daries ; by the extreme outer edge
of the primaries being white ; and by
the tail being regularly barred with
black and white, which character is
most conspicuous on the outer edges.
Female :— Top of the head, throat,
chest, and back, dark brown, inclin-
ing to olive on the upper surface,
and to rufous on the chest ; across
the chest an obscure band of light
.o-rey, the lower parts scarlet ; wings
black, slightly freckled with brown
on the outer edges of the secondaries
and shoulders ; the outer edges of
the primaries fringed with white ;
two middle tail-feathers chestnut-
brown, tipped with black; the two
next on each side wholly black ; the
remainder strongly barred with black
and white for nearly their whole
length; bill yellow, clouded with
brown. ,^
The Narina Trogon {Trogon
nar!na).—T\\\s is the only African
species, and is a native of Caffraria ;
Narina, whose name it bears, was
a Gonaqua Hottentot girl, whose
charms and manners appear to have
produced a great impression on Le
Vaillant (the discoverer of the Bird),
as he devotes some pages to her
in his " Travels."
According to the account of this
naturalist, the haunts of the Narina
Trogon are the thickest parts of the
forest ; and there it sits nearly
motionless, on a low dead branch
during mid-day : in the morning and
evening it captures its food, con-
sisting chiefly of Locusts, Beetles,
and other winged Insects, with the
addition of Caterpillars. Its flight
is short and rapid; and it darts
from its chosen perch on every pass-
ing Insect, returning to the statior
which it had left, or settling near it.
During the pairing season, the male,
which is at other times mute, utters
frequently a melancholy cry. The
eggs four in number, nearly round,
and of a rosy white hue, are laid in a
nest in the hole of a tree, and the
female sits for twenty days. !• ig.
in7 represents a male and female.
Male:-Bin yellow, with a tin'L of ^ue ; who,e of the head
throat, chest, shoulders, back, and upper tal-cover^s. resplen
green; breast and under f'^f^^/^^f^'^'^dlnef powdered wifh
brown, the greater coverts and seconaaries 1
greyish-white, the outer edge of e^^'^.f-^'^" havmg a ^^_^^^^^
metallic green ; two centre feathers ot ''^ ta ' g^^,,, side
two next on each side dark ohve-green the U rce
dark green at their base, largely tippea wiui
brownish-yellow. Mnselv resembling those of the
mal-^turd^trVe-lrd^ ^S^o^^^^^^^. beco'Lng paler on
THE ROLLERS.
the chest, which is slightly tinted with rosy pink ; lower part of the
abdomen and tail-coverts deep rose-red. Total length, eleven
inches and a quarter ; bill, one inch and an eighth ; wing, five inches
and a quarter ; tail, six inches and a-half ; tarsi, three-quarters of
an inch.
Fig. 1 1 36. — Mexican Trogons.
Reinwardt's Trogon (Trogon reinwardtii). — This species is
an example of the sub-genus Apaloderma, and is a native of Java
and Sumatra, where, however, it is rare ; or perhaps a tenant of the
remoter solitudes of the forests, and therefore escapes observation.
Fig. 1 138 represents an adult male and (the lower figure) a young
Bird.
Bill, bright reddish orange ; top of the head, back, and upper
tail-coverts dark green ; six middle tail-feathers black, with green
reflexions ; the bases of the three outer feathers on each side the
same colour as the middle ones, the remaining portions being white ;
centre of the wings and shoulders green, transversely rayed with fine
lines of yellow ; primaries black, with the exception of the outermost
web, which is white ; throat yellow ; ear-coverts, sides of the neck,
and chest olive-brown ; belly and under surface yellow, becoming
rich orange on the sides ; tarsi yellow ; bare skin round the eye
blue. Total length, from twelve inches and a-half to thirteen inches
and a-half; tail, seven inches and a-half; wing, five inches and
a-half.
Young : — Similar to the adult, particularly in the colours of the
back and tail — a circumstance, observes Mr. Gould, which rarely
occurs in the family, as in all the Trogons where the plumage of the
female differs much from that of the male, the young Birds generally
resemble the former ; while, as in the present case, where the sexes
are nearly alike, the young partake of the adult colouring, differing
only in the markings of the wings and the rufous brown tint of the
breast.
In the collection of the British Museum there are numerous
specimens of Trogons brought from South Africa, Nepaul, Brazil,
Mexico, and South America generally.
The Rollers — Family Coracidce.
The family of the Coracida, or Rollers, the last in this section of
the FiSSlROSTRES, presents a considerable resemblance to some of
the Conirostral and Dentirostral Birds, amongst which it was, in
fact, formerly placed. The bill in these Birds is elongated, broad at
the base, and compressed towards the tip, which is considerably
hooked, and sometimes slightly notched. (See Fig. 1139.) The
tarsi are short, and the toes moderately long, the outer toe being
sometimes free, or occasionally united to the middle one at the base.
The Birds referred to this group by Mr. G. R. Gray, form four
sub-families. Of these the Todies \Todi?ia;) and the Eurylairai
{EjirylaimincB) have been described at page 432, a7ite. The first of
these, the sub-family of the MomotincB, or Motmots, is distinguished
at once by the peculiar character of the bill, the lateral margins of
which are serrated. The wings are short and rounded ; the tail
■ long ; the outer toe is longer than the inner one, and united to the
middle one as far as the second joint, and the hind-toe is short and
I weak. The tongue is pectinated, like that of the Toucans ; and
from this circumstance, some of the species were described as
belonging to the genus Rhaviphastos. The name of Mofmofs,
applied to these Birds, is said to be their denomination in the
Mexican language, derived from their peculiar note.
Narina Trogons.
The Motmots are confined to the Tropical regions of America and
the West Indian Islands. They are found only in the deepest
recesses of the forests, and about the ruins of ancient buildings, on
which, and the branches of trees, they perch in solitude, with the
head drawn back between the shoulders, and every now and then
emit a sort of hoarse croak. In the morning and evening, however,
they show a great degree of activity in pursuit of the Insects which
constitute their principal sustenance ; these they take by pouncing
upon them after a short flight. They do not confine themselves to
such small game ; and as their average size is about that of a Black-
bird, they are able to prey upon Lizards and small Snakes, and even
occasionally upon small Birds. They are said to take these larger
objects up in the bill, throw them up into the air, and swallow them
as they fall. Fruits also form a portion of their food.
It is generally stated that they make their nests in the holes of
trees ; but Sir William Jardine mentions that the nest of a species of
this group was found in a bank of marl, and was of a rather com-
plicated construction. It commenced by an entrance-passage about
two inches and a-half in width, which ran in a straight line horizon-
tally to a depth of about five feet. It then turned at right angles,
and proceeded downwards for about five feet more, and at this point
terminated in an enlarged chamber, within which three young were
found, on the top of a mass of Maggots and the remains of Insects.
The Motmots are remarkable for a curious sort of mutilation which
they are supposed to practise on themselves. The two middle
feathers of the tail are considerably elongated, and in most specimens
the barbs are wanting on that part of the stem a little before the tip,
so that a portion of the shaft is left quite bare at this point. There
seems to be no other way of accounting for this than by supposing
that the Birds, probably from some mistaken notion of elegance,
must have deliberately picked off the barbs of the part of the
feathers.
The best known species is the Momotus brasilietisis, which is of
about the size of a Blackbird, and of a deep rich green colour, with
the forehead bluish, the back of the head violet, and the crown
black.
THE ROLLERS.
43:)
The Mexican Motmot {Momotus mexkanus ; Prionites
mexicanus). — Generic character : — Both mandibles sHghtly curved
and compressed ; the margins with strong denticulations. Tongue
long, slender; the sides ciliated. Wings short, rounded. Tail
lengthened, cuneatcd. Feet gressorial, as in the genus Mcrops.
Mr. Swainson (" Zool. Illus. ") states that the Motmots, or
Momots, " so named from their monotonous note, live only in the
tropical forests of the New World, preferring those deep recesses of
Fig. 1 138. — Reinwardt's Trogon.
perpetual shade, where a high canopy of matted foliage nearly
e,xcludes the rays of a vertical sun. They appear even more
solitary in their disposition than the trogons ; their note may be
heard, morning and evening, from the depths of the forests, but the
bird is never seen, unless the hunter comes unexpectedly upon its
retreat. This we have generally found to be a low withered branch
completely shaded, and just at the edge of such paths as are made
by the Cavies or the Indians. The jacamars and the trogons both
love these shady nooks, where they sit nearly motionless, watching
for passing insects, on which they dart. Such is, no doubt, the
manner in which the motmot feeds ; but his strong conformation
enables him to capture larger game. Travellers assert that he also
South America, are to be found in the collection of the British
Museum.
The True Rollers— Sub-family Coracina.
In the Coracutm, or Rollers, forming the last sub-family of this
group, the bill is elongated and compressed, higlier and more broad
at the base, and distinctly hooked at the tip, the extremity of the
Fig. 1139.— Head of the Roller.
devours the eggs and young of other birds, like the toucans ; this
we believe, as both have the same long and feathcr-Iike tongue."
The present species is green above, paler beneath ; the ear-coverts
are black, varied, and tipped with bright blue. (See Fig. 1 140.)
Numerous specimens of the Motmot, obtained fcom Central and
Fig. 1 140. — The Mexican Motmot.
upper mandible overhanging that of the lower one (Fig. 1139 Head
of Roller) ; the nostrils are basal, and the toes are all free at the
base.
These Birds, which are of moderate size, and usually adorned
with bright colours, are found only in the Eastern Hemisphere, and
especially in the warmer regions. Their food consists of fruits and
Insects. A single species, the common 'R.oW&i {Coracias garrula),
occurs in Europe, and occasionally visits this country. The follow-
ing is a description of this Bird : —
The Common Roller {Coracms garrula). — Bill moderate,
straight, the sides broad, but much compressed ; tip of the
upper mandible bent over that of the lower; nostrils basal,
oblique, linear ; gape very wide, with the edges bristled ; tarsi
short ; toes cleft to their base.
The Roller is only an accidental visitor to England, where,
however, it has been several times killed ; but there is some
reason to think that formerly, when our island oiTered exten-
sive forests for its shelter, that it was not uncommon, for it has
a name, "y Rholydd," in the ancient British language. It is
the Pica Marina and Pica Merdaria of the Italians ; Rollier
of the French; Birk-Heher, Blaue-Racke, and Mandel-
krahe of the Germans ; Spransk Kraka, Blakraka, and Alle-
kraka of the Swedes ; EUekrage of Brunnich.
On the continent this Bird has a very extensive range. In
Europe, it is found in Denmark, Sweden (where it arrives
with the Cuckoo), and the southern provinces of Russia ; is
more common in Germany than France, where, however, it has
been found in Provence ; and it has been taken at Gibraltar.
In Italy, it is said to be rather common, arriving in the
spring, and departing in September. In Malta and Sicily it is
e.xposed for sale in the shops of poulterers, and is said to
have the taste of a Turtle-Dove. In the Morea it is con-
sidered a delicacy in the autumn, when it is fat with its summer
food. It has been captured at Aleppo, and at Trebizond and
Erzeroum. It visits the countries between the Black and the
Caspian Seas ; and Dr. von Siebold and M. Burger include it
among the Birds of Japan. In North Africa it is found from Morocco
to Egypt ; flocks were seen by Adanson at Senegal, and he con-
440
THE ROLLERS.
eluded that they passed the winter there. Dr. Andrew Smith
records it among' the Birds of Soutli Africa.
The Roller is wild, shy, restless, and fierce, frequenting, by way
of preference, deep forests of oak and birch, where its harsh cry
may be often heard. In the " Annals of Nutural History " for 1839,
it is stated by a traveller in Asia Minor, that the Roller, which was
most common throughout the south and w-cst parts of the country
wherever the Magpie was not found (for it was not seen in the same
district with that Bird), was observed to fall through the air like a
Tumbler Pigeon. Temminck states that it makes its nests in the
holes of trees, where it lays from four to seven eggs of a lustrous
white. M. Vieillot states that in Malta, where trees are scarce, the
Fig. 1 141. — The Common Roller.
Bird builds on the ground. In Barbary it has been observed to form
its nest on the banks of the Sheliff, Booberak, and other rivers ; and
Pennant remarks, that where trees are wanting, it makes it in clayey
banks. These last modes of nidification bring it very close to the
Bee-eaters and Kingfishers, whose eggs quite resemble those of the
Roller in colour and shape, and only vary in size. The male takes
his turn to sit. The food is very varied, according to Temminck,
who enumerates Moles, Crickets, Cockchafers, Grasshoppers,
Millipedes and other Insects, Slugs, and Worms. Gould states
that it feeds on Worms, Slugs, and Insects generally. Yarrell
informs us that the food consists of Worms, Slugs, Insects in their
various stages, and berries. The colouring of this species is as
follows : — Bill black towards the point, becoming brown at the base
with a few bristles; irides of two circles yellow and brown ; head.
.r^iii^
Fig. 1 142. — The Abybsiuian Roller,
neck, breast, and belly various shades of verditer blue, changing to
pale green ; shoulders azure blue, back reddish-brown, rump
purple, wing-primaries dark bluish-black, edged lighter ; tail-feathers
pale greenish-blue, the outer ones tipped with black, those m the
middle also much darker in colour ; legs reddish-brown ; in old
males the outer tail-feathers are somewhat elongated.
Adult females differ but little from the males ; young Birds do not
attain their brilliant colour till the second year. Length, about
thirteen inehes. (See Fig. 1141.)
The Abyssinian Roller (Ccir^zc/^^j c*jjj/«/f«).— This species
of Roller is a native of Abyssinia, and in general habits resembles
the preceding, tenanting woods and forests. The colouring is as
Fig. 1 143. — The Oriental Swallow-Roller.
follows : — White round the bill ; body aquamarine green ; back and
wing-coverts cinnamon colour ; shoulders, rump, and quills, blue ;
tail green, the two middle feathers blue ; two long loose processes
terminating the two external quills. (See Fig. 1142.)
The Oriental Swallow-Roller {Eurystomiis orientalts). —
This genus is closely allied to Coracias, but the bill is shorter and
wider, and the wings longer than in that form. The Oriental
Swallow-Roller is a native of Java, the south of Australia, and
all the Polynesian islands. It is the Naytay-kin of the natives
of the neighbourhood of Sidney, DoUar-Bird of the colonists, and
Tiong-ba-tu of the inhabitants of Sumatra ; Coracias orientalts,
Linn. It is a Bird of rapid and vigorous flight, and feeds upon
various kinds of Insects. Its general colour is aquamarine green ;
the throat and point of the wing are azure : the quill-feathers black,
with a white bar ; tail black. (See Fig. 1143.)
The Green Leptosome [Lejiiosomus viridis). — From its zygo-
dactyle feet (two toes before and two behind), this Bird, with
others of the genus, has been placed, by most wTiters on ornithology
in the family of the Cuckoos {Cuculidcs). (See Fig. 1144.)
^:j^-
Fig. 1 144. — The Green Leptosome.
TENUIROSTRAL BIRDS.
441
CHAPTER XXVT.
CLASS II.-AVES, OR BIRDS; SUB-ORDER TENUIROSTRES, OR SLENDER-RITX BIRDS.
*■*:■<. A %.'^,iv>ipi HE name of this sub-orderof Birds is de-
26--: j»:-- - --i:— i-^'-- j.;ygj f^Q^ tenuis (Lat. slender), and ros-
trum, a beak. While the bill is always
slender, it is very variable in its length
and form, being sometimes perfectly
straight, and occasionally much curved.
The tip of the upper mandible is usually
entire and acute. The toes are elon-
gated, especially the hinder one, and
the outer toe is usually more or less
united to the middle one at the base.
While the leading character of these
Birds consists in the slendemess of the bill, many of
them certainly present an exceedingly close resem-
blance, even in the form of this organ, to the Birds
of the Dentirostres section, to be afterwards_ de-
scribed. Like them, also, their food consists princi-
pally of Insects, which, however, they generally capture
on plants and trees, rarely on the wing or on the
ground. The majority are destitute of the peculiar ar-
rangement of the lower larynx, by which the beautiful
songs of the Dentirostral Birds are produced.
Sub-divisions. — This group may be divided into
five great families. The first of these, the family
of the Certhiada, or Creepers, includes a _ great
variety of forms, and the characters by which it is circum-
scribed are exceedingly vague ; it may, in fact, almost be
regarded as a receptacle for all the Tenuirostral Birds which
cannot be embraced in any of the other families. The bill in
these Birds is more or less elongated, slender, and slightly arched ;
the tip of the upper mandible is acute, and usually entire ; the
nostrils are placed at the base of the bill, in a small groove, and
covered by a membranous scale. In the form and structure of the
wings and feet, these Birds exhibit many varieties ; but the legs are
usually short, and the toes long, and furnished with strong curved
claws. The trachea is furnished with an apparatus for singing, and
many of the species have a sweet song. The name of Creepers,
given to them collectively, indicates the mode of life of most of the
species ; they seek their Insect food by running about upon the
trunks and branches of trees, very much in the manner of the
Woodpeckers. With very few exceptions, they are all of small size.
Of the numerous sub-families into which the Certhiadce are
divided, that of the Troglody titles, or Wrens, approaches most
closely to the Dentirostres ; in fact, our common Wren has often
been placed by the side of the Golden-crested Wren, amongst the
Sylvida or Sylz'iadce. In the Wrens the tarsi are long and slender ;
the toes are long ; the outer one longer than the inner, and slightly
united to the middle toe at the base, the inner one being free. The
bill is usually slightly curved, and the tip of the upper mandible is
entire. The wings are short and rounded, and the tail, which varies
considerably in length, is usually rounded at the extremity.
This group includes at once the
largest and smallest members of
the family — namely, the diminutive
Wrens and the Australian Lyre-
Birds, which in bulk, and to a
certain extent also in appearance,
approach to Gallinaceous Birds.
In their general habits, the
TroglodytincB agree closely with
the common Wren {Troglodytes
viilgaris) ; and a short description
of the manners of this Bird will
consequently furnish a very fair
notion of those of the rest of the group. Fig. 1145 illustrates the
Head of the common Wren.
The Common Wren {Troglodytes vulgaris ; T. euroj>ceus\ —
This is the Troglodyte, Roytelet, Bouf de Dieu, Berichot, and Roy
Bertaud of the French ; Reillo, Regillo, Rectino, Reatin, Fiorracino,
Sericciolo, Re d'Uccelli, and Sbuccafratte of the Italians; Nelle
Konge of Brunnich ; Schneekonig, Konickerl, and Zaunschlupfrel of
Kramer ; Zaun Sanger of Meyer ; Haus und Waldzaunkonig of
Brehm ; Katy or Kitty Wren, and Kitty, provincial English ; Dryw
of the ancient British. (See Fig. 1146.)
This well-known Bird is spread over the whole of Europe, and is
everywhere noted for its familiarity and its sprightly habits. In our
island it is very common, and braves the severity of our winter,
flitting from spray to spray, and traversing the hedgerows with
restless activity. Its actions are very smart ; it takes short flights,
Fig. 1 145.— Head of the Wren.
alights on a twig towards the bottom of the hedge, flirts up its short
tail, utters a cry like chit-chit, and disappe.-irs in the maze of
branches like a Mouse, passing out on the other side, and repeating
its flight. In the depth of winter it frequents farm-yards, cow-sheds,
and similar places, both for the sake of shelter and food. The song
of this Bird is varied and pleasing ; and small as the warbler is, its
notes are loud and clear. We have often seen it on a sunshiny day,
even in the middle of winter, perched on a naked twig, singing with
great vivacity, evidently cheered by the transient gleam.
Fig. 1 146. — The Common Wren.
Throughout the greater part or whole of Europe the Wren is
King of Birds, Little King, King of Cold, Snow-King, &c. (Te
degii Uccelli, Roitelet, Roi de Froidure, Schnee-Konig, cSfc.) ; but
what has given rise to this title, which is as old as Aristotle, who
says it is called Upic^vq icai BaatXtvg, Elder and King, it is impos-
sible to conjecture.
Fig. 1147. — Nest of the Common Wren.
3L
442
THE WREN— THE LYRE-BIRD.
The Wren breeds early, and begins to prepare its nest in March ;
and various are the places chosen as a site, sometimes under the
thatched covering of an outhouse, sometimes in a niche or cavity
between the branches of a tree, often amidst the ivy covering aged
trees or old walls, or the side of a hayrick. It is a domed structure
with a small lateral aperture ; generally it consists externally of green
moss, but it varies the material according to situation and the colour
of the objects around ; on a stump or rock, for example, grey lichens
and withered grass compose its outer coating : internally it is lined
with hair, feathers, wool, and other soft mafcrials. We have seen
nests of this composed of fine dried grasses or hay, mixed with bits
of leaves, moss, and lichens.
The eggs are usually from six to eight in number, of a yellowish-
white, sprinkled, especially at the larger end, with reddish-brown.
It is a curious circumstance that the Wren often makes several
nests, deserting them when they are finished or nearly so ; these, it
is asserted, are the work of the male exclusively, during the incuba-
tion of the female, who labours, as it has been said, for the sake of
doing something, but never lines them with feathers. Are they not
rather structures which some circumstances have prevented the pair
from finishing ? Fig. 1147 illustrates the nest of the Wren.
Fig. 114S.— Lyre-Biids.
The House Wren.— The House Wren of the United States
{Troglodytes dojnesticd) appears to be far more familiar than our
native species. It constantly frequents gardens, and builds about
the houses, or in little boxes placed on purpose for it. It often
selects curious places for the reception of its home. Wilson men-
tions one instance of a mower who had hung up his coat in a shed,
and having left it for two or three days, found that the progress of
his arm into the sleeve was interrupted by a mass of rubbish, which,
on being extracted, proved to be a Wren's nest completely finished,
and ready for the reception of the eggs. The proprietors of the
nest were by no means satisfied with this termination of their labours,
but followed the destroyer for some distance, scolding him violently
for his unwarrantable interference in their household affairs. The
House Wren is said to be far superior as a songster to our Euro-
pean Wren. Like our Robin, the male is. exceedingly pugnacious,
and attacks, without hesitation. Birds of twice its size, who appear
inclined to trespass upon the domain which he has marked out
for his own. In these contests he is generally victorious. He has
also a very strong antipathy to Cats. Two or three other species
are found in the United States.
In the collection of the British Museum, London, there are
numerous specimens of the Wren tribe. Among these are the Plata
Wren, T. jtlafcnsis, from the Straits of Magellan ; the Equinoctial
Wren, T. ccquinoxialis, South America ; the Short-billed Wren,
and others from North America, besides specimens from Honduras,
&c.
The most remarkable species belonging to the Cerihiadcs, but
which have been assigned by some naturalists to a special family
called Meintrida, are the Lyre- Birds of Australia, of which at least
two species are known — viz., the Alenura superba, zx\?i.\\\ft ]\Ieiiura
alberti. The Common Lyre-Bird, Meniira stcpcrba, has been
arranged with very different groups by different authors, some
placing it with the Gallinaceous Birds, its apparent relation to which
is shown by the name. Wood Pheasant, sometimes given to it;
others with the Hornbills and the Hoazin,
amongst the Conirostres ; and others,
again, in the neighbourhood of the Thrushes.
It appears, however, to be most nearly allied
to the diminutive Birds of the present sub-
family of Tenuirosfres. In the following
article this Bird is more particularly de-
scribed.
The Lyre-Bird {Menura supcrba). —
It is to that eminent ornithologist, Mr.
Gould, that we are indebted for our know-
ledge of the habits of this species, which he
himself diligently investigated in its native
country ; and we shall therefore transcribe
part of his original observations.
" Perhaps no bird has more divided the
opinion of ornithologists, as to the situation
it should occupy in the natural system, than
the Menura ; and although more than fifty
years (1840) have now elapsed since the bird
was discovered, little or no information has
been hitherto published respecting its
economy and habits, as ornithologists have
had only its external structure to guide
them in their opinions. Aware of this fact,
I paid considerable attention to the subject
while in Australia, and, after a minute ob-
servation of the bird in a state of nature, I
am decidedly of opinion that it has not, as
has been very generally considered, the
most remote relationship to the GallinacecB ;
but that it forms, with the American genera
Pteroptochos, Scytalopus, and their allied
group, a family of the Insessorial order, to
which Troglodytes Amyt/s, St/pitun/s,
Malurus, Dasyornis, and Psophodes closely
assimilate in their habits, and of which
they will, in all probability, be hereafter
found to form a part. Notwithstanding the
great size of the Menura. and the extra-
ordinary form of its tail, in almost every
other point it presents a striking resem-
blance to its minute congeners ; like them
it possesses the bristles at the base of the
bill, but to a less extent ; the same unusual
mass of loose, flowing, hair-like feathers on
the back and rump, the same extraordi-
nary power of running, and the like feeble-
ness of flight: all which will, I trust, render
it evident that there are sufficient grounds
for the opinion I have here expressed.
Many intervening genera will, doubtless, yet
be discovered to complete the series of affinities : at all events, if, as
I am informed is the case, the young of Menura are helpless
and blind when hatched, it cannot with propriety be placed with the
Gallinacc(B.
" In the structure of its feet, in its lengthened claws, and in its
whole contour, the Lyre-bird presents the greatest similarity to the
Pteroptockos megapodius of Kittlitz. Another singular circum-
stance, by which their alliance is rendered still more evident, is the
fact that Pteroptochos differs from the other families of the Inses-
sorial order in having fourteen feathers in its tail, and that Menura
also differs in the same particular in possessing sixteen. The
immense feet and claws of these two birds admirably adapt them for
the peculiar localities they are destined to inhabit, and the same
THE LYRE-BIRD— THE NUTHATCHES.
443
beautiful modification of structure is observable in the other genera,
equally adapting them for tlie situations they are intended to fulfil.
Thus the Menura passes with ease over the loose stones and the
sides of rocky gullies and ravines, while the Maluri trip over the
more open and even ground, and the Dasyorni with equal facility
thread the dense shrubs and reed-beds. (See Fig. 1148.)
"The great stronghold of the Lyre-bird is the colony of New
South Wales. It inhabits equally the brushes on the coast and
those that clothe the sides of the mountains in the interior ; on the
coast it is especially abundant at the Western Port and lUawarra ;
in the interior, the cedar brushes of the Liverpool range, and, ac-
cording to Mr. G. Bennett, the mountains of the Tumat country, are
among the places of which it is a denizen.
"Of all the birds I have ever met with, the Menura is far the
most shy and difficult to procure. While among the mountains I
have been surrounded by these birds, pouring forth their loud and
liquid calls, for days together, without being able to get a sight of
them , and it was only by the most determined perseverance and
extreme caution that I was enabled to effect this desirable object ;
which was rendered more difficult by their often frequenting the
almost inaccessible and precipitous sides of gullies and ravines,
covered with tangled masses of creepers and umbrageous trees ; the
cracking of a stick, the rolling down of a small stone, or any other
noise, however slight, is sufficient to alarm it , and none but those
who have traversed these rugged, hot, and suffocating brushes, can
fully understand the excessive labour attendant on the pursuit of the
Menura. Independently of climbing over rocks and fallen trunks of
trees, the sportsman has to creep and crawl beneath and among the
branches with the utmost caution, taking care only to advance when
the bird's attention is occupied in singing, or in scratching up the
leaves in search of food ; to watch its action it is necessary to
remain perfectly motionless, not venturing to move even in the
slightest degree, or it vanishes from sight as if by magic.
"At Illawarra it is sometimes successfully pursued by dogs trained
to rush suddenly upon it, when it immediately leaps upon the branch
of a tree, and its attention being attracted by the dog below barking,
it is easily approached and shot. Another successful mode of pro-
curing specimens is by wearing a tail of a full-plumaged male in the
hat, keeping it constantly in motion, and concealing the person
among the bushes, when the attention of the bird being arrested by
the apparent intrusion of another of its own sex, it will be attracted
within the range of the gun. The Menura seldom, if ever, attempts
to escape by flight, but easily eludes pursuit by its extraordinary
power of running. None are so efficient in obtaining specimens as
the naked black, whose noiseless and gliding steps enable him to
steal upon it unheard or unperceived, and with a gun in his hand he
rarely allows it to escape, and in many instances he will even kill it
with his own weapons,
" The Lyre-bird is of a wandering disposition ; and although it
probably keeps to the same brush, it is constantly engaged in
traversing it from one end to the other, from the mountain base to
the top of the gullies, whose steep and rugged sides present no
obstacle to its long legs and powerful muscular thighs : it is also
capable of performing extraordinary leaps ; and I have heard it
stated that it will spring ten feet perpendicularly from the ground.
Among its many curious habits, the only one at all approaching to
those of the Gallinacece is that of forming small round hillocks,
which are constantly visited during the day, and upon which the
male is continually tramping, at the same time erecting and spread-
ing out its tail in the most graceful manner, and uttering its various
cries, sometimes pouring forth its natural notes, at other mocking
those of other birds, and even the howling of the native dog (Dingo).
The early morning and the evening are the periods when it is most
animated and active.
'' It may truly be said that the beauty of this bird lies in the
plumage of his tail, the new feathers of which appear in February
and March, but do not attain their full beauty until June : during
this and the four succeeding months, it is in its finest state ; after
this the feathers are gradually shed, to be resumed again at the
period above stated.
" The food of the Menura appears to consist principally of insects,
particularly centipedes and coleoptera ; I also found the remains of
shelled snails in the gizzard, which is very strong and muscular.
" The nest appears to be either placed on the ledge of a projecting
rock, at the base of a tree, or on the top of a stump, but always near
the ground ; and a cedar-cutter whom I met in the brushes informed
me that he had once found a nest, which was built like that of a
magpie, adding that it contained but one e.'g'g. The natives state
that the eggs are two in number, of a light colour, freckled with
spots of red. The nest seen by myself, and to which my attention
was drawn by my black companion, Natty, was placed on the pro-
rninent point of a rock, in a situation quite secluded from observa-
tion behind, but affording the bird a commanding view and an easy
retreat in front ; it was deep and shaped like a'basin, and had the
appearance of having been roofed ; was of a large size, formed out-
wardly of sticks, and lined with inner bark of trees and fibrous roots."
The Menura equals a common Pheasant in size, but its limbs are
longer m proportion, and its feet much larger ; the toes arc armed
with large, arched, blunt claws ; the hind-toe is as long as arc the
fore-toes (the length of these being nearly equal), but its claw is
larger than that of any of the others ; the scales of the tarsi and toes
are large bole plates, and their colour is glossy black ; the head is
small, the beak, as Cuvier has described it, is triangular at the base,
pointed and compressed at the tip; in the male the feathers of the
head are elongated into a crest ; the wings are short, concave, and
rounded, and the quill-feathers are lax and feeble ; the general
plumage is full, deep, soft, and downy. The tail is modified into a
beautiful long plume-like ornament, representing, when erect and
expanded, the figure of a lyre, whence the name of Lyre-Bird. This
ornamental tail is, however, confined to the male. In the female the
tail is long and graduated, and the feathers are perfectly webbed on
both sides of the shaft, although their texture is soft and flowing.
In the male the tail consists of sixteen feathers : of these (see
Fig. 1 149), the outer one on each side is broadly but loosely webbed
within, its outer web being narrow ; as it proceeds it curves out-
wards, bends in, and again turns boldly outwards and downwards,
both together resembling the framework of an ancient lyre, of which
the intermediate feathers are the strings ; these feathers, except the
Fig. 1 149. — Tail-feathers of the Lyre-Bird.
two central, which are truly but narrowly webbed on the outer side,
consist each of a slender shaft, with long filamentous barbulcs, at a
distance from each other, and spring out alternately. The appear-
ance of these feathers, the length of which is about two feet, is
peculiarly graceful ; their colour is umber-brown, but the two outer
tail-feathers are grey tipped with black, edged with rufous, and
transversely marked on the inner web with transparent triangular
bars. The general plumage of the Menura is umber-brown above,
tinged with olive, and merging into rufous on the wings, and also
on the throat. The under parts are ashy grey.
We next turn to —
The Nuthatches— Sub-family Sittince.
The Nuthatches form the sub-family SiflincE. They have the
toes very long and slender, furnished with long, compressed, curved
claws. The outer toe is longer than the inner one, and is united to
the middle toe, as far as the first joint. The inner toe is also slightly
united at the base.
The Nuthatch {Siila euro;pa:a).—1\\\% is, in all probability, the
444
THE NUTHATCHES— THE TRUE CREEPERS.
Sitte (SiVri;) of the Greeks, and Sitta of the Latins. It is the Ziolo,
Picchio grigio, Raparino, and Picchio formicajo of the Italians ;
Muratore of Savi ; Torchepot and Pic-ma^on of the French ; Kleiber
and Blauspecht of the Germans ; Notwacka and Notpacka of the
Swedes ; Spoett-merse of the Danes ; Nat Bake of Brunnich ;
Klener, Nusszhacker, of Kramer ; and Delor y cnau of the ancient
British. (See Fig. 1150.)
Fig. 1 150. —The Nuthatch.
The Nuthatch is found throughout Europe generally, and in the
central wooded countries it is tolerably abundant ; it inhabits many
parts of our island, but, according to Selby, is not seen farther north
than the banks of the Wear and Tyne : Montagu observes that it is
not to be met with in Cornwall.
The habits of the Nuthatch are partly those of the Creeper, and
partly of the Woodpeckers, yet differing in several particulars. The
tail affords no support to this Bird, yet it climbs well, not only
ascending and winding round the trunks of trees, but descending
with the utmost facility head foremost, which neither the Creeper
nor the Woodpecker attempts ; and on flying from tree to tree, it
usually alights with the head downwards, and in that position works
at the shell of the nut it is endeavouring to break. We had once an
opportunity of observing a small colony of these interesting Birds,
in a limited wood (if it deserved the name) of very old trees, near Mac-
clesfield in Cheshire ; the underwood consisted of wild raspberries and
hazel. These Birds were constantly in motion flying from tree to
tree, and travelling round the thick branches, or about the gnarled
and prominent bark surrounding holes formed by decay, ever and
anon uttering a clear whistling note ; we observed them take Insects
and search for them in the fissures of the bark ; but neither saw nor
heard them hammering at nuts ; for these, the season being spring
or the early part of the summer, were not matured. Nuts, however,
form a portion of their diet, and the strokes made by the Bird while
endeavouring to extract the kernel may be heard at a considerable
distance. It fi.xes them in some chink or cleft, and splits the shell
with repeated blows. Mr. Selby says that, "in autumn, many of
these broken nut-shells may be seen in the open bark of old trees,
in places where the birds abound, as they return repeatedly to the
same spot for this purpose."
The Nuthatch breeds in the holes of time-worn trees, and oc-
casionally selects the deserted habitation of a Woodpecker. Accord-
ing to Colonel Montagu and other observers, if the hole be too large,
the Bird plasters up a part with mud, so as to reduce the aperture to
the needful size, thus preventing the intrusion of larger Birds, or
perhaps, as a writer has suggested, forming a sort of guard, so as
to hinder the impatient nestlings from falling out, and being killed
on the spot. This habit of plastering is alluded to in one of the
French names for the Nuthatch — viz., Pic-ma^on. The female makes
a nest of a few dry leaves, and lays from five to seven eggs of a grey
white, spotted with reddish-brown ; she defends her young with
determined courage, hissing, and striking violently with her bill.
The Nuthatch is a bold Bird, of almost untameable disposition,
and will not endure confinement. An instance of its perseverance
and spirit is recorded in the " Magazine of Natural History :" — One
of these Birds, which had been winged by a sportsman, was put into
a small cage, made of oak and wire. During a night and day he
never ceased firom his efforts to escape, except to devour food,
which he did voraciously, regarding those about with fearless famili-
arity. This unfortunate Bird sank at the close of the second day
under the combined effects of his vexation, assiduity, and voracity.
The Rev. T. L. Bree mentions one which he caught in a common
brick trap : when the Bird w^as found, the bill appeared to be truncated,
and he inferred that it had been fairly ground down to about two-thirds
of its original length by the pecking of the Bird at the bricks.
The plumage of the Nuthatch above is of a fine blue grey. The
quills and base of tail-feathers, except the two middle ones, black ;
the outer tail-feather on each side with a black spot near the tip.
A black band passes from the bill through the eye down the sides
of the neck, ending abruptly near the shoulders ; throat whitish ;
rest of plumage below rufous brown blending into chestnut on the
flanks : bill and feet black ; iris hazel. Sexes alike.
Numerous species of Nuthatches occur in the United States, &c.
But their habits are all similar to that of the cemmon Nuthatch,
above described, and none of them possess any song. Several
specimens of the Sittince, from Europe, North America, &c., may be
seen in the British Museum.
The True Creepers— Sub-family CerthincB or Certhianm.
The Certhina, or True Creepers, are distinguished by having
the toes very long and slender ; the outer toe, which is longer than
the inner one, united to the middle toe
beyond the first joint, and the inner one
as far as the first joint. The hind-toe is
very long and slender, and all the claws
are long, much compressed, and curved.
The bill is usually very slender, and
considerably curved ; the wings are long,
and rather rounded, and the tail is usually
pretty long. The toes, in many cases, ex-
hibit an extraordinary degree of mobility ;
the hind-toe may be placed at right angles to its ordinary position, and
all the toes may be twisted so as to reverse the position of the claws.
This arrangement is of great ser\'ice to the Birds in their continual run-
ning upon the bark of trees, on which, like the Birds of the preceding
groups, they search for the Insects which constitute their principal
food. The species are not numerous, but they occur in both hemi-
Fig. 1151. — Foot of the
Brown Creeper.
Fig. 1152.— Wing of the Brown Creeper.
spheres, althoi;gh the greater part of them are inhabitants of the Old
World. One species is found in this country — the Brown Creeper
{Certhia familia}-is), of which the following is a description.
The Creeper {^Certhia familiaris'). — Common Creeper, Tree-
Creeper, Tree-climber ; probably the K«p6ioc of Aristotle ; le Grim-
pereau of the French ; Picchio piccolo, Pichietto, and Rampichino
of the Italians ; Baumlaufer, Kleinere Grau-specht, and Kleinste
Baum-hacker of the Germans; Krypare of the "Fauna Suecica;"
and y Grepianog of the ancient British. (See Fig. 1152.)
The Creeper is very common in our island,, and appears to have a
wide range through the Old World: an allied species {Certhia
americatia), once considered as identical with tlie European, is
found in the western and northern regions of America. The Creeper
is a fearless little Bird, common in groves and orchards, where it
may be observed spirally running up the stems of trees like a Mouse,
and using the sharp shafts of its tail-feathers as a prop or aid in its
ascent ; it is searching for food, and if closely watched may be seen
probing with its slender bill the various chinks and crevices of the
bark, whence it extracts the lurking Insect. Having finished its
examination of the stem of one tree, the upper part of which it has
rapidly attained, it does not attempt to descend, but flits away to
the next, and clinging to the bark, re-commences its scrutiny and
spiral ascent. The note of this Bird is weak and monotonous, and
is frequently repeated, especially during flight from tree to tree, or
while stationary. This interesting little Bird, one of the smallest of
our native feathered race, breeds early in the spring ; its nest is
placed in the hole of some decayed tree, and is composed of dried
grass and fibres of bark, lined with feathers ; the eggs are from
seven to nine in number, ash-coloured with dusky spots. The
Creeper has the shafts of the tail-feathers prolonged and stiff; and
this character is still more developed in the American ^cuMsDc/idro-
colaptes, but is lost in the genus Tichodroma.
THE TRUE CREEPERS.
445
The V^ k\.'L-C'?.v.^ve.v.[Tkhodroma muraria ; T. j)hcBtiicoptera,
Temm.) — T. miiraria, Bonap. ; Certhia fuuraria, Linn.; Grim-
pereau de muraillo, and Pic do muraillc, Ternier, and Eschclctte of
the French ; Picchio muraiolo and Piccliio di muro of the Italians ;
Mauer Baum-laufer of tlie Germans.
This elegant Bird is a native of the mountain districts of middle
and southern Europe, but is not indigenous in our island. It
frequents the bold precipitous rocks of the Alps, the Apennines, and
Pyrenees ; the hoary ruins of castles and other buildings which top
the frowning- heights of Alpine scenery are attractive localities;
Creepers and Nest.
there it flits from crag to crag, from crevice to crevice, not creeping
Mouse-like, as does our little Certhia, up the bark of trees, tut
taking short flights from point to point ; assiduous in quest of Insects,
and especially Spiders and their eggs, which are stated to be a
favourite food. From the difference in habits between this Bird and
our Creeper, we can at once account for the absence of stiff springy
Fig. 1 154.— The Wall-Creeper.
shafts in the feathers of the tail. This Bird is rather a dinger than a
climber ; it flits from projection to projection, securing itself by its
claws, which are remarkably large and powerful, Temminck says
that what the Creeper docs on trees, this Bird docs against the pre-
cipitous faces of rocks, where it firmly fi.xes itself, but without
mounting or descending by creeping.
The Wall-Creeper breeds in the cliffs of inaccessible rocks, or in
the crevices of ruins which beetle above the tremendous precipice
The general colour of this Bird is delicate grey ; the shoulders
and larger wing-coverts being lively crimson, as are also the inner
edges of the secondary quill-feathers; the rest of the quill-feathers
are black, as is the tail, whicli is marked at the extremity with
white. In the male, the throat during the spring acquires a deeo
black colour, lost at the autumnal moult. The beak is long gcnllv
arched, and pointed ; the wings are rounded. Length si.x inches and
a-half. (See Fig. 11 54.)
The Curve-billed Creeper {Dcndrocolaptes ^mcurvus,
Temm.)— 1 his Bird, as the character of the claws and the stiff-pointed
shafts of the tail-feathers sufficiently indicate, is a decided climber
It is a native of the forests of Brazil. The bill is about an inch and
three-quarters long, rather strong, and considerably curved • the
claws are hooked and channelled ; the tongue is short and carti-
laginous. In size this Creeper equals a common Blackbird. The
general colour is cinnamon-brown, with a tinge of grey about the
head, which, as well as the neck, is spotted with white. (See Fi-^
1155.) It forms the-type of the sub-i^mWy DcndrocolaMineB, of whidi
there is another species called Xyphorynclms.
Fig. 1 1 55- — The Curve-billed Creeper.
The tail-feathers are also frequently pointed in another sub-family,
that of XheSynaUaxhicB, in which the outer toe is longer than the
inner one, and united to the middle toe nearly as far as the first
joint. The inner toe is slightly united at the base, the hind-toe is
long and strong, and the claws are strong and curved. The bill is
not very long, slender, compressed, and pointed ; and the tail is
usually long and pointed. These Birds are found, like the Dendro-
colapimcc, only in the forests of Tropical America, where they capture
Insects upon the trees and bushes, and frequently also visit the
ground in search of Worms, small Snails, &c. They are remarkable
for the large size of their nests, that of one species measuring three
or four feet in length. It is placed in low trees or bushes, and
composed externally of small sticks, so that, at a little distance, it
looks like a twisted mass of stalks which have been accidentally
thrown into this position. Internally, it is divided by a partition
into two chambers, one of which serves as an entrance-hall, the
eggs being laid upon a lining of feathers in the inner one. Numerous
specimens of the Synanaxincs, from South America, may be seen
in the British Museum.
The last sub-family is that of the FurnarincB, or Oven-Birds, in
w^hich the outer toe is but little longer than the inner, and only
slightly united at the base ; the inner toe is entirely free. This
group of small Birds is very generally distributed over the continent
of South America, and some species occur in the West Indian
islands. In their general habits, the species resemble the Synal-
laxiiKX, seeking their food, which consists principally of Insects,
both upon trees and bushes and on the ground, where they run and
walk with great ease. They also occasionally feed on seeds. The
species of the genus Cine/odes, inhabiting the west coast of South
America, frequent the sea-shore, where they feed partly on small
Crabs and Mollusca. Mr. Darwin says they are sometimes seen on
the floating leaves of the Fucus gigantciis, at some distance from
the shore. A species of this genus, described by Lesson under the
name ai Ficrnariiis fttliginosus, is said to be so tame, that it may
be almost touched by the hand ; and Pernerty, a French voyager,
slates that it will almost come and perch upon the finger: he adds,
that in less than half-an-hour he had killed ten of them with a little
446
THE OVEN-BIRDS.
stick, and also without changing his position. Fig. 1 156 represents
this Oven-Bird.
The typical Furnaria, to which the name of Oven-Birds is pro-
perly applied, build a very remarkable nest. It is constructed of
clay, straw, and dried herbage of different kinds, in the form of an
oven, about six or eight inches in diameter, and with walls about an
inch thick. The entrance is placed on one side, and the interior is
divided into two chambers by a partition, the eggs being laid in the
inner one. This curious nest is usually placed in a very exposed
situation— as, for instance, on the branch of a tree, or the top of a
paling.
Fig. 1 156. — The Oven-Bird.
Several species of Oven-Birds have been discovered ; and numer-
ous specimens may be seen in the British Museum.
The Climacteris {Climacte7-is pkumfiws). — This genus holds
also a doubtful place among the CcrtliiadcB. It is thus characterised
by Temminck : — Bill short, weak, very much compressed through-
out its length, but little curved, oval-shaped ; mandibles equal,
pointed ; nostrils basal, lateral, covered by a naked membrane.
Feet robust ; tarsi of the length of the middle toe, which, as well as
the hallux, are extraordinarily long ; claws large and curved,
channelled on the sides, subulate, very much hooked ; external toe
united up to the second articulation, the internal toe as far as the
first ; lateral toes very unequal. Wings moderate ; first quill short,
second shorter than the third, which last and the fourth are the
longest.
Of this genus two species were at first known, C. ^icuinmis and
C. scaiideiis ; but others have been added. All are natives
of Australia. They are excellent climbers, traversing the hollow
limbs, or spouts, as they are usually termed, of aged Eucalypti,
and the rugged bark of decayed trees, in quest of Insects, on
Fi^- 1157. — The Climacteiis,
which they prey. They incubate in the holes of trees, and the eggs
are white. (See Fig. 1 157.)
The Climacteris picuinnus is a native of the north coast of
Australia, Timor, and the Celebes. Its colouring is as follows: —
Summit of the head deep grey ; nape and neck bright grey ; wings
and two middle feathers of the tail brown ; a large nankeen-coloured
band passes nearly through the middle of the quills. Tail-feathers
black, except at their origin and extremity. Throat and cheeks dirty
white. Breast grey. Feathers of the lower parts white in the middle,
bordered with brown. Lower coverts of the tail Isabella-colour,
marked with transverse brown spots. Length six inches six lines.
The Spine-tailed Orthonyx [Orthonyx spinicaudatus,
Temm.) Orthonyx tcmmi7ickii, Vigors, " Linn. Trans. " — The
Orthonyx appears to be closely related to the Climacteris ; but
though its tail be spine-tipped (the stiff shafts passing beyond the
broad part of the feathers), it is far less arboreal in its habits than
that species ; its claws, indeed, though large and strong, are but
slightly curved, and therefore but little adapted, upon the principle
of grappling-irons, for clinging tenaciously to the bark of trees.
The Orthonyx is in fact a ground-climber : it frequents rough banks,
broken plots of ground, and similar localities, which it explores,
traversing the irregularities of the ground, and the mouldering
trunks of fallen trees, in quest of Coleopterous Insects, which appear
to form its chief food. In its progress it is greatly assisted by its
tail, which is generally found to be considerably worn, as in the
specimens Mr. Gould kindly permitted us to examine. This
Bird is a native of Australia.
The general colour is a rusty brown above, lineated with black ;
the lesser wing-coverts are grey streaked with brown ; the tail is
dusky brown, with the stiff shafts prolonged beyond the webs. In
the male the throat and upper part of the breast is white : in the
female rufous orange. The bill is short and stout, compressed at
Fig. 1 158. — The Spine-tailed Orthonyx — Upper figure, female; lower, male.
THE HONEY-EATERS.
447
the sides : the win-s are rounded ; the feet large and strong ; the
tarsi elevated, in accordance with terrestrial habits ; he feathers of
the top of the head arc capable of bein- elevated and depressed at
pleasure. Si/e that of a Lark. Of the two figures, the lower is the
male, the upper the female. (See Fig. 1158.)
The Honey-eaters— Family McUpiagidce.
In the MclMa^ida:, or Honey-caters, the bill is rather long
curved acute, and slightly notched at the tip ; the nostrils are placed
in a larc'e "•roove ; the wings have the first three quills graduated ;
the tailTs long and broad fthe tarsi short and stout; and the toes
eloncrated, wi'th the outer one always united to the middle toe at the
base? The tongue is long, protrusible, and terminated by a little
tuft or pencil of fibres, which are of great service to the Bird in extract-
in-^ the nectar of flowers. They arc usually destitute of any song.
These small Birds are for the most part peculiar to Australia, but
some species are found in New Zealand, New Guinea, and the
adjacent islands. The habits of all the species are very uniform
They frequent the flowering shrubs and trees {Eucalyptus especially),
visitino- the flowers for the sake of the pollen and the nectareous
juices secreted by them, and also in search of the small Insects
which are attracted to the same situation by the same cause. Some
of the larger species also feed upon fruits. Their nests are some-
times made in bushes, occasionally suspended from the extremities
of slender twigs. They generally lay two eggs.
small tufts of white feathers hanging down upon the sides of the
neck. These white tufts have been compared to a pair of clerical
bands, and, taken in conjunction with the black plumage of the rest
of the body, have obtained for the Prosthcinadoa the name of the
Parson-Bird. It is a fine songster, and imitates every sound that
reaches its ear, even learning to speak with great ease and fluency.
It is exceedingly lively and restless, and feeds principally upon Flics
and small Insects, which it is very expert in catching. It also
eats Worms and fruits. Its flesh is said to be delicious. (See
Fig. 1 160.)
Fig. Iij9. — New Holland Honey-eater.
Mr. G. R. Gray divides these Birds into three sub-families. In
one of these, the MelitIirej)ti?iCB, the bill is short and conical, acute
at the tip, with the ridge of the upper mandible slightly curved, and
its tip usually notched ; and the wings are rather long, the fourth to
the seventh quills being generally longest. These Birds are confined
to the Australian continent.
In the two other groups the bill is long, slender, curved, and
acute, with the tip of the upper mandible slightly notched. Of
these, the typical sub-family of the Meliphagince is distinguished
by having the wings rounded, the fourth, fifth, and sixth quills being
the longest.
These Birds are found in all the localities above mentioned, and
several of the New Zealand species are considerably larger than the
ordinary run of the Birds of this family. One of these, the Prosthe-
madera 7iovcs selandics, the Poe-Bird, or Tui of New Zealand, is
about the size of a Thrush, of a fine, glossy, black colour, with two
Fig. 1160— The Poe-Bird.
Another species peculiar to New Zealand is the Pogonnrnis cincfa,
which is remarkable for the great length of the tufts of feathers oyer
the cars ; these are erected when the Bird is alarmed, and give it a
very singular appearance. t.- ^ it j.-j
A remarkable" Australian species is the Friar-Bird {Trop^do-
rkytichus corniculatus), which has the head and neck bare of
feathers, and a curious tubercle at the base of the bill. Its voice is
loud and very singular, some of its notes having a certain degree ot
resemblance to particular words ; and several of its colonial names
such as Poor Soldier, Pimlico, and Four o'Clock, have been derived
from these notes. Its name of Friar-Bird alludes to its bare head,
and the same character has obtained for it the denominations of the
Monk and the Leather-head. . . ,■ • r „ •-
Our illustrations represent two common Australian species of thib
Fig. 1 161, — The WaltlcJ Honey-eater of Australia — Male and Female.
448
THE HUMMING-BIRD.
group — the New Holland or Australian Honey-eater (Aleh'Ji^iaga
novcs hollandice, Fig. 1159), and the Wattled Honey-eater, or Brush
Wattle-Bird {Ajithochccra carii7icu!ata, Fig. 1161). The latter
Bird frequents the Banksias, when these are in flower ; and as the
occurrence of these trees is a sign that the land is not good for much ,
Mr. Gould observes that the note of the Wattle-Bird may warn the
settler from making a barren purchase. This note is described as
very harsh and disagreeable, resembling the noise made by a person
vomiting; the native name, Goo-gwar-ruck , is said to be an imita-
tion of it.
The third sub-family, that of the Myzomelincc, or Honey-creepers,
is distinguished from the preceding by having the third and fourth
quills longest. In their habits and mode of life they resemble the
true Honey-eaters.
In the British Museum, the Honey-eaters are well represented
by stuffed specimens. Among these may be named the Black
and Yellow Honey-eater, Meliphaga ^hrygia; the Tuft-eared, J/.
acincoriiis; the White-eared, 1\I. leiicotis; the Golden, ]M. chrysotis,
with many others from Australia, Tasmania, Timor, New Zealand, &c.
The Humming-BiRDS— Family Trochilid(S.
The Humming-Birds are among the least and most brilliant of the
feathered race. Winged gems, they glance with dazzling effulgence
as they dart along or hover over the fragrant flowers, draining the
nectary of its liquid sweets. No Birds excel them in powers of
flight ; their long and narrow wings are admirably adapted for
aerial progression. The quill-feathers are stiff, firm, and elastic,
and furnished with rigid shafts, in some instances singularly
developed. The tail is variable. The plumage is close and com-
pact, and resembles an arrangement of fishes' scales, glittering, in
the males, with metallic lustre. The tarsi are very small and short :
and the toes, three before and one behind, are very delicate. The
ground is never their resting-place ; they perch on slender twigs,
but arc mostly on the wing. If we look at the tiny skeleton of one
of these Birds (Fig. 1162), we shall
be struck by the great depth and
extent of the keel of the breast-
bone, the length of the scapulae,
and the comparative insignificance
of the legs. The whole muscular
force is, in fact, concentrated upon
the organs of flight ; the pectoral
muscles, in comparison with the
size of the Bird, exceed in volume,
perhaps, those of any other of the
feathered race ; and all the other
muscles for working the wings are
in just accordance. Looking at
the skeleton alone, the comparative
anatomist would say the greatest
portion of the life of these Birds, all their active existence, is passed
on the wing. The primary quill-feather is always the longest. The
beak is long and slender, but very variable in its form, being straight,
curved, and, in some species, even turned up. The tongue is long,
bifid, or split into two filaments, tubular, and capable of being darted
out to a considerable distance. As in the Woodpeckers, it is the
principal instrument by means of which they obtain their food — viz..
Insects of various kinds and the nectar of flowers ; and it is protruded
by the same arrangement of the cartilaginous continuation of the
OS hyoides winding round the skull to the forehead. With respect
to the tongue itself. Lesson describes it as composed of two musculo-
fibrous cylinders, soldered to each other so as to resemble in some
degree a double-barrelled gun : but these tubes towards the tip
become separated and enlarged, each presenting a little blade,
which is concave within and convex externally. Sir W. Jardine
confirms the account given by Lesson, as does also Brisson, as far as
he was enabled to discover by an examination of the parts moistened
with water, after having been dried ; but he adds, that it appeared
to him, on investigating the structure of the tongue of the Trochtlus
vioschatus thus relaxed, that its tip presented a fimbriated opening,
having the exterior margin of each fork set with recurved, sharp-
pointed, pliable spines, as if to assist its viscidity in securing any
substance seized by them. Fig. 1163 represents the bill and tongue
of the Humming-Bird, after Lesson : a, the head profile, the tongue
protruded from the bill, and showing its bifurcation ; the two branches
of the OS Jiyoides seen surrounding the cranium ; b, the same seen from
above, the two branches of the os hyoides uniting at a pointed angle
in front ; c, the same seen from below ; d, the tongue much magni-
fied, with some of the soft parts dissected away, but adhering to the
OS hyoides and its branches, as well as to the larynx seen from above ;
c, the same seen from below, with the os hyoides only, and the two
lamellffi of its point separated ; f, portion of the tongue, very much
magnified, seen from above, so as to convey the idea of the manner
in which the cylinders that form it are united ; g, the lower side of
the same. The senses of sight and hearing are highly acute in the
Fig.
1 162. — Skeleton of Ilumming-
Bii-d.
Humming-Birds ; and so, from the structure of the tongue and its
ofBce, we may conclude that of taste to be.
These gorgeous Birds are all natives of America. As we recede
from the tropics on either side, the numbers decrease, though some
species are found in Mexico, and others in Peru, &c., in South
America. They are also found in Barbadoes, San Domingo, Hon-
duras, and various parts of Central America, and a few in the North
American continent.
The velocity with which the Humming-Birds glance through the
air is extraordinaiy, and so rapid is the vibration of their wings, that
the action eludes the sight ; when hovering before a flower, they
seem suspended as if by some magic power, rather than by the
vigorous movement of their rigid pinions, which, however, produce a
constant murmur or buzzing sound, whence the English title by
which we designate these Birds, and the Creole epithets in Cayenne
and the Antilles — viz., Murmures, Bourdons, and Frou-frous.
Fitj. 1 163. — Bill and Tongue of Humming-Bird, dissected.
It has been frequently and justly observed, that in their mode of
flight the Humming-Birds closely resemble the Sphinx-Moths, or the
Dragon-Flies. Mr. Darwin, in his " Journal," states, that while at
Bahia, he started early one morning and walked to the top of the
Gavia, or Topsail Mountain. "The air was delightfully cool and
fragrant, and the drops of dew still glittered on the leaves of the
large filaceous plants which shaded the streamlets of clear water.
Sitting down on a rock of granite, it was delightful to watch the
various insects and birds as they flew past. The humming-birds
seem particularly fond of such shady retired spots ; whenever I saw
these little creatures buzzing round a flower with their wings vibra-
ting so rapidly as to be scarcely visible, I was reminded of the
sphinx-moths ; their movements and habits are, indeed, in many
respects very similar." There are, however, exceptions to this rule ;
Mr. Darwin, describing the Trocki/ns gigas, which, as he observed,
had arrived in the neighbourhood of Valparaiso in numbers a little
before the vernal equinox, adds — " It comes from the parched
deserts of the north, probably for the purpose of breeding in Chile.
When on the wing the appearance of this bird is singular. Like the
others of tlie genus, it moves from place to place with a rapidity
which may be compared to a syrphus amongst dipterous insects and
a sphinx amongst the moths ; but whilst hovering over a flower, it
flaps its wings with a slow and very powerful movement, totally
different from that vibratory one, common to most of the species,
which produces the humming noise. I never saw any other bird
the force of whose wings appeared so powerful in proportion to the
weight of its body." These brilliant creatures are an intrepid,
daring race, and extremely pugnacious, and cannot endure the
approach of one even of their own species, still less of any other Bird
near their breeding-places.
With respect to the voice of the Humming-Birds, we have reason
to believe that it consists only of a shrill cry; such is Lesson's
assertion, who remarks, that it is uttered chiefly on the wing, or
THE HUMMING-BIRDS.
449
under the excitement of anger, &c., and that they are most frequently
mute ; others, however, assert that they utter a song, which state-
ment, if at all correct, is only applicable to a few species. Bullock
speaks of a minute species in Jamaica, to which he listened, in the
Botanical Garden of that island, as it poured forth its " slight
querulous note."
It would appear, from Mr. Bullock's statement, that Humming-
Birds often avail themselves of the Insects caught in Spiders' webs,
not, however, without the Spiders endeavouring not to devour, but
drive them away, instances of which he relates. In sleeping,
according to the same authority, these beautiful Birds, the Mexican
Star, frequently suspend themselves by the feet, with the head
downwards.
The nests of the Humming-Birds are most beautiful, compact
structures, with exquisite finish and nicety of arrangement. We
have seen one composed of the finest silky down, or cotton, of a
delicate straw-yellow, soft, light, and compact, attached to the end
of a twig, and concealed by leaves. In some cases the outside is
formed of fine moss, lichens, &c., investing a compact bed of the
down of plants, cotton, and even Spiders' webs. Figs. 1 164 and
1165 are the nests of Humming-Birds (from Lesson.) These are
covered on the outside with bits of lichen, leaves, moss, &c. One
contains two white eggs (the usual number and colour of the eggs
of these Birds), of an elongated form.
In some districts, undoubtedly, the Humming-Birds arc migra-
whole of the throat and fore-part of the neck is of a deep fiery ruby
tint in some lights ; in others, of a burnished crimson or orange
glow ; in others, velvet-black : under parts greyish-white mi.xed with
green. Quills and tail purplish-brown. The female is destitute of
the ruby throat, which is white, as arc the under parts generally.
Length three inches and a-half. Fig. 1 166 represents the Female
and Nest.
The Douei.E-CRERTED Humming-Bird {Orniswya chryso-
lofha. Lesson). Irochilus biloplius, Temm.— This is a most
gorgeous species. Two flattened fan-shaped crests, each com-
posed of six small feathers, part from the forehead on a level with
the eyes. The brilliancy of these crests surpasses description,
glistening as they do with the hues of polished gold and red copper,
changing into the gemmy tints of the ruby and emerald, now fire-
coloured, anon the purest green, and presently the brightest yellow.
The scaly feathers of the forehead between the two crests sparkle
with metallic uniform green, changing to steel or sapphire blue. A
camail oi dark changeable violet extends from the throat behind
the eyes, and descends along the sides of the neck to terminate in a
point of long feathers before the breast. This uncertain violet,
graduating into a non-metallic blue, with its velvety very dark tint,
is sharply defined on the milk-white of the breast, which extends to
the lower part of the neck, so as to form a rather large white collar.
The lower part of the belly is white ; but the middle of the abdomen
and the flanks are, like the back, golden green, with which is
Fig. 1 1 64. — Nest of Humming-Bird.
Fig. 1 1 65. — Nest of Humming-Bird with Eggs.
Fig. 1 166. — Ruby-throated Humming-Bird and Nest.
tory, such as the Northern or Ruby-throated species. Mr. Darwin,
after adverting to two species common in Chile, and a third found
on the Cordilleras at an elevation of about ten thousand feet,
observes — " In Central Chile these birds are migratory; they make
their appearance there in autumn, and in the latter end of the
month corresponding to our October they are very common. In the
spring they begin to disappear, and on the 12th of what would
correspond to our March I saw only one individual. As this species
migrates to the southward, it is replaced by the arrival of a larger
kind (the Trochilus g/gas). I do not believe the small kinds breed
in Chile, for during the summer their nests were common to the
south of that country. The migration of the humming-birds, both
on the east and west coast of North America, corresponds to what
takes place in this southern continent. In both cases they move
towards the tropic during the colder parts of the year, and retreat
before the returning heat. Some, however, remain during the whole
year in Tierra del Fuego ; and in Northern California (which in the
northern hemisphere has the same relative position which Tierra del
Fuego has in the southern), some, according to Captain Beechey,
likewise remain."
The species of Humming-Bird are so numerous that wa- are
compelled to make a limited selection embracing the following
specimens. Here we may remark that the word Trochilus is the
Greek for the Wren. Hence the term is applied to these Birds as
resembling in some respects the Wren.
The Ruby-throated Humming-Bird' {Trochilus colubris). —
The Ruby-throated Humming-Bird usually arrives in Pennsylvania
about the 25th of April, but in Louisiana it has been observed as
early as the loth of March. It has all the manners of its race; it
hovers around the blossoms of trees and shrubs, giving preference to
tubular flowers, not so much for the sake perhaps of the honey, as
of the Insects which crowd the nectary to feed upon its sweets.
That Insects, and those too of the Coleopterous order, constitute a
great portion of the food of this species, has been proved by dissec-
tion.
The general colour of the upper parts of this species, including
the two central tail-feathers, is green with gold reflexions. The
mingled a little of the greyish colour of the base of the feathers.
Back and sides of the head behind, back, and feathers of the rump,
metallic golden green. Quills brown ; tail long, narrow, and much
Fig. 1 167. — The Double-crested lUimming-BirJ.
graduated. Length four inches and a-half, including the long tail
and bill. (See. Fig. 1167.)
The Cora Humming-Bird fOmismya cora, Less.) — This
species is a native of Peru, and especially the plains of Lima. The
bill is slender, the tarsi feeble and short, the tail graduated with the
3M
450
THE HUMMING-BIRDS.
two middle feathers greatly prolonged ; the wings are purpled
brown : the general plumage above bright golden green ; the throat
and front of the neck sparkle with the violet tint of the amethyst,
and a white gorget marks the limits of the scaly feathers ; flanks
and under parts golden green ; lateral tail-feathers brown with
giving additional powers to the wing, which is of a sabre-shape and
admirably adapted for rapid flight. (See Fig. 1169.)
The Bar-tailed Humming"-Bird {Orm'smya sa;ppho, Lesson).
Trochihis sparganuriis, Shaw ; T. chrysochloris, Vieill. — This
brilliant species, a native of Eastern Peru, is at once to be distin-
Fig. 116S. — The Cora IIuniming-Bird.
white borders ; two central white with black tips. Total length
nearly six inches, of which the tail measures three and a-half. {See
Fig. 1 168.)
Fig. 1 170. — The Bar-tailed IIumming-Birtl.
guished by the shape of its tail, which is forked to the base, and
thus consists of two diverging portions, each containingfive feathers,
graduating in length one beyond another. Their colour is of the
Fig. 1 169.— The Sickle-winged Humming-Bird.
The Sickle-winged Humming-Bird (Campylopterus fal-
catus). — This species is a native of the Spanish Main. Its colours
are dazzling : the prevailing tint is' refulgent green ; the throat and
breast shining blue ; the tail rufous cinnamon. The outer quills of
the wings are singularly curved, and have strong dilated shafts,
Fig. 1 17 1. — Gould's Humming-Bird.
richest flame or bright orange red, with a dazzling metallic lustre, and
a broad mark of black at the tip. The upper surface is fine golden
green; the under surface bright emerald-green. (See Fig. 1 170.)
Gould's Humming-Bird {Omisviya goiildii. Lesson). — The
forehead, throat, and upper part of the breast of this kind are of the
most brilliant green, the feathers being of a scaly form. From the
crown springs a pyramidal crest of bright chestnut colour, and
capable of "being raised up or depressed at pleasure. The
back and upper parts are golden green, crossed upon the rump with
a whitish band. The wings and tail are brownish-purple, the latter
having the centre feathers tinged with green. The sides of the
neck are adorned with tufts, producing a chaste but brilliant effect ;
these tufts consist of narrow feathers, arranged so as to form a fan,
which are of snowy whiteness, each having at its tip a spot of bright
emerald-green surrounded by a darker border. (See Fig. 1171-)
THE SUN.BIRDS.
4S«
The Recurved-Bill Humming-Bird (Trochihts reairvi-
rostris). — In this species, which appears to be a native of Peru,
the bill is singularly turned up at the point, in order, it has been
suggested, to enable the Bird to roach the nectaries of the Bigonicc,
whose corollaj are long and generally bent in the tube. The general
colour is golden green ; the throat shining cmerald-grecn ; middle
of the breast and of the under surface black ; lateral tail-feathers
beneath, topaz. (See Fig. 1172.)
Mr. Dallas remarks, that one of the most beautiful species is the
Long-tailed Emerald Humming-Bird {Ti-ochiliis ^olyfmiis), the
male of which is furnished with a most elegant forked tail, the two
outer feathers being greatly prolonged, and very slender. The whole
lengtli of the Bird is a little more than ten inches, but about seven
inches and a-half of this is made up by the elongated feathers just
mentioned. The head and the back of the neck of this little gem
are deep velvet-like black ; the whole of the back, with the wing and
tail-coverts, golden-green ; the wings and tail are purplish, or bluish-
black. The entire lower surface of the body is of a most gorgeous
emerald-green colour, except the neighbourhood of the vent and
lower tail-coverts, which are black. The bill is bright red, tipped
with black, and the feathers of the back of the head are elongated,
forming a sort of crest, which can be erected to a certain extent.
Mr. Gosse, who has denominated this species " the gem of American
ornithology," gives the following account of its appearance in a
state of nature, in his interesting work, entitled, " A Naturalist's
Sojourn in Jamaica." " While I was up in a calabash tree," he
says, "the beautiful long-tailed humming-bird came shooting by
with its two long velvet-black feathers fluttering like streamers
behind it, and began to suck at the blossoms of the tree in which I
was. Quite regardless of my presence, consciously secure in its
power of wing, the lovely little gem hovered around the trunk, and
threaded the branches, now probing here, now there, its cloudy wings
on each side vibrating with a noise like that of a spinning-wheel,
and its emerald breast for a moment flashing brilliantly in the sun's
ray ; then apparently black, all the liglit being absorbed ; then, as
it slightly turned, becoming a dark olive ; then, in an instant,
blazing forth again with emerald effulgence. Several times it came
close to me, as I sat motionless with delight, and holding my breath
for fear of alarming it, and driving it away ; it seemed almost worth
a voyage across the sea to behold so radiant a creature in all the
wildness of its native freedom."
The smallest species is the Mellisuga minima, a native of South
America and the West Indian islands, which measures only an inch
and a quarter in length, and is consequently not larger than many of
the Bees, and much smaller than some of the Moths, which dispute
with it the right of searching its favourite flowers. Its general
colours are the same as in the Ruby-throated Humming-Bird,
already described, but it wants the beautiful red throat of that
species.
The British Museum possesses some beautiful specimens of
Humming-Birds, including the species already described, with
others, from Guiana, New Granada, Brazil, Ecuador, &c.
The Sun-Birds — Family Promerojiidce or Cinnyridce.
The PromeropidcB, or Sun-Birds, have the bill elongated, slender,
and usually curved throughout its length ; the nostrils placed at the
base of the bill, and covered by a scale ; the wings of moderate size,
and the tarsi short, and covered with broad scales. The Prome-
ropidcc are generally magnificent Birds, which inhabit t'ne Tropical
regions of both hemispheres. They form two sub-families, one of
which is confined to the Old, and the other to the New World.
The former, which includes by far the greater number of the
species, is the typical sub-family of the Promeropinis, or True Sun-
Birds. In these Birds the bill is long, slender, curved and acute at
the tip, sometimes finely serrated on the margins ; the nostrils are
closed by a membranous scale ; the tail is usually elongat^, and
the central feathers are sometimes prolonged beyond the rest. The
Proma-opitics are principally found in the islands of the Eastern
Archipelago, and in India ; a few species also inhabit Africa, but
none occur in the Temperate regions.
These Birds appear to take the place of the Humming-Birds in
the Eastern Hemisphere ; they rival even those living gems in the
brilliancy of their colours, and their habits are very similar. In the
morning and evening they are constantly seen in great numbers in
the neighbourhood of flowers, into which they thrust their slender
bills in search of the minute Insects always found in such situations ;
they will also pick small Spiders from their webs, and Insects from
the crevices of the wall and trees. They are said also to subsist
partly on the juices of flowers, whence the name of Sucricrs, or
Sugar-Birds, applied to them by some French authors. Many of
these also feed upon fruits ; and a Ceylonese species delights in the
white viscid berries of a plant allied to the Mistletoe. Like the
Humming-Birds, they are exceedingly quarrelsome, fighting violently
for the possession of a flower, the vanquished Bird retreating from
the spot with shrill cries, whilst the conqueror takes up his position
upon a flower or stem, and swinging his little body to and fro, pours
out a note of triumph. The song is said to be very ajrrecable.
cry agreeable.
Fig. 1 172. — The Rcciirvcd-biU IIiimmiiig-Bird.
Fig. 1173 represents the Red-billed Promerops {Promerops
rrythrorynchus), a native of Southern Africa.
The CcerebincB, or Guitguits, the American representatives of the
Fig. 1173.— The Red-billed Promerops.
452
THE HOOPOES.
Sun-Birds, have the bill straight, or but slightly curved, conical and
acute, with the base broad, and more or less triangular ; the tip of
the upper mandible is finely notched. The nostrils are covered by
a hard scale, and the wings are rather elongated and pointed.
These Birds are found in Tropical South America and the West
Indian islands. They closely resemble the Promcropincs in their
habits, deriving the principal portion of their sustenance from the
small Insects which they find in flowers. Like the former, they are
also said to feed upon honey. Their plumage is exceedingly beau-
tiful in colour, but wants the metallic brilliancy of that of the
Humming-Birns and Sun-Birds. Their nests are ot various forms,
and built in different situations. Some species suspend their nests
from the extremities of twigs, and these pendulous dwellings are
sometimes furnished with a long funnel, through which the Bird
enters the nest ; other species make the nest in a bush or tree, and
in this case it is usually divided into two compartments, of which
the outer serves as a vestibule, whilst the eggs are laid in the inner
one, and are thus protected from the attacks of their enemies.
The Hoopoes— Family UptipidcB.
The sub-order of the Tenuirostral Birds is completed by the family
of the Upupidcs, or Hoopoes, which includes only a few species, all
inhabitants of the Eastern Hemisphere In these Birds the bill is long
and slender, slightly curved throughout, and with the tip acute and
entire; the nostrils arc small (see Fig. 1174);' the wings rounded;
Fig. II7S- — Hoopoes.
Fig. 1 174. — Head of the Hoopoe.
the tail long, and either rounded or even ; the tarsi short and stout ;
and the toes long and strong, the outer one united to the middle toe
at the base. The claws are strong and
curved, and that of the hind-toe is par-
ticularly powerful.
In the sub-family of the Upupiiice,
or Hoopoes, the nostrils are covered
with a membranous scale ; the wings
are long, and the bill is keeled at the
base. The crown of the head is sur-
mounted by an elegant crest of feathers,
which can be raised at the pleasure of
the Bird.
The Hoopoe {Upitpa epops, Linn.)
— This is the ivo-^ (Epops) of the Greeks
(Aristot, "Hist. Anim.," i., i ; i.x., 11 ;
ix., 15, 49 ; Aristoph., "Birds," 228, ei
seq. ; Pausanias, x., 4) ; Upupa and
Epops of the ancient Italians (Pliny,
"Nat. Hist.," X., 29; XXX., 6; Ovid,
" Metam.," vi.) It is the Buba, Upega,
Gallo del Paradise, Galleto de magio,
Pubula, Bubbola, Pupita, and Upupa
ot the modern Italians ; Hope, Huppe,
Putput, Huput, and Lupoge of the
French ; el Abubilla of the Spanish ;
Wicdehopf of the Germans ; de Hoppe
of the Netherlanders ; Hazfogel of the
Swedes ; Her-fugl of the Danes ; Smer-
da Kaura of Scopoli ; Dung-Bird and
Hoopoe of the modern British ; y Gop-
pog of the ancient British.
The Hoopoe is a Bird of migratory
habits, extending as far north in the
summer as Denmark, Sweden, and
Russia. It is common in many parts of
Germany, Holland, France, and Spain ;
but is, comparatively speaking, a rare
visitor to our island, though instances
have been known of its having bred
in this country, and more undoubtedly
would occur, did not the appearance of
a pair of these Birds call up incessant
attempts at their destruction. Gilbert
White, in his " History of Selborne ''
(letter xi.), instances a pair of Hoopoes
which one summer visited his premises,
frequenting for some weeks an orna-
mental piece of ground adjoining the
garden. "They used to march about
in a stately manner, feeding in the
walks many times in the day, and
seemed disposed to breed in my outlet,
but were frightened and persecuted by
idle boys, who would never let them
be at rest." The Hoopoe affects moist
and low situations, in the neighbour-
hood of woods and thickets, where it
finds suitable food.
Pliny has noticed this species as
"obscaena pastu avis;" and Pennant,
after stating that it breeds in hollow
trees, and feeds on Insects, adds that
the ancients believed that it made its
nest of the most disgusting materials :
THE HOOPOES.
4S3
so far is certain, that its hole is excessively foetid from llie tainted
food it brings to its young.
The Hoopoes breed, generally, in hollow trees, and, notwith-
standing the accounts of the disgusting materials which they were
said to use, noticed by Aristotle and other writers, form a nest of a
few dried grass-stalks and feathers, laying eggs varj'ing from four to
seven in number, of a pale lavender-grey, about an inch and a-half
long, and about eight lines broad.
In a state of nature the Hoopoe is much upon the ground during
the day, generally in moist situations, where it may meet with its
Insect food. Bechstein gives the following interesting account,
written by M. von Schauroth, in his " Cage-Birds:" — " With great
care and attention I was able last summer to rear two young
hoopoes, taken from a nest which was placed at the top of an oak-
tree. These little birds followed me evervwhere, and when they
heard me at a distance, showed their joy by a particular chirping,
jumped into the air, or, as soon as I was seated, climbed upon my
clothes, particularly when giving them their food from a pan of milk,
the cream of which they swallowed greedily ; they climbed higher
and higher, till at last they perched on my shoulders, and some-
times on my head, caressing me very affectionately : notwithstand-
ing this, I had only to speak a word to rid myself of their company ;
they would then immediately retire to the stove. Generally, they
would observe my eyes to discover what my temper might be, that
they might act accordingly. I fed them like nightingales, or with
the universal paste, to which I sometimes added insects : they
would never touch earth-worms, but were very fond of beetles
and May-bugs : these they first killed, and then beat them with
their beak into a kind of oblong ball ; when this was done, they
threw it into the air, that they might catch it and swallow it length-
wise ; if it fell across the throat, they were obliged to begin again.
Instead of bathing, they roll in the sand. I took them one day into
a neighbouring field, that they might catch insects for themselves,
Fie
1/6. —The Epimadius albus.
and had then an opportunity of remarking their innate fear of birds
of prey, and their instinct under it. As soon as they perceived a
raven, or even a pigeon, they were on their bellies in the twinkling of
an eye, their wings stretched out by the side of their head, so that
the large quill-feathers touched ; they were thus surrounded by a
sort of crown, formed by the feathers of the tail and wings, the head
leaning on the back with the bill pointing upwards ; in this curious
posture they might be taken for an old rag. As soon as ihe bird
which frigiitened them w'as gone, they jumped up immediately,
uttering cries of joy. They were very fond of lying in the sun ; they
showed their content by repeating, in a quivering tone vec, tec, vec ;
when angry, their notes are harsh, and the male, which is known by
its colour being redder, cries hoop, hoop. The female had the trick
of dragging its food about the room : by this means it was covered
with small feathers and other rubbish, which by degrees formed into
an indigestible ball in its stomach, about the size of a nut, of which
it died. The male lived through the winter; but not quitting the
heated stove, its beak became so dry that the two parts separated,
and remained more than an inch apart : thus it died miserably."
Mr. Yarrell has recorded the manners of a Hoopoe formerly alive
in London. " This bird," says Mr. Yarrell, "is quite tame, and,
when unescited, the high crest falls flat over the top of the head
and covers the occiput ; it takes a meal-worm from the hand very
readily, nibbles and pinches it between the ends of the mandibles,
then putting it on the ground, strikes it several blows with the point
of the beak ; when the insect is apparently dead, or disabled, it is
again taken up, and by a particular motion of the head, which is
thrown backward, and the beak open, the meal-worm drops into the
gape of the mouth and is swallowed. The call for another is a
sharp note ; but it also utters at times a sound closely resembling the
word hoop, hoop, hoop, but breathed out so softly, yet rapidly, as to
remind the hearer of the note of the dove. This bird constantly
rubs himself in the sand with which the bottom of his large cage is
supplied, dusting himself like the larks, but takes great care to
shake off any sand or gravel that may adhere to his food, which is
raw meat, chopped, and boiled c^^. He hides superfluous food,
and resorts to his hoard when hungry. When allowed to come out
of his cage, he takes short flights about the room ; but would not be
considered a bird of great power upon the wing ; yet the Bishop of
Norwich has recorded that ' one approached a vessel in the middle
of the Atlantic, and kept company with it a good way, but did not
settle on board, which it probably would have done had it been
tired.'
" At the moment of settling on the floor of the room, the bird bends
the head downwards till the point of the beak touches the floor ; after
which, as well as occasionally at other times, the long feathers form-
ing the crest are alternately elevated and depressed in a slow and
graceful manner, the bird assuming an appearance of great vivacity,
Fig. 1 177. — The Superb Epimachus.
running on the ground with a very quick step. M. Necker, in his
' Memoir on the Birds of Geneva,' savs hoopoes fight desperately,
and leave the ground covered with their feathers."
The male Hoopoe in full plumage may be thus described : — Head
beautifully crested ; two parallel rows of long feather-s form an
arched crest, extending from the base of the beak to the occiput ;
these feathers are of a ruddy buff colour, terminated with black :
head, neck, and breast vinous buff; upper part of the back vinous
grey ; on the back a large transversal band ; wings and tail black ;
on the \vings are five transversal bands of yellowish-white, and on
the tail is a very large white band, about the middle of the feathers ;
at about three-fourths of the length of the quills is a large white band ;
abdomen white, with some longitudinal spots on the thighs ; bill
flesh-colour at its base and black towards the point ; feet and iris
brown. Length, I2i inches. Tail-feathers only ten in number.
Female less than the male, her crest shorter, and the tints of her
plumage less vivid. (See Fig. 11 750
454
DENTIROSTRAL BIRDS.
The young, when they leave the nest, have the bill short, nearly
straight, and slightly cylindrical towards the point; the feathers of
the crest short and often terminated with black, without the white
spot which is immediately below it in the adult ; the white band of
the tail nearer to the rump ; the plumage washed, as it were, with
ash-colour; the bands on the wings less distinct and more yellowish,
and a greater quantity of longitudinal spots upon the belly and
thighs.
The sub-family of the Epanachitic?., or Plumed Birds, approaches
the Birds of Paradise in some respects, and several of the species
have been described as belonging to the Paradiseidcc. Like these,
the Epimachiucr. have the nostrils partly clothed with velvet-like
plumes, and placed in a broad basal groove ; the wings are "short,
the tarsi rather long, and the toes long and strong.
The species are very few, and almost confined to New Guinea and
the adjacent islands ; one species is found in New Zealand, and two
in Australia. They are e.\ceedingly beautiful Birds, some of them
rivalling the Birds of Paradise in the splendour of their plumage ;
and others of the species are also furnished with long plumes,
similar to the well-known ornaments of the Birds of Paradise. The
species here figured {Epimachus albus. Fig. 1176) is of a fine me-
tallic violet black colour, with a broad collar of feathers, margined
with emerald green, at the base of the neck. The plumes spring
from the backhand rump ; they are of a white colour, and very long,
with long, silky, distant barbs, and twelve of the lower plumes are
terminated by long filiform continuations of the shafts, which are
curved, and blackish towards the extremity ; these formerly ob-
tained for the Bird the name of the twelve-threaded Bird of Paradise.
The Superi! Epimachus {Epimachus tnagniisj'isihus described
by Sonnerat : — " There does not perhaps exist a more extraordinary
bird than the grand Promerops of New Guinea. It is four feet in length
from the extremity of the bill to that of the tail. Its body is delicate,
slender, and, although it is of an elongated form, appears short and
e.xcessively small in comparsion with the tail. To add to the singu-
larity of tills bird, nature has placed, above and below its wings,
feathers of an extraordinary form, and such as one does not see in
other birds ; she seems, moreover, to have pleased herself in paint-
ing this being, already so singular, with her most brilliant colours.
The head, the neck, and the belly are glittering green ; the feathers
which cover these parts have the lustre and softness of velvet to the
eye and to the touch ; the back is changeable violet ; the \yings are
of the same colour, and appear, according to the lights in vvhich
they are held, blue, violet, or deep black, always, however, imitat-
ing velvet. The tail is composed of twelve feathers ; the two
middle are the longest, and the lateral ones gradually diminish : it
is violet or changeable blue above, and black beneath. The feathers
which compose it are as wide in proportion as they are long, and
shine both above and below with the brilliancy of polished metal.
Above the wings, the scapulars are very long and singulariy formed ;
their barbs are very short on one side and very long on the other.
These feathers are of the colour of polished steel, changing into
blue, terminated by a large spot of brilliant green, and forming a
species of tuft or appendage at the origin of the wings. Below the
wings spring long curved feathers directed upwards : these are
black on the inside, and brilliant green on the outside. The bill
and feet are black. (See Fig. 1177.)
The Australian Rifle Birds {Ptiloris), of which a few species are
known, are also exceedingly beautiful Birds ; in fact, Mr. Gould
regards the commonest species {Pf/lon's paradisaes) as the most
gorgeous, in its plumage, of the Australian Birds. It is of a rich
velvet-black, with the head and neck of a most brilliant bluish-green.
The feathers of the lower surface are bordered with rich olive-green,
and the two central tail-feathers are metallic green. The female
is dull and sombre in its colours. This Bird is found in the south-
eastern portion of Australia, where it climbs upon the trunks of trees
in the same manner as the Creepers {CerfhtnasJ, which it rescmblcr,
in its general habits. Little is known of the mode of life of the
other species.
This family completes the sub-order of Tenuirostral or Slender-
billed Birds. The next sub-order, Dentirostres, will present more
specimens familiar to us than has the one now concluded. It in-
cludes many of our favourite Song-Birds.
CHAPTER XXVII.
CLASS II.-AVES. OR BIRDS; SUB-ORDER DENTIROSTRES, OR TOOTH-BILLED BIRDS.
they appear only rarely to feed on seeds. They
are all furnished with the singing apparatus at
the lower larynx. It is, indeed, to this group that
our sweetest and most favourite Bird-songsters
belong. They are generally divided into five fami-
lies — viz., the Laniada; or LaniidcB, or Shrikes ;
the AmpelidcB, or Chatterers ; the Muscicapido',
or Flycatchers ; the Turdidcc, or Thrushes ; and
the Syk'idcv or Syhiadce, or Warblers.
In the first family, that of the Lanh'da, or
Shrikes, the bill is elongated, strong, straight,
and compressed, with the tip of the upper man-
dible more or less hooked, and armed on eacli
side with a tooth (Fig. 1178) ; the base of the bill
is usually as high as it is broad, and the gape
is furnished with bristles, of w'hich about five
spring from each side of the base of the upper
mandible. The wings are of moderate size,
sometimes pointed, occasionally rounded, and
the first primary quill-feather is usually much
shorter than the second. The tail is long and
rounded. The tarsi are stout, usually elongated ; the hind-toe long,
broadly padded beneath ; and the claws are long, curved, and very
acute.
The strong hooked bill and curved claws of these Birds give them
a very well-marked resemblance to the Raptorial Birds, and this
similarity is almost equally striking in the habits of many of the
species. They not only prey upon the Insects, Worms, and
Molluscs, which constitute the principal part of the animal food of
most of the Passerine Birds, but also frequently attack and destroy
small Birds and Quadrupeds. This resemblance led Cuvier to place
the Shrikes at the head of the Passeres, close to the Raptorial
Birds ; and Linnzeus and some other authors went still further, and
included these Birds with the Hawks and Owls in a single order.
The La?2iida2 form only two sub-families — the Laniitice, or
Shrikes, and the Thamnophilincs, or Bush Shrikes. The former
are distinguished principally by having the ridge of the upper
'KNTIROSTRES is a term applied to
Birds whose leading characteristic is
the presence of a distinct notch on
each side of the extremity of the
upper mandible, which is also, as a
rule, more or less hooked. The tarsi are
usually slender, and covered with broad scales ;
as are also the toes, which are generally long,
and frequently armed with curved and acute
claws. The outer toe is always more or less
united with the middle one, and this is also the case,
in some instances, with the inner toe.
The Dentirostres are amongst the most predaceous of
the Passeres. The nourishment of the greater portion of
them consists principally of Insects, and several feed on small Verte-
brated Animals. Berries and fruits constitute a part of their food ; but
THE SHRIKES, OR BUTCHER-BIRDS.
4SS
mandible more or less curved ; whilst in the Thai7inophilincB it is
straight, and only arched at the tip ; the bill is also shorter and
stouter in the Laiiiincc.
The Laiiiina, or True Shrikes, are almost entirely confined to the
Eastern Hemisphere. In the Old World they are very g-cnerally
distributed, and some of the species have a very wide geographical
rantre.
Fig. 1178.— Head of the Red-backed Slirlke.
The Butcher-Bird, or Gray Shrike {Lanius cxciibifor). —
This is the Castrica palombina and Averla maggiore of the Italians ;
the Pie Grieche grise and Pie grisatre of the French ; Torn-Skade
of the Danes ; Warfogel of the Swedes ; Klavert of the Norwegians ;
the Bcrg-Aelster, Grossere Neuntoder, and Gemeine Wiirger of the
Germans : Greater Butcher-Bird or Mattagess of Willughby, Moun-
tain Magpie, Murdering Pie, Great Gray Shrike, Shreek, and Shrike
of the modern British, and Cigydd Mawr of the ancient British.
This Bird is only an occasional visitor to the British Islands.
Mr. Selby observes, that by most British ornithologists it has been
mentioned as arriving in spring, and departing in autumn, which
would imply that it breeds in this country, and is a regular peri-
odical visitant :— " From this view of its habits I must be permitted
to dissent ; all the specimens that have come under my observation
having been killed in the months of November, December, and
January.
We know not how to reconcile this with the following
Fig. 1179. — Nest of the Butcher-Bird. ^
passage (by J. Rennie, Esq., A.M.) in the " Library of Entertaining
Knowledge — Architecture of Birds," p. 3 : — " A gentleman, who was
fond of reading Buffon, and similar works on natural history, but
who seldom looked into the great book of nature itself, expressed to
us his doubts of the account originally given by Heckwclder of the
butcher-bird sticking insects on the point of a thorn, as a bait to
allure small birds within its reach. He never thought, however, of
disproving or ascertaining the circumstance, and was surprised
beyond measure to be informed that at least one species of the
butcher-bird [Lanius collurio) was as common in his immediate
neighbourhood as the song-thrush, and therefore opportunities of
observing its manners could not be wanting. To satisfy ourselves,
as well as to settle the doubts of our friend, we undertook to watch
the proceedings of the species just named, as also of the great
butcher-bird [Lam'us cxciihitor), both of which are so common
that we found half-a-dozen of the nests of each within five miles of Lee,
in Kent. We discovered that near those nests large insects, such
as humble bees, and also that the unfledged nestlings of small birds.
were stuck upon thorns." Fig. 1179 represents the nest. Forourselves
we have never seen the Laniiis cxciihitor in a state of nature, nor
indeed were we aware that it was anything common in England, or that
it bred here. In France and the middle and southern districts of
Europe it is tolerably abundant, and does not appear to be a Bird of
true migratory habits. The Butcher-Bird feeds upon Mice, Shrews,
small Birds, Frogs, Lizards, and large Insects. Its larger victims
it kills by striking them on the head with its beak, and then either
holding them in its sharp claws and pulling them to pieces, in the
manner of Hawks, or, as is most usual, fixing them on a thorn ; it
does the same with Insects, not, however, to allure Birds, but to
secure its prey. Mr. Selby says—" I had the gratification of wit-
nessing this operation of the shrike upon a hedge-sparrow {Ac-
centor viodularis) which it had just killed, and the skin of which,
still attached to the thorn, is now in my possession. In this instance,
after killing the bird, it hovered, with the prey on its bill, a short
time over the hedge, apparently occupied in selecting a thorn fit for
its purpose. Upon disturbing it and advancing to the spot, I
found the Accentor firmly fixed by the tendons of the wings to the
selected twig." When kept in a cage the Butcher-Bird acts in a
similar manner, and twists his victim in the wires, so as to secure it
while he tears it to pieces. We have seen the New Holland Butcher-
Bird ( Vanga destructor) in captivity act in the same manner, and
after strangling a Mouse, or crushing its skull, double it through
the wires of its cage, and with every demonstration of savage triumph
proceed to tear it limb from limb, and devour it. By way of digres-
sion we may here observe that this Bird had the talent of imitation,
and had learned to sing several bars of airs with a full-toned
musical voice. It executed the first part of " Over the Water to
Charlie" with a spirit that would have gone to the heart of an old
Jacobite.
The term cxaibifor, or sentinel, was given to the Butcher-Bird by
Linnaeus, from its vigilance in watching against Hawks and other
Birds of that tribe, whose approach it is ever the first to perceive,
uttering at the same time a querulous chattering, indicative no
doubt of fear and dislike. Hence on the continent it is used by
persons engaged in the capture of the Peregrine Falcon.
The nest is generally built on trees, and is framed of grass-stalks,
Fig. 1 1 So. —The Eutcher-Bird.
roots, and moss, with a lining of down or wool. The eggs, from
four to six, or, according to Temminck, from five to seven, are bluish
or greyish-white, spotted on the larger end with light brown and
ash.
The colouring of the adult male is as follows: — Head, nape, and
back fine bright ash ; a large black band passing beneath the eyes
and covering the orifices of the ears ; lower part pure white ; wings
short, black ; origin of the quills and extremity of the secondaries
pure white ; two external tail-feathers white ; the third black towards
the centre, the fourth terminated by a great white space, and the
fifth by a less extensive space ; the two middle ones entirely black ;
bill and feet deep black. Length nine or ten inches. The young
male resembles the female.
Female :— Upper parts less bright ash ; lower parts whitish, each
breast-feather terminated by a crescent of bright ash ; less white at
the extremity of the secondaries, and more black on the origin of
the tail-feathers. Total length, nine inches. (See Fig. 1 180.)
Three species of Shrikes, "including the Gray Shrike already de-
scribed, are found in Britain ; but of these, only one, the Red-backed
Shrike {Lanius collurio), occurs in any abundance. It is a Bird of
passage in our climate, passing the winter in Africa, arriving in
England about the latter end of April or the beginning of May, and
4^6
THE SHRIKES, OR BUTCHER-BIRDS
quitting us again in the month of September. It is generally seen in
pairs, frequenting the sides of woods and hedge-rows, where it
perches on the topmost twigs of the bushes to look out for prey. It
is in these situations also that it builds its nest, which is of consider-
able size in proportion to the Bird, composed of the stalks of plants,
moss, and fibrous roots, and lined with fine bent and hair.
The third British species, the Woodchat (Lanius riitihisj, is
about the same size as the common species ; but both it and the
Gray Shrike are only occasional visitors to this country.
One or two other nearly allied species occur on the continent of
Europe, and at least two in North America ; one of those inhabit-
ing the latter region resembles the European Gray Shrike so closely,
that it has been described as the same species. In their habits
they are all exactly similar.
The East Indies possess several species of Shrikes, which appear
to agree closely in all their habits with our British species. The
Australian species belong to three particular genera. Of these, the
species of the genus Fakunculus feed principally on Insects, in
search of which they strip the bark from the trees with their strong
bills. The Orcoica cristala, another Australian species, hops
about upon the ground more than most species of the group. It is
remarkable for the peculiar character of its voice, which commences
with very low notes, sounding as though the Bird was at a consider-
able distance, and then gradually increases in power, until the
sounds seem to come from immediately over the head of the hearer,
the Bird having been very likely all the time perched upon a branch
within a few feet of him, but so motionless that its discovery is al-
most impossible.
Gmelin ; Pie-grieche grise de Cayenne of Buffon. Bill large, thick
sub-cylindrical : tip abruptly bent, and notched. Head large, and
depressed ; wings long. The examples of the genus Psaris
(Cuvier) are all South American ; the present species is common in
Cayenne, and, according to Cuvier, its manners are those of our
European Butcher-Bird. General colour, fine ashy-grey; head,
wings, and tail black. (See Fig. 1 183.)
Fig. llSl. — Vigors's Bush-Shrike.
ViGORS's Bush-Shrike {Thamnophilus vigorstij.—ihe Birds
of this genus are natives of South America, and tenant wooded
districts, lurking and prying among thick bushes and underwood,
in quest of Reptiles, Nestlings, small Birds, and Mammals ; the
beak is strong, and the upper mandible curved at the tip ; the tarsi
are long ; and in one division of the genus the tail is produced to a
considerable extent beyond the wings. To this belongs the Thatn-
7Wphilus vigorsii^a. species of large size and predatory habits.
The rounded wing and long tarsi indicate its adaptation to the
localities it frequents, while its robust and hooked and compressed
bill announces the nature of its food. This species is about thirteen
inches in length : in the male, the back, wings, and tail are black,
broadly banded with fulvous, and the under part of the body is of a
dirty whitish-brown ; on the head is a rufous crest tinged with black
at the apex ; in the female the bands are whitish, the crest blackish,
and the under parts ash-colour. (See Fig. iiSi.)
The Spotted Bush-Shrike {T/tamiwJ>hih/s n(sinus). — This
species is an example of the division characterised by a compa-
ratively short and rounded tail. The general colour of the Spotted
Bush-Shrike is black ; the back being ash-coloured with dashes of
white anteriorly ; the wings are variegated also with white. The
under parts of the body are ash-coloured. The habits of this Bird
much resemble those of the common Butcher-Bird; Insects and
small Quadrupeds, &c. being its prey. (See Fig. 1182.)
The Cayenne Shrike {Psaris cayancnsis). — Lanius cayanus.
:&•
Fig. 1182— Spotted Bush-Shiike.
Cunningham's Shrike {Giibernefes cuiiniiighann\ Vigors). —
The manners of this Shrike resemble those of the preceding species ;
its flight is quick, and it preys upon large insects. Mr. Vigors
observes that this Bird, which he named after Colonel Cunningham
of Rio Janeiro, appears to have a considerable affinity to the genus
Fig. 11S3. — Cayenne Shrike.
Psaris of Cuvier in the structure of its bill and wings, but that it
differs from it by other such essential characters as to have induced
him to place it in a separate genus.
General colour ash-grey, longitudinally lineated with brown ;
throat and rump white ; a pectoral lunulate band of purplish-brown ;
wings and tail brownish-black. Quill-feathers longitudinally banded
with ferruginous. (See Fig. 1184.)
The Chatterers— Family .^w^e/zifis.
The second family of the Dentirostres is that of the Ampelidcs, or
THE CHATTERERS.
4S7
Chatterers, in which the bill is rather short, broad, and more or less
depressed at the base, presentin.if a distinctly triangular form when
viewed from above. The ridge of the upper mandible is curved, and
the notches at the tip are distinct, though small. The wings are
lon<' and rounded ; the tail usually short ; the tarsi short and slender ;
the'toes of moderate length ; and the claws curved, grooved, and
acute (Fig. 1185).
Fig. liSj.— Foot of Waxwing.
Fig. 11S4. — Cunningham's Bush-Shrike.
The Ampelidcs are for the most part inhabitants of the warmer
parts of the world. They feed on fruits and Insects, and many of
them are exceedingly beautiful in their plumage. They may be
divided into six sub-families, of which the DicrurincB, or Drongo
Shrikes, make the nearest ap-
nVwV proach to the Laniidcc. These
viMAm Birds have the ridge of the upper
')W;,\viVi\i\ mandible keeled, the nostrils con-
cealed by short plumes, the gape
furnished with strong bristles (see
Fig. 11S6), and the tarsi and toes
short, and strongly scutellated.
The wings are long, with the fourth
and fifth quills longest ; and the
tail is also long, and usually forked
at the extremity. The Dicruri?icB
are only found in the Eastern
Hemisphere, and they are particu-
larly abundant in the East Indies and the islands of the Asiatic Archi-
pelago. Many of them are exceedingly beautiful Birds ; their^verage
size is about that of a Thrush or Blackbird, and they appear to
migrate from one part of the country to another with the monsoon.
The most common of the Indian species, the Dicrurus macro-
cerciis, has received the name of King Crow, from its habit of per-
secuting the Crows, which it follows with the greatest perseverance
and clamour, pouncing down upon them every now and then, but
apparently seldom striking them. The principal food of this and
most of the species consists of Insects, especially Grasshoppers, for
whicn they watch from some elevated perch, and, on perceiving one
immediately dart down upon it. For this purpose they not unfrequently
establish themselves on the backs of Cattle, Sheep, and Goats, whilst
these animals are grazing. They fly with great rapidity, and often
capture Insects on the wing. Some of the species, like the European
Shrikes, appear only to have a harsh, screaming note, but others are
said to be charming songsters ; and one species, the Dicrurus
paradiseus, has received the Hindoo name of " Huiar Dustan " or
•'bird of a thousand tales," from a belief that it is able to imitate
the song of all other Birds.
11S6.— Healof the
Drongo Shrike.
The Dicrurina; live in the jungles, and build their nests, which
are composed of grass, twigs, moss, and lichen, in the forks of trees.
Their architectural powers appear to be very variable, as the nests of
some of the species are described as carelessly put together, whilst
others are said to be very neat. The eggs are from three to five in
number, of a white or whitish colour, usually spotted with reddish-
brown.
A second sub-family is that of the Cam^ephagincB, or Caterpillar-
eaters, which, like the Dkrurinff, arc almost exclusively confined
to the warmer parts of the Old World, only the single genus P///o«(7-
goiius being found in America. These Birds have "the bill short, and
depressed at the base, with the ridge of the upper mandible slightly
curved, and the gape furnished with only a few short bristles. ' The
nostrils are placed at the base of the bill, and exposed; the wings
have the third, fourth, and fifth quills longest, and the tail is long
and rounded ; the tarsi and toes are short, the lateral toes unequal,
and the claws much curved.
The Campcphagincs live principally in woods and forests ; but
some of the species are also found about hedges and gardens. They
are seen either singly or in small (locks,
hopping about upon the trees, and pry-
ing most inquisitively into every part
of the foliage, in search of their food,
which consists almost entirely of soft
Insects, and especially of Caterpillars.
They also pick up Ants and Beetles,
and in pursuit of these, are not unfre-
quently seen upon the ground, and
fruits and berries are said to form part
of the diet of some of the species.
The nest is built high up in trees ; it
is of small size, and composed of
lichens, roots, and thin stalks. The
eggs are few in number, sometimes only two, of a pale colour, with
brown streaks.
The third group is the sub-family of the GymtwderiticB, or Fruit
Crows, consisting of some remarkable Birds, which have been
arranged by different authors amongst the Chatterers and the
Crows. They have a stout, straight, depressed bill, with the ridge
of the upper mandible curved, and its tip notched. The nostrils are
placed in membranous grooves on each side of the bill. The wings
are long and pointed ; the tail of moderate length , and rounded ; tiie
tarsi are long ; the outer toe nearly as long as the middle one ; and
the claws long, curved, and acute.
The Birds arranged in this group are peculiar to South America.
They are of considerable size, some of the larger species being equal,
in this respect, to our European Crows ; they appear to be strictly
arboreal in their habits, feeding principally upon fruits, but also
occasionally upon Insects. Some of the species are distinguished by
having the face orpart of the neck bare of feathers {Gymiiocephalus,
Gymnoderus) ; whilst, on the other hand, one of the most remarkable
species has the head adorned with a beautiful crest. This is the
Ccphahpterus ornatus, or Umbrella-Bird, a native of Brazil, of
about the size of a common Crow, and entirely of a beautiful glossy
black colour, adorned with bluish metallic tints. " The crest," says
Mr. Wallace, who had a good opportunity of observing the Bird in
its native country, " is perhaps the most fully-developed and beauti-
ful of any bird known. It is composed of long slender feathers,
rising from a contractile skin on the top of the head. The shafts are
white, and the plume glossy blue, hair-like, and curved outward at
the tip. When the crest is laid back, the shafts form a compact
white mass, sloping up from the top of the head, and surmounted by
the dense hairy plumes. Even in this position it is not an inelegant
crest ; but it is only when fully opened that its peculiar character is
developed. The shafts then radiate on all sides from the top of the
head, reaching in front beyond and below the top of the beak, which
is completely hid from view. The top forms a perfect slightly
elongated dome, of a beautiful shining blue colour, having a point of
divergence rather behind the centre, like that in the human head.
The length of this dome, from front to back, is about five inches ;
the breadth four to four and a-half inches ;" and from this elegant
appendage the name of Umbrella-Bird has been derived. (See Fig.
This Bird has another singular appendage, which is thus described
by Mr. Wallace : — "There is a long cylindrical plume of feathers
depending from the middle of the neck, and either carried close to
the breast, or puffed out, and hanging down in front. The feathers
lap over each other, scale-like, and are bordered with fine metallic
blue. On examining the structure of this plume, it is found not to be
composed of feathers only growing from the neck, as seems to have
been hitherto supposed. The skin of the neck is very loose ; looser
and larger, in fact, than any bird I know of. From the lower part
grows a cylindrical fleshy process, about as thick as a gooso-quil],
and an inch and a-half long. From this grow the feathers to the
very point, thus producing the beautiful cylindrical plume quite
detached from the breast, and forming an ornament as unique and
elegant as the crest itself."
3N
458
THE CHATTERERS.
The Umbrella-Eird inhabits the islands of the great South American
rivers, and is said never to occur on the main-land. Its food consists
principally of fruits, and it ejects the stones of stone-fruit by the
mouth. Its note is very loud and deep ; and, from this circumstance,
the natives of the regions of the Rio Negro give it the name of
" Ueramimbe," or the Piper-Bird.
Another remarkable species is the Arapunga, or Bell-Bird of Guiana
(Arapiinga alba), a Bird about twelve inches in length, and of a pure
white colour. It is distinguished by a singular fleshy C)-lindrical
appendage, often furnished with a few small feathers, which rise
from the base of the bill ; and its voice is exceedingly peculiar,
exactly resembling the tolling of a bell. According to Waterton it
may be heard at a distance of nearly three miles, and it is almost
the only Bird that produces any sound during the heat of the day, for
most of the feathered inhabitants of those Tropical forests are then
hushed in silence.
The Am;pelina, or True Chatterers, have the gape very wide, ex-
tending in many instances nearly to the eyes, but destitute of
bristles ; the bill is broad at the base, and compressed towards the
tip, which is distinctly notched ; and the nostrils are placed at the
base, usually of an oval form, and more or less exposed. The wings
are rather long, broad, and pointed, with the second, third, and fourth
quill-feathers the longest ; the tail is short and even at the end ;
the tarsi are short, and the toes rather elongated, with curved, com-
pressed, and acute claws.
These Birds are found in both hemispheres, mostly in the warmer
parts ; but the genus Ampclis occurs in the cold northern region of
both continents. Of these Birds — which are commonly known as
Fig. 11S7.— The Umbrella-Bird.
Waxwings, from the curious appendages at the extremities of some
of the secondary and tertiary quills, resembling small pieces of red
sealing-wax — one species, the Common Waxwing, or Bohemian
Chatterer [Ampelis ga7-rula), is found in the extreme northern
parts of both hemispheres. The following is a description of this
Bird.
The Waxwing, or Bohemian Chatterer {Ampelis garrula;
Bombycilla bohemica). — This elegant species, which is known by the
English name of the Waxen Chatterer, the Bohemian Waxwing,
and Silk-tail, is Le Jaseur de Boheme (Buffon, &c.). Grand Jaseur
(Temminck), and Geay de Boheme of the French ; Garrulo di Boemia
of the Italians ; Rothlichgrauer Seidenschwantz (Meyer), Euro-
piiischer Seidenschwanz and Der Gemeine Seidenschwanz (Bechstem)
of the Germans ; Garrulus bohemicus of Gesner ; Bombycilla,
Schwenck ; ^ ;///(?//>, Aldrovand ; ^owdya/Za of Brisson ; Am;pelis
garrulas of Linnreus ; Bombyci;phora garrula, Brehm ; Bomby-
ciphora folioccBlia of Meyer ; Bohibycivora garrula of Temminck ;
and Bombycilla garrula of Vieillot.
In addition to the nomenclature above given, the Bird is said to
be named by the Italians in some localities Becco-Frisone, in others
Galletto del bosco, and by the Bird-catchers of Bologna, Uccello del
mondo novo ; by the Germans, Zinzerelle, Wipstertz, Schnee-vogel,
and Schnee-Leschke ; and by those in the neighbourhood of Nurem-
berg, Beemerle and Behemle ; by the Swedes, Siden-swantz ; by the
Bohemians, Brkoslaw ; and by the Poles, Jebwabniczka and Jemi-
olucha.
The Bohemian Chatterer, or Waxwing, is a rare and accidental
visitor to our island, and that only during severe winters, when
sometimes considerable flocks make their appearance and feed upon
the hips of the dog-rose, the haws of the thorn, the berries of the
mountain-ash, &c. These migratory visits to our island are, however,
irregular ; but on the continent, in Norway and Russia, great
numbers are seen every winter ; and in Northern Asia and the adja-
cent parts of Europe their migrations are regular. Numerous flocks
pass through Scania in November, taking a southern direction, and
return northwards through the same region in spring. In Germany
and Bohemia, according to Bechstein, flocks are found along the
skirts of the extensive forests. In France the Waxwing is very
rare, and also in Italy ; though occasionally in the latter country
large flights have made their appearance, and, according to popular
superstition, a fatality attended their movements.
The Bohemian Chatterer is not confined to Europe and Asia
(where it extends from the western limits of the former to Japan) ; it
is a native also of the northern regions of the American continent.
It is common on the Athabasca river near the Rocky Mountains,
and has been killed there in the spring. " Specimens," writes Dr.
Richardson, " procured at the former place, and transmitted to
England by the servants of the Hudson's Bay Company, were com-
municated by Mr. Leadbeater to the Prince of Musignano, who has
introduced the species into his great work on the Birds of the United
States. In its autumn migration southwards, this bird must cross
the territory of the United States, if it does not actually winter
within it ; but I have not heard of its having been hitherto seen in
.America to the southward of the fifty-fifth parallel of latitude."
Fig. 1 188. — The Bohemian Chatterer.
The Bohemian Chatterer is about eight inches in length, and in
contour approaches the Starling. The general plumage is dull
vinous ash, tinted with ferruginous red on the plumag-e and cheeks ;
the feathers of the head are prolonged into a beautiful crest ; the
throat, the feathers around the nostrils, and a stripe which passes
from the beak to the back of the neck, are black. The primary
quill-feathers are brownish-black, each feather having a yellow line on
its inner margin near the tip. The secondaries are tipped with white,
each having the shaft prolonged and furnished with a small horny
scarlet appendage, like a little flattish oval bead of red sealing-wax,
whence the name "Waxwing." The tail is black, tipped with .a
yellow band. Beak and tarsi black. Iridcs reddish. The female
is generally similar to the male, but the yellow of the wings is not
so bright, nor are the wax-like appendages so large or so numerous.
(See Fig. 1188.)
The Cedar-Bird {Ampclis or Bombycilla carolinensis). — This
species, allied to the preceding, is theAmpelis garrulus, var. /3, of
the " Systema Natura: ; " Garrulus carolinensis, Le Jaseur de
Caroline, the Chatterer of Catesby ; Turdus garrulus carolinensis
of Klein ; Coquantototl of Hernandez; Avis americana crislata,
Xomotl dicta of Seba ; Chatterer of Carolina of Edwards ; Cedar-
Bird, .^^w/eZ/J a?nericana, of Wilson ; Recollect of the Canadian
Voyageurs ; Bombycilla carolinetisis of Brisson, Bonaparte,
Audubon, and others. It is said to be found in the whole extent
between Mexico and Canada, and parties are said occasionally to
roam as far south as the forests of Guiana. In the United States
THE CHATTERERS.
4S9
it is a resident during- the whole year, the northern and middle
States being its more usual quarters in the summer, and the southern
in the winter season. It is stated that the Bird has been found on
the north-west coast of America, but its northern boundary appears
to fall short of that of <!&& Ampelis ox Bombycilla bohemica just
described.
The Cedar-Birds utter a feeble lisping sound, and "fly, says
Wilson, " in compact bodies of from twenty to fifty ; and usually
alight so close together on the same tree, that one-half are fre-
quently shot down at a time. In the months of July and August
they collect together in flocks, and retire to the hilly parts of the
State, the Blue Mountains, and other collateral ridges of the Alleg-
hany, to enjoy the fruit of the Vacciniicm uUginosum, whortle-
berries, which grow there in great abundance, whole mountains for
Fig. 11S9.— The Cedar-Bird.
many miles being almost entirely covered with them ; and where, in
the month of August, I have myself found the cedar-birds numerous.
During the whole winter and spring they are occasionally seen ;
and about the 25th of May appear in numerous parties making
great havoc among the early cherries, selecting the best and ripest
of the fruit." Audubon says that they reach Louisiana about the
beginning of November, and retire towards the middle districts in
the beginning of March. "The holly," writes the author last
quoted, " the vines, the persimon, the pride of China, and various
other trees, supply them with plenty of berries and fruits, on which
they fatten, and become so tender and juicy as to be sought by
every epicure for the table."
In June, while cherries and strawberries abound, they become
extremely fat, and about the loth or 12th of that month disperse
over the country in pairs to breed ; sometimes fixing on the cedar
{Ju7i!j>erus virgin!a?ia), but generally choosing the orchard for that
purpose. The nest is large for the size of the Bird, and is fixed in
the forked or horizontal branch of an apple-tree, 10 or 12 'Teet from
the ground ; and sometimes several nests are to be seen in the same
vicinity.
Externally the nest is composed of fibres and coarse dry stalks of
grass ; the inside is lined entirely with very fine stalks of the same
material. The eggs are three or four, of a dingy bluish-white, thick
at the great end, tapering suddenly, and becoming very narrow at
the other, marked with small roundish spots of black, of various
sizes and shades ; and the great end is of a pale dull purple tinge,
marked likewise with touches of various shades of purple and
black.
Audubon states that these Birds are " excellent flycatchers,
spending much of their time in the pursuit of winged insects, but
yet without much vivacity or energy of action. They start from the
branches and give chase to the insects, ascending after them for a
few yards or moving horizontally toward them, perhaps rather
farther than when ascending, and as soon as the prey is secured
they return to the spot, where they continue watching with slow
motions of the head. Tow^ards evening this amubcment is carried
on for half-an-hour or an hour at a time, and is continued longer
at the approach of autumn, the berries then becoming scarcer."
The Cedar-Bird is about six inches and a-half long ; its plumage is
soft and silky, and its head is ornamented witli an erectile crest.
General colour yellowish or fawn brown, fading into yellow on the
abdomen, and yellowish-white under the tail. Back and wing-
coverts greyish-brown. Throat and a band passing from the fore-
head to the occiput black, the latter narrowly margined with white.
Quill-feathers brownish-black, some of the secondaries having the
scarlet waxen appendages ; '.ail brownish-black, tipped with a band
of pale yellow. The female is rather smaller than the male, and
with paler colouring. (See Fig. 1189.)
The preceding are the only members of the group which possess
the sealing-wax-like ornaments on the wings ; but many of the other
Fig. 1 190. — The Green Calyptomena.
species are remarkable for the brilliancy of their plumage. Amongst
the most beautiful are the species of the genus Cotinga, of which
several are found in South America.
In the sub-family of the Pipi-incr, or Manakins, the bill is rather
short, compressed, very broad at the base, with the ridge of the
upper mandible curved, and the tip somewhat hooked ; the nostrils
more or less concealed by the frontal plumes ; the tail is short, and
even at the end ; the tarsi long, and the outer toe is united to the
middle one, at least as far as the second joint of the latter.
This group is composed of numerous beautiful Birds, mostly of
small size, of which the majority inhabit the Tropical regions of the
American continent, only a single species being found elsewhere.
They live in small flocks, in the hot moist forests which spread over
those Tropical countries, and feed upon Insects and fruits. They
are exceedingly active in their movements.
The only species found out of America is the following : —
The Green Calyptomen.\ (Calyptomena viridisj.—ln the
genus Calyptomena the bill is depressed and wide at the base,
curved or hooked at the point, and nearly hidden by the feathers of
the crest, which is erect and compressed ; the wings are ample ;
the tail is short ; the middle and outer toes are connected as far as
the second joint.
This beautiful and richly-coloured Bird is about the size of a
Thrush, measuring about six inches and a-half in length : it is a
native of Singapore and the interior of Sumatra. The general colour
is a brilliant metallic green. The head is rather large, and its
feathers arc directed forwards from each side, in such a manner as
nearly to conceal the bill, givingthe face a very pecuharappearance.
A little above and before the eyes the feathers are of a deep velvet-
black at their base, and only tipped with green, but crossed on the
coverts by three velvet-black bands ; the primary feathers, as well as
the whole under-side of the wings, are dusky, approaching to black,
with the exception of the outer margins of some which are edged
with green. The tail is short, rounded, composed of ten feathers,
which are green above and bluish-black below. The whole of the
under parts are green : this colour is lightest on the sides of the
neck and round the eyes. The bill is short, wide, much depressed
at the base, deeply cleft, and hooked at the point. Nostrils oval at
the base of the bill, and concealed by the filiform feathers that
project over them. The eyes are rather large; the irides bluish.
Legs bluish-black ; a few feathers come down over the upper part of
the tarsi. Feet gressorial ; outer toe not much shorter than the
middle one, with which it is united as far as the last joint. The
460
THE CHATTERERS— THE FLYCATCHERS.
female does not differ in appearance from the male. (See
Fig. 1 190.) .
Of the American species, some are black, with orange or red
heads, whilst others are adorned with the most varied colours ; but
the head is usually of a different colour from the rest of the plumage.
The largest and most remarkable species is the Cock of the Rock,
of which the following is a description.
The Cock of the Rock (Rupkola aiirantia) ; Ru^picola
cayana, Swainson ; Rupkola elegans,'iX(i-\^\\cx\%\ Rupkola crocea ;
Rock Manakin.— In the genus Rupkola the bill is moderate, robust,
and vaulted above ; the nostrils are oval, but hidden by an elevated
fan-like crest, which covers the top of the head ; the wings are
moderate and rounded ; the tail .short and square.
The Cock of the Rock is a native of South America, tenanting
the rocky districts along the rivers of Cayenne, Surinam, &c., and
is probably to be found along the river Amazon and most of its
Fig. 1191.— The Cock of the Rock.
tributary branches. Latham states that it is nowhere so frequent as
on the mountain Luca, near the river Oyapok, in Guiana, and on
the mountain Courouraye, near the river Aprouack, where it builds
in cavernous hollows and dark recesses : the nest is made of twigs
and dry herbage, and the eggs are two in number, of a white colour,
and are equal in size to those of a Pigeon.
In its habits and manners this beautiful Bird is shy and recluse,
resorting to silent glens and rocky ravines, where it appears to pass
an undisturbed existence. Its flight is rapid ; its food consists of
berries and the smaller wild plants. Waterton informs us that it is
found in the woody mountains of Macousia, a tract on the Apoura-
poura— one of the tributaries of the Essequibo from the south — and
inhabited by the Macoushi (or Macusi) Indians, celebrated for their
skill in preparing the urari, or deadly vegetable poison with which
they smear the points of their arrows. This Bird, he says, retires to
hide in the day-time amongst the darkest rocks, and comes out to
feed only just before sunrise and at the hour of sunset. Its disposi-
tion is gloomy and unsocial, and it never joins company with other
Birds of the forest. The Cock of the Rock is about the size of a
Pigeon ; the general plumage is of a bright orange yellow or rich
saffron ; a compressed crest, like that of a Greek helmet, surmounts
the head, and is varied along the summit with brown and
yellow. The secondary quill-feathers and the tail-coverts are
square, as if cut at the ends with a pair of scissors. The feathers
of the back and the wing-coverts are elongated into loose flowinr^
plumes; the tail is brown, tipped with yellow; the bill and tarsi
rosy-white. The female is rather smaller than the male, with a less
elevated crest, and of a uniform bistre brown. (See Fig iigi )
The Peruvian Cock of the Rock [Rupkola peruviana);
Chiachia lacca of the Mexicans. — This Bird appears to be a native
of the interior of Peru and Mexico, and specimens have been
brought to Europe from Lima. For some time this species was re-
garded as a variety of the Rupkola aura?itia, from which, however
it is perfectly distinct, being a larger Bird, with a longer tail in pro-
portion. Its crest is not compressed, nor are the feathers of the
back and wing-coverts plumose and filiform, as in the former species.
It differs also in colouring. The general tint is bright orange, but
the quill and tail-feathers are deep black, and the middle wing-
coverts are bright ash-grey. The crest is of a uniform tint, wantincr
the deeper-coloured semicircular line edging the helmet-like crest of
the preceding. (See Fig. 1 192.)
The PachycephalincB, or Thick-heads, are very closely allied to
the Manakins, but differ from these in the structure of tlie feet, the
outer toe being only united to the middle one at the base. They are
found in both hemispheres, but appear to be most abundant in Aus-
tralia and Polynesia. They inhabit the woods and forests, and feed on
fruits, seeds, buds, and Insects. Like the Manakins, they are gene-
rally of very small size, and often adorned with beautiful colours.
The species of the typical genus, Pachycephala, occur in Australia.
New Guinea, and the South Sea Islands. They build their nests
amongst the branches of trees, forming it of small twigs and fibrous
roots. The Eopsaltria auslralis, which is also an Australian
species, is known to the colonists of New South Wales as the Ytllovj
Robin. Its nest is also built amongst the branches, and formed of
strips of bark, mixed with fibrous roots, held together by cobwebs,
and ornamented externally with pieces of lichen. The species of the
genus Pardalotus, which is peculiar to Australia and Van Diemen's
Fig. II 92. — The Peruvian Cock of the Rock.
Land, generally build in holes of trees ; and one of them (the Par-
dalotus putzciatus) is said to excavate a horizontal passage of two
or three feet in length in the trunk of a tree, and at the end of this to
form a chamber, in which the nest, which is composed of strips of
bark from the Gum-trees {Eucalyptus), is built. Another species of
this genus, however, the Pardalotus affints, builds a dome-shaped
nest, with a small entrance-hole ; it is composed of grasses, and
lined with feathers. This little Bird is exceedingly abundant in Van
Diemen's Land, where it not only frequents the Gum-trees in the
country, but even approaches the habitations of man, creeping about
the trees in gardens and shrubberies, and inspecting every leaf in
search of Insects.
Several species of this group, belonging to the genus Leiothrix,
are found abundantly in India, especially in the more northern dis-
tricts. They feed principally on Insects in all their stages; and, in
search of these, make such a diligent inspection of the opening buds
of the trees, that, according to Mr. Hodgson, they might be denomi-
nated " Bud-hunters." They also eat berries and seeds. Their
nests are usually built in small bushes, and composed of grass and
hair ; the eggs are said to be " black, spotted with yellow."
The Flycatchers — Family, Musckapidce.
In the interestingfamily of the Flycatchers, or Musckapid(e,-'^\vic\\
closely resemble the Shrikes in their general habits, the bill is generally
straight, broad, and depressed at the base, with the gape wide, and
furnished with long stout bristles springing from the base of the upper
mandible. The wings and tail are long, and the legs short and weak,
with the toes more or less elongated. The Flycatchers are small Birds,
none of them equalling our common Jackdaw in size. They feed for the
most part upon Insects, which they take upon the wing, establishing
themselves in some elevated position, whence they dart off after their
prey, and return again to their post to swallow it. The larger species,
however, like the Shrikes, are not content with such small game, but
make war upon the smaller Vertebrate Animals.
Of the five sub-families into which this group is divided, the first
is that of the Greenlots ( Vircom'na;), a group of small American
Birds, of which the general plumage is usually more or less tinted
with green or olive. They have a short straight bill, and the bristles
of the gape are short and weak ; the wings are long and pointed,
and the toes of moderate size, the lateral ones being about equal,
THE FLYCATCHERS.
461
Fig. 1 1 93. — Head of the Spotted
Flycatcher.
and both more or less united to the middle one at the base. These
Birds are all of small size, the lars^est being not more than seven
inches in length. They migrate from the Tropical regions of America,
Brazil, Guiana, and the West Indian Islands, to the United States,
arriving in the latter country about the month of May, breeding there
in the summer, and returning southwards in August and September.
Some of them have an exceed-
ingly sweet warbling note, whilst
the song of others appears to
have little merit. One of them,
the Red-eyed Flycatcher ( Vireo
olivaceus), is well known in
Jamaica by the name of ' ' Whip-
Tom-Kelly," from a supposed
resemblance of its notes to these
words ; and Wilson says, that,
" on attentively listening for
some time to this bird, in his full
ardour of song, it requires but
little of imagination to fancy that you hear it pronounce these words,
'Tom-Kelly, whip-Tom-KcUy!' very distinctly." Mr. Gosse, however,
is of a different opinion, and states that its notes bear a very close
resemblance to the syllables " John-to-whit," pronounced with an
einphasis on the last syllable.
The VireontJics feed almost entirely upon Insects, some apparently
preferring Beetles and other hard-skinned species ; whilst others prin-
cipally devour the small Insects which they take on the wing ; and
others, again, appear to have a predilection for Caterpillars, for which
they search the leaves of the trees. They also occasionally eat berries.
They build their nests sometimes in trees, sometimes in thick bushes,
forming them of dry leaves, grass, fibrous roots, moss, and lichens; but
the materials vary somewhat in the different species ; one of them, the
White-eyed Flycatcher ( Vireo noveboracensis), being noted for always
introducing fragments of paper into the construction of its nest ; and
these, according to Wilson, are so constantly pieces of newspapers,
that some of his friends proposed to call the Bird the Politician.
The Red-eyed Flycatcher ( Vireo olivaceus), to which we have
already referred, builds a neat pensile nest, which is generally sus-
pended between two twigs of some small tree or bush, rarely at a
greater height than four or five feet from the ground (see Fig. 1195).
In addition to the materials already
enumerated, this nest usually includes pieces
of Hornets' nests, flax, and pieces of paper ;
and the whole is glued together, accord-
ing to Wilson, with the silk of Caterpillars
and the saliva of the Bird. These nests
are very durable ; and Wilson mentions
his having found a nest of the Yellow-
Bird {Cardiielis irisfis), built in the last
year's nest of the Red-eyed Flycatcher.
The Mice, also, frequently take possession
of them after their owners have taken
their departure. The White-eyed Fly-
catcher ( Vireo noveboracensis) also makes
a pendulous nest. Most of these Birds pro-
duce two broods of young in the course of the
season, each laying consisting of four or
five eggs ; these are of a white colour, more
or less spotted with brown or black. Their
nests are often selected by the Cowpen-
Bird {Molothrus J>ecoris) for the reception
Fig. 1 194. —Head and Foot ^f Jtg eggs.
of Spotted Flycatcher. j^ general, when the Birds of this sub-
family have established themselves in some
suitable situation, they exhibit great jealousy of any intruder
upon their domain ; and some of them vituperate any passer-
by in a most extraordinary fashion. One of the most re-
markable in this respect is the Yellow-breasted Chat ■of Wilson
{Icferia viridis), of which that author gives the following curious
account. He says, they commence " scolding every passenger as
soon as they come within view, in a great variety of odd and uncouth
monosyllables, which it is difficult to describe, but which may be
readily imitated, so as to deceive the bird himself and draw him
after you for a furlong at a time, as I have sometimes amused my-
self in doing, and frequently without once seeing him. On these
occasions his responses are constant and rapid, strongly expressive
of anger and anxiety ; and while the bird itself remains unseen, the
voice shifts from place to place, among the bushes, as if it proceeded
from a spirit. First is heard a repetition of short notes, resembling
the W'histling of the wings of a duck or teal, beginning loud and
rapid, and falling lower and lower, till they end in detached notes ;
then a succession of others, something like the barking of young
puppies, is followed by a variety of hollow, guttural sounds, each
eight or ten times repeated, more like those proceeding from the
throat of a quadruped than that of a bird ; which are succeeded by
others not unlike the mewing of a cat, but considerably hoarser. All
these are uttered with great vehemence, in such different keys, and
with such peculiar modulations of voice, as sometimes to seem at a
considerable distance, and instantly as if just beside you ; now on this
hand, now on that ; so that from these manoeuvres of ventriloquism,
you are utterly at a loss to ascertain from what particular spot or
quarter they proceed." The Bird that makes all this fuss, although
one of the largest m the group, is only about seven inches in length.
Fig. 1 1 95. — Nest of the Flycatcher.
The second sub-family, which includes a great number of species,
is that of the Muscicapincs, or True Fly-catchers. In the form of
the bill they closely resemble the Vireonincz ; but this organ is
rather longer, and has the ridge slightly flattened at first, but curved
towards the tip. The gape is furnished with bristles ; the wings arc
long and pointed, and the toes are short, the outer lateral toe being
longer than the inner one.
These Birds, which exhibit the characteristic habits of the family
in their greatest perfection, are pretty generally distributed over
both hemispheres, but more especially in the Tropical regions.
The species which occur in Europe and the temperate and colder re-
gions in general, are summer Birds of Passage ; the European species
arrive in April and May, and leave again for their southern winter
quarters about the month of October. Only two species occur in
Britain. The most abundant of these is the Spotted Flycatcher
{Muscicajia griseola, see Fig. 1 196, a), a small Bird about six inches
in length, of a brownish tint above, with a few dark spots on the
top of the head ; beneath, dull white ; with brown streaks on the
throat and breast. This Bird arrives in England very regularly in
the month of May, and commences building its nest immediately
on its arrival. For this purpose it often selects most singular
situations ; a pair have been known to build on the head of a
garden-rake, which had been accidentally left standing near a
cottage ; another pair built in a bird-cage ; but the most curious
instances of caprice in this matter, are those of two pairs of these
Birds which selected street lamp-posts for the purpose of nidification.
One of these is recorded by Atkinson as having occurred in Leeds ;
the nest was built on the angle of a lamp-post, and the parents
succeeded in rearing their young. In the other instance, w-hich is re-
ferred to by Mr. Jesse, the nest was made in the ornamental crown 011
the top of one of the lamps in Portland Place ; it contained five eggs,
which had been sat upon ; and Mr. Yarrell states that he saw the
nest, in its curious receptacle, at the Office of Woods and Forests.
In general, the nest is placed in a hole in a wall, in a faggot-stack,
or an out-building ; but the branches of trees trained against a wall
are sometimes selected for its reception. The nest is cup-shaped,
generally composed of moss, and lined with fine grass, sometimes
having also feathers and horsehair ; it is beautifully made, and the
female is supposed to be the architect. The eggs are four or five in
number, of a bluish-white colour, spotted with red.
These Birds appear to feed entirely upon Insects, which they
capture on the wing ; and when on the look-out for food, may be
seen standing upon the top of a post, or the top rail of a fence, from
which they dart off the moment they perceive an Insect within their
reach, and usually return nearly to the same spot to look out for
fresh prey. They are very common in gardens and orchards ; and
from their being often seen in such situations at the season when
cherries and raspberries are ripe, they have been accused oi eating
these fruits ; but Mr. Yarrell states, that the stomachs of Flycatchers
killed under these circumstances, have been found to contain no
remains of fruit, so that it is more probable that they only resort to
462
THE FLYCATCHERS.
the neighbourhood of the trees for the sake of the Insects which are
attracted there by the ripe fruit. The Spotted Flycatcher is found
on the continent of Europe, as far north as Norway and Sweden ;
and it occurs in Africa, as far south as the Cape of Good Hope.
The other British species is the Pied Flycatcher {l\Iuscicaj>a
atricajyiUa; M. h/cfuosa, Fig 1196, b), which visits this country
in April, and leaves it again for the south in September. It is far
less abundant than the preceding species, and onlj' occurs plenti-
fully in particular localities, especially in the neighbourhood of the
lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland. In its general habits it
closely resembles the Spotted Flycatcher, but builds its nest in the
holes of trees, and sometimes lays as many as eight eggs. It is
also said to have a pleasing song, whilst the other British species is
only able to produce a chirping note. The Pied Flycatcher occurs
in most parts of Europe, but is particularly abundant in the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean.
Several species of this group also occur in North America. They
resemble their European relatives in their habits, and, like these,
are summer Birds of Passage. Some of them are said to feed
occasionally upon berries. One of the most elegant and singular
1 196. — a, the Spotted Flycatcher; b, the Pied Flycatcher.
of the exotic species is the Paradise 'SXyca.tcher {Tckiirca jiaradisi),
which is generally distributed over the continent of India, living
principally in the dense bamboo jungles. It is remarkable for the
great length of the tail, which is considerably more than twice as
long as the body ; the latter measuring only about six inches in length,
whilst the tail is thirteen or fourteen inches. The head is also adorned
with a crest. Like the common species it catches its Insect food in
the air, but also occasionally picks it off the branches of the trees ;
and Colonel Sykes says that it feeds on the ground. Some nearly
allied species are found in India and Africa.
Many other species of this sub-family are found in India, Australia,
and Africa ; but they all appear to be very similar in their habits.
Some seldom or never take their food otherwise than on the wing ;
whilst others pick Caterpillars and other Insects from the leaves
and branches of the trees, and some even settle upon the ground to
capture their prey. Many of the species have merely a chirping or
chattering note ; whilst the song of others is described as sweet and
pleasing.
Closely allied to the True Flycatchers are the Tifyri7l(r, or Becards,
a small group of Birds peculiar to South America and the West
Indian Islands. These Birds have the bill short, broad at the base,
and suddenly compressed towards the tip ; the nostrils rounded and
exposed ; the wings long and pointed ; and the tail short. The
tarsi are short, covered with narrow scales, and the lateral toes arc
nearly equal in length. The Tityriiia; are small Birds, which
closely resemble the Flycatchers in their habits, perching on an
elevated place to look out for Insects, which they take on the wing,
and then return to their resting-place.
The Tyra>!7!incs, or Tyrant Flycatchers, are also very closely
allied to the MuscicapincB, from which, in fact, they differ princi-
pally in having the tip of the bill more strongly hooked. The bill
Itself is larger than in the True Flycatchers, very broad at the base,
and gradually compressed to the tip ; the gape is usually furnished
with long bristles, and the nostrils arc generally of small size, and con-
cealed by the frontal plumes. These Birds are all inhabitants of
America, and principally of the Tropical parts of that continent.
They resemble the Shrikes a good deal in their habits, preying not
only upon Insects, but also upon small Vertebrate Animals, includ-
ing even Fishes. They also feed on berries.
Two or three species of this group are well known in the United
States of North America, where,
however, they are only summer
visitors. The best known is the
King-Bird, or Tyrant Flycatcher
(Tyrantius t}itrepidus), a Bird
about eight inches in length, of a
dark slaty ash colour above, and
white beneath ; the feathers of
the crown of the head are of a
brilliant orange colour, and
capable of being erected so as
to form a sort of crest, which has
been compared with a crown or
diadem. From this, and the
tyrannical authority which the
Bird exercises over all its neigh-
bours during the breeding season,
its common names of King-Bird
and Tyrant are derived.
The King-Birds arrive in small
parties in the United States in
the month of April ; and about
the beginning of May they pair,
and begin to build their nests.
The nest is built in a tree, fre-
quently in orchards ; it is com-
posed externally of twigs, and
similar materials, finely woven
together with tow and wool, and
lined with fine grass and horse-
hair. The Birds lay five eggs,
and generally breed twice in a
season. At their first arrival
in the United States they are
particularly quiet ; but with the
commencement of the breeding
season, a complete change comes
over the spirit of the male Bird.
"At that season," says Wilson,
who has given an admirable his-
tory of this Flycatcher, " his ex-
treme affection for his mate, and
for his nest and young, makes him
suspicious of every bird that hap-
pens to pass near his residence,
so that he attacks, without dis-
crimination, every intruder. In the months of May, June, and part of
July, his life is one continued scene of broils and battles, in which, how-
ever, he generally comes off conqueror. Hawks and crows, the bald
eagle, and the great black eagle, all equally dread a rencounter
with this dauntless little champion, who, as soon as he perceives
one of these last approaching, launches into the air to meet; him,
mounts to a considerable height above him, and darts down on his
back, sometimes fixing there to the great annoyance of his sovereign,
who, if no convenient retreat or resting-place be near, endeavours,
by various evolutions, to rid himself of his merciless adversary.
But the king-bird is not so easily dismounted. He teases the eagle
incessantly, sweeps upon him from right to left, remounts, that he
may descend upon his back with the greater violence, all the while
keeping up a shrill and rapid twittering, and continuing the attack
sometimes for more than a mile, till he is relieved by some other of
his tribe equally eager for the contest." Occasionally the King-
Bird meets with his match in the Purple Martin {Prague piirj>i(rca)
of America, which, from his great rapidity of flight, is enabled,
with impunity, to tease his quarrelsome neighbour, and even some-
times to drive him to seek safety in flight, "ihe Red-headed Wood-
THE THRUSHES.
463
pecker, also, has been seen, by Wilson, amusing himself by
dodging- his impetuous assailant round the rail of a fence — a pro-
ceeding whch appeared to irritate the little warrior exceedingly.
With the close of the breeding season all this turbulence ceases,
and the King-Bird becomes as mild and peaceable as any other
Biid.
The food of the King-Bird consists principally of Insects, which
he captures sometimes in the manner of the European Flycatchers,
by watching for them from the top of a post or fence, and sometimes
by hovering slowly over the fields and rivers, like a Hawk. In this
manner he destroys vast multitudes of noxious Insects ; but unfortu-
Fig. 1 197. — Foot and Head of the Crested Tyrant,
nately he has a habit which causes him to be regarded with some
little disfavour ; he is exceedingly partial to Bees, and may be con-
stantly seen perched upon a fence near the hives, and dashing down
upon the industrious little Insects as they pass to and from their
homes. This bad habit is often the cause of his death ; but there
can be no doubt of the truth of Wilson's statement, that, for any
damage he does to the Bees, he compensates fifty-fold in the de-
struction of other Insects which would have injured produce of far
greater importance.
Another North American species is the Crested Tyrant {Tyra?i>nis
criiiitics. Fig. 1197), a Bird a little larger than the King-Bird, of a
greenish-olive colour above, and sulphur-yellow beneath, with the
throat and the upper part of the breast ash colour. The feathers of
the head are centred with dark brown, and form a sort of crest.
This Bird, in most of its habits, resembles the King-Bird, but it is
destitute of the courage which prompts the latter to enter into such
unequal contests. It generally inhabits the woods, and builds in
holes of trees. The nest is remarkable for the materials of which it
is composed. These consist, accordingto Wilson, of " hay, feathers,
hogs' bristles, pieces of cast snakes' skins, and dog's hair;" and
he adds, " snakes' skins, with this bird, appear to be an indispen-
sable article, for I have never yet found one of his nests without this
material forming part of it."
The last group of this family is the sub-family of 'Csxt AlcctrtirincB,
or Alectrures, in which the bill is broad and depressed at the base,
convex towards the point, which is more or less hooked ; the nostrils
are rounded and exposed ; the tail is elongated, compressed, and
capable of being raised in a very singular manner, which has caused
the Birds to be compared to //'///e Coc/'j; and the scientific name
oi Alectmriis, applied to the typical genus, may, perhaps, be trans-
lated Cock-tail. The tarsi are slender, and the toes armed with
long, curved, and acute claws.
These Birds are peculiar to South America, and in their general
habits resemble the ordinary Flycatchers. Many of them perch upon
trees and bushes, and thence dash off into the air in pursuit of
Insects on the wing ; others are never seen in the neighbourhood of
woods, but appear to prefer fields in the vicinity of water, where
they rest on the rushes and other aquatic plants. It is in the male
only that the great development of the tail above alluded to is seen,
and the feathers of this part exhibit several peculiarities of struc-
ture. The two external feathers have the barbs much broader on
one side than on the other, and the two central feathers, which
are the most elongated, frequently have the barbs decomposed,
and the termination of the shaft naked. They are small Birds, the
typical species {Alectriirus tricolor) being only about six inches in
length.
The Thrushes— Family Turdidcc.
The Thrushes, family TiirdidcB, include many of the most es-
teemed songsters of various parts of the world. In these Birds the
bill is usually of a moderate length, rather stout, and compressed
towards the end. The ridge of the upper mandible is keeled
and slightly convex ; its tip is rather acute, and furnished with a
small notch or tooth on each side. At the base of the upper man-
dible, on each side of the gape, there is a row of bristles, which,
Fig. 1 198 Wing of the Blackbird.
however, never attain the same dimensions as in the preceding family;
and, in some cases, are so small as to escape observation, unless
carefully examined. The nostrils are situated on each side of the
base of the bill, generally oblong in form, and partially protected by
a membranous scale. The wings (Fig. 1198) are tolerably long,
broad, and either rounded or pointed at the end, with the first quill
very small. The legs are usually rather short, and moderately stout ;
the tarsi are compressed, and covered in front with seven shields,
several of which, however, are frequently amalgamated into a single
plate (Fig. 1199).
Fi"
1199.-
-Foot of the Blackbird.
In their general form, these Birds present a considerable resem-
blance to the smaller species of Crows and Starlings ; but they are
usually more slender than these, and inferior to them in size ; our
common Blackbirds and Thrushes being amongst the largest
species. They feed indifferently upon Insects, Worms, and fruits ;
but appear rarely to take their Insect food upon the wing, like the
Flycatchers. On the ground, unlike the Crows and Starlings, they
move by hopping with both feet at once ; but their flight is less
undulating than that of the generality of the smaller Passerine Birds.
The species are generally distributed in all parts of the world.
Of the five sub-families into which this great group is divided, the
first is that of the Pyciio?ioti?icu, or Bulbuls, which are all exotic
Birds, peculiar to the Eastern Hemisphere. They have the bill
short and compressed, with the ridge of the upper mandible curved,
and the gape furnished with bristles ; the nostrils are placed in a
short membranous groove ; the tarsi are not longer than the middle
toe, and usually covered by a single plate, and the outer toe fre-
quently longer than the inner one.
These Birds are found abundantly in the East Indies, and some
species also inhabit Africa. They are the Bulbuls of the former
country, where several of the species are greatly admired as song-
sters. They inhabit w^oods, jungles, and gardens, and feed
principally on fruits and seeds, but also occasionally on Insects,
which they capture on the ground. The sprightliness of these
Birds renders them favourites with the natives of India ; and one
species, the Pyctionotus jocosus, which is very easily tamed, is
taught to sit upon its master's hand ; and great numbers thus
carried may be seen in the Indian bazaars. Another, the Pycrio-
notus hccmorrJwus, is kept in the Carnatic for the purpose of fight-
ing, which it does, according to Dr. Jerdon, with some spirit. The
under tail-coverts are red, and it is said that the combatants
endeavour to seize and pull out these feathers. The nests of these
464
THE ORIOLES.
Birds are made of twigs, the stalks of plants, fibrous roots, moss,
lichen, &c., frequently lined with hair or down. Their eggs are |
usually three or four in number, of a whitish colour, with dark spots
or blotches. .
A single specimen of a South African species of this group, the
Gold- vented Thrush {Pycnonottis atirigaster), has been killed near
Waterford ; but whether it had strayed so far from its ordinary
home, or had escaped from confinement, it is of course impossible to
say. Temminck states that another species, which he Z3\\% Ixos
obscurus, and which is common in the north of Africa, has been
found in Andalusia. ~. . . , , ■„
In the second sub-family, that of the Oriolin(S, or Orioles, the bill
is rather long, strong, nearly straight, with the ridge of the upper
mandible slightly cur\'ed, and its sides sloping at the base. The
bristles of the gape are very small, so as not to be readily observable ;
the wings are rather long ; the tail moderate, straight, and rounded
at the extremity ; the tarsi are short, covered with seven scales in
front ; the toes moderate, the anterior ones united at the base, and
all furnished with curved, acute claws.
The Orioles are all confined to the Eastern Hemisphere. They
were formerly included in the same group with the Troopials, which
now form the sub-families Qiiiscalina and IctcrincE, amongst the
Sturnidce; and this approximation was probably owing entirely to
a certain resemblance in the colour of the plumage, for the characters
of the Birds are very different. The True Orioles live in woods and
shrubby places, usually in pairs, suspending their nests, which are
beautifully constructed, at the extremities of the branches of trees.
The males are generally beautiful Birds, a golden yellow being the
predominant colour in their plumage. They live on Insects and
fruits. These Birds are, for the most part, inhabitants of Tropical
countries ; but a single species, the Golden Oriole {Orwius galbula),
migrates into Europe, in the southern parts of which it is abundant,
although it is only occasionally that specimens visit this island.
The following is a more particular description of this Bird.
The Golden Orioi.-e. {Orwhts galbula). — This is supposed by
Belon and others to be the x^wpiwi' of the Greeks : Galgulus, Vireo,
and Oriolus, Lat., and the Picus of which Pliny (book x., c. 33)
Fig. 1200.— The GolJen Oriole.
speaks as suspending its nest on a twig of the topmost brancnes of
a tree, after the manner of a cup. It is the Becquafiga, Brusola,
Galbedro, Garbella, Giallone, and Gravolo gentile of the modern
Italians ; and Rigogolo commune of the " Stor. degl. Ucc. ;" Turiol
of the Spanish ; Loriot, Compere Loriot, and Orio of the French ;
Gelbe Rache, Gelber Pirol, der Pyrold, Wiedewal, &c., of the Ger-
mans and Netherlanders ; Goutmerle of the Low Dutch ; Witwall
of Willoughby and Ray ; and y Fwyalchen felen of the ancient
British.
In the genus Oriolus the beak is broad at the base, notched and
somewhat bent at the tip. Wings rather long ; tarsi short. The
species are all natives of the Old World, where they tenant the
recesses of woods in pairs, building most artful nests.
The Golden Oriole, which may be regarded as the type of the
genus, is only an occasional visitor to aur islands, making its ap-
pearance in April ; it has been found in Hampshire, Devonshire,
Cornwall; near Manchester; near Lancaster; near Walton in
Surrey, and near Godalming; at Cheshunt (Herts) ; nearSaxmund-
ham in Suffolk ; in Norfolk ; at Tynemouth in Durham ; and in
South Wales. It has been seen, though rarely, in Ireland, but
never, as far as we can learn, in Scotland. On the continent it
advances as high northwards as Sweden, where it occasionally
breeds ; it also visits some of the districts of Russia, and is found
in Germany and Holland, but more plentifully in France, Spain, and
Italy, everywhere being a Bird of Passage. The Prince of Canino
says that it arrives near Rome in the spring, and departs in autumn.
It is found in Malta and Greece, and along the whole of the
northern line of Africa. An allied, but distinct species is common
in India.
The Golden Oriole is a shy and suspicious Bird, haunting lonely
groves and thickets on the skirts of wood.s, excepting in the fruit
season, when it always frequents orchards, to the no small loss of
the owner. It is difficult to get near these Birds, though they are
sometimes approached by the sportsman, under the deception of his
imitative whistle ; but it requires great accuracy both of lips and
ear to perform this fraud, for the least mistake, or one false note,
will send the Bird off at once. The food consists of Insects and
their larvee, berries, and fruits, among which figs, grapes, and
cherries are favourites. The cup or rather saucer-shaped nest is
formed of wool and slender grass-stems, and placed in the fork
of a tall branch, usually towards its extremity. The eggs are
generally four or five, purplish-white with a few ash-grey and claret
spots, and the female watches over them with such maternal care,
that it is said she will suffer herself to be taken rather than abandon
them. In this country nests have been taken in Suffolk and Norfolk.
Fig. 1201 represents the nest of this species. The Golden Oriole
gets very fat after its summer feed of fruits. Willoughby saw many
of them in the poulterers' shops at Naples, and says that " it hath
very delicate flesh, and yields wholesome nourishment."
Description. — Male : — Golden yellow, a blackish-brown spot
between the eye and the bill ; wings and tail black ; a yellow spot
Fig. 1201. — Nest of the Golden Oriole.
on the quills, not far from the middle of the wing when closed ; and
the tail-feathers terminated with yellow ; bill reddish-maroon ; iris
red; feet bluish-grey. Length, rather more than ten inches. Mr.
Hoy agrees with Mr. Yarrell that the male does not obtain its
brillian"t yellow and black till the third year. Female :— Greenish-
olive above ; greyish-white with a yellowish tint below, where the
plumage is marked with somewhat distant greyish-brown short
stripes or dashes disposed longitudinally; wings brown, bordered
with olivaceous grey ; tail olivaceous tinged with black ; yellowish
beneath with a brownish-black mark somewhat in the form of an
irregular Y ; no dark streak behind the bill and the eye. The young
of the year resemble the female , but the longitudinal stripes of the
lower parts are more numerous and deeper in colour; bill blackish-
grey and iris brown. The upper figure represents the female, the
lower the male. (See Fig. 1200.)
The voice of the Golden Oriole is loud, and has been compared to
the sound of a flute ; Bechstcin says it resembles the word puhlo.
The names applied to the Bird in different European languages, are
also supposed to be, to a certain extent, imitations of its note. These
have already been given at the head of this article. The Italian
peasantry are said to believe that the Bird kindly indicates the
ripening of the figs, pronouncing notes in which they recognise the
words Contadino e matiiro lo fico ; it would seem more natural, how-
ever, that the Oriole should take advantage of his knowledge of this
fact for his own benefit, without troubling about informing his human
neighbours of it. The note of some of the Indian species is described
THE TRUE THRUSHES.
4C5
by different observers as very similar to that attributed by Bechstcin
to the European Bird. A very nearly allied species, the Mango-Bird,
or Golden Oriole of India {Oriolus kitndoo), is said by Dr. Jerdon to
have " a loud, mellow, plaintive cry, somethina;- rescmblinjr pecho ; "
and Mr. Pearson says of the Black-headed Oriole (O. mcIa?ioccpha-
lits), which is exceedingly common in Bengal, that it has a mono-
tonous, low note, resembling "one lengthened full-toned note on the
flute," which is so constantly repeated during the spring, that it is a
positive nuisance.
Most of the foreign species of the group resemble the Golden
Oriole, both in characters and habits; but one species, the Regent-
Bird, or King \\oncy-e3.\.ci {Scn'cu/us chrysoceJ>/ialiis), of Australia,
is remarkable from its having the tip of the tongue terminated by a
pencil of fine filaments like that of the Honey-eaters {Me/ijt/iagiiia:),
amongst which this Bird has indeed been placed by some authors.
The male is one of the most beautiful of Australian Birds ; its
plumage, which is very glossy and satin-like, is variegated with two
colours, deep black and brilliant yellow, the latter tinged with orange
in some places. The female is dingy in its appearance. The
Regent-Birds are found in the warmer parts of the Australian conti-
nent, where they inhabit the recesses of the forests, and appear to be
exceedingly shy. They feed upon fruits and seeds.
The third sub-family is that of the Tima!i)i(B, or Babblers, a group
of Birds confined to India, the Eastern Archipelago, and Australia.
They have the bill usually elongated, with the ridge of the upper
mandible much curved throughout, and the tip entire, or but slightly
notched. The nostrils are placed at the base of the upper mandible,
usually in an oval groove, and have the aperture more or less exposed ;
the wings are rounded ; the third, fourth, and fifth, and sometimes
the sixth and seventh quills being longest ; the tail is graduated ;
the tarsi are elongated and stout, usually covered in front by a single
plate ; and the toes moderate, or long and strong, furnished with
stout, compressed, curved, and acute claws, of which that on the
hinder toe is usually much longer than its fellows.
The Birds composing this group are of small size, and, like the
Cori'ida, which they resemble in their noisy habits, are gregarious.
They frequent the forests and woods exclusively; but except for the
purpose of nidification and roosting, they rarely perch upon the trees,
their food consisting, for the most part, of Insects, which they pick up
on the ground, and in search of which they often scratch in the earth
with their bills and feet, in the manner of the Rasorial Birds. They
are commonly seen upon the roads and pathways which lead through
the forests, attracted there by the Insects which come to seek the dung
of passing animals ; but on some occasions, when their ordinary
food is scarce, they appear to seek Caterpillars upon the trees, and
sometimes feed on fruits, which also appear to constitute the prin-
cipal food of some species. They build their nests usually in the
lower branches of trees, forming them of twigs, roots, grass, moss,
and lichens. Their eggs are usually from two to four in number,
and vary greatly in colour — -those of some species being blue or green ;
those of others pure white, or white with brown blotches.
Many of the species have a sweet song, and others are excellent
imitators of other Birds. Some are noted for a singular cry, which
resembles a loud human laugh, and this peculiarity has obtained for
two or three of the species the names of the Laughing Crow and
Laughing Thrush, from the Europeans in India. The cry of the
Laughing Thrush {Pte?-ocycliis cachinjiatis) is said by Dr. Jerdon to
be a peculiar " sort of cracked Punch-and-Judy laugh," which is no
sooner commenced by one than several others take up the chorus.
The Garrulax leucolophus, or Laughing Crow, is also said to pro-
duce a sound closely resembling the human laugh.
In confinement, these Birds are easily tamed, and appear to be
rather amusing pets. Mr. R. W. G. Frith has given the following
account of a specimen of the Black-faced Thrush of \'c\^\3.{Garriilax
sinensis), which he kept for some time. " The bird," he says, " was
excessively tame and familiar, and delighted (like a cockatoo) in be-
ing caressed and tickled by the hand, when it would spread out its
wings, and assume very singular attitudes. It was naturally a fine
songster, and a most universal imitator. Whenever chopped meat
or other food was put into its cage it always evinced the propensity
to deposit the bits one by one between the wires ; and when a bee or
wasp was offered, this bird would seize it instantly, and invariably
turn its tail round, and make the insect sting this several times suc-
cessively before eating it. A large beetle it would place before it on
the ground, and pierce it with a violent downward stroke of the bill ;
a small snake (about a foot long) it treated in like manner, trans-
fixing the centre of the head ; it afterwards devoured about half the
snake, holding it by one foot, while it picked it with the bill, as was
its common mode of feeding."
One of the Indian species, the Malacocercus malcolmi, appears to
be a Bird of great courage ; for although its flight, like that of the
other members of the group, is by no means strong, yet if a small
Hawk be flown at a flock of the species they will immediately mob
the Hawk, endeavouring to compel it to release the one it has
seized.
The Spotted Ground-Thrush of Australia {Cinclosoma ;punctatH-)n')
is another species of this sub-family. It inhabits the eastern part of
Australia and Van Diomen's Land, and its habits appear to be mora
decidedly terrestrial than those of any other of the group. According
to Mr. Gould It frequents low stony hills and rocky gullies, especially
those covered with shrubs and grasses. Its power of flight is very
small, and rarely exercised, except for passing from one bush to
another ; but on the ground it runs with great swiftness. The nest
IS carelessly made of leaves and the bark of trees, and placed on the
ground, under the shelter of a large stone, the stump of a tree, or a
tuft of grass. The eggs arc generally two in number, white, with
large olive-brown blotches. Its flesh is said to be exceedingly deli-
cate ; and in Hobart Town it is frequently sold in the market with
other small Birds ; it is there called the Ground Dove.
In the Turdiiicc, or True Thrushes, the bill is of moderate length
usually about as long as the head, tolerably stout and compressed!
with the upper mandible notched at the tip, and its ridge curved •'
the gape is furnished with bristles, and the nostrils are placed at the
base of the bill, with their opening exposed. The wings are rounded,
"wm
Fig. 1202.— Head of the Missel Thrush.
with the first quill very short, the third and fourth longest ; the tarsi are
rather long, sometimes covered with seven shields in front, but
more frequently either with a single long plate, or with three or four
shields and a plate ; the toes are long and stout, the outer one longer
than the inner, and united to the middle toe at the base, and all fur-
nished with curved and acute claws.
The TurdiiKZ are found in all parts of the globe, generally fre-
quenting fields and pastures in search of food, but retiring to the
woods and thickets for security when roosting, and during the breed-
ing season. Their nests are usually very neatly made, comprised of
grasses, tvvigs, and moss, frequently lined with a thin layer of mud,
within which is another layer of soft vegetable substances for the
reception of the eggs. The latter are usually five or six in number ;
variable in colour, but commonly freckled with dark spots. The food
of the Thrushes consists both of animal and vegetable matters,
such as Insects and their larva;, Worms, Snails, fruits, and seeds.
Fig. 1203.— Nest of the Song-Thrush.
Several species have been found in Britain, of which one, which
has been described under the name of White's Thrush {Turdus
-luhitei) only visits Europe occasionally, and appears to be positively
30
^66
THE TRUE THRUSHES.
identical with a Japanese species, which again is very closely allied
to a species from Java, described by Dr. Horsfield under the name of
Tardus variiis. Indeed, by some authors, the Tardus w'hitei has
been regarded as identical with Dr. Horsfield's species. Of the
remaining species, three — namely, the Blackbird {I'urdas incrula],
the Missel Thrush {T. viscivoras. Fig. 1202), and the Song-Thrush
(T. inusicus) — are permanent residents ; whilst the others are regu-
lar visitors ; two of them, the Fieldfare [T. pilaris) and the Redwing
(7". iliacus), in winter, and one, the Ring Ouzel {T. torquatus), in
summer.
The Song-Thrush {Tardus t>iasicus).—CnxQ and Petite Grive
Fig. 1204. — Group of British Birds,
the Meadow Pipit ; li, the Tree Pipit ; c, the Thrash ; d, the Blackbird ;
of the French ; Tordo and Tordo Botaccio of the Italians ; Sing-
drossel and Weiss-drossel of the Germans ; Throstle or Mavis, pro-
vincial English ; Adcryn Bronfraith of the ancient British. (See c
in group of British Birds.)
This splendid songster is common over the greater portion of
Europe, being migratory in Norway, Sweden, and the northern dis-
tricts, but stationary in our island, and in France, Italy, and other
parts of the south. As the winter advances, flights of Thrushes arrive
in Great Britain with a north or north-cast wind; and, after staying
a few days to recruit, move southwards.
The Thrush is a hardy Bird, and begins to enliven the woods and
glens with his rich-toned notes even as early as the month of
January if the season be temperate ; and pairs and commences the
work of nidification in March. The nest is generally in a thick bush,
amidst clustering ivy, or closely-tangled bowers of dog-roses, in
woods, or in full evergreens, as the Portugal laurel or holly.
Externally, it is composed of bent twigs, moss, and grass closely
interwoven, being plastered within with a very thin smooth layer of
rotten wood, cemented by glutinous saliva, and laid as a coating, or
fine cement, upon a thick layer of cow-dung, scarcely carried so high
as the brim of the nest. This lining is w^aterproof and tough, and
well calculated for protecting the
eggs or young from the keen
winds of early spring. Fig. 1203
represents the nest of the Song-
Thrush. Two broods are pro-
duced yearly. It may, perhaps,
be fancy, but we think that we
have heard a great difference in
the power, variety, and richness of
the notes of different individuals
of this species : the notes of those
that frequent the wooded rocks
bordering the Bakewell Road,
near Buxton, have always ap-
peared to excel those of any
others to which we ever listened ;
but perhaps this superiority was
owing, in some measure, to the
nature of their locality, the rocks
reverberating the sound.
Worms, Snails, Slugs, Insects,
and berries constitute the food of
the Thrush. The common Gar-
den-Snail {Helix hortensis) and
the Wood-Snail {Helix ?ie/no-
ralis) are greedily devoured,
the Bird beating the shell against
a stone till it is completely broken,
and the contents are disengaged.
The Missel Thrush {T. vis-
civorus). — This is the largest of
our species, and one of the largest
Birds in the group, measuring
about eleven inches in length.
It is not a very abundant Bird ;
but is pretty generally distri-
buted, frequenting small woods
and copses, and occasionally
trees in hedges. It breeds early
in the spring, usually in April,
and the song of the male, which
resembles that of the Blackbird,
is sometimes commenced as early
as February. During the breed-
ing season, the Missel Thrush is
very quarrelsome, driving all the
smaller Birds away from its
neighbourhood ; hence, accord-
ing to Pennant, the Welsh have
given it the name of Fcnn y
llwyn, or the Master of the Copse.
It feeds, to a great extent, upon
berries, and is said to be particu-
larly addicted to those of the
mistletoe, from which its common
name is derived ; in this manner
it is supposed to perform an im-
portant part in the diffusion of
that singular plant. Its head
has been already illustrated in
Fig. 1202, ante; and Fig. 1205
represents the nest.
The Wood-Thrush {Tiir-
das muslelitnis, Gmel.); Tawny
Thrush, Pennant; Tardus tne-
lodus, Wilson. — In the woods of
North America, this species represents our British songster ; it is of
shy, retiring habits, preferring the most secluded places, where the
foliage of lofty trees overhangs murmuring streamlets, and forms a
dense shade. Its song, though composed of but few notes, is
powerful, distinct, clear, and mellow, and is continued after sunset,
various rivals endeavouring, as it would seem, to excel each other.
The nest of this species is usually placed in a low horizontal branch
of the dogwood tree, and, according to Audubon, is composed
externally of dry leaves, to which succeeds a layer of intertwined
grasses, then a layer of mud, lined internally with fmc fibrous roots.
the Skylark,
THE THRUSHES.
46jr
Description : — General colour above bright cinnamon brown, inclin-
ing to olive on the rump and tail ; beneath, whitish, thickly marked
with pencil-shaped dusky spots. Length eight inches. (See Fig.
1206.)
The Red-breasted Thru.sh [Tiirdics erythrogastcr). — This
species is a native of the Himalaya Mountains, and is figured by Mr.
Gould in his " Century of Birds." The male is bluish-grey above ;•
Fig. 1205.— Nest of the Missel Thrush.
with the cheeks, sides of the neck, and quill-feathcrs, black ; the
breast, under parts, and rump red. The female differs in being of a
bluish-brown above, and having the under parts reddish-white,
marked with transverse undulations of brown. The lower fig'urc
regresents the female. (Sec Fig. 1207.)
Fig. 1206.— The Wood Thrush.
The Fieldfare {I'urdtis ■pilaris). La Litorne, Cuffon ; Merle
Litorne, Temminck ; Wachholder-drossel, Bechstein. — This species
is a native of the cold regions of Norway, Sweden, Laf land, and
other northern countries, whence, as winter sets in, it migrates
southwards. It seldom visits our island before the latter part of
November, and departs again northwards late in May. It breeds in
pine or fir trees, and the eggs are bluish-green, spotted with reddish-
brown. During its winter sojourn with us the Fieldfare associates in
flocks, which, as long as the weather is open, frequent meadows and
pasture-grounds, feeding upon Worms, Slugs, and the larvae of
Insects, but resorting in severe frosts to hedges, copses, and planta-
tions for the sake of the berries of the hawthorn, the holly, and the
mountain-ash. The Fieldfare is shy and wary, and not easily
approached within gun-range, and consequently gives some trouble
to the sportsmen, unless when, pressed by hunger, it be too much
engaged in satisfying its appetite to attend to what passes around it.
This species is about ten inches long. The head and hind part of
the neck are of a greyish colour, the former spotted with black ; the
bill is yellowish-black at the point ; the back and lesser wing-coverts
chestnut ; the breast and sides reddish-yellow ; tail blackish ; legs
black. (See o, Fig. 1208.)
The Redwing {Turdus tiiacus). Merle mauvis, Temminck;
Roth-drossel, Bechstein. — Like the Fieldfare, this species is a
native of Norway, Sweden, &c., and visits our island about the latter
part of October, associating in flocks, which, witli those of the
Fieldfare, should the weather be severe, continue their migration
still farther southwards. Yet it often happens that, during deep
snows, numbers both of this species and of the Fieldfare perish from
hunger and cold.
Fig. 1207. — Red-breasted Thiushes.
The Redwing is very similar to the Throstle or Common Tlirush,
with which it is often seen among the hawthorn-trees and ivy-bushes,
or roaming over the meadows in search of food ; but it is less in size,
and has a white streak over the eye, which in that Bird is wanting.
It is about eight and a-half inches in length, and of the average weight
of two and a-half ounces. The bill is of a dusky colour, except at the
base of the upper mandible, which partakes of a yellowish hue ; the
back and upper parts are brown, the lower part of the breast is
white, marked with dusky lines, the body under the wings reddish-
orange, and the legs pale brown. There is also to be noticed the
whitish streak over the eye, mentioned above.
The song of the Redwing, when heard in its native woods, has
such a charming effect, heightened by the rough character of most
of the other woodland sounds of the northern country, that the Bird
has been called the Nightingale of Norway. With us, however, it
does not appear to exert its vocal powers with such effect. lis
common note is rather a harsh scream, though it has been compared
by Mr. Slaney to " a sort of inward deep-drawn sigh, like an attempt
at ventriloquism." In fine weather, however, we may often hear
them, while perched high on the trees, singing with a subdued voice
in a very pleasing manner. The Redwing is known in different parts
of England by the names of the Red-sided Thrush, the Wind-Thrush,
and the Swine-pipe. (See b, Fig. 1208.)
The Blackbird [Tterdus merula; Merula vulgaris). Merle
noir, Temminck ; Schwartz-drossel, Bechstein. — This beautiful
songster, with yellow bill and jet-black plumage, is too well known
to need minute description. It is a shy Bird, frequenting hedge
rows, thickets, shrubberies, and large gardens, and when disturbed
or surprised escapes into the covert of dense foliage, uttering a loud
sharp cry of alarm. Its song is clear and melodious, but not so
varied as that of the Thrush. Like that Bird, it feeds upon Slugs,
shelled Snails, and Insects, and also upon currants, cherries, peas,
cSrc, often making much havoc in the garden, as, indeed, does the
Thrush ; but they both compensate for this by the destruction of
Snails and Slugs, and by their melody.
Early in spring the Blackbird begins its nest ; a thickset hedge-
row, an insulated bush of some dense evergreen, or a bower of ivy,
are all favourite places. The outer frame-work of the nest consists
of moss, small sticks, grasses, and fibres, with an inner coat of mud
plaster, over which is a lining of fine dry grass (see Fig. 1209, the
nest of the Blackbird). The eggs are four or five in number, of a
bluish-green, variegated with darker markings (see Fig. 1210.)
468
THE THRUSHES.
Two or even three broods are hatched and reared during the spring
and summer. , , •. iv u <■
The female of this species is brownish-black above, the breast
bein<^ pale umber brown, the margin of each feather passmg into
OT-eyTsh-white. Bill and legs blackish-brown. The young arc
timilar to the females, and the males do not acquire their glossy
black and orange yellow bill till after the second moult. White, and
cream-white varieties, albinos in fact, are sometimes met with, (.bee
Fig. I21I.)
1208. — a, the Fieldfare ; b, the Redw:
The Mocking-Bird, or Polyglot Thrush {Mimas j>oly-
glottiis ; Orp/ieits ^olyglottus ; Turdus ^o/yg/ottusJ.—VcchsL^s
this celebrated Bird, if it be not over-praised, stands unrivalled
in powers of song : it is a native of both North and South America,
having been traced from the United States to Brazil, and also among
many of the adjacent islands. They are, however, much more
numerous in those States south than those north of the river Dela-
Fig. 1209. — Nest of the Blackbird.
ware being generally migratory in the latter, and resident (at least
many of them) in the former. A warm climate, and low country not
far from the sea, seem most congenial to their nature ; the species is
accordint^ly found to be less numerous to the west than east of the
srreat range of Alleghany, in the same parallels of latitude. In
these re<rions, the berries of the red cedar, myrtle, holly, many
species of smilax, together with gum-berries, gall-bernes, and a
profuse variety of others, abound, and furnish them with a perpetual
feast. Winged Insects, also, of which they are very fond, and which
they are very expert in catch-
ing, are there plentiful, even
in the winter season. (See
Fig. 1212.)
The nest varies a little, ac-
cording to the conveniency of
collecting suitable materials.
Generally it is composed of,
first, a quantity of dry twigs
and sticks, then withered tops
of weeds of the preceding year,
intermixed with fine straw, hay,
pieces of wood, and tow ; and,
lastly, a thick layer of fine
fibrous roots, of a light brown
colour, lines the whole. The
female sits fourteen days, and
generally produces two broods
in the season, unless robbed of
her eggs, in which case she
will even build and lay the
third time. She is, however,
very jealous of her nest, and
very apt to forsake it if much
disturbed. During the period
of incubation, neither Cat,
Dog, animal, nor man can
approach the nest without
being attacked. The Cats, in
particular, are persecuted
whenever they make their ap-
pearance, till obliged to re-
treat. But his whole venge-
ance is more particularly
directed against that mortal
enemy of his eggs and young,
the Black Snake.
The plumage of the Mock-
ing-Bird is soberly coloured,
but the figure of the Bird is
very graceful, and well propor-
tioned. The ease, elegance,
and rapidity of its movements,
the animation of his eye, and
the intelligence which he dis-
plays in listening and laying up
lessons from almost every species of the feathered race within his
hearing, are really surprising, and mark the peculiarity of his genius.
To these qualities may be added that of a full voice, strong, and
musical, and capable of almost every modulation, from the clear
mellow tones of the Wood-Thrush to the savage scream of the Bald
Eagle. In measure and accent he
faithfully follows his originals ; in
force and sweetness of expression he
greatly improves upon them. In his
native groves, mounted on the top of
a tall bush or half-grown tree, in the
dawn of the morning, while the woods
are already vocal with a multitude of
warblers, his admirable song rises
pre-eminent over every competitor.
His own native notes are bold and
full, and varied seemingly beyond all
limits. They consist of short expres-
sions of two, three, or, at the most, five or six syllables, generally
interspersed with imitations, and all of them uttered with great
emphasis and rapidity, and continued with undiminished ardour for
half-an-hour or an hour at a time. While thus exerting itself, a
bystander, destitute of sight, would suppose that the whole feathered
tribes had assembled together on a trial of skill, each striving to
produce his utmost effect. He often deceives the sportsman, and
sends him in search of Birds that are not, perhaps, within miles of
him, but whose notes he exactly imitates : even Birds themselves
are frequently imposed upon by this admirable mimic, and are
decoyed by the fancied calls of their mates, or dive with precipita-
tion into the depth of thickets at the scream of what they suppose to
be the Sparrow-Hawk.
The INIocking-Bird loses little of the power and energy of his song
Fig. 1210. — Egg of the Black-
bird,
THE ANT-THRUSHES.
469
by confinement. In his domesticated state, -when he commences his
career of song-, it is impossible to stand by uninterested. Ho
whistles for the Dog ; Cssar starts up, wags his tail, and runs to
Fig. 12 1 1. — Blackbirds.
meet his master. He squeaks out like a hurt Chicken, and the Hen
hurries about with hanging wings and bristled feathers, chuckling to
protect its injured brood. The barking of the Dog, the mewing of
the Cat, the creaking of a passing wheelbarrow, are followed with
great truth and rapidity. He repeats the tune taught him by his
master, though of considerable length, fully and faithfully ; he runs
over the quaverings of the Canary, and the clear whistlings of the
Virginian Nightingale, or Red-Bird, with such superior execution and
effect, that the mortified songsters feel their own inferiority, and
become altogether silent, while he seems to triumph in their defeat
by redoubling his exertions.
This excessive fondness for variety, however, in the opinion of
some, injures his song. His elevated imitations of the Brown
Thrush are frequently interrupted by the crowing of Cocks ; and the
warblings of the Blue-Bird, which he exquisitely manages, are
mingled with the screaming of Swallows or the cackling of Hens.
Amidst the simple melody of the Robin, one is suddenly surprised by
the shrill reiterations of the Whip-poor- Will, while the notes of the
Kildeer, Blue Jay, Martin, Baltimore, and twenty others, succeed
with such imposing reality, that the auditors look round for the
originals, and with astonishment discover that the sole performer in
this singular concert is the admirable Bird now before us. During
this exhibition of his powers, he spreads his wings, expands his tail,
and throws himself around the cage in all the ecstasy of enthusiasm,
seeming not only to sing, but to dance, keeping time to the measure
of his own music. Both in his native and domesticated state,
during the stillness of the night, as soon as the moon rises, he
begins his delightful .solo, making the whole neighbourhood resound
with his inimitable medley.
The Mocking-Bird is about nine inches and a-half long. The
general colour of all the upper parts is a dark-brownish ash. The
quill-feathers and coverts are brownish-black, the former white at
their base, and covered there by the white feathers of the spurious
wing, which have a black spot at the tips ; the latter slightly tipped
with white. The two middle tail-
feathers dusky black, the rest more
or less extensively white on their inner
vane, except the outermost on each
side, which is wholly white ; under
parts generally pale-greyish brown :
iris yellow, inclining to a pale gold-
colour. Bill and legs black. The
plumage of the female is duller than
that of the male. In hot climates,
the Turdiiicc appear generally to
inhabit the mountainous districts.
Some of the Indian species are found
at an elevation of 5,000 or 6,000 feet
above the sea-level. Some of them,
belonging to the genera Pctrocincla
and Orocctes, inhabit rocky places,
and build in the holes of rocks.
Numerous specimens of the Thrushes
may be seen in the British Museum.
The Formicari/io', or Ant-Thrushes,
constituting the last group of this
family, closely resemble the Thrushes
in their characters, but have the wings
and tail much shorter. In the form
of the bill they are very similar to the
True Thrushes ; but the tip is often
slightly hooked, and the nostrils are
placed in a membranous groove. The
tarsi are long, occasionally covered in
front with several scales (Fig. 12 13),
sometimes with a single long plate
(Fig. 12 14). They are, for the most
part, inhabitants of the Tropical re-
gions of both hemispheres, where
they live in the forests and thickets,
sometimes perching' upon bushes and
the lower branches of trees, or living
principally upon the ground. Their
food consists almost entirely of Insects,
principally Coleoptera and Ants ;
and from the great numbers of the
latter Insects which they destroy in
some localities, especially the Tropical
forests of South America, the name
of Ant-Thrushes, commonly given to
these Birds, is derived.
From the shortness of their wings,
these Birds generally fly very indiffer-
ently ; and Mr. Hodgson remarks of
one species, the Pttta nipaUnsis,
that its flight is so bad that he has
seen it taken by a man. Dr. Hors-
field established the genus Brachyptcryx for a Javanese species
of this group {B. montana), in which the abbreviation of the wings
appears to be carried to its extreme. He says that it is quite unable
to undertake long or elevated flights, and that its movements are
always made with great exertion. This Bird, like most of the
other members of the group, makes its nest upon the ground.
The species of the genus Pitta are peculiar to the Eastern Hemi-
sphere. These Birds are generally adorned with beautiful colours, a
brilliant azure blue being a very prevalent tint. The numerous South
American species of Ant-Thrushes, belonging to the genus Formi-
cari'us and its allies, are more sober in their tints, their plumage
exhibiting various shades of brown and white.
Only one genus of this group is found beyond the Tropics. It is
that of the Cincliis, to which the common Dipper, or Watcr-Ouzci
of this country belongs, and of which the following is a description.
The Water-Ouzel, or Dipper [ductus aqiiaticiis). — Lerli-
chirollo and Merlo acquatico of the Italians ; Torda de Agua of the
Spaniards ; Merle d'Eau, Aguasiere a gorge blanche of the Freiicli ;
Watnstare of the Swedes ; Fosse-fald, F'osse-kald, Qua^rn-kald
Stroem-stajr, and Baskke Engl of the Norwegians ; Wasser-anisel
and Der Hochkopfige mittlere'und Nordische \Vasserschw;itzer of the
Germans ; Waterspreecud of the Netherlands ; Mwyalchen y divir
of the ancient British; Water-piet, Dipper, and Bessy-ducker,
provincial English.
This species is spread over the greater portion of Europe, but is
more rare in the northern regions than in our islands and the south.
Specimens have been received from India and Japan. It is amidst
romantic and picturesque scenery, where mountain streams and
rivulets, winding through glens and rock-girt dales, sparkle over a
rocky bed, that this elegant and active Bird is to be sought for. It
is common in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, and the hilly parts of
470
ANT-THRUSHES.
England. It is active, restless, and full of animation ; its movements
are all quick and alert, and it flits from stone to stone, flying low and
rapidly over the bubbling water. Often may it be seen perched on a
portion of rock jutting out of the water in the centre of the stream ;
and there, conspicuous by its snowy breast, contrasted with the
deep russet brown of the rest of its plumage, it will remain for a
short time dipping its head and jerking its tail in an odd sort of
manner, reminding us of the Wren. In an instant it will disappear,
diving beneath the water, and, emerging at a considerable distance,
Fig. I2I2.— Mocking-Bird.
again settle on some stone or crag, and utter a low, but very sweet
and pleasing strain. Again it will dive or fly off to another resting-
place, jerk its tail, and sing, dipping and moving its head, and
again start off to a more attractive pedestal. We have heard its
song in bright mornings during winter, as well as in the spring
and summer; and it exhibits equal animation, entering the water,
and flitting from stone to stone, in the cold and in the warmer
Fig. 1213. — Head and Foot of Pitta Bengalensis.
months. How this Bird manages to keep itself submerged and
proceed at the bottom of the stream, is not very well understood.
Mr. Thompson says — "On the 26th of September, a pair of water-
ouzels at the upper pond of Wolfhill (near Belfast) plunged several
times into the water, which was some feet deep, and remained
moving about in it, with only their heads above the surface ; twice
one of them disappeared altogether for a few seconds ; they then
pursued each other round the pond and alighted, when one of them
sang, and they repeated over again, several times, all these
mancEuvrcs." In these aquatic habits wc are reminded of the
Water-Rail.
The food of the Water-Ouzel consists of Insects, aquatic larvae,
minute fresh-water shelled Snails, and the fry of Fishes. The nest of
this Bird is most artfully concealed ; we have seen it in the fissure
of a low jutting crag overhanging the rushing and bubbling current ;
and also between the green damp stones of a rude bridge. The
structure itself is composed of intertwined mosses, and is of large
size, and domed, with a small lateral aperture leading to the interior
chamber, which is lined with a few dried leaves. Sometimes it is so
placed that the sheet of v^rater falling from an elevated rock, and
Fig. 1214. — Wing and Foot of the Watei-Ouzel.
forming a cascade, completely screens it ; but, wherever situated, it
blends' with the rest of the moss and lichen, which fills up every
chink, and spreads over the face of the humid rocks in great luxuri-
ance, and, unless the Bird be watched to its retreat, would never bo
detected. Fig. 1215 represents the nest of the Water-Ouzel. The
Fig. 1215. — Nest of the Water-Ouzel.
eggs, five in number, are white. As soon as the young are fledged
they accompany their parents, following them in all their movements,
playfully sporting, diving, flitting from stone to stone, and per-
forming the most amusing evolutions. On the continent the Water-
Ouzel is very common in Switzerland, and in the rocky parts of Italy.
Several pairs are always observable about the fall of Velino, near
Temi.
The genus Cinchis is characterised by the beak being straight
and somewhat turned up, compressed laterally, and blunt at the tip ;
the wings rounded ; the tarsi long ; the feet large. Besides the
European species there are two Indian, and one a native of America.
The Water-Ouzel is about seven inches in length; the upper parts
are of a deep brown ; the throat and chest white, the under parts
rusty ; iris pearl grey ; bill black ; legs horn-coloured. In the
young Bird the plumage above is clouded with blackish undulations,
and the white feathers of the chest are finely varied with brown and
ash-colour. The lovi'er figure (Fig. 12 16) is that of a young Bird.
The habits of this curious Bird are further described by Mr. Dallas,
in the " Circle of Sciences," in the following terms : —
" The Dipper is always found in the imm.ediate vicinity of water,
especially on the banks of the clear streams and lakes of mountainous
THE DIPPERS.
471
districts. Tliis is the case with some of the other species of the
group, but none, except the members of the genus Cinclus, however
close they may go to the margin, ever venture into the water. Our
Common Dipper, however, — and tlic otlier species of the genus are
said to have the same habits, — plunges into the water without the
least hesitation, dives to the bottom with ease, and progresses in
that remarkable situation with considerable rapidity. It was long
asserted that the Bird walked into the water, and having surrounded
himself with a coating of air to serve in place of a diving-bell, pro-
ceeded deliberately to promenade the pebbly bottom. This, however,
is evidently impossible, as the Dipper's feet are not formed for
walking, even on land ; and the lightness of its body would infallibly
bring it to the surface if it attempted to hop there. According to
Fig. 1216. — Water-Ouzels.
Mr. Macgillivray the diving and progression under water is effected
in much tlie same way as by many of the web-footed Natatorial
birds, by the action of the wings, so that the bird may really be said
to fly under water. In this manner it makes way even against a
strong current, but evidently by dint of considerable c-xertion ; and
as soon as this is relaxed it rises to the surface like a cork. On
coming up to the surface it swims with ease, or can dive again from
that position without any necessity for visiting the shore. Its object
in these sub-aquatic excursions is to procure its food, which consists
of small aquatic mollusca and insects. To these articles of diet
some authors add small fish and tlie spawn of fish ; and from a
belief that the Dippers destroy the ova of salmon and trout they are
in many places exposed to a considerable amount of persecution,
although It appears rather uncertain whether they are really guilty of
the offence imputed to them."
" Their nests are formed of moss, firmly matted together, and arc
completely domed over, with only a hole in one side for the entrance
and exit of the birds. Within this there is a second nest composed
of grasses and lined with leaves. The nest is placed on the bank of
the stream, sometimes amongst the roots of a tree, in a crevice of a
rock, or in a hole in the brickwork of a bridge. The eggs are five or
six in number, and of a pure white colour. The birds''have two or
even three broods in a season.
In the collection of the British Museum there are numerous
specimens of the Ant-Thrushes, including the following :— The
Negro-Ant-Thrush, F. domicclla ; the Scaly, F. squamata; the
Long-tailed, /•'. ca«(/rt/(j: ; the King-Tlirush, Grallaria rex; with
Fis
12 17. — The King-Tlirush.
numerous specimens of the genus Pitla. The localities from which
these various specimens are derived, include Brazil and other |)arts of
South America, Borneo, Java, India, Australia, the Philippine
Islands, China, Africa, and various countries in Europe. The
above is an illustration of the King-Thrush {Gral/aria rex), a
native of Guiana and Brazil.
47^
DENTIROSTRAL BIRDS-THE WARBLERS.
CLASS II.-
CHAPTER XXVIII.
-AVES, OR BIRDS: ORDER PASSERES, OR PERCHING BIRDS; SUB-ORDER
DENTIROSTRES-FAMILY SYLVIAD^, OR WARBLERS.
generally distributed in all latitudes ; but many
of them migrate regularly from the temperate
to the -narmer parts of the world on the ap-
proach of winter, and the majority appear to
change their residence, more or less, accord-
ing to the season. Nine species occur in
Britain, three of which belong to the typical
genus MotaciUa. The following describes
some of the most interesting species.
The Pied \Y hOTM-Lf MotaciUa yarreniij.
— Mr. Gould was, perhaps, the first to discover
that the Pied Wagtail of England is a distinct
species from the Pied or White Wagtail, so
common in France and other parts of the
continent, and which is, perhaps, the true Jil.
alba of Linnjeus ; certainly of the modern
continental ornithologists. Mr, Gould states
that the Pied Wagtail of England is some-
what more robust in form than the Con-
tinental Bird, and when in full summer dress,
has the whole of the head, chest, and back
while in the White Wagtail of France, at the
same season, the throat and head alone are of this colour, the upper
surface being light ash-grey. In winter the two species more nearly
assimilate in their colouring, and this circumstance is more probably
the cause of their having hitherto been considered identical ; the
black back of M.yarreUii being grey at this season, although never
so light as in M. alba. (See Fig. 1220.)
The British Pied Wagtail is incessantly in motion, running about
in quest of prey, and ever and anon moving from place to place by
short undulating flights, uttering a lively note, and, on gracefully
alighting, rapidly vibrating its tail, which seems as if hung on
tremulous springs. It frequents grass-plots, commons, and the
borders of sheets of water, and will wade in search of Aquatic
Insects ; nor are even small Fishes safe from its attacks. W. Rayner,
Esq., in a letter to Mr. Yarrell, quoted in his " History of British
Birds," states that, in the summer and autumn of 1837, he had in his
J YLVIAD.E, or S\lvid.t;, as a family of
Dentirostrals, includes some of our most
interesting songsters, as the Nightingale,
the Robin, and many others. In these
Birds the bill is usually of moderate
length, rather slender, generally broad at
the base, and tapering towards the extremity, with
the tip of the upper mandible more or less curved
downwards, and slightly notched. (See Fig. 1 2 18.)
The nostrils are situated at the base of .the bill, in
a membranous groove, with the opening uncovered ;
the wings are long, the tarsi usually long and
slender, and the toes variable in length, the outer
one united at the base.
This family includes a great number of species.
They are all small Birds, and generally of sober
colours, although many of them are of great
beauty. They are divided into five sub-families,
of four of which we have British representatives.
The first of these, the sub-family of the
Motacillince, or Wagtails, exhibits a certain
resemblance to the Larks, and, indeed, includes some species which
have been placed with these Birds by various authors. The
Motacillinai have the bill moderately long, straight, and slender,
much compressed, with the ridge of the upper mandible straight to
the tip, and then slightly curved ; the tip of the upper mandible is
notched. The wings (Fig. 12 19) are long and pointed; the second-
aries are frequently notched at the end ; and the tertiaries very long
and pointed— a character in which these Birds resemble the Larks.
The tail is long, sometimes nearly twice the length of the body ;
and it is to the remarkable jerking motion of this organ that these
Birds are indebted for their common name of Wagtails. The tarsi
are long and slender, covered in front by about eight scales, of
which, however, only the four lower ones are usually to be recognised
distinctly ; the toes are rather short, the outer one generally longer
than the inner, and slightly
united at the base to the mid-
dle one, and all the toes are
armed with slightly curved and
acute claws, of which that on
the hinder toe is sometimes
very long. The MotacilliticB
live in meadows and pastures,
frequently by the sides of
streams and pools of water ;
they run swiftly, and have
an exceedingly graceful, buoy-
ant, rapid, and undulating
flight. On alighting upon the
ground, they usually spread the
Fig. 1218.— Head of the Grey Wagtail, tail ; and, whilst running along,
they are constantly vibrating
the body and tail in a very singular manner. Their food consists
entirely of Insects; and the nests are made upon the ground,
amongst herbage or stones ; they lay from four to six spotted eggs.
These Buds are found in both hemisplieres, and are pretty
of a deep black ;
Fig. 1219. — Wing of the Pied Wagtail.
aviary several Wagtails, the pied and yellow, "both of which were
very expert in catching and feeding on minnows which were in a
fountain in the centre of the aviary. These birds hover over the
water, and catch the minnow as it approaches the top, in the most
dexterous manner. I was also much surprised at the wariness and
cunning of some blackbirds and thrushes in watching the wagtails
catch the minnows, and immediately seizing the prize for their own
Fig. 1220.— Head of the Pied Wagtail in summer and winter plumage.
THE WAGTAILS.
473
dinner." The nest of the British Pied Wagtail is composed of
fibres of roots, withered grass, and moss, lined with hair and a few
feathers : it is generally placed near water, on a bank, or in the hole
of a wall, or crevice between stones, among logs of woods, or in the
thatch of an outbuilding or cart-shed. The eggs are white, spotted
with ash-colour. This species may be often seen running about
close to Cows reposing in their pasture-land, busily engaged in
collecting the Flies that settle on the sides or limbs of the placid
Ruminants, orfiit about them. Fig. 1221 represents this Bird.
Fig. I22I.— The Pied Wagtail.
The White Wagtail {Moiactlla alba). — La Bergeronette
grise and Lavandiere of the French ; Cotremolo, Codetta, Codetta
di Pecore, Ballarina, Monachina, and Cuttretola of the Italians ;
Die Weisse Bachstelze and Weisse und Schwartze Bachstelze of the
Germans. This species is common throughout the continent of
Europe, and inhalsits the Highlands of India, extending also into
Africa : its habits are similar to those of our British Pied Wagtail.
(See Fig. 1222.)
Fig. 1222.— The White Wagtail of the Continent
The Grey Wagtail [M. boarula), whose head is represented by
?"ig. 1220, anfe, is of a bluish-grey colour above, with the rump and
the lower surface yellow ; in the summer the throat has a black
patch. These Birds produce two broods of young in the course of
the summer.
Two other British species, the Buclylcs /lava and Ji. rayi, stand
in the same relation to each other as the Pied and White Wagtail
just referred to : the Budytcs rayi is the common yellow Wagtail
of this country, and was long supposed to be identical with the
common species of the continent ; but the two species have lately
been found to bo distinct. They resemble the Motacilla in their
habits.
There are numerous species of the Wagtails in the collection of
the British Museum, including those already mentioned and the
following -.—M. gularia, from Egypt ; M. luxorioisis, from Nepaul
and Java ; M. iiidica, from the East Indies ; M. 7iigricapella,
from Dal-.natia. M. melanoccphala, Athens, with many others.
The Pipits, genus An thus, make a near approach to the True
Larks, and are commonly known under the name of Titlarks. They
closely resemble the True Wagtails in their habits, walking and
running upon the ground in search of the Insects which form the
Fig. 1223.— The Tree-Pipit.
principal part of their food. They also feed upon seeds. The com-
monest species in this country is the Meadow Pipit, or Titlark
(Anthtts prate)isisj,\A\\c\\ is found abundantly in all parts of the
country, generally, as its name implies, in meadows ; it is a
permanent resident in Britain. Another species, the Shore or Rock
Pipit {A. fetrosus), frequents the sea-shore, and follows the
retreating tide, in company with the smaller Wading-Birds, in search
oi small Jlfollusca and Crustacea. The Tree Pipit (A. arborcus),
which is a summer visitor to these islands, inhabits wooded
districts, and perches upon trees to a much greater extent than its
congeners. The following is a more particular description of two of
the species.
The Tree-Pipit {Anthus arboreus). — This species, which may
be regarded as the analogue of the Woodlark [Alauda arborca),
differs from the Meadow Pipit in being rather larger ; with the beak
stouter, the spots on the breast fewer and longer, and the claw of
the hind-toe much shorter and thicker (see foot. Fig. 1224, a). Its
habits are also different. It is only a summer visitor to our island,
arriving towards the end of April, and taking up its abode in copses
and well-wooded enclosures. The male then commences his song of
invitation, which is superior to that of the Meadow Pipit in compass,
variety, and sweetness. This he utters either perched on the top of a
tree, or in the air; in the latter case he rises on quivering wings to
an elevation about as high again as the tree whence he started ;
and then, at this altitude, poises his wings, spreads and elevates his
tail, and slowly descends (singing all the while) to the station from
which he had previously arisen, louring his ascent he never sings,
but sometimes utters a chirp. Rarely does this species alight upon
the ground without previously perching on a tree ; and, after
leaving the ground, it wings its way to a tree before commencing a
more lengthened flight. The nest is placed on the ground, and is
formed of moss, fibres, and withered grass, lined with bents and.
hairs. The eggs are generally of a greyish-white, clouded and
spotted with purple-brown or purple-red, but their colour is variable.
The winter quarters of the Tree-Pipit are probably the noithcrn and
western portions of Africa ; it is found in Madeira, and also in
Japan, having a wider range of habitat.
3 P
474
TITMICE.
The Meadow Pipit {A?ifhus ■pratensis). — The Pipits — often
termed Titlarks, from a small yet well-characterised group of
Sylviada, having the plumage and long hind-claws of the True
Larks, but the slender bills of the Wagtails— have only a
remote affinity to the Larks, which belong to the Coniroscral
tribe ; for though, as Mr. Swainson observes, they are the analogues
of the latter in the Dentirostral tribe, we are not prepared to admit
that this analogy becomes transmuted into positive relationship.
The Meadow Pipit may be regarded as the representative of the
Skylark, and like that Bird it p'ours out its song at a great elevation
in the air, rising on tremulous wings, and then descending smoothly
to the ground, or to the top of some low bush, to its mate, for whose
gratification its strains were uttered. Sometimes the Meadow Pipit
sings on the earth, but generally utters its soft musical notes in the
air. This Bird is very extensively distributed over Europe, and is
Fig. 1224. — The Meadow Pipits.
common in the British Islands, remaining with us throughout the
year. It frequents hilly districts, open commons, meadows, and
even marsh lands, and runs over the grassy turf with great celerity ;
when on a clod or stone, it fi-equently vibrates the tail in the
manner of the Wagtail, and likewise gives chase to Insects, on
which it feeds, as well as on Slugs and Worms. In September and
October, after the general moult, these Birds associate in small
flocks, resorting to turnip-fields ; and in severe weather to the
shelter of hedge-banks and low pastures. The nest is made on the
ground, under the covert of a tuft of grass, and is composed of dried
bents and fibres, with a lining of finer materials and hairs. The
eggs, five or six in number, are of a reddish-brown, spotted with
darker markings.
The Meadow Pipit is about six inches in length. The hind-claw
(Fig. 1224, a) is long and slender. The general colour of the
plumage is dark olive-green, with the centre of every feather brownish-
black ; under parts yellow ash-white, spotted with dark brown on
the sides of the neck and breast, and streaked with the same on the
flanks.
Numerous specimens of the Pipits may be seen in the collection of
the British Museum— f.^., Anthus australis, from Australia and
Van Diemen's Land ; A . arbor ens, Sweden, &c. The MnwtilUtKs,
or Bush Creepers, form the second sub-family of the Sylviada.
They have a moderately long, acutely conical bill, with the ridge of
the upper mandible nearly straight, and its tip slightly notched.
The wings are long, and usually pointed, and the tail of moderate
length : the tarsi, which are covered with scales in front, are usually
longer than the middle toe — sometimes nearly twice as long ; and the
toes are long and slender, the outer one usually longer than the
inner.
These Birds are found in both hemispheres, principally in the
warmer regions ; but several of the species, especially the American,
migrate from the warm to the more temperate climates. In their
habits they appear to be very uniform, residing principally in thickets
and woods, and feeding on Insects, Spiders, and Worms. In search
of Insects and their larvse, and Spiders, these Birds, which arc
usually of diminutive size, creep about upon the bushes with much
agility, examining every leaf with great care, and even poking their
heads into flowers to capture the minute Insects which seek shelter
amongst the petals. Thus Dr. Jerdon mentions that one of the
common Indian species {ZosU'rops palpcbrosics) is often seen with
its forehead powdered with pollen, picked up during its inspection
of flowers.
They are sociable little Birds, generally keeping in small flocks,
which are sometimes associated with those of of other species of
Insectivorous Birds. Some of them build on the ground, in the
centre of a thicket of bushes ; others in bushes and trees. The nest
is sometimes arched over, with a small hole in the side for the
entrance and exit of the Birds, occasionally cup-shaped, and either
placed in the fork of the branch of a tree, or suspended upon the
twigs. The same species sometimes appears to build in any of the
three last-mentioned positions ; for the little Zosterops palpebrosus,
already referred to, is said by Mr. Layard to construct its nest " in
the fork of two branches;" whilst Captain Hutton describes the
Bird as building in thick bushes of Hibiscus, or suspending its nest
from the twigs of trees. He says the nest "is not placed on a
branch, but is suspended between two thin twigs, to which it is
fastened by floss silk, torn from the cocoons of Bombyx hiittoni
(Westwood), and by a few slender fibres of the bark of trees, or hair,
according to circumstances. So slight and fragile is the little oval
cup, that it is astonishing the mere weight of the parent Bird does
not bring it to the ground ; and yet, within it, their young ones will
safely outride a gale that will bring the weightier nests of jays and
thrushes to the ground." These Birds have no regular song, but
merely a feeble twittering note, which is constantly emitted whilst
they are engaged in their search for food.
The sub-family of the Parincc, or Titmice, consists of a number
of diminutive, sprightly Birds, found in both hemispheres. In these
Birds the bill is short, straight, and tapering, with the upper
mandible quite destitute of the usual notches at the tip. The nostrils
are placed at the base of the bill, and usually concealed by the re-
curved feathers of the forehead. The wings are short, and the tail
long ; the tarsi rather long and slender, distinctly scutellated in
front ; the inner toe is the shortest, and all the toes are furnished
with strong, curved claws.
These little Birds, several species of which are well known in
England under the names of Tits, Titmice, and Tomtits, are active,
lively, and courageous, and many of them are adorned with exceed-
ingly beautiful colours. They are found principally in wooded
countries, where they feed upon Insects and larvae, which they
capture both upon the bark and leaves of the trees and shrubs. In
search of these they may be seen clinging, in every variety of
attitude, to the branches and twigs ; and when thus engaged, from
the sprightliness of their whole behaviour, they are exceedingly
pleasing objects. They are often seen engaged in this manner in
gardens, where they climb about the fruit trees in every direction,
and often destroy a good many buds in their search for Insects
contained in them. The following is a more particular description
of some of the species.
In Fig. 1225 there is illustrated a group of British Titmice.
The Great Tit {Panes tnajor) ; Mesange charbonniere,
Temm. ; Great Titmouse or Ox-eye, " British Zool." — This beautiful
Bird frequents gardens, orchards, and copses, v.-here in spring may
be frequently heard its harsh note, aptly compared to the sound
producedonsharpeningthe teeth of a saw bythe file. This note is
only heard during the pairing season, and ceases when the Bird has
a nest. Its ordinary cry is a loud chirp followed by a harsh clatter,
remarkably strong for so small a Bird, as it may be heard at a con-
siderable distance. It uses, however, a great variety of calls, or
notes, of which one resembles the call-note of the Chaffinch, soundino-
like the \yord. pi?ik. (See group of British Titmice, a, Fig. 1225.)
The Great Titmouse feeds upon Insects and their larva:, which it
digs out of crevices in the bark of trees, or extricates from buds in
which they have made a lodgment. In autumn and during winter
it subsists upon grain and seeds, preferring such as are of an oily
quality. It will also pick bones, and is partial both to the flesh and
fat, which it greedily devours. It will also disarrange the thatch of
outhouses and other buildings in quest of torpid Insects. " The
great titmouse (says Gilbert White), driven by stress of weather,
much frequents houses ; and in deep snows I have seen this bird,
while it hung with its back downwards, to my no small delight and
admiration, draw straws lengthwise from the eaves of thatched
houses, in order to pull out the flies that were concealed between
them, and that in such numbers that they quite defaced the thatch,
and gave it a ragged appearance." It is capable of piercing the
shells of nuts, of the kernels of which it is fond. Mr. Slancy says,
" We have often in winter heard a humming noise, which appeared
to be caused by this bird, and throwing a stone smartly at him he
dropped something which proved to be hazel-nut a little perforated
at the smaller end by repeated strokes of his bill. We often after-
wards watched him at work, and found under his workshop many
shells from which the nuts had been extricated, and some split into
halves. It is said that if a nut be suspended at the end of a string.
TITMICE.
475
the titmouse will fix himself on this nut, and follow all its oscilla-
tions without ceasing to hack it with his bill."
Mr. Rcnnie observes that " this species, when going to sleep, rolls
itself into a round ball, erecting every feather so as not to separate
its point from the adjoining ones. The quantity of non-conducting
surface is by this means increased to the depth of nearly half an inch
more than it is when the feathers are laid Hat and smooth ; and as
the feathers of the belly are at the same time spread over the feet,
the little creature is admirably protected from the cold."
The Great Titmouse breeds in the holes of ruins, walls, and build-
ings, or in the holes of decayed trees, which it either makes or
enlarges with its hard pointed bill, and rapidly accomplishes its task.
The nest is placed in an enlarged space at the bottom, and is com-
posed of moss, hair, and feathers. The eggs are si.x or eight in
number, of a white colour spotted with reddish-brown.
The colours of this beautiful species are well contrasted. The
head, throat, and lower part of the neck are black ; the cheeks and
ear-coverts white. On the nape of the neck is a spot of white ; back
Fig. 1225.— A Group of British Titmice.
a, the Greater Tit ( Parus major) ; h, the Blue Tit r^,„-„. c.n.lan) ; c, the Cole-Tit, or Coal-Tit (Par.s aUr) ■
o ive-green, passmg at the lower part into bluish-grey. Wing-coverts
blu.sh-grey tipped with white. Quill-feathers greenish-grey alare
those of the tail. Under parts sulphur yellowfwith a bTack central
stripe continued from the throat. Bill black ; legs bluisl™ fn
ThTrm .^ tVx'' ^""^ '"z? ''"'^- ^'^"-'h about ''si.x inches? ^
Bluecap Hfckw.r"i?n ^^J-^r^'f^it"^)- Provincial, Tomtit, Nun,
i5uecap, liickwall, Billy-biter ; Le Mesange a tete bleue Cuvier •
and"tnn"'',M'^"''"='"-'^'"^ '^'^^"''f"' little "species is very common'
dens ^n7 ' ^T" '°i^'='=^ ^ ^^'^^^^^ description. It frequennarl
has known twenty of these Birds caught in a morning, by means of
snap Mouse-traps baited with suet ; we have ourselves often captured
it in a common brick trap baited with bits of meat and bread and
butter. It is partial to oleaginous seeds, and will feed on those of
the sunflower, and also, as White asserts, pick holes in apples left
on the ground. Like the preceding species, it will disturb the thatch
of buildings in quest of Insects, and will even attack other small
Birds. In winter the Blue Titmouse resorts to stack-yards, where it
finds both food and shelter, nestling at night in holes about the sides
or under the thatching of hay or corn-stacks, and pufling up its
feathers so as to resemble a ball of down. This species lives in holes
of trees or walls, and forms its nest of mosses lined with feathers and
hair ; its eggs, from si.x to eight in number, are white spotted with
brown, especially at the larger end. They resolutely defend their
nest against intruders, and if an attempt be made upon it, bite with
great severity, ruffling up their soft full plumage, and hissing like a
Snake or angry Kitten, thereby often deterring the schoolboy from
carrying his intentions into effect. The call-notes of the Blue Tit-
mouse are confined to a weak
chirp and kind of harsh chatter.
(See group of British Titmice,*.)
The Coal or Coi.E-Tir
{Pants atcr, Colemouse) ; La
Petite Charbonniere, BuiTon ;
Tannemeise, Bechstein. — The
Cole-Tit, or Coal-Tit, is spread
oyer Europe, particularly where
pine-foresis abound ; in Eng-
land it is comparatively rare,
but in Scotland is very com-
mon, frequenting the extensive
woods and plantations of pine,
fir, &c., which seem every-
where to be its favourite if not
exclusive habitat. In these
woods it finds a secure retreat,
and abundance of food, con-
sisting of Aphides and the
larvar: of Insects, as well as of
seeds and berries. In its
quick abrupt movements, its
restlessness, and its ever-
changing attitudes, this Bird
resembles the Blue Titmouse ;
and it seeks for its food among
the branches with the same
address. Its call-note in the
spring, which resembles that
of the Great Titmouse, except-
ing that it is shriller, may be
heard incessantly through the
solitudes of the woods till the
labour of nidification com-
mences; the Bird is then
silent. The nest is built in the
hollow of some decayed tree,
and is neatly formed of moss
and wool with a lining of hair.
The eggs are from six to
eight in number, of a white
colour spotted with reddish-
brown. It is very similar to
the Blue Titmouse in form, but
is even less in size, being about
four inches in length ; the bill
is black, as are the crown and
nape of the neck, the latter
having a white central spot ;
the throat and under part of
the neck are also black; the
back is greenish-grey, passing
on the lower part into yellowish-
grey ; the wings and tail arc
grey ; under-parts rreyish-
1225, group of British Titmice, c.
legs bluish-grey. (Sec Fig.
white ;
above.
miLT. ^^''''^"■T" (^'"v« ^alusMs) ; Mdsange nonnette, Tem-
"^'"'^'i' .S^pipfmeise, Beclistein.-The Marsh-Tit is very like the
Colc-Tit in form and colouring, but is larger, and has no white mark
on the riape of the neck. It is common in the northern parts of
England, but is seldom seen in Scotland above Fifeshire, and scarcely
ever so far south as London. Although it may be sometimes met with
in the woods of dry districts, it is more frequently to be met with
among the reeds in low marshy tracts, where it makes its nest
.generally choosing some decayed willow for a foundation. Its food
IS chiefly Insects, but in winter it feeds on seeds, and is often
tempted to visit the farm-yard for pieces of meat, which it eats with
476
TITMICE.
much avidity ; indeed its appetite is so great, that it has been known
to consume more than half its own weight of food per day. The
Marsh-Tit is also known provincially as the smaller Ox-eye, Willow-
Fig. 1226. — The Black-cap Titmouse.
biter, Joe Bent, &c. When their haunts can be approached so as
to witness their movements (which is not always an easy matter, as
they generally select some long tract of marshy country on the
Fij. 1227. — Lon^-tailed Titmice and their Nest.
banks of rivers, &c.), the observer will be repaid by a very interest-
ing sight. They dwell together in considerable numbers, and are
perpetually in motion, going in and out of their nests, feeding their
young, flying off in search of food, or seeking for it in the crevices
of the neighbouring trees. It is truly gratifying to witness their
sprightly gambols, and the entertaining positions into which, as it
were in very exuberance of spirit, they are continually throwing
themselves. (See group of British Titmice, d. Fig. 1225, ante.)
This Bird is very common in Holland. The nest is composed of
moss, mixed with the seed-down of the willow, and lined with a
warm coating of the same material. The eggs, six or eight in
number, are spotted with reddish-brown, particularly at the larger
end. Head, nape of neck, and throat ink blaclc ; upper parts
yellowish-grey ; wings and tail bluish-grey edged paler ; cheeks
yellowish-white ; breast and under parts white, tinged with pale
yellowish-brown ; legs bluish-grey.
The Tits we have hitherto described are very generally to be
found in England ; but the Crested Tit [P. cristatiis) is a Bird but
seldom seen in this country, and very rare throughout Europe. It is
distinguishable from the other Tits by its crest, formed by its occipital
feathers being elongated, pointed, and slightly recurved. It is in
length about four inches and a-half, of a dusky colour, with a black
band round the neck; breast pinkish-white; feet of a leaden colour;
and forehead black. It is common in the woods in the northern part of
the middle division of Scotland, but in the other parts of Great Britain
it is, as we have said, very rare. In North America, however, it is
more frequently found. It is very solitary, very courageous in de-
fending itself and its nest, and is very difficult to tame. Though
not strictly migratory, it often shifts its quarters, and in severe
winters visits the more southern parts of the kingdom.
The Black-cap Titmouse of America {Parus atricapillus) ;
Mesange a tete noire de Canada, Buffon. — Many ornithologists, and
among them Temminck, have considered this Bird to be identical
with the Marsh-Titmouse of Europe. It is now, however, universally
agreed that the two Birds, though nearly allied, are distinct species.
The Black-cap Titmouse is termed Peechehkeeskajshees by the
Cree Indians, and, according to Nuttall, Chicadee by the European
colonists. It ranges through the whole width of the American con-
tinent from latitude 65° to the southern districts of the United
States, being stationary throughout the year. It is one of the most
common Birds in the fur-
countries, a small family in-
habiting every thicket. In
the United States it is univer-
sally distributed.
Their diet varies with the
season. In the month of Sep-
tember they leave the woods
and assemble familiarly in
orchards and gardens, and
even enter the thronging cities
in quest of that support which
their native forests now deny
them. Large seeds of many
kinds, particularly those which
are oily, as the sun-flower, and
pine, and spruce-kernels, are
nowsought after. These seeds,
in the usual manner of the
genus, are seized in the claws
and held against the branch
until picked open by the bill
to obtain their contents. Fat
of various kinds is also greed-
ily eaten, and they regularly
watch the retreat of the Hog-
killers, in the country, to glean
up the fragments of meat
which adhere to the places
where the carcasses have
been suspended. At times
they feed upon the wax of
the candle - berry myrtle
( Myrica cerifera) ; they
likewise pick up crumbs near
the houses, and search the
weather-boards and the win-
dow-sills familiarly for their
lurking prey, and are particu-
larly fond of Spiders and the
eggs of destructive Moths, es-
pecially those of the Canker-
worm, which they greedily
destroy in all its stages of
existence. Their roost is in
the hollows of decayed trees,
where they also breed, lay-
TITMICE.
477
ing their eggs merely in the dry rotten wood, without any
attempt at a nest ; these are from six to twelve in number, white
with specks of brown-red. The young, as soon as fledged, have all
the external marks of the adult ; the head is equally black, and
they chatter and skip about with all the agility and self-possession
of their parents, who appear, nevertheless, very solicitous for their
safety. From this time the whole family continue to associate to-
gether through the autumn and winter.
The colouring of the Black-cap Tit is as follows : — Top of the head,
back of the neck, and the throat velvet black ; a white line from the
nostrils through the eye spreads out on the side of the neck ; back
lead-coloured, glossed with yellowish-grey ; quill and tail-feathers
blackish-grey edged with greyish-white ; under plumage brownish-
white ; bill black ; legs bluish. Total length five inches and a-half.
(See Fig. 1226.)
The Long-tailed Titmouse {Mccistura ; or Oritcs caudafa,
Mcehr ; Pariis caitdatus, Ray). — This species is the Pendolino,
Paronzino, Codibugnolo, and Paglia in culo of the Italians ; Me-
sange d la longue queue and Perd sa queue of the French ; Lan-
schwanzige Meise, Schwanzmoise, and Belzmeise Pfannenstiel of
the Germans; Staartmees of the Netherlanders ; Alhtita of the
Swedes ; Jenga of the Japanese ; Bottle Tit, Bottle Tom, Long-
tailed Farmer, Long-tail Mag, Long-tail Pie, Poke-Pudding, Huck-
muck, and Mum-rufiin of the modern British; and Y Benloyn
gnyffonhir of the ancient British.
The Long-tailed Titmouse is distributed throughout Europe and
the middle districts of Asia to Japan. It inhabits the British
Islands. The food of this pretty Bird consists of Insects, their
eggs and larvae, for which it is in constant search among the
branches, displaying the greatest alertness and address, hanging
in every attitude from the ends of the twigs, and creeping Mouse-
like round the thicker branches. It is not often that this Bird is
seen in the immediate vicinity of houses ; and this circumstance did
not escape the notice of Gilbert White, who states that it never
retreats for succour in the severest seasons to houses and their
neighbourhood. This does not arise from any peculiar shyness;
and though it may not resort, like the Blue Titmouse, to the haunts
of man for food and shelter in winter, it does not positively avoid
them in summer. Pennant well describes its appearance in flight
when, after stating that the young follow the parents the whole
winter, he says, " From the slimness of their bodies and great length of
tail, they appear while flying like so many darts cutting the air.
They are often seen passing through our gardens, going progres-
sively from tree to tree, as if on their road to some other place, never
making any halt." This progression is remarkable.
The nest of the Long-tailed Titmouse is a most beautiful and
elaborate piece of workmanship, " combining beauty of appearance
with security and warmth. In shape it is nearly oval, with one small
hole in the upper part of the side, by which the bird enters. I have
never seen more than one hole. The outside of this nest sparkles
with silver-coloured lichens adhering to a firm texture of moss and
wool, the inside profusely lined with soft feathers. The nest is
generally placed in the middle of a thick bush, and so firmly fixed
that it is mostly found necessary to cut out the portion of the bush
containing it, if desirous of preserving the natural appearance and
form of the nest. The female is the nest-maker, and is known to
have been occupied for a fortnight or three weeks in completing her
habitation. In this she deposits from ten to twelve eggs ; but a
larger number are occasionally found : they are small and white,
with a few pale red specks, frequently quite plain. The young
family of the year keep company with the parent birds during their
first autumn and winter, and generally crowd close together on the
same branch at roosting-time, looking, when thus huddled up, like
a shapeless lump of feathers only. These birds have several notes,
on the sound of which they assemble and keep together : one of
these call-notes is soft and scarcely audible ; a second is a louder
chirp or twitter ; and a third is of a hoarser kind." Fig. 1227 repre-
sents the Birds and their nest.
The colouring of this species is as follows: — Hsad, neck, throat,
and breast pure white ; the back and the six middle tail-feathers
deep black ; scapulars reddish ; belly, sides, and abdomen reddish-
white ; quills black ; greater wing-coverts bordered with pure white ;
lateral tail-feathers white on their external barbs and at their end ;
tail very long and wedge-shaped. Length five inches seven or eight
lines.
The Bearded Titmouse {Calamophihcs biarmicus; Pa-
rus biarmicus). — This is the Mesange Barbue ou Moustache of the
French ; Bartmeise of the Germans ; Least Butcher-Bird of Edwards ;
Reed Pheasant (provincial) of the modern British : and Y Barfog of
the Welsh.
M. Temminck remarks that the Zahnschablige Bartmeise of
Brehm is a species or sub-species founded only on individuals which
have been long caged, such as may be seen in the Dutch markets,
where numbers are sold. Some of these captives come to London,
where they may be bought for some four or five shillings a pair.
The iris and bill in the living Bird are of a delicate orange-
colour.
The Bearded Titmouse is a native of most parts of Europe ; having,
however, a partial distribution, from the circumstance of its affecting
reed-beds and marshes. Hence it is abundant in Holland, and in the
marshes of Ostia Italy. It occurs along the shores of the Caspian
Sea. In our island it has been found in reed-beds in Surrey,
Sussex, Essex, Kent, along the banks of the Thames between London
and Oxford, and in the fens of Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk,
and Norfolk. The food of this Bird consists of Insects, the seeds of
various grasses, and especially of small Froshwatcr-shcUed Snails ;
Fig. 122S. — Bearded Titmice.
and it is remarkable that the sides of the stomach in this Bird arc
thick and muscular, and formed into a gizzard, which is not the case
in the True Tits, whence is afforded the power of breaking down
the shells of the Testaceous MoUusks, Sticcinea amphibia 3Si6. Pujia
muscorum, which are greedily devoured.
According to Mr. Hoy the Bearded Tit begins building towards
the end of April, and the nest is composed on the outside of dead
leaves of the reed and sedge, intermixed with a few pieces of grass,
and lined with the top of the reed. He describes it as generally
placed in a tuft of coarse grass or rushes near the ground on the
margin of the dikes, in the fens ; and sometimes is fixed among the
reeds that are broken down, but never suspended between the stems.
Their food, he says, is principally the seed of the reed ; and so intent
were they in their search for it, that he had taken them with a bird-
limed twig attached to a fishing-rod. When alarmed by any sudden
noise, or the passing of a Hawk, they uttered their shrill musical
notes, and concealed themselves among the thick bottoms of the
reeds ; but they soon resumed their station, climbing the upright stems
with the greatest facility.
Mr. Dykes had an opportunity of examining three specimens, and
he found their crops completely filled with the Succiiiea ampJiibiaxw
a perfect state, the shells unbroken and singularly closely packed to-
gether. The crop of one, not larger than a hazel-nut, contained twenty
Succitiea, some of them of a good size, and four Pupa muscorum,
with the shells also entire. The stomach was full of small fragments
of shell in a greater or less degree of decomposition. Numerous
sharp angular fragments of quartz which had been swallowed had,
with the action of the stomach, effected the comminution of the
shells.
Two nests obtained by Mr. Yarrell from the village of Hornsey were
sustained only an inch or two above the ground by the strength of
the stems of the coarse grass on which they were fixed. Each was
composed entirely of dried bents, the finer ones forming the lining ;
others increasing in substance made up the exterior. Mr. Yarrell
states the number of eggs at from four to six, rather smaller than
those of the Great Titmouse, and less pointed ; eight lines and
a-half long by six lines and a-half in breadth ; white, and sparingly
marked with pale red lines or scratches.
Description. — Male.— Black between the bill and the eye ; and
these black feathers are very long and prolonged on each side on the
lateral part of the neck : head and occiput bluish-ash ; throat and
front of the neck pure \\\\\W, which blends wi the breast and middle
478
TITMICE— R OB INS.
of the belly into a rosy hue ; nape, back, rump, feathers of the middle
of the tail and sides fine rust-colour; great coverts of the wings
deep black, bordered with deep rusty on the external barb, and red-
dish-white on the internal barb ; quills bordered with white ; feathers
of the under part of the tail deep black ; lateral tail-feathers bordered
and terminated with grey ; tail long, much graduated ; bill and iris
fine yellow. Length six inches and two or three lines. (See Fig.
1228.) ^
_ Female.-— No black moustaches ; throat and front of the neck tar-
nished white ; upper parts of the neck and body rusty, shaded with
brown ; on the middle of the back some longitudinal black spots ;
under tail-coverts bright rusty.
Young at their leaving the nest, and before their first moult, with
nearly the whole of the plumage of very bright reddish ; a good deal
of black on the external barbs of the quills and tail-feathers ; on the
middle of the back a very large space of deep black. After the
first moult nothing of the deep black of the back remains but some
longitudinal spots.
The Penduline Titmouse {^githalus fenduUiius ; Pa-
riis ;pcndulin!isj. Remiz or Mesange de Pologne of the French ;
Bentelmeise of the Germans. — This Bird is principally confined to
Fig. 1229. — Penduline Titmice and Nest.
the southern and eastern provinces of Europe; Poland, Hungary,
the south of France, Italy, &c. It breeds along the Danube. The
Penduline Titmouse, both in habits and in the choice of its food, has
many points in common with the species above described. Like the
Bearded Tit, the Penduline Titmouse haunts the reedy banks of
rivers, or the margins of "wide-watered " shores, and its food con-
sists not only of the seeds of the reeds, but of Aquatic Insects and
Mollusks. It derives its name from its pensile, purse-like, or flask-
like nest, generally suspended at the end of some willow twig or other
flexible branch of an aquatic tree. This skilfully-wrought cradle is
woven from the cotton-like wool or down of the willow or poplar, with
an opening in the side for the ingress and egress of the artificers and
their young, and mostly overhangs the water; sometimes, however,
it is interwoven among the reed stems. The eggs are six in number
and of a pure white marked with spots of red.
In the male the colouring is as follows :— Bill black, straight, a
little elongated and pointed ; tail short ; top of the head and nape
pure ash-colour ; forehead, space between the eye and the bill, region
of the eyes, and feathers of the orifices of the ears deep black; back
and scapulars reddish-grey : rump ash-colour ; throat white, the
other lower parts whitish, with rosy tints ; coverts of the wings chest-
nut, bordered and terminated with whitish-rusty and white ; wings
and tail_ blackish, bordered with whitish-rusty ; tail-feathers termi-
nated with white ; iris yellow. Length, four inches three or four
lines. The female is rather smaller, and has the tints less decided
(See Fig. 1229.)
The Black Titmouse {Parus niger). Partes leitcopterus ,
Swainson. — This species is abundant in the Caffre country, South
Africa, and has been received also from Senegal. In general
form and size it approaches the Parus major of Europe, but the
bill is shorter and more arched above ; the feet are smaller, and the
claws shorter, broader, and more curved. According to Le Vaillant,
the note of the Black Titmouse, or Mesange noire, is the same as
that of our Greater Titmouse ; and the nest,' he says, is made in the
hollow trunks of trees, where the Bird also roosts. The eggs are from
Fig. 1230. — Black Titmice.
six to eight in number, and of a pure white. The general colour of
this species is a deep uniform glossy black with a slight bluish re-
flexion in certain lights ; the lesser and greater wing-coverts and
base of the quill-feathers are of a snowy white, in admirable contrast
with the black. Total length, nearly six inches, (See Fig. 1230.)
Numerous specimens of British and other Titmice may be seen in
the collection of the British Museum.
The Robins— Sub-family Erythacin<2.
In the sub-family of the EryikactncB, or Robins, the bill is rather
short, slender, tapering, somewhat conical, and depressed at the
base, with the ridge of the upper mandible nearly straight, slightly
decurved at the tip, which is very indistinctly notched. The gape
is more or less distinctly furnished with bristles. The nostrils are of
an oblong form, placed in the anterior part of a membranous groove,
the basal portion of which is feathered. The tarsi are usually long
and slender, compressed and covered in front with a single long
plate, in which, however, the divisions of the scutella are often dis-
tinctly perceptible ; and the toes are of moderate size (the hind-toe
and claw being usually the largest), covered with scutella;, and armed
with rather large, curved, compressed, and acute claws.
The Robins are for the most part inhabitants of the Eastern Hemi-
sphere, in all parts of which they occur. They feed principally upon
Insects and Worms, for which they search in every direction, some
seeking their food mostly upon the ground, amongst stones, fallen
leaves, &c. ; whilst others frequent woods, and find their Insect prey
upon the branches of trees and shrubs. Several of them often pursue
Insects on the wing. They also feed to a greater or less extent upon
fruits, and even upon seeds ; and in severe weather many of the
species approach the abodes of man, and pick up indiscriminately any
fragments of food that may fall in their way. Their nests are large,
and carefully lined with soft materials ; their eggs are generally of
a pale-blue colour. (See Fig. 1231.)
THE ROBINS.
M<i
Nine species of this group have been found in Britain, of which
three are permanent residents in this country ; three visit us to pass
the summer, and three are found here only as occasional visitors. 1 ho
most familiarly-known of all the species— the charming httle Red-
breast {Erythaciis rubccula, see d. Fig. 1232, in Group of British
Warblers) belongs, as is well known, to the first-mentioned series ;
but in the more northern countries of Europe it is a summer visitor.
It is a permanent resident in all temperate parts of Europe, and
Fig
occurs in Asia Minor and the north of Africa. In all European
countries it is a universal favourite, and its familiar names in most
languages are expressive of the affection with which it is regarded.
The principal cause of this is to be found in the boldness with which
the Redbreast approaches human habitations : of all the small Birds
he certainly exhibits the least dread of man ; and when a severe winter
renders his chances of obtaining food in the open country rather pre-
carious, he seems to lay aside all fear, and, with very little encou-
ragement, will enter the cottage, and pick up the crumbs, without
appearing irf the least discomposed by the presence of the cottager's
family. The appearance of the Robin is also greatly in his favour ;
his air and movements are exceedingly sprightly ; his eye is very
beautiful ; and when he ventures into close quarters with his human
friends, he eyes them with a peculiar turn of the head, and a mixture
of confidence and doubt in his whole aspect which are exceedingly
amusing.
This boldness and confidence in man attends the Robin even
during the breeding season. In general the nest is built on a bank
amongst bushes, or in a hole of a wall or decayed tree ; but several
instances are on record in which the Birds have built and brought
up their young in outbuildings, which were constantly visited by
their owners ; and during the completion of the Crystal Palace at
Sydenham, in 1854, several Robins lived in the interior of the build-
ing, and made their nests in the holes of the large roots which were
employed in the formation of the banks at the south end, notvvith.
standing the constant passing and repassing of the workmen, and
the almost deafening noise that was continually going on. The
nest is composed externally of moss, dead leaves, and dry grass,
and lined with hair, and occasionally feathers. The eggs are
usually five or six in number, white, with pale reddish-brown spots.
As a general rule, and especially during the biT^eding season, the
Robin is a most pugnacious little fellow, attacking and driving off
all small Birds from the neighbourhood of his favourite resort. He
has even been known to assault Cats when they have approached
too near his home. He sings very sweetly ; and, according to
White, through the whole of the spring, summer, and autumn. He
is also said to sing even in dull, rainy weather, when almost all
other Song-Birds are silent.
The Hedge Warbler, or Hedge Sparrow {Accentor modu-
laris). — This is an exceedingly abundant and generally distributed
species, which is constantly found about hedgerows and in gardens.
Like the Robin, this Bird also approaches the houses in winter in
search of food, and it appears to be a gentle and interesting little
creature. It has none of the pugnacity of its red-breasted relative ;
and when the two come into collision, which is not unfrequently the
case, the Hedge Sparrow is always forced to give way before its
impetuous assailant. It builds its nest of green moss, fine roots, and
wool, and lines it with hair, generally placing it low down in a
bush or hedge. It is one of the first Birds that builds in this country.
its nest being generally completed early in March ; and as thn
hedges at that season arc usually bare of leaves, the nest is very easily
discovered, and frequently becomes the booty of some birds'-ncst-
ing boy ; indeed, as Mr. Knapp observes, the eggs of this Bird are
always found in such numbers on the strings of these young robbers,
that it is a wonder the species is not altogether extirpated. The
eggs, which are usually four or five in number, arc of a delicate
greenish-blue colour, without any spots, and the Birds generally
rear two broods in the season. The song of the Hedge Sparrow is
sweet, but weak and short, exhibiting very little variety ; it is
continued nearly all the year round. A larger species, the Alpine
Accentor {Accentor alpimcs), which is common over a consider-
able portion of Southern Europe, has also occurred, but very rarely,
in this country. It is terrestrial in its habits, passing the summer
in high mountain districts, where it builds its nest amongst stones,
or in cavities of the rocks, and only descending into the valleys
when the storms of winter render its longer sojourn in its elevated
home impossible. (See Fig. 1233.)
The Stonechat (Saxicola ricbicola). — Traquet rubicole of the
French ; Saltabastone, Zomva-cardi, and Saltinpalo of the Italians ;
Schwarzkehliger Steinschmatzer of the Germans ; Clochder y cerrig
of the ancient British ; Stonechatter, Stonesmith, Moor-titling, &c.,
provincial English.
Selby states that, unlike the Whinchat and the Wheat-car, the
Stonechat is stationary in our country throughout the year ; but this
is not quite correct ; for though some few individuals may remain
through the winter months, the general body quit the British islands
in autumn, and return in spring. Moorlands, wide commons, and
open tracts are their favourite haunts ; and they flit from stone to
stone, or bush to bush, without intermission, giving chase to Insects,
and continually uttering a clicking note, compared by Buffon to the
word "Ouistrata." The male sings a short but agreeable strain,
generally while on the wing, hovering over the furze or brambles.
The nest, which is of large size, is placed under the covert of a
bush or tuft of herbage ; and is composed of moss and grass, lined
with bents, hairs, and feathers. The eggs are of a pale blue, with a
slightly grey tint, and finely dotted at the large end with pale
reddish-brown.
This species is spread over the whole of temperate Europe, and is
found also in India and Africa. The male has the head and throat
black ; the sides of the neck, the upper part of the wings, and rump
white ; breast orange-brown ; the rest of the under surface white
tinged with yellow : the back black, the feathers edged with
yellowish-brown ; wings brownish-black, the feathers with paler
edges ; bill and legs black. In winter the black eathers of the
head and throat are edged with yellowish-brown, which disappears
as the spring advances. In Fig. 1234, the lower figure is a male,
the upper a female.
The Whinchat {Saxicola riibetra). Grand Traquet, Traquet,
Groulard, Tarier, Thyon, Semel (in Lorraine), of the French ;
Grosser Fliegenfanger, Gestettenschlager, and Braunkchliger-
Steinsmiitzar of the Germans ; Salta-bastone con la gola bianca
and Stiaccino of the Italians ; Furze-chat, provincial English ;
and Clocher yr eithin of the ancient British. — This Bird is dispersed
during summer throughout Europe, from the Mediterranean to
Norway, Sweden, and temperate Russia ; it passes the winter in
Northern Africa, and has been observed during that season in
Smyrna. It arrives in our island in April, and departs at the latter
end of autumn. Commons, wide open fields, and heaths are its
favourite places of residence. In some countries it is very abundant,
and its well-known cry, u-tick, ic-tick, may be heard as the Bird
flits from bush to bush, perching on the topmost twigs. It utters
this cry with a singular jerk of the tail, repeating the last syllable
two or three times in succession, and immediately flits off to the
next bush, repeating its cry as before. Small shelled Snails, Slugs,
and Coleopterous Insects constitute its food, and we have seen it
take Insects on the wing, darting at them from its perch, and
passing onwards after seizing them. The nest is usually placed
under the shelter of furze or brushwood on the ground, and is
formed of dry stalks of grass lined with finer bents and fibres ; the
eggs are five in number, of a bluish. green, with a few small reddish-
brown specks. The song of this active sprightly Bird is a trifling
but not unpleasant warble, and is sometimes uttered late in the
evening. Mr. Sweet states that when caught young it may be taught
any tune, and will learn the song of any Bird it hears.
The whole of the upper surface of the male \\'hinchat is of a
yellowish-brown, each feather having a central dash of brownish-
black ; a large spot of white occupies the centre of each wing. A
broad stripe of white passes above the eyes, while the cheeks and
car-coverts are black. The throat, tlie sides of the neck, and the
basal half of all the tail-feathers, except the two middle, are also
white, the rest of the tail being black ; the chest is fine light rufous.
The female, our upper figure, w^ants the black on the cliceks and
the white on the wing ; and the general colours of the plumage are
much more distinct and pure. (See Fig. 1255.)
The Wheat-ear {Saxicola cL'nant/ie).—Uoteuy:, Vitrec, and Cul-
blanc of the French ; Codo bianco, Fornarola, I'ctragnola, Culbi-
48o
THE WHEAT-EAR.
anco, and Codetta d'estate of the Italians; Steinschwatzer, Stein-
schnapperl, Grauriickiger, Steinschmatzer, and Weissehwanz of the
Germans ; Tapuit of the Netherlanders ; Steng-uetta of the Swedes ;
Steendolf, Steensg-uette, and Steengylpe of the Norwegians ; Fallow-
Finch, Fallow-Chat, White-tail, Stone-chacker, &c., provincial Eng-
lish ; Tinwyn y cerrig of the ancient British.
The Wheat-ear is a Bird of Passage, widely spread, during the
spring and summer, over the whole of Europe, from the shores of the
Mediterranean to Lapland, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland. Every-
where it resorts to wide open downs, sheep-pastures, and cornrnons,
soft sweet warble, which is often uttered while on the wing. Ac-
cording to Mr. Sweet, the Wheat-ear confined in an aviary sings by
night as well as by day, and in winter as well as through the
summer months, the notes being at that season the most varied.
The nest of this species is composed of dried roots, grasses,
feathers, and fur, and is concealed with great care, so as not to be
easily detected ; it is sometimes placed under the shelter of a turf
or stone, among the fissures of old walls or stone-quarries, in the
deep crevices of rocks, or in deserted Rabbit-burrows. The eggs,
five or si.x in number, are of a pure bluish-green. On visiting the
h^:i^kr^m^^^
Fig. 1232. — Group of British Warblers.
a, the Nightingale ; h, the Black-cap ; c, the Wren ; d, the Redbreast ; e, the Sedge-Warbler ; /, the Whitethroat.
scattering in pairs over the countr>', for the purpose of breeding, and
collecting in vast flocks during the autumn, which gradually mi-
grate southwards. In our island it makes its appearance early
in March, and the numerous specimens which we have seen killed
durino- that month around London, had their stomachs filled with
the fragments of Coleopterous Insects, and were so loaded with fat,
that in many instances the plumage was spoiled by its oozing from
the perforations made by the shot.
The Wheat-ear trips along over the grass with great alertness,
and its flight, which is low, is smooth and rapid : the male has a
down and open lands of Kent and Sussex in August and Septem-
ber, we cannot fail to observe the vast numbers of these Birds
which are drawn thither and collected from all the more northern
districts of our island, previously to their departure ; day after day
brings a fresh influx. At this season multitudes are caught for the
table, their flesh being esteemed a great delicacy.
In the male, the top of the head and the upper part of the back
are of a fine o-rey ; a white line passes from the beak above the eye,
succeeded by a black band which surrounds the eye, and spreads
over the ear-coverts. The lower part of the back and basal half of
THE REDSTART.
481
the tail-feathers (the two middle excepted) are white, the rest black.
The wings are black ; the chest is of a delicate fawn colour fadinjj
into white. The female wants the white superciliary stripe, and
the black band is e.xchan,£fed for one of a dull brown ; the general
plumage is less pure and bright ; the wings are brownish ; and the
chest reddish passing into white below. The lower figure represents
the male. (See Fig. 1236.)
The Redstart {Ruticilla
■ph(cnicura). This is the Co-
rossolo, Codrisso, and Culo-
rossoofthe Italians; Rossignol
de murailles of the French ;
Schwarzkehliger Sanger of the
Germans ; Gekraagde Rood-
start of the Netherlanders ;
Rodstjert of the Swedes ;
Roedstiert of the Danes ; Blod-
fugl of the Norwegians; Rhonell
Fig. 1233.— Head of the Ileilge Sparrow, goch of the ancient British.—
This Bird, which is generally
dispersed over Europe, is one of our summer visitors, arriving in our
island about the middle of April, and leaving early in September.
The Redstart is sprightly in its movements, and beautiful in its
form and colouring, the black, white, grey, and flame colours which
ornament its plumage being conjoined with a graceful contour. It
darts at passing Insects with great address, accompanying every
Fig. 1234. — Stonecliats.
action with a vibrating motion of the tail, which is continued for
several seconds on alighting. In its habits it is by no means recluse
or shy : it frequents gardens, orchards, and groves, building in a
hole of the wall, between the branch of a fruit-tree and the wall,
under the cover of luxuriant ivy in a tool-shed, or other outbuilding.
The nest consists of moss, lined with hairs and feathers ; the eggs
are greenish-blue. The male utters a soft sweet warble, while
sitting on some low branch or other perch, his tail vibrating at the
same time ; and neither this vibration nor his song ceases as he flits
off to a more attractive station. In captivity the Redstart is said to
become very tame.
The colouring of the male is as follows : — Forehead pure white ; a
small band on the root of the bill ; space between that and the eye,
the throat, and upper part of the neck, deep black ; head and upper
part of the back bluish-ash ; quill-feathers blackish ; the breast,
sides, rump, and lateral tail-feathers brilliant ruddy or flame-red ;
two middle tail-feathers brown ; abdomen whitish. The female is of
a uniform greyish-brown, with the exception of the tail, which is
dull rufous. Lower tigure, a male ; upper, a temale. (Sec Fig.
1236).
The exotic species of this group appears to be most abundant in
Asia, and a great number are found in India. One of these, the
ICiitacincla inacroura, is described as a most splendid songster,
almost, if not quite, equal to the European Nightingale ; in fact, it
Fi^. 1235. — Whinchats.
is denominated the Indian Nightingale by some naturalists. It
inhabits the recesses of the forests, and, like the Nightingale, sings
during the night. Mr. Blyth states that many thousands of these
Birds, which are called Shainas by the Bengalese, are kept in cages
in Calcutta, and that it is the universal practice to darken their
cages by wrapping them round with several folds of cloth, enough,
as he observes, "to stifle the luckless captives in this climate,
though, it must be confessed, they sing most vigorously while thus
circumstanced," He adds—" It is a practice of the rich natives to
employ servants to carry about their Shamas and other birds ; and
the number which are thus borne about the streets of Calcutta is
astonishing : the poor birds are shut out from all light and air, like Ma-
hommedan ladies enjoying their evening drive ; but they nevertheless
sing forth most lustily and melodiously. " Mr. Tickell also describes
the song of the Bird, when heard in its native forests, as wonderfully
beautiful. He says — " The strains sweep with a gush of sweetness
through the enchanting solitudes which this Bird makes its favourite
resort, at times when other birds are silent in rest ; and in unison
with the surrounding scenery, in which nature seems to have
lavished every fantastic invention of beauty, the effect produced upon
the mind and ear can alone be appreciated by those who have wit-
nessed the magnificence of a Tropical forest."
Another Indian species, which has a beautiful song, is the Dayal
{Copsychus saiclaris), which, according to Mr. Layard, is called the
Magpie Robin by the English residents in Ceylon, where it is re-
garded with the same interest accorded in Europe to itsred-breasled
relative. In India it is constantly caged, both for the sake of its
song and for another quality, in the possession of which it also re-
sembles our Robin— its pugnacity. Fighting the Tame Birds,
according to Mr. Hodgson, is a favourite amusement of the rich ;
and he adds, that no Gamc-Cocks can contend with more energy and
perseverance than these little Birds. The same author states, that
the professional bird-keepers take advantage of this pugnacious dis-
position in their pets to make them instrumental in the capture of
their wild brethren. During the spring, it appears, the male Birds
are continually challenging each other; and as soon as one has
uttered his note of defiance, it is answered by another, and these
altercations usually end in a battle. The bird-keeper accordingly
carries a tame male on his hand to the nearest garden or grove,
when the Bird at his bidding utters his challenge; and it this is an-
3Q
48;!
THE NIGHTINGALE.
swered by a Wild Bird, the tame one is immediately slipped, and a
desperate combat commences, in the course of which the man easily
secures the Wild Bird, the tame one actually assisting in the act by
holding- his opponent with his bill and claws.
Another species, the ThanDwbia fulicata, or Indian Robin, even
exceeds his European representative in boldness and familiarity ; it
Fig. 1236. — Wheat-ears.
is always found about houses, which it frequently enters, and is a
great favourite both with the natives and the European residents.
Of the few American species we need only notice the Blue Bird of
the United States {Siaii'a sialt's), which, in its general form and
habits, closely resembles our own Robin, whose place he appears
to take in the affections of the country-people in America. The
Blue Bird is essentially a summer Bird in the United States, and in
winter a considerable portion of the species appears to migrate
southwards, as at this season it is very common in the West Indian
islands and the Tropical parts of America. That some do not
undertake such a distant pilgrimage, however, is proved by the fact
that a few generally make their appearance in their summer haunts
whenever any days of mild weather occur in the course of the winter.
The song of the Blue Bird is described as being sweet and pleasing,
and appears to be greatly admired in the States. It builds in the
holes of trees, and similar situations, and lays five or si.K eggs of a
pale-blue colour. Its food consists for the most part of Insects and
Spiders ; but occasionally, especially in the autumn, this diet is varied
with fruits of different kinds.
The True Warblers— Sub-family Sylvtncs.
The typical sub-family of the Sykn'nce, or True Warblers, presents
a very close resemblance in its general characters to the preceding
group. The bill is of the same form, but generally a little longer,
and less depressed at the base, and the notch in the upper mandible
is usually rather more distinct. (See Fig. 1238.) The nostrils are
basal, placed in a membranous groove, and frequently furnished
with an opercular scale. The tarsi are rather long and slender,
covered in front with distinct scales. In their general form these
Birds are less robust than the Erythacincs, which, however, they
resemble in many respects. They are active, lively Birds, generally
inhabiting trees and bushes, where they seek for the Insects which
constitute their principal food. These they not unfrequently take on
the wing, in the manner of the Flycatchers. (See p. 461, ajite.)
They also feed upon fruits, and some of the species eat small r.eeds.
Their nests are very neatly constructed, and generally cup-shaped ;
their eggs usually vary from five to eight in number, and they rear
two broods in the season. They are mostly gifted with great power
of song; some of them, such as the celebrated European Nightin-
gale {Philomela luscinia), being pre-eminent in this respect. Like
the majority of Insectivorous Birds, those which occur in the tem-
perate and colder climates are generally migratory in their habits ;
Fig. 1237. — Redstarts.
the English species, with the exception of two, arriving with us in
the spring, and leaving us again in the autumn for the more genial
regions of the south. They are found in both hemispheres.
We shall be compelled only to notice a very few of the most re-
markable of the numerous species belonging to this group, of which
no less than fifteen have been recorded as British. And first
amongst these we must refer to the Nightingale.
Fig. 1238. — Head of the Nightingale.
The Nightingale {Philomela luschiia). aii^uv of the ancient
Greeks ; Luscinia and Philomela of the Latins ; Rossignuolo, Rusig-
nuolo, and Usignuolo of the modern Italians ; Rossignol of the
French ; Ruisenor of the Spanish ; Nachtigall of the Germans ; Nach-
tergahl of the "Fauna Suecica ;" Nattergale of Brunnich ; and Eos
of the ancient British. It is the Luscinia oi Gesner, Aldrovandus,
Wlllughby, Ray, and Brehm ; Motacilla luscinia of Linnaeus ;
Sylvia luscinia of Latham and others ; Curruca luscinia of
Flemino-; Philomela luscinia oi%Ahy, Gould, and Swainson ; and
the Lu'scinia Philomela of Bonaparte. (See Fig. 1239.)
This deservedly celebrated songster is a summer visitor to our
island and the European continent, migrating in winter into Egypt
and Syria, and the northern districts of Africa. On the continent it
extends its range as far northwards as Sweden; but in our island,
strange to say, its distribution is limited. It is stated to be tolerably
common about Doncastcr, iu Yorkshire ; but though this may be
THB WARBLERS.
4«3
the case, it is certainly of rare occurrence in Lancashire, Cheshire,
and Derbyshire. It does not visit Cornwall or the western parts of
Devonshire, nor (though Dyer, in his " Gronsjar Hill," makes this
Bird the companion of his Muse in the Vale of Towcy) is it heard in
Wales, excepting, perhaps, on the border-line of South Wales, and
that very rarely. It has never been known to visit Ireland ; nor is it
known in the Channel Islands, Guernsey, Jersey, &c. In the south-
eastern counties it is abundant ; and especially in Surrey, Sussex,
Hampshire, Dorsetshire, Essex, Middlesex, Berkshire, &c. The
causes of this partial distribution have not hitherto been satisfactorily
explained. On the continent it is nowhere more abundant than in
Fig. 1239. — The Nightingale.
Portugal, Spain, and Italy, where, however, as in England, it is migra-
tory, leaving those countries on the setting in of winter. The islands
of the Greek Archipelago are visited by this Bird ; it is found also in
Judea, and Mr. Strickland observed it at Smj'rna on the 5th of April.
Mr. Gould states that he has "received specimens from Northern
Africa, but never obtained any from the central or southern parts of
that portion of the globe ; it would appear, therefore, that its distri-
bution over that vast continent is very limited."
The Nightingale haunts close shrubberies, copses, and dense
coverts, in low humid situations, and, as it has been observed, more
especially where the cowslip grows plentifully. To these favourite
spots the males, which precede by about ten days the females, on
their visit to our shores, immediately make their way, and begin their
rich strains of invitation, striving, as it would seem, to excel each
other in the fulness of their notes and the luxuriance of their modu-
lations. This Bird, as its name implies, sings at night, and its
strains, heard by calm moonlight when all is silent around, are
very pleasing. But it is not only at night that this songster pours out
his melody; he sings also during the day; but his strain, mingled
with the voices of other Birds, is less effective, less captivating than
when uttered during. the moonlit hour, and listened to amidst the
shadowy stillness of its embowered retreat.
It is only prior to the work of incubation, and the labours of rearing
the young brood, that the notes of the Nightingale are poured forth
in their fullest melody; and at the latter end of the season, before
leaving our shores, the voice of song is changed into a hoarse kind of
croak.
The Nightingale breeds in the thickest covei^ts ; and so artfully
constructed and so well concealed is the nest, that it is not to be
discovered without great difficulty. It is generally placed low in a
thick bush, or on the ground among intertangled stems. The outside
is composed of withered leaves, or grass, or of the skeleton leaves
which accumulate under hedges and thickets ; internally it is lined
with fine fibres of roots and hair. The eggs are five in number, and
of an olive-brown. The young are fed with soft Caterpillars, which,
with Insects and berries, constitute the diet of the adults.
The Nightingale measures about seven inches in length ; its general
plumage above is of a rich brown, the lower part of the back and
tail having a reddish tinge ; the under parts are ash-colour. Closely
allied to the Nightingale are three species peculiar to the continent :
the Curruca -philomela {Philomela turdoidcs, Blyth) ; C. sericea ;
and C. orphea. The song of the first is loud, but far inferior to that
of the Nightingale.
The Black-cap (0^/-;-«(:(a: atricapilla). — This species, scarcely
inferior to the Nightingale in its musical powers, arrives in our island
about the middle'of .-Vpril, and leaves at the end of September. It is
the Fauvettc a tCte noire of the French ; der Monch of the Germans ;
the Caponera gentile, or, from its fondness for ivy-berries, Caponera
d'edera of the Italians, who class it under the Birds called Beccafico,
so prized for the table. The Black-cap is very shy and retired, con-
cealing Itself amidst the foliage of trees, while it pours forth at inter-
vals its varied fiute-like tones, which, like the Nightingale, it continues
" when eventide is ended." Not only has it its own peculiar strain,
but it has also the power of imitating the voices of various other
Birds, and so admirably as to deceive the listener.
"When the black-cap," says Mr. Sweet, "first arrives in this
country, its chief food is the eariy-ripcncd berries of the ivy, and
Fig. 1241.— Egg of
I31ack-cap.
Fig. 1240. — The Black-cap.
where those are, there the black-caps are first to be heard singing
their melodious and varied song. By the time the ivy-berries are
over, the little green larvffi of the small moths will be getting plen-
tiful, rolled up in the young shoots and leaves: then is this their
chief food until the strawberries and cherries become ripe : after that
there is no want of fruit or berries till their return, and there is no
sort of fruit or berry that is eatable or wholesome that thev will refuse.
After they have cleared the elder-berries in autumn they immediately
leave us."
Woods, thickets, and orchards are the favourite haunts of this
species ; and there, among .dense bushes and brambles, it builds its
nest, which is composed of dried stalks of
goose-grass, a little moss or wool, and lined
with fibrous roots and a few hairs. The eggs
are five in number, of a reddish-brown, with
spots of a darker tint, intermixed with others
of an ashy grey. Fig. 1241 represents the
i^Z?, °f ^^^ present Bird. The male Black-
cap measures nearly six inches in length ;
crown and occiput t)lack ; neck and breast
grey. Upper parts grey tinged with olive-
green ; under parts ashy grey. (See Fig. 1240.) In the female,
which exceeds the male in size, the crown of the head is umber
brown ; and the general tints of the plumage are darker and more
decidedly washed with green.
The Black-cap is widely dispersed as a summer visitant through
the northern parts of Europe, extending as high as Lapland. Tem-
minck says that it is rare beyond the Apennines and Pyrenees. In Ma-
deira it is a common and a permanent resident, as it is also in the
environs of Rome, and Southern Italy. The Sylvia melanocephala
(Latham), a native of the south of Spain, and *.VcS.sarda of Mar-
mora, are allied but distinct species.
The Garden Warbler, or Greater Pettichaps {Curritca
horfe!!sis).—TW\s Bird is the Beccafico, or Fig-eater of the Italians ;
the Becfigue of the French ; Ficedula of the Latins; ^vKaWi of the
Greeks ; but this name Fig-eater, as is well observed by Prince C. L.
Bonaparte, in his " Specchio Comparative," is applied to different
kinds of Sylvan Warblers, whenever they are fat and in a good st^ite
for the table. These arc generally fruit-eaters in the season. I he
true Beccafico, however, with its " carne squistia," is, according to
the Prince, this species, the Sylvia {curruca') hor/oisis.
This Bird, which in many districts is far from being rare, was first
described as a British species by Latham ; it arrives in April, and de-
parts eariy in September ; and, according to Selby, extends its range
not only throughout most parts of England, but the greater part of
Scotland, particularly where lakes and rivers are bordered by wooded
extent of country. It is abundant over tne south of Europe. I he
Greater Pettichaps is little inferior to the Nightingale in song, and
sometimes utters his varied notes after sunset. Some of the notes are
l84
THE WARBLERS.
peculiarly mellow, and closely approach those of the Blackbird,
while others are quick, shrill, and lively. During the performance of
its strain the Bird is seldom seen, for, like the rest of its tribe, it is
shy and recluse, lurking in the shadiest coverts, amidst the foliage of
some close thicket ; but sometimes may be observed warbling from the
upper light branches of a tree. Lewin says that it makes its nest for
the most part with fibres and wool, sometimes with the addition of
green moss, often in the neighbourhood of gardens, which it frequents,
with the White-throat and Black-cap, for the sake of currants and
other fruits. IMontagu, who has recorded this habit, which we can
personally verify, states also that it inhabits thick hedges, where it
makes a nest near the ground, composed of goose-grass [Galium
aparine, Linn.) and other fibrous plants, fhmsily put together, like
that of the common White-throat, with the addition sometimes of a
little green moss externally. Selby gives much the same description.
Fig. 1242. — The Garden Warbler.
It lays four, r.ometimes five eggs, about the size of a Hedge-Sparrow's
or Hedge-Warbler's, of a dirty white, blotched with light-brown
(Selby says wood-brown), the blotches being most numerous at the
larger end. Its alarm-call, according to Selby, is very similar to
that of the White-throat ; and C. Bonaparte notes it as common
near Rome in the autumn.
The whole of the upper parts olive-green, with a shade of ash-grey.
On each side of the lower part of the neck is a patch of ash-grey.
Breast and flanks yellowish-grey, inclining to wood-brown. Throat
and under parts greyish-white. Orbits of the eyes white ; irides
brown ; bill wood-brown. Legs and claws bluish-grey. (See Fig.
1242.) The female is similar in plumage to the male Bird. Total
length about six inches.
The White-throat {Curruca chierea). Fauvette grise, or
Grisette, of the French ; Fahle Grasmiicke of Bechstein — This, like
the two former species, is a migratory Bird, visiting our island and the
middle and northern districts of the European continent during the
summer. It frequents tall hedgerows and copses, and possesses a
pleasing but hurried and feeble song, which it frequently utters upon
the wing as it suddenly rises from the spray upon which it had been
perched, to a considerable height in the air, and then slowly
descends to the same spot whence it had taken its departure. In
executing this movement its flight is peculiarly quivering, and
cannot have been unobserved by those who are accustomed to
observe the habits of Birds in a state of nature. (Seey, in Group of
British Warblers, Fig. 1232, page 480, ante.)
Besides Insects and their larvje, the White-throat feeds on
currants, and other garden fruit which ripens during the summer.
The nest of this species is built among brushwood, nettles, or
brambles, and is composed of the withered stems of goose-grass
intermixed with hair. The eggs are five in number ; of a greyish-
white speckled with wood-brown and grey.
The White-throat is about five inches and a-half in length : the
general colour above is brown ; the top of the head being tinged
with soot-black. The quill-feathers and coverts are blackish-brown
margined with light reddish-brown ; the flanks and chest are ash-
grey tinged with red ; the throat and middle of the abdomen are
white. An allied, but smaller and darker-coloured species, the Lesser
White-throat [Cvri-uca garriila, or sylviella), is not uncommon
in some districts (we have seen it round London, and specimens
have been killed in the fields about Hammersmith); but from its
extremely recluse habits, tenanting the thickest hedges, it escapes
ordinary observation.
The Dartford Warbler, Furzeling, or Furze Wren {MeH-
zophilus provincialis ; M. dartfordiensis). — Pette-chou de Provence
of the French ; Magnanini of Cavi ; and Provenser Sanger of Meyer.
This Warbler is found in the countries of Europe bordering the
;Mediterranean. It is comparatively rare in Germany and Holland.
In England it is a permanent resident, but not generally diffused.
It is frequent in the neighbourhood of London ; and occurs in Berk-
shire, Cornwall, and Devonshire. It was first noticed as a British
Bird by Dr. Latham in the year 1773, who procured a pair from
Bexley Heath, near Dartford in Kent, whence its trivial English
name. The Dartford Warbler is scarcely larger than a Wren in
the bulk of its body, but appears superior in size from the great
length of its tail. In its habits and manners it is extremely shy and
recluse, concealing itself in thick furze-brakes and tangled heath :
and well does it know every labyrinth and every hiding-place of
each bush or bed of furze on the breezy common where it takes up
its abode. Mr. Gould observes that its form closely allies it to the
Superb Warblers (Alahirus) of Australia, while its relationship to
the common White-throat is strikingly apparent. With reference
to its secluded habits, the same author observes that in the spring
it becomes more lively and frequently visible, rising on quivering
wing above the tops of the furze, and uttering a hurried babbling
song much after the manner of the White-throat ; at these times
it erects the feathers of the head into a crest, and distends the
throat, exhibiting many attitudes and gesticulations.
Its nest, which is concealed in the very heart of a thick furze-bush
not far from the ground, consists of grass, fibres, and fine roots ;
the eggs are greenish-white, with brown speckles and greyish-
spots.
Fie;. 1243. — Dartford Warblers.
All the upper parts of the plumage are fine deep grey ; tail
blackish-brown, the outer feathers tipped with white ; throat, breast,
and sides, of the colour of red-wine-lees ; abdomen white. Quill-
feathers ash-coloured externally, but with inner barbs black.
Length five inches. The tints of the female are duller than those of
the male, and the throat is much more spotted. The lower figure a
male, the upper a female. (See Fig. 1:^43.)
The Sedge-Warbler [Calamodyta ;pahistris; or Salicaria
phragmitis). — This species, which is one of our summer visitors,
resorts to marshes, and the banks of lakes or rivers, wherever
extensive reed or osier beds afford it shelter. In such situations it
may be heard, while concealed from view, uttering its varied song,
which is continued through the greater part of the night. Amongst
its notes may be distinguished imitations of those of the Swallow,
THE TAILOR BIRDS.
48s
Lark Sparrow, and Linnet, mingled with guttural intonations, the
whole delivered confusedly and with great rapidity. Several may be
often heard in chorus. (See e, m Group of British Warblers, tig.
12,2, p. 480, anie.) , , . ^,
This species generally attaches its nest to the stems of three or
four reeds growing close together, or to twigs of osiers. It >s com-
posed of grasses and a little moss, with a hning of hair and fine
^ ^ dried grass. The eggs are of a pale
brown with darker spots. This species
is abundant on the continent; it is
allied to the Reed Wren, or Reed
Warbler {Calainodyia or Salicaria
aruiidinacea), but is smaller, and is
distinguished by a yellowish-white
streak above the eye. The general
colour above is brown or yellowish-
brown; the feathers of the head and
upper part of the back being washed
in the centre with dusky black. Under
parts generally pale yellowish-white.
The Golden-crested Wren or
Kinglet {Rcguhis cristatus).—Th.\%, the most diminutive of
our native Birds, is also a member of the group. It is about three
inches and a-half in length, of a yellowish olive-green colour
above, and yellowish-grey beneath ; and the crown of the
Fig. 1244. — Head of the
Golden-crested Wren.
Fig. 1245. — Nest of the Golden-crested Wren.
head is adorned with a beautiful orangfe-yellow crest, which is
bordered on each side with black. This charming little Bird
is a permanent resident in this country, to which, indeed, it
even appears to migrate in considerable numbers in the winter,
from the cold countries of the north of Europe. It is generally
found in fir woods, and is exceedingly sociable in its habits,
associating not only with its own species, but 'with several other
Insectivorous Birds, such as the Tits (Parincc) and Creepers
(Ccrthina). In its manners it bears a very close resemblance to
the Tits, exhibiting great liveliness, hopping from branch to branch,
and clinging to the twigs in various positions, sometimes even back
downwards, whilst searching for the small Insects which constitute its
principal food. Its nest is an elegant little cup-shaped structure of
moss, frequently lined with feathers ; it is suspended from three or
four twigs of the fir-trees, amongst which the Bird generally lives,
in such a manner that the branch serves to shelter the opening.
The female lays from six to ten eggs, and while sitting on them she is
exceedingly bold, allowing herself to be looked at without quitting
the nest. When the young are hatched she scill retains her con-
fidence ; and Colonel Montagu found, that on keeping a nest with
eight young ones in a room, the female tended them with great
assiduity, whilst the male would not venture into the room. His
partner, however, would feed the young ones whilst the nest was
held in the hand ; and the number of visits which she made to
them in the course of the day was very extraordinary ; she came
once in a minute and a-half or two minutes, or at about an average of
thirty-six times in an hour ; and this for fully sixteen hours in the
day. The song of this little Bird is soft and pleasing, not unlike
that of the common Wren. Two other species of Kinglet have
been found, but only occasionally in this country.
The Tailor Birds.— These Birds, which belong for the most part
to the genera Orthotomus and Prima, usually pick up the dead
leaf of a tree, and regularly sew it to a living leaf
by the edges, thus forming a sort of pendulous
pouch, which is of course supported by the foot-
stalk of the leaf still attached to the parent tree.
In some cases, however, they employ two con-
tiguous living leaves. The thread employed in
tliis operation is in some cases spun from raw
cotton by the Bird ; in others common cotton
thread is made use of; and some nests exhibit
both these materials. The pouch thus formed
is left open at the top, and the bottom is occu-
pied by the nest itself, which is usually com-
posed of cotton and flax, neatly woven together
and lined with horse-hair. (See Fig. 1246.) In
these ingenious little cradles the Tailor Birds lay
their eggs and bring up their young, secure, from
the slenderness of their communication with the
tree that supports them, from the attacks of
the Monkeys, Snakes, and other enemies,
who would otherwise frequently destroy their
hopes. Their food consists of Insects, which
they capture either upon the bark and leaves of
trees, or upon the ground. The Dryrnokcs are
also remarkable for the construction of their
nests ; they live in corn-fields, and amongst other
Fig. 1246.— Nest of tall graminaceous plants, the stems and leaves of
the Tailor Bird, which they sew together with threads formed
of different materials. One of these Birds, the
Drymoica cursitans, is abundant in India ; and another, the Dry-
moica cysticola, inhabits the south of Europe. The Tailor Birds,
and Drymoica, belong to the sub-family MaluruicB of Mr. G. R.
The collection of the British Museum has a large number of
specimens of the Warblers, or Syk'iadce, collected in various parts of
Europe, India, Africa, Australia, &c.
486
CONTROSTRAL BIRDS.
CHAPTER XXIX.
CLASS II.— AVES, OR BIRDS ; ORDER PASSERES, OR INSESSORES ; SUB-ORDER CONIROSTRES.
HE Conirostral Birds (a term derived
from coitus, a cone, and rostrum, a beak)
have the bill of a more or less conical
form, sometimes sliort, very thick at the
base, and rapidly diminishing to the tip ;
in other cases it is more elongated and
tapering, and sometimes slightly curved.
The tip of the upper mandible is usually
entire, but occasionally there is a slight
tooth on each side, near the extremity.
The wings are generally longish and
pointed ; the tarsi long, and the toes of
moderate length, the outer one being
frequently united at its base to the middle one.
This group includes the essentially Granivorous Birds ;
but a considerable number of the species referred to it
are not confined to a grain diet ; many of them feed upon
■fruits and Insects, and larvaj also form a portion of the
nourishment of most of the species. Some, such as the
Crows and their allies, appear to feed upon almost any
animal or vegetable substances that come in their way ;
and these constitute the greater part of Temminck's
order of Omnivores, which includes no less than five of
the families.
Sub-divisions. — The Conirostres form eight
families, of which the first seven, with the exception of
the Musophagida and ColiidcB, form the order Omnivores of M.
Temminck, a group which has not been adopted by any subsequent
naturalists. The first family, that of the Buccrida, or Hornbills,
like the Toucans, is distinguished by the great size of the bill. The
following is a more particular description of these Birds.
The Hornbills— Family Buceridce.
These strange-looking Birds, characterised by the enormous
development of the beak, are natives of India and Africa. Not
only is the beak of immense magnitude, but the upper mandible is
furnished with projecting appendages, adding greatly to its entire
dimensions, and in some species encroaching over the top of the
head. These appendages increase with age ; in young Birds the)-
are very small, and their figure is undefined, and it is gradually that
they acquire their enormous dimensions. The immense beak, thus
furnished, seems to be heavier than it is (and it is by no means light),
for the additional appendage is cellular internally ; the edges of
both mandibles are roughly notched. The structure of the toes
and the shortness of the tarsi of the Hornbills indicate arboreal habits.
The middle and outer toes are united as far as the second joint, and
the under surface of the whole is flat and palm-like in order to give
a firm close hold upon the branch (see Fig. 1247, the. head and foot
oi Biiccros rhinoceros ; and Fig. 1248, a section of the skull). In
their food these Birds appear to be omnivorous, fruits, eggs, young
Birds, Reptiles, and even carrion forming their diet. Of the fruit of
the Ficus indica and of the Banyan, they are said to be very fond,
and also, according to Bontius, of nutmegs, which impart an
aromatic flavour to the flesh, which is delicate : this account applies
more exclusively to the Biiceros liydrocorax, Linnffius ; for respect-
ing the Buceros rhitwceros he says, " It lives on the carcasses and
intestines of animals, and waits upon the hunters who kill wild
cattle, boars, and stags, to gorge itself with the entrails of the slain
beasts."
M. Lesson sums up the habits of the Hornbills thus : — Those of
Africa live on carrion : those of the East Indies seek for fruits, es-
pecially nutmegs, and their flesh thence acquires a delicious flavour.
Their flight is performed by repeated strokes of the wings, and the
air which they displace, joined to the clattering of their mandibles,
occasions a great and very disquieting noise in the forests when the
cause is unknown. This noise, capable of inspiring terror, does not
ill resemble those flaws of rough and sudden winds (" grains de vent
brusques et subits") which arise so unexpectedly between the Tropics,
and blow so violently. The Europeans established at the Moluccas
think that the furrows which are seen on the bill of the Hornbills are
the result of age, and that each furrow signifies a year ; whence the
name of Jerarvogel, which they give to these Birds. Mr. Swainson
remarks that the Hornbills are gregarious noisy Birds, generally
of a very large size, and are restricted to the Old World ; that they
are omnivorous, feeding both on animals and vegetables ; that some,
however, seem only to partake of the latter food ; while others, upon
the authority of Le Vaillant, feed upon carrion. The Buceros
cavatus dissected by Pr. Owen was observed to be more attached
to animal than to vegetable food, and would quit any other substance
if a dead Mou^e was offered to it. This it would swallow entire,
after squeezing it twice or thrice with the bill ; and no castings were
noticed. Pr. Owen, however, adds that Petiver has borne testimony
to its rerrurgitating habits.
Fig. 1247. — Head and Foot of the Rhinoceros Hornbill.
The progressive motion of these Birds on the ground is by hop-
ping or jumping along. Major-General Hardwicke expresses sur-
prise at this, and at their perching with such security, as their feet
are formed for walking, and better suited to the ground than the
trees — an error which a consideration of the form and shortness of
the tarsi, the structure of the toes, and the general contour of the
Birds might, one would think, have prevented.
Active and alert, notwithstanding the magnitude of their beaks,
these Birds lightly traverse the branches of the forest, and leap from
one to another till the highest is attained : they then often stop and
utter a loud roaring sound, which may be heard at a considerable
distance, and is alarming to those who do not know whence it
proceeds. The noise thus uttered, and which is most probably their
Fig. 124S. — Section of Head of the Rhinoceros Hornbill.
call-note, throws a light upon the design of the hollmv protuberance
surmounting the bill ; it acts as a sounding-board, increasing the
reverberation of the air. With regard to the huge beak itself, many
conjectures have been entertained as to its peculiar uses. It has
been suggested, as a reason for its development, that it perhaps con-
stitutes a necessary weapon of defence against Monkeys, and other
HORNBILLS—PLANTAIN-EA TERS.
487
animals which may seek to assail its nest ; while some have sup-
posed that it might be emplo)-cd in dragging- Snakes and Lizards
from their lurking-places, oryoung Birds and eggs from the recesses of
the trunks of aged trees. The tongue is short, triangular, and smooth.
The Rhinoceros Hornbill {Buccros rhinoceros). — This species
is a native of India and the Indian Islands, and is to be seen in
most museums, specimens being often brought to Europe. Though
there may be some variety from age and circumstances, the bill will
be generally found to be about ten inches long and of a yellowish-
white ; the upper mandible red at the base, the lower black. The
horn, or casque, varied with black and white. The body black, of
a dirty white below and posteriorly ; tail about twelve inches, the
feathers white at the base and tip, black in the middle ; feet and
claws obscure grey. The feathers of the cheeks and back of the
neck are loose and hair-like. (See Fig. 1249.)
Fig. 1249. — The Rhinoceros Hornbill.
The Concave Hornbill {Buceros cavafiis). — This large species
is a native of India, the Himalaya range, Java, and most of the
islands in the Indian Archipelago. It is figured in the "Century"
by Mr. Gould, who thus describes it: — " Throat, ear-coverts, circle
round the eye, and a narrow band at the occipital edge of the protu-
berance of the beak, black ; neck dirty straw-colour, the feathers of
the back of the neck elongated ; the body and wings black, greater
coverts and quill-feathers tipped with white ; thighs, upper and
under tail-coverts, white, as is the tail also, with the exception of a
broad black band about three inches from the tip ; beak yellowish,
inclining to scarlet at the tip ; under mandible black at the base ;
tarsi black. The food of the Buccros cavat us, like that of other horn-
bills, consists of fruits, berries, flesh, and even carrion ; in short,
it may be considered as strictly omnivorous." (See Fig. 1250.)
We may add that this and the other species have the habit of
throwing their food up in the air with a jerk, and dexterously catch-
ing it, when they swallow it at once.
In the collection of the British Museum are numerous specimens
of Hornbills, including the Trumpeter {B. bii<Kinato7-) ; the Bifronted
(5. bicoims) ; the Helmet {B. galeatus') ; with many others from
various parts of Asia and Africa. There are also several living speci-
mens to be seen in the collection of the Zoological Society, Regent's
Park, London ; such as the Concave-casqued Hornbill (^Buccros bi-
cornis) ; the Rhinoceros Hornbill (B. rhiiwceros) ; the Lunated Horn-
bill {B. lunatics) \ and the Ground Hornbill {Bucorvus abyssinicus).
The Plantain-eaters— Family MusopmgidcB.
This family contains the genera Corythaix, Chizcerhis or
Sc/iizar/u's, and JMusophaga. In these genera the bill is serrated,
and the outer of the anterior toes capable of being directed obliquely
backwards.
The genus Coj-ythaix is thus characterised : — Bill short, high
and greatly compressed, with the ridge arched; head crested,
the frontal feathers reposing over the nostrils ; wings short
and rounded; tail long, broad, and rounded; feet strong;
claws short ; plumage lustrous and silky. The Touracos arc
most beautiful Birds, and feed principally on soft fruits, display-
ing great address among the branches of the trees. They are natives
of Africa, and tenant the forests, perching on the highest branches,
often out of the reach of gun-shot : their voice is sonorous. They
breed, like Toucans, in hollow trees. In captivity they appear very
gentle, and soon become familiar. Their size exceeds that of our
common Jay ; the prevailing colour of the plumage is green, diversi-
fied with violet, purple, and red. In tlie " Proceeds. Zool. Soc,"
Fig. 1250. — The Conc.-ive Hornbill.
'834. p. 3, will be found an account of the anatomy of the Corythaix
;porpliyreolopha, by Professor Owen : and in the " Proceeds." for
1836, p. 32, an account of the dissection of the Corythaix buffotiii.
The Senegal Touraco [Turacus, or Corythaix se7iegalensis). —
In this species the crest consists of long silky feathers which sweep
backwards over the top of the head : when, however, the Bird is
excited, the crest is elevated, and assumes a compressed sub-conical
shape, giving to the head a helmeted appearance. Fig. 1251 re-
presents the head of this species, and well displays the form of the
'"" //,///</^
Fig. 1251. — Head of the .Senegal Tour.i(-o.
beak, the extent of naked skin around the eye, and the arrangement
of the plumes of the crest. Fig. 1252 represents the Bird itself.
The Fire-crested Touraco [Corythaix crythrolophas). C.
igiiiccps. Lesson ; Musophagapaulina, Temminck. — In this species
the silky crest is erect, compressed, and of a red colour; the sides
of the head and throat are white; the general plumage is green.
488
THE TOUR A GOES.
inclining to bluish on the under parts ; the quill-feathers are rich
purple-violet; the bill is yellow ; the feet dusky ; eyes large, red and
brilliant. Fig. 1253 represents the head, which may be compared
with that of the Senegal Touraco.
In the "Proceeds. Zool. Soc," June 14, 18^1, is the description of
the C. porphyreolopha. Vigors ; and in the " Proceeds." for 1839, p.
34, the description of a new species, the C. fnacrorhynchus, Fraser.
Fig. 1252. — The Senegal Touraco.
Specimens of each may be seen in the British Museum. It was in
pursuit, we believe, of the Corythaix biiffonii that Le Vaillant met
with an accident that might have terminated the enthusiastic
traveller's adventures. Havmg succeeded in bringing a Touraco to
the ground from its lofty perch, he could not immediately find it,
and stamping in his ve.xation at the loss, little aware of what was
Fig. 1253. — Head of Fire-crested Touraco.
beneath him, broke through into one of the covered pits which the
Hottentots dig for the purpose of catching Buffaloes, Elephants, &c.
Fig. 1254 represents the Bird.
The Variegated Touraco {Chizcerhis variegata).~to\xx?ico
huppe6-col of Le Vaillant ; Phasiattus a/ricanus, Latham ; Muso-
Ipliaga variegata , Vieillot.
The genus Chizisrhis, or Schizirrhis, differs from Corythaix in
the greater size and sharpness of the bill, in the lengthened form of
the wings, and in the nostrils being unobscured by feathers ; habits,
those of the Touracoes in general. The present Bird is a native of
Africa. Its colour is light grey above, a blackish stripe down each
feather ; top of the head and throat, as far as the breast, chestnut-
brown ; under plumage beyond the breast white, each feather having
a dark central stripe; quill-feathers blackish, with a spot of pure
white, varying in size at the middle of the inner webs; tertiaries and
middle tail-feathers grey, tipped with black ; lateral feathers black ;
bill yellov/ ; legs grey ; crest placed on the back of the head. Total
length, twenty inches. (See Fig. 1255.)
The Violet Plantain-eatek {Corythaix, or Miisophaga vio-
lacea).— In this genus the bill resembles that of Chizcerhis, but the
base enormously dilated so as to spread like a casque or helmet over
the fore-part of the head as far as the crown, where its thickened sides
Fig. 1254. — The Fire-crested Touraco.
form a semicircle; nostrils naked, oval, open, and pierced in the
middle of the bill ; wings, feet, and tail, as in Corytliaix.
This richly-coloured and magnificent Bird is a native of the Gold
Coast and Senegal. Its description is as follows : — Bill rich yellow,
passing into crimson orbits and crimson ; feathers of the crown close
and fine, and of a rich crimson ; a white mark beginning below the
eye extends above the ear ; secondary and part of the primary quills
Fig. 1255.— Variegated Touraco,
THE CROW FAMILY.
489
carmine, with lilac reflexions margined and tipped with blackish
vioiet, "hich is the general colour of the plumage, only that it
changes to a very deep green on the under parts, and is very rich on
the tail ; legs strong and black. (See Fig. 1256.)
Fig. 1256. — The Violet Plantain-eater.
The third family of the Conirostres, that of the O;pisthocomid<s,
closely resembles the preceding in most of its characters, and is, in
fact, placed by Mr. G. R. Gray as a sub-family of that group ; it
differs, however, in the incapability of the outer toe to be turned
Fig. 1257.— The Senegal Coly.
backwards. It includes only a single species, the Hoatzin {Opistfio-
counts o-isfaius), a native of Brazil and Guiana, where it lives in
large flocks on the banks of rivers and creeks, and feeds almost
entirely on the leaves of a particular tree, the A nan arbor escc lis of
Linnffius. It is also called the Crested Pheasant, and two specimens
of it may be seen in the British Museum. It nidificates in the lower
parts of ;trces ; its nest is composed of twigs, and lined witli soft
materials, and the female lays three or four eggs of a dirty-white
colour, with scattered red spots. Both the Bird' and its flesh are
tainted with a peculiar odour, which prevents its being used as
food.
The position of this singular Bird has always been a matter of
doubt with ornithologists. Linnaeus describes it as a Pheasant, and
several other authors have placed it amongst the Gallinaceous Birds ;
but it is now generally regarded as a true Passerine Bird. It is
nearly as large as a Peacock, which it also resembles in its walk.
The bill is thick, short, convex, and bent down at the tip ; the base
is furnished with diverging bristles, and the nostrils are placed in
the middle of the bill. The head is adorned with a tuft of long,
narrow feathers.
Another small family, placed in the neighbourhood of the J/z^o-
^hagidcB by Mr. G. R. Gray, although its type has generally been
regarded as a member of the family FringillidcB, is that of the
Co/iidcB, or Colics, a group of small Birds, in which the bill is short
and stout, elevated at the base, with the nostrils placed in the middle
of a large membranous groove. The wings are short, the tail
elongated, and the true hinder toe is directed forwards. The Colies
are found in Africa and India. Their plumage is soft and silky, and
usually of a grey colour, whence, according to Le Vaillant, they are
called Mouse-Birds at the Cape of Good Hope. They live in troops,
feeding on fruits and the buds of trees, and climbing about the
branches with great agility, using their bills in the same way as the
Parrots, They make a large, rounded nest, and lay five or six eggs.
Le Vaillant states that, when sleeping, they suspend themselves
with the head downwards ; and in cold weather they are often found in
the morning so completely benumbed, that they may be taken, one
after the other, by hand. Their flesh is said to be delicate. Fig.
1257 is a specimen of the Senegal Coly {Coitus senegalettsis,
Latham.) It has the bill short, conical, slightly compressed, with
the upper mandible somewhat arched, and the edges of both ser-
rated ; wings long ; tail very long and graduated ; feet well formed
for clinging; the eye is surrounded by a naked reddish skin ; the
general plumage is pearl-grey with greenish reflexions, excepting
the forehead, which is yellow, and the abdomen, which is ruddy.
The Crows— Family Corvidce.
The fifth family of the Conirostral Birds is that of the Corvidce, or
Crows. In these Birds the bill is long, strong, and compressed,
with the ridge of the upper mandible more or less curved, and tlie
tip more or less notched ; the nostrils are placed at the base, and
concealed by the basal plumes ; the wings are usually long, and the
tarsi and toes of moderate length — the former being covered in front
with broad plates.
These Birds may be regarded as the typical examples of Tem-
minck's order Omtiivores, as they feed not only upon grain and
fruits, but also upon animal substances, and even upon carrion.
They walk and run with greater facility than any others of the
Passerine Birds, but are also perfectly at home in the trees, and
generally fly well. They all form a large nest of sticks, lined w^ith
soft materials ; and their eggs, which vary from three to seven in
number, exhibit dark spots upon a pale bluish, greenish, or white
ground. Mr. G. R. Gray divides these Birds into six sub-families,
three of which possess representatives in the British Fauna.
The Stre;peri)icB, or Piping Crows, a group of rather large Birds,
which inhabit Australia, New Guinea, and the adjacent islands, are
distinguished from the other CoruidcB by the form of the nostrils,
each of which consists of a long narrow slit in the substance of the
bill, and is usually completely exposed. The bill itself is long and
compressed, broad at the base, where the ridge projects upon the
forehead, and the tip is more or less notched. Unlike the ordinary
members of their family, these Birds have a peculiar musical note.
The Piping Crow [Gymnorkina, or Barita tii/ce/t). —The
Piping Crow is common in New South Wales, inhabiting the Blue
Mountains in small flocks, and, as Caley informs us, on the authority
of the natives, building in trees, its nest consisting of sticks lined
with grass. It is said to make a loud whistling noise when perched
high on the trees early in the morning, and not to be migratory. In
captivity it is very amusing, from its powers of mimicry ; it imitates
the voices of men and animals, and easily learns to whistle tunes,
its notes being clear and powerful.
This species is less than the common Crow in size ; the back of
the neck, the back and shoulders, and the bases of the wing-coverts
are greyish-white ; there is some pure white at the base of the tail;
the rest of the plumage is deep black ; legs dusky ; bill bluish at
the base and black at the tip.
A second group is the sub-family of the Garru/ifiep, or Jays,
3 R
490
THE JAYS.
which have also a slight notch near the tip of the upper mandible,
but the nostrils are concealed under the frontal plumes ; their wings
are of moderate size, and rounded, and their tarsi and toes strongly
scutellated.
Fig. 125S.— The Piping Crow.
The Common European Jay {Garruhts glandarius). — This
is an exceedingly handsome Bird, about the size of a Pigeon, of a
light reddish-brown colour, with the primary wing-coverts bright
blue, elegantly banded with black. The feathers of the fore-part of
the head are" whitish, spotted with black, and elongated so as to
form a crest, which the Bird can erect at pleasure ; the quill-feathers
of the wings and tail, and a streak on each side of the chin, are
black. (See Fig. 1259.)
Fig. 1259. — Head of the Jay.
The Jay is a common Bird in England and the southern parts of
Scotland ; it inhabits thick woods, and is shy in its habits. It feeds
to a great extent upon vegetable matters, such as acorns and beech-
mast, and in summer often visits gardens, tempted by the cultivated
fruits. It also feeds on Insects and Worms. Its nest is formed in
tall bushes, or in the lower branches of trees, but always well con-
cealed amongst the leaves. It is cup-shaped, formed of small
sticks, and lined with finer materials, such as small roots and grass ;
the eggs are five or six in number. (See Fig. 1260.)
The natural note of the Jay is a harsh grating sound ; but its
powers of imitation are exceedingly great ; and even in a state of
nature it has been known to mimic the voices of other animals so
exactly, that it was difficult to believe that the animals personated
were really absent. Montagu says, that in the spring the Jay will
sometimes utter a sort of song, which he describes as soft and
pleasing, but into which it introduces at intervals the bleating of a
Lamb, the mewing of a Cat, the note of a Kite or Buzzard, the hoot-
ing of an Owl, and even the neighing of a Horse, with similar sounds.
In confinement, of course, a wider field is opened for the Bird's
talents for mimicry ; and it usually takes advantage of its position
to pick up and repeat every sound with which it is familiar. Thus,
Bewick mentions a Jay that imitated " the sound of a saw so exactly,
that, though it was on a Sunday, we could hardly be persuaded that
there was not a carpenter at work in the house."
Mr. Yarrell also refers to one of these Birds, in the possession of a
surgeon in Berkshire, which, before it was twelve months old, imi-
tated the ordinary household sounds with astonishing accuracy. He
would give what might oe called a Poultry-yard entertainment,
imitating the calling of the Fowls to feed, and all the noises of the
Fowls to perfection fbut the crowing of the Cock was not managed
well. The barking and noises of the House-Dog were imitated to
perfection.
Fig. 1260. — Nest of European Jay.
The American Blue ]Kv{Cya9?iirtcs, or Garrulus cristahis). —
Our European Jay, just described, is a very beautiful Bird, but not
to be compared with the Blue Jay of America. This elegant species,
arrayed in blue varied with purple and white, and barred on the
wings and tail with black, is a native of the woods of North
America, and is remarkable for its noisy chattering, its variety of
tones, its screams, cries, and squalling. It is a shy recluse Bird,
tenanting the recesses of the forest with its mate, but in the months
of September and October uniting into flocks of forty or fifty, which
straggle irregularly through the woods in search of food, acorns and
berries. During this season they lose part of their shyness, and
keep chattering to each other in a variety of strange and querulous
notes.
The Blue Jay builds a large nest, frequently in the cedar, some-
times in an apple-tree, and lines it with dry fibrous roots. The eggs,
Fig. 1261 The American IJlue Jay.
five in number, are of a dull olive, spotted with brown. The male is
particularly careful of not being heard near the place, making his
visits as silently and secretly as possible. His favourite food is
chestnuts, acorns, and Indian corn ; he occasionally feeds on the
Caterpillars, and sometimes pays a plundering visit to the orchard,
cherry-row and potato patch. He also plunders the nests of small
THE TRUE CROWS.
491
Birds of their eggs and young, tearing the callow brood by piece-
meal, and spreading alarm and sorrow around him. Sometimes he
will assault and kill full-grown Birds, as Warblers and Finches, and
devour them.
To Owls and Hawks the Blue Jay manifests the most inveterate anti-
pathy, and joins with others to make a train of persecutors, which
daringly annoy and torment the common enemy, till the Hawk,
singling out the foremost, darts at it, and bears it off in triumph,
when in confusion and terror the crowd take flight in different
directions.
In captivity the Blue Jay soon becomes familiar, and readily learns
to utter words and sentences ; but, like all its race, it pilfers every-
thing it can carry away, hiding the stolen effects in various holes and
corners. Fig. 1261 represents the Bird.
A species nearly allied to the above Bird is found in Canada. It
is the Pensorcus canadensis. It is, however, far inferior in beauty
to the Blue Jay.
The Tree Crows {Callaatincc) form a third sub-family. In
these the upper mandible is not toothed at the tip ; the bill is short,
with the ridge much elevated at the base, and considerably curved ;
the wings are short and rounded, the tail long, the tarsi covered
with transverse scales, and the two lateral toes are unequal. These
Birds are peculiar to the Eastern Hemisphere, of which they gene-
rally inhabit the warmer regions. The typical species, Callrsas
cinerea, sometimes called the New Zealand Crow, is, as its name
implies, an inhabitant of our Antipodes. In its habits it resembles
the ordinary Crows, feeding on fruits. Insects, and occasionally on
small Birds ; its general colour is a greenish-black ; and on each
side of the head there is a small wattle of a bright blue tint.
The True Crows— Sub-family CorvincB.
We now pass to the sub-family of the True Crows {Corvina:), to
which the greater part of the British species of Corvidcs belong.
These Birds, like the preceding, are destitute of the teeth at the tip
of the upper mandible, the ridge of which is more or less curved ;
the wings are long and very slightly rounded, the tail variable in
form, the tarsi long and covered with transverse scales, and the two
lateral toes are equal.
The Birds of this sub-family are undoubtedly the most intelligent
of the feathered races. In a state of nature they are exceedingly
wary, and appear not only to have an instinctive perception of the
approach of peril, but also to know the extent of the danger to which
they are likely to be exposed. Thus, some of them will allow an
unarmed man to come very near them without appearing at all
alarmed at his approach ; but it requires the greatest caution to get
within gun-shot of them when the intruder is furnished with fire-arms.
Fig. 1262 Head and Foot of the Raven.
When taken young they are very docile, and may be taught to
repeat a few words, although their elocutionary powers are far
inferior to those of the Parrots. Their cunning and apparent
drollery of disposition, however, often render them very amusing
pets ; although it must be confessed that, like Autolycus, they have a
knack of picking up " unconsidorcd trifles," which may occasionally
lead to disagreeable results. In the abstraction and concealment
of the articles which they appropriate in this manner— usually
trinkets and other metallic and glittering prizes— which can be of no
possible use to the Bird, they exhibit the most extraordinary slyness;
and it is generally with considerable difficulty that the concealed
treasury of one of these Corvine pets can be discovered. For want
of other things to hide, they will often stow away portions of their
meat ; but this is sometimes done with a view to preserve it for a
future occasion. Mr. Macgillivray mentions an instance of the
accurate memory of a Carrion Crow {Corvus cor one) with regard to
the place in which he had stored some food. One Monday morning,
after a full meal, he picked up a dead Mole, and buried it in his
owner's garden, covering it over so neatly with the earth, that,
although he had been watched during the operation, the precise
spot could not be discovered. He was prevented from going into
the garden during the whole of the following week ; but on Saturday
evening, the door being left open, he got in, went directly to the
spot where he had buried the Mole, and brought it out immediately.
Numerous instances of the sagacity of the Crow family are related
in works on their natural history, to which we must refer our readers.
The Raven {Corvus corax). Head and Foot. Le Corbeau of
the French ; Kolkrabe of the Germans. — The genus Corvus, con-
taining the Raven, Rook, Crow, Jackdaw, &c., presents us witn the
typical forms of the Corvidcc, and is widely spread, some of the
species being found in every quarter of the globe. (See Fig. 1262.)
The Raven is common over the whole of Europe and a great por-
tion of Asia : few Birds have obtained a greater share of notoriety.
Among the Romans it was a bird of augury, and its flight, its hoarse
croak, and actions, were regarded as the presages of good or evil.
It was the military standard of the Danes, an omen indeed of ap-
proaching desolation ; and adopted, perhaps, in compliance with
popular superstition, which rendered the Bird itself an object of
dread — the foreboder of calamity, disease, and death. Thus in
"Macbeth"—
"The raven himself is hoarse
That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan
Under my battlements."
The Raven is a bold, hardy, powerful Bird, of omnivorous habits,
feeding on carrion, and attacking Ducks, Chickens, and small
Quadrupeds, which its strong pointed beak enables it to despatch
with a few strokes. It even assaults young Lambs and sickly Sheep,
picking out their eyes, and leaving them to a miserable lingering
death. In addition to these, eggs, grain. Grubs, Reptiles, and
shelled Molluscs are among the articles of its bill of fare. It some-
times visits the sea-shore in search of putrid Fish and animal exuviae.
The favourite resorts of this Bird are bold mountain precipices,
where, in some inaccessible ledge — or, as we have seen, on the
branches of some stunted yew-tree, starting as it were out of the
rifts of the tremendous precipice — it builds its nest, occupying the
same spot for a long succession of years. In districts where the
Fig. 1263. — The Royston Crow.
character of the scenery is different, it makes its nest in tall trees,
which it annually visits for the same purpose. The nest is composed
of sticks and lined with wool. The eggs, from five to seven in num-
492
THE CROW FAMILY.
ber, are of a dark green, blotched with black. Ravens are generally
seen, like the Crow, in pairs, but sometimes during the winter in
small companies of eight or ten ; their flight is high, and they often
wheel and tumble in the air. This Bird, arrayed in glossy blue-
black plumage, is often kept tame, and soon becomes very familiar ;
often indeed mischievously so, from its propensity to secrete glitter-
ing articles, as keys, glass, silver, and the like ; nor are eggs or the
poultry of the yard quite secure from its incursions. It is very daring
in self-defence. Mr. Thompson states that one which lived in the
yard attached to the chief inn at Antrim for about fifteen years, had
occasional encounters with Game-Cocks, brought thither to engage
it ; and bets were pending on the issue. The Raven in every
instance proved the victor ; it avoided the blows of the Cock, and
acted only on the defensive until it could manage to lay hold of the
Cock's head, which was in an instant crushed in its powerful beak,
its antagonist falling lifeless on the ground. The length of the
Raven is twenty-si.x inches.
The Royston, or Hooded Crow {Corvus coriiix) ; Grey
Crow. It is the Corneille mantelee of the French ; Kraka of the
Swedes ; Grau Krahe of the Germans ; Mulacchia, Cornacchia, and
Corvo palumbino of the Italians. — This species is widely spread
over Europe, being migratory, except in Italy, according to the
Prince of Canino ; and in Ireland, as Mr. Thompson assures us,
and the western and northern parts of Scotland. It was found at
Smyrna by Mr. Strickland, and it inhabits the Grecian Archipelago,
the countries between the IBlack and Caspian Seas. Latham states
that it is common in some parts of India.
In the southern parts of England the Hooded Crow is a winter
visitor, departing northwards in April ; though there are instances
of its remaining during the summer to breed. In the north and
west of Scotland, and in the Hebrides, Orkney, and Shetland Isles,
it is very common ; and also in Ireland, frequenting the sea-shore
and the banks of tidal rivers ; but it is also to be seen far inland.
It builds on rocks, as well as in tall trees, the beech or pine being
usually selected. Molluscs, Crabs, and the dead animal matters
left by the retiring tide are its common articles of diet ; and it has
been often observed to soar aloft, and drop a Shell-fish on the rocks
from its elevation, in order, as is asserted, to obtain the included
delicacy. During the breeding season it is very destructive, ac-
cording to Mr. Selby, to the eggs and young of the Red Grouse,
and, like the Raven, will frequently attack Lambs and weakly
Sheep. It is generally seen in pairs, but sometimse in small flocks.
The plumage of this species is of a fine ash-grey, excepting the head,
throat, wings, and tail, which are black, with blue and green re-
flexions. Length twenty-two inches. (See Fig. 1263.)
The Rook {Corvics frugilegus), Head and Foot.— Graye, GroUe,
Freux, and Frayonne of the French ; Schwartze Krahe of the Ger-
mans ; Roka of the Swedes ; Cornacchia nera and Cornacchione of
the Italians; Ydfran of the ancient British. (See Fig. 1264.)
Fig. 1265. — A Rookery.
Fig. 1264. — Head and Foot of the Rook.
The Rook is spread over the greater portion of Europe, wherever
suitable districts invite its colonisation. Wooded and cultivated
tracts of country are its favourite haunts, and in our island it is par-
ticularly abundant. In its habits it is eminently gregarious, asso-
ciating in flocks, which scatter
themselves over fields and corn-
lands in quest of food. They
follow the track of the plough
or the harrow, clearing the soil
of Grubs, the larvse of the
Chaffer- Beetle {Melolatitha
vulgaris) and of the Harry-
long-legs {Tipula oleracea),
which are particularly destruc-
tive to the roots of grain and
clover. The service they render
the farmer in this respect is
very great, and far counter-
balances the mischief they may
do in fields where the young
blades of wheat are just start-
ing above the ground, or by
picking up the newly-planted
" cuttings " of potatoes, to the
detriment of the crop. The
Rook does not, in fact, deserve
the name of Corn-eater or
Corn-gatherer ffrugilegus) ;
and Mr. Selby asserts, that
wherever its extirpation has
been eflfected, the most serious
injury to the corn and other
crops has invariably followed,
from the unchecked devasta-
tion of the Grub and Cater-
pillar. In orchards and gar-
dens the Rook occasionally
does mischief, from its pai-
tiality to ripe cherries, pears,
and walnuts, soon stripping
the trees of their produce.
But all the injury which this
Bird commits may be easily
obviated by attentive watching
at the proper time, and its ser-
vices thus secured unalloyed.
While engaged on their forag-
ing expeditions, these Birds
display much cunning and pre-
caution ; they have sentinels
THE CROW FAMILY.
493
scattered around the main body, upon whose cry of alarm they all
rise upon the wing and sail away. The very sight of a gun is sufB-
cient to disturb them, and hence it is often said that "rooks smell
powder." As evening approaches, long strings of these Birds, at a
considerable elevation, may be seen wending their way to their roost-
ing-place. In the early spring, the Rooks arc all on the alert, busy in
their Rookery, repairing the old nests and constructing new ones ; all
is noise and bustle, and many are the squabbles about the right of
sticks and wool, till the nests are all ultimately completed. When
the females begin to lay, they are fed by the males, and, as Gilbert
White says, receive their bounty with a fond tremulous voice and flut-
tering wings, and all the little blandishments that are e.^pressed by the
young in a helpless state. This gallant deportment of the males is
continued during the whole season of incubation. Fig. 1265 represents
a Rookery. The partiality of these Birds to their accustomed breeding-
places is notorious, so that though their trees, once in the fields,
become in process of time encircled by buildings, they still remain
inhabited by the colony. There were formerly Rookeries in different
parts of the metropolis.
Around the base of the Rook's bill is a space denuded of feathers,
which does not appear till the Bird is adult, and which is by some
attributed to the habit of the Bird in thrusting its beak into the
earth in quest of Grubs and Worms, and by which means the feathers
are worn away. Whether it results from this cause, or is a specific
character (for it occurs in other Birds), and indicative of maturity, is
a question not settled.
The Jackdaw {Corvus monedula). — This is another and well-
known British species of the True Crows. It is gregarious in its habits,
and the food consists chiefly of Worms, Insects, and larvae. Fig. 1266
illustrates the head of the Jackdaw. This Bird usually chooses ele-
vated buildings, such as church towers, &c., where it maybe seen in
the heart of cities, while the Rooks prefer trees for their nests.
Fig. 1266. — Head of the Jackdaw.
The Bald or Bare-headedICrow {Picathartes gymnocepha-
lus, Lesson). — This extraordinary species {Corvus gymnocephalus
of Temminck), the native country of which is West Africa, constitutes
the type of Lesson's genus Picathartes.
In some respects it reminds one of the Vultures of the genus Ca-
thartes ; but of its habits we are entirely ignorant. The bill is mode-
rate, the base without hairs, and furnished with a cere ; nostrils in the
middle of the bill, oval and open ; head naked ; tarsi long ; claws
feeble ; wings short and rounded ; tail long and graduated. (See
Fig. 1267.)
The following is Temminck's description of the species: — "The
naked parts of the head offer a particular character. The whole of
the auditory meatus is completely destitute of feathers, and even of
hairs. A small border or rudiment of membrane forms, below the
orifice of the ear, a sort of external concha, but little apparent, it is
true, in the stuffed specimen, but the extent of which must be re-
markable in the living Bird. All this part of the organ of hearing, as
well as a part of each side of the occiput, is covered by a black skin
with a slightly projecting orbicular border, and forming a rounded
plaque. The cere which envelops the bsrse of the bill is also black.
All the rest of the naked parts of the head, the mesial line of the
occiput, which separates the black plaques of the temples, and the
upper part of the top of the neck, appear to me to have been red or
rosy in the living subject ; a slight tint of rosy-yellow covers these
parts in those before us. The whole of the nape is covered, clearly,
by a whitish and very short down. The front of the neck and all the
other parts are white ; the back, well covered with thick-set feathers,
is of an ashy-black ; all the rest of the plumage is bistre-brown ; the
feet are yellow, and the bill is black. Length fifteen inches."
The Magpie {Ptca caudata. Pica melaiioleuca, Vieillot ; Cor-
vus pica, Linnaeus.) — The Magpie is a native of Europe generally,
and is common in our island, where it is noted for its destructiveness
among the young broods of feathered game, as Pheasants, Partridges,
&c. Nothing, in fact, comes amiss to its voracious appetite — eggs,
carrion. Frogs, Mice, Insects, fruits, and grain, are all acceptable ;
and it is hated alike by the farmer and the gamekeeper. It must,
however, be confessed that, plunderer as it is, it is an interesting
Bird. It is active, daring, animated, and intelligent ; it is the first
to give shrill warning of the approach of the skulking Fox, the Cat,
the Hawk, and the Owl, and no Bird harasses the intruder with
greater pertinacity. Resolutely does it defend its nest, but it is too
ready to attack those of other species, which it mercilessly despoils;
sometimes, however, meeting with a signal defeat.
Fig. 1267. — The Bald-headed Crow.
The Magpie is generally seen in pairs ; but very early in the spring,
as we have often witnessed, several assemble together, and in some
retired field, or on the skirts of a wood or coppice, appear to hold a sort
of conference, during which they utter a clamorous chattering. On
being suddenly disturbed they take to flight in different directions.
The nest of this Bird is a substantial edifice, generally placed in
the top of a tall tree, or amidst the dense branches of an elevated old
Fig. 126S. — Nest of Magpie.
hawthorn. It consists of an external basket-work of sticks, mostly
thorns, well united together, those forming the foundation being
mixed with turf and clay. The inside of this basket-work, which is
in the form of a circular cup, is lined with a thick layer of well-
494
THE CROW FA MIL Y.
■wrought clay, over which is arrans^ed an inner layer of pliable roots
and fibres neatly interwoven. The whole is then covered with an
elevated dome composed of intertwined sticks of the thorn or the
blackthorn ; this is evidently intended as a frame-work of defence •
an aperture is left in the side for the ingress and egress of the Bird.
The whole mass is of large size, and on the open-topped elm crash,
near the farm or cottage of the labourer, the dark ball is a conspicuous
object. (See Fig. 1268.) The
eggs are of a greenish-white
mottled with brown. In cap-
tivity the Magpie is very amus-
ing from its archness and
cunning ; it is fond of stealing
slily behind people, and sud-
denly pecking their heels, and
then rapidly hopping away.
Glittering things attract its
curiosity and e.xcite its cupi-
dity ; and many a lost article
is often recovered from the
hiding-place to which it is in
the habit of carrying its plun-
der, and which by watching its
1269 represents the head of the
Fig. 12
-Head of the Magpie.
Fig.
movements may be detected.
Magpie.
The Nutcracker (Nucifagra caryocatacies). — Corvus caryo-
catactes, Linnaeus ; Casse-noix of the French ; Nocciolaja of the
Italians : Kurz und Langschnabliger Nussknacker of Brehm :
Tanner Heher (Pine Jay) or Turkischer Hobzschreyer of Frisch :
Notwecka, Notkraka, of the Swedes ; Noddekrige of the Nor-
wegians ; Aderyn Crau of the ancient British.
Among the Birds which prove how difficult it is to frame a
system illustrative of natural affinities may be enumerated the
present. The Nutcracker, in its general habits and manners,
resembles the Jay, but in many particulars it approximates to the
Woodpeckers ; it climbs about the branches, using its tail as a
support, the feathers of which are often much worn ; it bores the bark
in search of Insects, and it nestles in the hollow of trees. Ornitho-
logists have, however, almost universally referred it to the CorvidcB,
between which and the Woodpeckers it forms a link of union.
This species is of rare occurrence in our island, being only a
casual visitor, but is abundant in the mountain forests of Norway,
Sweden, and parts of Germany, and in some districts is a Bird of
Passage. It is found also abundantly in Russia and Northern Asia.
The food of the Nutcracker consists of the seeds of the pine, berries,
and nuts, which latter it breaks by repeated strokes of the bill ; it
also devours Insects and their larvse, in quest of which it climbs
about the trunk and branches, tapping the bark with its bill,
and inserting it into the crevices. It is mostly seen in flocks, which
allow of a near approach, especially while busily engaged with the
cones of the pine-trees. The holes of decayed trees are the places
selected by this Bird for nidification, and frequently enlarges the
Fig. 1270.— The Nutcracker.
cavity with its bill. The eggs are of a yellowish-grey colour, with a
few spots of bright grey-brown. Temminck states that the Nut-
cracker sometimes devours young Birds and eggs, like the Jay.
In size the Nutcracker equals a Jackdaw, but the tail is longer,
and the form more slender. The plumage is reddish umber-brown :
the body, with the exception of the head and rump, being dappled
with large white spots, which occupy the centre of each feather ;
wings and tail blackish shot with green — the feathers of the latter,
except the two middle ones, tipped with white ; the plumage of the
female is less lively ; the bill is longer than the head, and conical ;
the nostrils are concealed by hairs directed forwards ; and of the
anterior toes, the two outer ones are united at their base. (See Fig.
1270.)
Several of the exotic species of this group are adorned with fine
colours. But in their general habits they resemble the above. One
of these, the Bare-headed Crow {Picathartes gymnocephalus), has
been already described.
The last sub-family of Crows is that of the PyrrJiocoradno!, or
Choughs, which differ from
the True Crows in having
the bill slightly notched at the
tip, and the wings long and
pointed. The bill is long,
slender, and curved ; the tail is
long ; the tarsi short, rather
stout, and either scaled or
nearly covered with a single
long plate (Fig. 1271), and the
lateral toes are equal.
These Birds, in their general
habits, closely resemble the
Crows, and especially the com-
mon Jackdaws. Like these,
they are gregarious, and build
Fig. I27r.— Foot 0! the CornishChough. their nests in rocks and the
crevices of towers, steeples, &c.
They feed principally upon Insects, Worms, fruits, and seeds.
Two species only occur in Europe, and of these one is found in
Britain. This is the Cornish Chough {Fregilus graciihts, Fig,
1272), so called from its being of common occurrence in the county
of Cornwall, to which it was, at one time, supposed to be peculiar ;
it has since been met with in many other parts of the kingdom, but
generally on the coast. On the continent, however, it inliabits the
mountainous districts at a distance from the sea. This Bird exhibits
all the curiosity and love of mischief so characteristic of the family
of Crows ; but appears to be somewhat inferior to the rest in
Fig. 1272. — Head of the Cornish Chough.
sagacity. At a little distance, the Chough bears a considerable re-
semblance to the Rook ; but is easily distinguished from that Bird
by its red legs and bill. From the former of these characteristics,
it has been called the Red-legged Crow.
The other European species, the Alpine Crow fPyrrhocorax
alpimcs), exactly resembles the common Chough in its habits ; but
lives entirely upon the bare face of the highest mountains, close to
the line of eternal snow. In the winter, these Birds descend into
the valleys in large flocks in search of food. Several other species
are found in different parts of the world.
In the British Museum there is a large collection of specimens of
Jays, Ravens, and other members of the family of Corvidcs, collected
from all parts of the world.
Birds of Paradise— Family Paradiseidce.
Among the feathered glories of creation the Birds of Paradise
take the first rank. Nature has lavished on them the most attractive
graces of plumage and the most effulgent tints. When first brought
to Europe they were regarded with the utmost admiration, and
romantic credulity threw an additional air of interest around them.
They were regarded as agrial sylphs, whose home was the bright
e-xpanse of sky, where all the functions of life were carried on, their
only mode of rest being that of suspending themselves occasionally
from the branches by the filamentous feathers of the tail ; legs they
had none, and they never touched the earth ; their food was the
morning's dew. This tissue of fiction did not, however, originate
with the traveller who first introduced, as is supposed, the Bird of
Paradise (P. apoda) into Europe — viz., Antonio Pigafetta, who
accompanied Magalhaens in his expedition, and returned to Seville
in 1522. This voyager distinctly notes the fact of the legs, which are
strong and large, being cut off by the natives previously to their
selling the skins. Marcgravc, John dc Lacl, Clusius Wormius, and
BIRDS OF PARADISE.
BIRDS OF PARADISE.
495
Bontius attested to the same fact. Yet the celebrated Aldrovandus,
having- only seen mutilated specimens, accused Pigafetta of false-
hood. Scaliger believed the Bird to be footless, as did Jonston
(1657); and, last, Count de Buffon, who adorning errors in the
graces of polished diction, paints them as Birds " qui ne marchent ni
ne nagent, et ne peuvent prendre de mouvement qu'en volant."
This fable Linnaeus has commemorated in the appropriation of the
term Apoda to one of the most remarkable species.
The Birds of Paradise are natives of New Guinea and the adjoin-
ing islands.
The Incomparable {Asf/-apia gtdaris.) Pie de Paradis. — This
Bird " is distinguished by a tail three times longer than the body,
a double crest on the head, and by incomparable magnificence
of plumage," which glitters a blaze of iridescence. It is a native
of New Guinea, but is by no means common. The female is not
crested, and her colours are less brilliant than those of her gorgeous
mate. (See Fig. 1273.)
Fig. 1273. — The Incomparable.
The King-Bird of Paradise {C/ncinnurus reghis ; Paradisea
regia, Linn.) Le Manucode of ISuffon. — This rare species, one of
the smallest of the group, is a native of the Moluccas. It is about
the size of a Sparrow. Its upper plumage is intense purplish chest-
nut : a zone of golden green e.xtends across the chest ; from each
side under the shoulder springs a fan-like plume of si.x or seven dusky
feathers, tipped with the richest golden-green ; from the tail-coverts I
spring two long slender shafts, each elegantly terminating in a
broad emerald web, rising from one side only of the shaft, and dis-
posed into a flat curl ; under parts of body white. In its habits this
species is said to be solitary, feeding on fruits and berries. (See
Fig. 1274.)
Fig. 1274. — The King-Bird of Paradise.
The Superb Bird of Paradise {Lo^horina superba; Paradisea
superba, Linn.) Le Superbe, Buffon. — In this species the scapulary
feathers form a long spreading plume capable of being elevated at
pleasure, and there are two pointed lappets on the chest ; with the
exception of these latter, which are of the most brilliant burnished
steel-green, the colour of the plumage is velvet-black, iridescent
with green and violet. Length nine inches. (See Fig. 1275.)
Fig. 1275. — The Superb Bird of Paradise,
The Golden Bird of Paradise {Parotia sexsetacea ; Paradisea
aurea, Linn.) Le Sifilet, Buffon.— The general colour of this
species is velvety-black ; the top of the head is clothed with a greyish
crest, and each side of the occiput is ornamented with three long
slender shafts, ending in a small oval vane ; back of the neck
changeable golden-green ; flanks covered with black, loose, long
feathers, covering the wings and hiding the tail, and capable of
being raised up obliquely. Feathers of the throat large and scale-
shaped, bordered with iridescent green and gold ; tail-feathers
velvety, with some long floating filaments. Length about eleven
inches. (See Fig. 1276.) *
The Magnificent Bird of Txrabk^ {Samalia magnifica;
496
BIRDS OF PARADISE.
Paradisea niag-ni/ica, Linn.) Le Mag-nifique of Buffon. — This
beautiful Bird is of an orang-e-chestnut above, deeper on the top of
the head and back, and sometimes inclining to purple ; the tips of
the wings and the tail are brown ; the throat is blackish, with a
Fig. 1276.— The Golden Bird of Paradise.
purple gloss ; the breast and under parts are covered with scale-shaped
feathers of a deep changeable golden green, with a blue reflexion
down the breast. From the back of the neck springs a double ruff, com-
posed of slender plumes, with slightly dilated extremities ; the first
series are short and orange-coloured, with a black spot at the end of
each feather ; the others are longer and pale yellow. The wing-coverts
are orange-coloured, with transverse blackish crescents ; from the tail-
coverts spring two long slender shafts of golden green. (See Fig. 1277.)
Fig. 1277. — The Magnilicent Bird of Paradise.
The Emerald or Great Bird of Paradise {Paradisea a;poda).
— Body above, breast, and abdomen, maroon-brown ; front covered
with close-set feathers of a velvety-black, shot with emerald-green ;
top of the head and upper part of the neck citron-yellow ; upper
part of the throat golden green ; front of the neck violet-brown ;
flanks adorned with bundles of very long plumes, with loose bar-
bules of a yellowish-white, slightly spotted towards the extremity
with purpled-red : these plumes extend far beyond the tail-feathers.
Two long horny shafts, furnished with stiff hairs, take their rise on
each side of the rump, and extend somewhat circularly to a length
of nearly two feet. Beak horn-colour; feet lead-colour; length
from the end of the beak to the extremity of the tail-feathers, thirteen
inches. (See Fig. 1278.)
Female. — Front and fore-part of the neck of a deep maroon-
brown ; head, neck, and back reddish-yellow ; wings and tail of a
deep and brilliant maroon-colour ; belly and breast white ; no
floating plumes. (Fig. 1279.)
Fig. 127S The Emerald Bird of Paradise — Male.
This species, which is not so common as the Little Emerald {Para-
disea papuensts, Latham), inhabits the islands of Arou, Tidor, and
Wagiou, as well as New Guinea.
We owe the best account of these Birds in a state of nature to
M. Lesson, who, though he deeply laments his short stay at New
Guinea (only thirteen days), appears to have made the best use of his
time.
Fig. 1279. — The Emerald Bird of Paradise — Female.
"The Birds of Paradise," says M. Lesson, "or at least the
emerald {Paradisea apoda, Linn.), the only species concerning which
we possess authentic intelligence, live in troops in the vast forests
of the country of the Papuans, a group of islands situated under the
equator, and which is composed of the islands Arou, Wagiou, and
the great islands called New Guinea. They are birds of passage,
BIRDS OF PARADISE.
497
changing their quarters according to the monsoons. The females
congregate in troops, assemble upon the tops of the highest trees in
the forest, and all cry together to call the males. ■ These last arc
always alone in the midst of some fifteen females, wliich compose
their seraglio, after the manner of the gallinaceous birds.
" The Manucode presented itself twice in our shooting excursions,
and we killed the male and female. This species would seem to be
monogamous, or perhaps it is only separated into pairs at the period
of laying. In the woods this bird has no brilliancy ; its fine-coloured
plumage is not discovered, and the tints of the female are dull. It
loves to take its station on the teak-trees, whose ample foliage
shelters it, and whose small fruit forms its nourishment. Its irides
are brown, and the feet are of a delicate azure. The Papuans call
it Saya.
" Soon after our arrival on this land of promise (New Guinea) for
the naturalist, I was on a shooting excursion. Scarcely had I walked
some hundred paces in those ancient forests, the daughters of time,
whose sombre depth was perhaps the most magnificent and stately
sight that I had ever seen, when a Bird of Paradise struck my view :
it flew gracefully and in undulations ; the feathers of its sides formed
an elegant and aerial plume, which, without exaggeration, bore no
remote resemblance to a brilliant meteor. Surprised, astounded,
enjoying an inexpressible gratification, I devoured this splendid
bird with my eyes ; but my emotion was so great that I forgot to
shoot at it, and did not recollect that I had a gun in my hand till it
was far away.
" One can scarcely have a just idea of the Paradise-birds from
the skins which the Papuans sell to the Malays, and which come to
us in Europe. These people formerly hunted the birds to decorate
the turbans of their chiefs. They call them Mambefore in their
tongue, and kill them during the night by climbing the trees
where they porch, and shooting them with arrows made for the
purpose, and very short, which they make with the stem of the
leaves of a palm (latanier). The Campongs, or villages of Mappia and
of Emberbakene, are celebrated for the quantity of birds which they
prepare, and all the art of their inhabitants is directed to taking off
the feet, skinning, thrusting a little stick through the body, and drying
it in the smoke. Some, more adroit, at the solicitation of the Chinese
merchants, dry them with the feet on. The price of a Bird of Para-
dise among the Papuans of the coast is a piastre at least. We
killed, during our stay at New Guinea, a score of these birds, which
I prepared for the most part. * • • *
"The emerald, when alive, is of the size of the common jay: its
feet and beak are bluish ; the irides are of a brilliant yellow; its
motions are lively and agile ; and, in general, it never perches except
upon the summit of the most lofty trees. When it descends, it is
for the purpose of eating the fruits of the lesser trees, or when the
sun in full power compels it to seek the shade. It has a fancy for
certain trees, and makes the neighbourhood re-echo with its piercing
voice. This cry indicated to us the movements of these birds. We
were on the watch for them, and it was thus that we came to kill
them ; for when a male Bird of Paradise has perched, and hears a
rustling in the stillness of the forest, he is silent and does not move.
His call is voike, voike, voike, voiko, strongly articulated. The cry
of the female is the same, but she raises it much more feebly. The
latter, deprived of the brilliant plumage of the male, is clad in
sombre attire. We met with them assembled in scores, on every
tree, while the males, always solitary, appeared but rarely.
" It is at the rising and setting of the sun that the Bird of Para-
dise goes to seek its food. In the middle of the day it remains
hidden under the ample foliage of the teak-tree, and comes not
forth. It seems to dread the scorching rays of the sun, and to be
unwilling to expose itself to the attacks of a rival. * • » *
" In order to shoot Birds of Paradise, travellers who visit New
Guinea should remember that it is necessary to leave the ship early
in the morning, to arrive at the foot of a teak-tree or fig-tree, which
these birds frequent for the sake of the fruit — (our stay was from the
26th of July to the 9th of August) — before half-past four, and to
remain motionless till some of the males, urged by hunger, light
upon the branches within range. It is "indispensably requisite to
have a gun which will carry very far with effect, and that the grains of
shot should be large ; for it is very dilEcult to kill an emerald outright ;
and if he be only wounded, it is very seldom that lie is not lost in
thickets so dense that there is no finding the way without a com-
pass.
_" The little emerald Paradise-bird {Paradisea fapuensis) feeds,
without doubt, on map.y substances in a state of liberty. I can
affirm that it lives on the seeds of the teak-tree, and on a fruit
called amihou, of a rosy white, insipid and mucilaginous, of the size
of a small European fig, and which belongs to a tree of the genus
Ficus"
M. Lesson then goes on to state that he saw two Birds of Para-
dise which had been kept in a cage for more than six .months by the
principal Chinese merchant at Amboyna. They were always in
motion, and were fed with boiled rice, but they had a special fond-
ness for Cockroaches {Blaiics).
Bennett, in his "Wanderings," gives the following account of a
Bird of Paradise [Paradisea apoda) which he found in Mr. Scale's
aviary at IMacao, where it had been confined nine years, exhibiting
no appearance of age : —
" This elegant creature has a light, playful, and graceful'manner,
with an arch look ; dances about when a visitor approaches the
cage, and seems delighted at being made an object of admiration ;
its notes are very peculiar, resembling the cawing of the raven, but
its tones are by far more varied. During four months of the year,
from May to August, it moults. It washes itself regularly twice
daily, and, after having performed its ablutions, throws its delicate
feathers up nearly over the head, the quills of which feathers have a
peculiar structure, so as to enable the bird to effect this object. Its
food during confinement is boiled rice, mixed up with soft egg, together
with plantains, and living insects of the grasshopper tribe ; these
insects, when thrown to him, the bird contrives to catch in his beak
with great celerity ; it will eat insects in a living state, but will not
touch them when dead.
"The sounds uttered by this bird are very peculiar; that which
appears to be a note of congratulation resembles somewhat the
cawing of a raven, but changes to a varied scale of musical grada-
tions, as he, hi, ho, hazv, repeated rapidly and frequently, as lively
and playfully he hops round and along his perch, descending to the
second perch to be admired, and congratulate the stranger who has
made a visit to inspect him ; he frequently raises his voice, sending
forth notes of such power as to be heard at a long distance, and as it
could scarcely be supposed so delicate a bird could utter ; these
notes are whock, lahock, whock, whock, uttered in a barking tone,
the last being given in a low tone as a conclusion.
" One of the best opportunities of seeing this splendid bird in all
its beauty of action, as well as display of plumage, is early in the
morning, when he makes his toilet ; the beautiful subalar plumage
is tlien thrown out, and cleaned from any spot that may sully its
purity by being passed gently through the bill ; the short chocolate-
coloured wings are extended to the utmost, and he keeps them in
a steady, flapping motion, as if in imitation of their use in flight, at
the same time raising up the delicate long feathers over the back,
which are spread in a chaste and elegant manner, floating like films
in the ambient air. * * * *
" His prehensile power in the feet is very strong, and, still retain-
ing his hold, the bird will turn himself round upon the perch. He
delights to be sheltered from the glare of the sun, as that luminary
is a great source of annoyance to him if permitted to dart its fervent
rays directly upon the cage. The iris, frequently expanding and
contracting, adds to the arch look of this animated bird, as he
throws the head on one side to glance at visitors, uttering the cawing
notes or barking loud. * * * Having concluded, he jumps down
to the lower perch in search of donations of living grasshoppers.
"The bird is not at all ravenous in its habits of feeding, but it
eats rice leisurely, almost grain by grain. Should any of the insects
thrown into his cage fall upon the floor, he will not descend to them,
appearing to be fearful that in so doing he should soil his delicate
plumage ; he therefore seldom or never descends, except to perform
his ablutions in the pan of water placed at the bottom of the cage
expressly for his use."
In the "Proceeds. Zool. Soc," 1840, p. 13, will be found an
account of the same individual by Mr. G. T. Lay, which embodies
the same facts as those detailed by Mr. Bennett, excepting that he
explains more clearly the song or " serenade " of the Bird, the notes
of which are repeated in harmonic progression, thus :—
P
fc
=g=
^
" The first four notes are very exactly intonated, very clear, and very
sweet; the last three are repeated in a kind of caw, a very high
refinement of the voice of a daw or a crow, yet possessing a striking
resemblance ; and this suggests a lively afiSnity between the crows
and the Paradise-birds. While this serenade is uttered, the black
pupil, encircled by a golden iris, waxes or wanes as the creature
wishes to contemplate more distinct or nearer objects."
The following engraving (Fig. 1280 ) illustrates a variety of Birds
of Paradise, including the Emerald, the Golden, the Incom,parable,
the Cloudy, and the Superb.
The Starlings — Family Shermda;.
We come now to the family of the Sturnida;, or Starlings, of
which our common Starling is a well-known example. In these
Birds the bill is elongated and compressed, with the ridge almost
straight to near the tip, where it is curved or convex. Theedge of
the upper mandible is usually slightly notched. The wings are
lonc', and more or less pointed, the tarsi stout, covered in front
with broad scales ; and the toes are long and strong, especially the
hind one, which is stouter than either of the lateral toes. The outer
toe is united to the middle one as far as the third joint. In their
3s
498
THE STARLINGS.
habits and food these Birds approach very closely to the smaller
species of Corvine Birds. They are generally gregarious, and feed
upon Worms, Insects, fruits, and seeds. They are docile m cap-
tivity, when thty exhibit, on a small scale, a good deal of the
peculiar sagacity of the Crows, and may be taught to repeat a few
words, and to whistle short tunes.
India, Australia, and the intervening islands ; but Africa also pos-
sesses a few species belonging to the genus Jiiida. They inhabit
the hot regions of that continent, where they fly in large flocks,
feeding principally on fruits, and often attacking the gardens and
vineyards, to which they do great damage. They also devour
Irisects and Worms, and are sometimes seen perched on the backs of
Cattle, searching for the Parasitic
Insects amongst their hair. The
yuidcB are generally showy Birds,
with a metallic lustre upon their
plumage, being rather larger than
our common Starling, and with a
much longer tail. They nestle in
rocks and holes of trees, and lay
five or six eggs.
Fig. 12S0. — Group of Birds of Paradise,
Of the numerous sub-families into which iVTr. G. R. Gray divides
these Birds, one of the most interesting is that of the Ptilo7io7-hyn-
ckmcc, or Glossy Starlings, to which the singular Bower-Bird of
Australia belongs. The Birds of this group have the bill stout and
compressed, with the ridge curved, and the tip notched : the wings
are of moderate length, and pointed ; the tarsi strong, and all tlae
toes long and robust, the lateral ones being unequal.
These Birds are peculiar to the Eastern Heinisphcro, of wliich
they generally inhabit the hotter parts. The majority are found in
Fig. 12S1. — fleail of the Starling.
The Bower Bird. — The sin-
gular Bower- Birds of Australia
belong to the genera Ptiloiior-
hytichus 2lxvA. Chlat?iydcra. These
Birds are remarkable for the habit
of making a sort of bower, which
has nothing to do with their nidifi-
cation, but merely serves as a sort
of playing-ground, in and around
which the Birds assemble for
amusement. They inhabit the
forests of Australia, and the bower
is placed under the shelter of some
large tree. Mr. Gould describes
the construction and use of that
of the Satin Bower-Bird {Pfi'/o-
norhy7ickiis holoscricais) in the
following words: — " The base con-
sists of an extensive and rather
convex platform of sticks firmly
interwoven, on the centre of which
the bower itself is built ; this,
like the platform on which it is
placed, and with which it is inter-
woven, is formed of sticks and
twigs, but of a more slender and
flexible description, the tips of
the twigs being so arranged as to
curve inwards, and nearly meet at
the top ; in the interior of the
bower the materials are so placed
that the forks of the twigs are
always presented outwards, by
which arrangement not the slight-
est obstruction is offered to the pas-
sage of the birds. For what pur-
pose these curious bowers are made
is not yet, perhaps, fully under-
stood ; they are certainly not used
as a nest, but as a place of resort
for many individuals of both sexes,
which, when there assembled, run
through and around the bower in
a sportive and playful manner, and
that so frequently th.it it is seldom
entirely deserted." A still more
extraordinary structure of the same
description is' formed by the
Spotted Bower- Bird {Chlaniydera
tnaculafa), an inhabitant of the
interior of Australia. It is thus described by Mr. Gould. The
bowers " are considerably longer and more avenue-like than those
of the satin bower-bird, being, in many instances, three feet in
length. They are outv/ardly built of twigs, and beautifully lined
with tall grasses, so disposed that their heads nearly meet : the
decorations are very profuse, and consist of bivalve shells, crania of
small Ma})imalia, and other bones. Evident and beautiful instances
of design are manifest thioii;^hout the bower and decorations formed
by this species, particularly in the manner in which the stones are
THE STARLINGS.
499
placed within the bower, apparently to keep the grasses, with which
it is lined, fixed firmly in their places : these stones diverge from the
mouth of the run on each side, so as to form little paths ; while the
immense collection of decorative materials, bones, shells, &c., are
placed in a heap before the entrance of the avenue, this arrange-
ment being the same at both ends." Mr. Gould adds, in evidence
of the labour that must be bestowed by the Birds upon the construc-
tion of these apparently useless assembly-rooms, that he frequently
found them at a distance from any river, so that the shells and small
stones employed in their fabrication must have been transported
from a considerable distance. It appears also that the Birds only
collect bones which have been bleached in the sun ; and it is certain
that as the Birds feed almost entirely upon fruits and seeds, these
remains of other animals cannot be regarded as the debris of their
victims. Figures of these Birds, with their bowers, will be found in
Mr. Gould's valuable work on ihc Birds of Australia. (See Fig.
1282.)
Fig. 12S2. — The Satin-Bird.
The second sub-family is that of the Grakles {Grac7c!zn(S), a
group of Birds found only in the jungles of India and the Indian
islands. In these the bill is broad at the base, and slightly notched
at the tip, with the ridge a little curved ; the nostrils are rounded,
placed at the base of the bill, and more or less covered by the frontal
plumes ; the wings are long, with the third and fourth quills longest ;
the tail short, the tarsi short, and the toes long. The typical
species of this group is the Gracula religiosa of Linnaeus, which
inhabits Java, Sumatra, and some of the other large islands of the
Eastern Archipelago. It is two or three inches in length ; its
plumage is of a deep velvet-like black colour, with a white mirror
upon each wing ; and the bill and feet are yellow. Behind each eye
there are some caruncles of a bright yellow colour. It lives on
fruits and Insects, and may he domesticated with facility, when it
soon learns to whistle and speak admirably. M. Lesson mentions
that he saw a specimen in Java which pronounced whole sentences
in the Malay language. The other species appear to resemble this
in their habits. Several specimens of these IBirds may be seen in
the British Museum, together with those of the Jiiida and Bower-
Rirrls already described. Of the latter, live specimens may be seen
in the collection of the Zoological Society, at their Gardens in
Regent's Park, London.
Africa possesses another peculiar group of these Birds, which,
from their remarkable habits, have received the name of Buphagince,
or Ox-peckers. They have a stout bill, with the ridge somewhat
depressed and curved at the tip, which has no notches ; the nostrils
are small, and partly closed by a membrane ; the wings long and
pointed ; the tail long, with the end of each feather pointed ; the
tarsi and toes are robust, the latter armed with compressed, curved,
acute claws.
This group includes only a very few species of Birds, belonging to
a smgle genus, inhabiting the warmer parts of Africa. The best
known species is the Du^haga afrkana, the common O-K-peckcr
or Beef-eater, so called from its singular habit of perching on the
backs of Cattle, and extracting the larva; of the Bot-Flics {CEsirida;),
by which these Quadrupeds are commonly infested. Singular as
this diet may seem, it is said to constitute the principal nourishment
of these Birds ; and the bill is certainly peculiarly adapted for gently
squeezing the parasites out of the tumours caused by their presence.
The Cattle are said to allow the Birds to perch upon them without
any signs of unwillingness. The common Ox-pecker is a small
Bird, about eight or nine inches in length ; its plumage is reddish-
brown above, and yellowish-white beneath ; the legs arc brown, and
Fig. 12S3.— The Red-billed Ox-pecker.
the bill yellowish, with the tips of both mandibles red. It is generally
seen associated in small flocks of seven or eight individuals, and is
exceedingly shy. Fig. 1283 represents the Red-billed Ox-pecker.
The True Starlings— Sub-family Slumina.
We come now to the typical group, the sub-family of the Sfurin'ntr,
or True Starlings, to which our British species belong. In these
Birds the bill is usually elongated, rather slender and tapering, with
the ridge very slightly curved or straight, and the tip obtuse, some-
what flattened, and furnished with a very indistinct notch on each
side ; the nostrils are placed at the base of the bill, in a membranous
groove ; the wings and tail are rather short ; the tarsi long and
stout, as are also the toes, which are furnished with strong acute
claws.
These Birds are, for the most part, inhabitants of the Eastern
Hemisphere, in the warmer regions of which they are tolerably abun-
dant ; only one genus {Sturnella) is found in America.
The only species generally distributed, and permanently resident
in Europe, is the common Starling [Sfuriius vulgaris) ; a second
species, the Sturnus unicolor, appears to be peculiar to Sardinia ;
and a third, the Rose-coloured Pastor (/-"^j/or rosciis), which inhabits
the warmer parts of Asia and Africa, is a regular visitor of some
parts of the continent of Europe, and stragglers have occurred in the
British Isles.
The Starling. — The common Starling {Sturnus vulgaris) is a
well-known, handsome, and sprightly Bird, which is very generally
distributed in this country, living in flocks during the greater part of
the year, and separating only during the breeding season. The
Starling builds in the holes of rocks and buildings, or in hollow trees.
The nest is composed of twigs, straws, dry grass, and roots ; the
eggs are four in number, and of a delicate pale blue tint. When the
young are hatched, both parents attend to their wants with the ut-
most care ; and as soon as they are able to leave the nest, the whole
family join company with others of the same species, usually
forming large flocks, which feed and roost in society. Numerous
flocks appear often to seek the same roosting-place night after night,
and the numbers wliich frequent some favourite spot for this purpose
are sometimes astonishing. Mr. Yarrell states that, during sum-
mer and autumn, the Birds roost by thousands amongst the reeds in
the fenny districts, often crushing the plants down to the water's
edge in large patches, like grain after a storm. The same author
gives two other instances of enormous multitudes of these Birds resort-
ing constantly to particular spots. One of these localities was an ever-
green plantation of Arbutus, Laurustinus, &c., covering some acres,
to which the Birds repair every evening almost by "millions," ac'
500
THE STARLINGS.
cording to Mr. Yarrell's informant, from the low grounds about the
Severn. The evergreens are completely stripped of their leaves, and
the Pheasants, for whose benefit the plantation was intended, have
been driven quite away from the ground. The noise and stench of the
Birds are described as something unbearable ; and even during their
absence in the day-time, the odour of the place is exceedingly dis-
agreeable. The other roosting-places mentioned by Mr. Yarrell, is a
mass of thorn-trees in the Zoological Gardens at Dublin; in which,
according to Mr. Ball, from one hundred and fifty to two hundred
thousand Starlings slept every night from the end of October to the
end of March. During the winter the Starlings frequently roost in
Pigeon-houses ; and, according to some observers, they occasionally
perform a sort of migration in severe winters, passing in large flocks
into the mild regions of the south-west of England, the counties of
Devon and Cornwall.
The Starling feeds principally upon Worms, Insects, and Snails,
but also frequently upon fruits of different kinds, in search of which
it often frequents gardens. In hard winters it is said to visit the
coast in search of Marine Animals, which it finds by turning over
the stones with a jerk, immediately seizing whatever may be under-
neath. This Bird appears to be
Fig. 12S4.-
-Ilead and Foot of the
Starling.
very generally distributed over the
whole of the Eastern Hemisphere.
In the north it extends to Scan-
dinavia and the Faroe Islands ;
and in the south to the Cape of
Good Hope. It is found in
China and Japan, at the eastern
extremity of Asia, and in the
small islands of the Western
Ocean. In many of the countries
where it occurs, it is regarded with
considerable favour ; and in Eng-
land and elsewhere it is frequently
domesticated, as it possesses much
of the sagacity of the Crows, and
may be taught to whistle tunes,
and even to repeat a few words.
A fine male Starling is an exceed-
ingly handsome Bird ; his plu-
mage is black, tinged with metallic
purple and green, and spotted
with buff. The female is far less
brilliant. Fig. 1284 represents
the Head and F"oot of the Starling.
The Rose-coloured Pastor {Pastor roseus), which is generally dis-
tributed in the warmer parts of Asia and Africa, is also of common
occurrence in the south of Europe, especially in Russia; in the
western parts of the continent of Europe it is rare, and only a few
individuals are recorded as having reached this country. It is a
beautiful Bird ; the head and neck, the quill-feathers of the wings and
tail, and the extremities of the tibia; are black, with a violet gloss,
the feathers of the top of the head being elongated so as to produce
a sort of crest ; the rest of the plumage is of a delicate rose-colour,
and the legs and bill are yellowish. Like the True Starlings, these
Birds associate in large flocks, and feed to a great extent upon
grain. They are also great destroyers of Insects, and in some places
are regarded almost as sacred, from their devouring great quantities
of Locusts. Like the Starling, also, they have a great predilection
for the company of Cattle and Sheep, constantly walking about in
their neighbourhood, and often mounting on their backs to search
for Insects amongst their hair.
A nearly allied species, the Pastor tristis, which closely resembles
the preceding in its habits, is still more celebrated as an enemy to
Locusts of all kinds. It was transported from the Philippine Islands
to the Mauritius, in order to rid that island of the Locusts by which
it was overrun ; and has increased so rapidly under the protection of
the government, that, according to Bory de Saint Vincent, it has
completely "ruined" the entomology of the island.
The Sturnclla ludoviaana of North America, sometimes known
under the name of the Meadow Lark, is very generally distributed
over the whole of that continent, from Upper Canada to New
Orleans and Florida. It is about two inches longer than our British
species, which it appears to resemble in its general habits, although
it diifers materially in the position which it selects for its nest ; this,
according to Wilson, being "generally built in, or below, a thick tuft
or tussock of grass." The nest is composed of dry grass, lined with
fine bent, and has an arched entrance level with the ground. Its food
consists of Insects and seeds ; and its note is said by Wilson to be
surpassed by that of none of the American warblers in sweetness and
tenderness of expression. They are constantly brought to market in
some parts of the United States, and their flesli is considered equal
in delicacy to that of the American Quail. Its plumage is very
beautiful, being principally variegated with yellow and black.
The remainder of the Sturiiida are all inhabitants of America.
They form two sub-families. The Birds composing one of these, the
QtdscalincB, are distinguished by the curious form of their tails, which
arc long and graduated, with the sides curved upwards — whence the
name of Boat-tails has been given to them. They have a long,
straight bill, with the nostrils placed in triangular grooves on each
side of the base ; the wings are pointed, and the hind-toe is long, and
armed with a strong curved claw. From the interior of the upper
mandible a sharp bony process descends into the mouth, which has
been compared to the broken blade of a penknife : its use is probably
to assist in breaking up the food.
These Birds are found both in North and South America, where
they live in troops like the Starlings, and feed upon Worms, Insects,
and seeds. They often commit extensive depredations upon the
grain-fields in the United States, where two species, the Qutscalus
ferrugineus, and Q^. versicolor, occur in great abundance. They
migrate from south to north in the spring, returning again to their
winter quarters in the autumn ; and, on their first arrival in the more
Northern States, which takes place in the month of March, they feed
principally on Worms, Insects, and Grubs, " of which " says Wilson,
" they destroy prodigious numbers, as if to recompense the husband-
man, beforehand, for the havoc they intend to make among his crops
of Indian corn." Their attention to this valuable plant com-
mences with its first appearance above the ground ; and, according
to the distinguished ornithologist just quoted, it is hailed by the Birds
with screams of peculiar satisfaction ; they immediately descend upon
the fields, and pull up and devour the seed, scattering the young
green blades in every direction. They return again to the charge
about the beginning of August, when the young ears are in their
milky state — a period which appears to be selected by most of the
feathered enemies of the Indian corn for their most violent attacks
upon it. With the greatest dexterity they strip off the voluminous
outer covering of the ear, and leave nothing behind that can be of
the least use to the farmer. So extensive is the injury thus done to
the crops, that, as Wilson tells us, the farmers of some parts of the
United States generally allow one-fourth to the Blackbirds, amongst
which, the Qiiiscalus versicolor plays a most important part. Late
in the autumn these Birds collect into immense flocks, and wing
their way to the warm Southern States, where they pass the winter,
congregated together in vast multitudes. Wilson describes his coming
upon one of these " armies of Grakles," as he calls them. He says,
" They rose from the surrounding fields with a noise like thunder, and,
descending on the length of road before me, covered it and the fences
completely with black ; and when they again rose, and, after a few
evolutions, descended on the skirts of the high-timbered woods, at
that time (January) destitute of leaves, they produced a most sin-
gular and striking effect ; the whole trees, for a considerable extent,
from the top to the lowest branches, seeming as if hung in mourning
— their notes and screaming, the meanwhile, resembling the distant
sound of a great cataract."
The Qidscalus versicolor , which is the commonest of the North
American species, is called the Crow-Blackbird by the farmers of
the United States. It is about twelve inches in length, and entirely
of a black colour ; but its plumage, in certain lights, reflects beautiful
blue, violet, and coppery tints, which has caused Wilson to give it
the name of the Purple Grakle. It nestles in society usually on pine
and cedar trees. The nest is composed of mud, with stems and roots
of grass, and lined with fine bent and horsehair. The female, which
is of different shades of brown, lays five eggs, of a bluish-olive colour,
with dark streaks and spots. In captivity it is readily tamed ; and,
like the European Starling, may be taught to repeat a few words.
The Q: ferrugineus is smaller, measuring only about nine inches in
length ; the male is greenish-black, and the female, as in the larger
species, brownish.
The IcterincB form a second group of American Starlings, which,
like the preceding, have a nearly straight bill. The tail is elongated,
and usually wedge-shaped, and the wings long and pointed ; the
tarsi are not longer than the middle toe, and the toes are of moderate
size and strength. The bill is acute at the tip. The majority of these
Birds are found in Tropical America , but several species are met
W'ith in the northern division of that continent. They resemble the
Starlings in their gregarious habits, whence the name of troupiale,
applied to them by the French, which has been modified into troopial
by the English. Most of them build pendulous nests ; and the
process by which the Baltimore Oriole {Yphaiites baltimore) con-
structs its pouch-like nest, is thus described by Wilson. Few of the
Orioles, he says, " equal the Baltimore in the construction of these
receptacles for their young, and in giving them, in such a superior
degree, convenience, warmth, and security. For these purposes the
male bird generally fixes on the high, bending extremities of the
branches, fastening strong strings of hemp or flax round two forked
twigs, corresponding to the intended width of the nest : with the same
materials mixed with quantities of loose tow, he interweaves or fabri-
cates a strong firm kind of cloth, not unlike the fabric of a hat in its
raw state, forming it into a pouch of six or seven inches in depth,
lining it substantially with various soft substances, well interwoven
with the outward netting ; and lastly, finishes with a layer of horse-
hair ; the whole being shaded from the sun and rain by a natural
pent-house or canopy of leaves. Sometimes the opening, which is at
the top of the nest, is partly closed by a horizontal cover. Although
the nest of the Baltimore Oriole is usually composed of the materials
THE TROOPIALS.
SOI
mentioned above, he is by no means particular about appropriating
any article which appears to him to be applicable to his purpose ;
and during the breeding season, thread put out to bleach, or skeins
of silk, if not taken care of, will frequently find their w-ay into the
dwelling of this ingenious little architect." (See Fig. 1285.)
In many cases, the Birds of this sub-family will build, or rather
weave, their nests in societies of considerable number upon the same
tree. No less than forty-five nests of two species, the Caa'ciis ictcr-
onotus and /icsmorrhoits, were seen by Rlr. Edwards during his
oppressed her, and proceeds back to the flock she had so reluctantly
forsaken. If the egg be deposited in the nest alone, it is uniformly
forsaken ; but if the nursing-parent have any of her own, she imme-
diately begins to sit. The red-eyed flycatcher, in whose beautiful
basket-like nests I have observed these eggs, proves a very aflfcclion-
ate and assiduous nurse to the uncouth foundling."
Fig. 12S5. — The Baltimore Oriole and Nest.
voyage up the Amazon, in one small tree ; the nests were nearly two
feet in length, with an opening near the top, and were woven with
grass, often depending from one another, and so completely conceal-
ing the tree, that only a few of the uppermost leaves were visible.
The Orchard Oriole of the United States [Icterus spurius) also
weaves its nest of grass. This Bird sometimes chooses the weeping
willow to build on, taking several twigs of the tree into its fabric,
which is then concealed by the leaves.
It is remarkable that, in a group distinguished for the ingenuity
displayed in the construction of the nests, one species should be
found which, like the Cuckoos, deposits its eggs in the nests of other
Birds, and leaves the business of incubation, and the care of the
young, to strange foster-parents. This is the Cowpen-Bird {Molothriis
pccoris), which is also a native of the United States. A description
of this Bird will be presently given.
All these Birds appear to be of a migratory disposition ; and
those which occur in the United States, regularly pass the winter in
the warm regions of the south, and proceed to the Northern States in
the spring. As they come in vast flocks, and share with the Purple
Grakle (already referred to) in its fondness for grain of all kinds,
especially Indian corn in the milky state, they are regarded w'ith no
great favour by the American farmers ; and one species especially,
the Red-winged Starling {Agelaius phaiiiccus), is celebrated for the
havoc it makes in the grain-fields. The males of most of the species
are adorned with exceedingly brilliant colours — orange, scarlet, and
black being the prevailing tints. One of the commonest species, the
Baltimore Oriole — which derives its name from the circumstance that
its colours, black and orange, were those of the livery of Lord Balti-
more, formerly proprietary of Maryland — has received the name of
Fire-Bird from the fiery effect of the bright orange when seen dash-
ing through the trees. It is also called the Golden Robin. The
females are far more sober in their tints.
The Cow Troopial (Alolothrus ,;pecoris). Icterus pccoris,
Temminck ; Etnberha pecoris, Wilson ; Cowpen-Bird, Cow-Black-
bird, and Cow-Bun tinsr of the Americans. — We have previously alluded
to tills Bird, which, like our Cuckoo, prepares no nest, but selects
those of other Birds, distributing an a^'g to each, and leaving it to be
hatched and the Nestling to be reared by foster-parents.
The Birds whose nests it chiefly selects appear to be those of the
Red-eyed and White-eyed Flycatchers, and the Maryland. Yellow-
throat; but those of the Blue-Bird, the Indigo-Bird, the Chipping-
Sparrow, the Blue-eyed Yellow Warbler, the Blue-grey Flycatcher,
the Golden-crowned Thrush, and Wilson's Thrush are also used for
this purpose. According to Nuttall, "When the female is disposed
to lay, she appears restless and dejected, and separates from the
unregarding flock. Stealing through woods and thickets, she pries
into the bushes and brambles for the nest that suits her, into which
she darts in the absence of the owner, and in a few minutes is seen
to rise on the wing, cheerful and relieved from the anxiety that
Fig. 1286. — Cow-Troopials.
The sameauthor, in 1831, sawahen Red-eyed Flycatcher sitting on
two eggs and one of the Cow- Bird ; and he adds that this species,
Vireo olivaceus and Vircosylva olwacca of Bonaparte, Muscicapa
olivacea, Linn., appears to be its most usual nurse. He has known
this Vireo begin her incubation with only an egg of each kind,
whilst in other nests he has observed as many as three belonging to
the Vireo, as well as that of the intruder ; and he suggests that,
from the largeness of the ^gg, the nest probably immediately feels
full to the incubating Bird, so as to induce her to sit directly, when
the larger &gg, being brought nearer to the body of the nurse than
her own, is first hatched, generally, as he believes, on the twelfth or
thirteenth day. The legitimate eggs are hatched about a day later,
and the young are often stifled by the superior size of the stranger,
which is affectionately nursed by the poor dupe of a dam ; when the
young are dead, they are conveyed to a distance by the parent and
dropped; but they are never found immediately below the nest, as
would be the case if they w-ere ejected by the young Cow-Bird, as is
done by the young Cuckoo. "Indeed," continues Mr. Nuttall, "as far
as I have had opportunity of observing, the foundling shows no hos-
tility to the natural brood of his nurses ; but he nearly absorbs their
whole attention, and early displays his characteristic cunning and
self-possession. When fully fledged, they quickly desert their
foster-parent, and skulk about in the woods, until at length they
instinctively join company with those of the same feather ; and now
becoming more bold, are seen in parties of five or six in the fields
and lanes, gleaning their accustomed subsistence. They still, how-
502
THE FINCHES.
ever, appear shy and watchful, and seem too selfish to study any-
thing more than their own security and advantage."
The Cow-Bird is but a poor songster. It is a migratory species,
appearing in the middle and northern States of the Union at the
beginning of April, and retiring southwards on the approach of
winter. The male has the head and neck blackish-brown, the rest
of the plumage glossy black, with greenish reflexions on the upper
parts, and a violet lustre on the breast. The female is sooty-brown
above and pale beneath, as are also the young, with the breast
spotted. The foremost of the upper figures is the male, the other
the female ; the lower a young Bird. (See Fig. 1286.)
An allied species (Le Troupiale Commun of Azara), seen by
Darwin in large flocks near Maldonado, is said to have the same
habit with regard to its eggs as the Molothrus ^ecoris.
The Finches — Family Fringillidts.
The great group of Conirostral Birds is concluded by the vast
family of the Finches, or Friiigillida, a group which includes an
immense number of species, exhibiting a great variety of structure
and habit. They are characterised by having a short, stout, conical
bill, with an acute tip, of which th.e upper mandible has no notch at
the extremity. The tongue is rather fleshy, with the tip horny, and
usually more or less slit. The
oesophagus forms a small crop,
and the stomach a powerful giz-
zard, indicating, with the peculiar
form of the bill, that the food of
the Birds consists principally of
grain. The tarsi are compressed
and slender, usually covered in
front with seven scutella (Fig.
1287), but sometimes with a single
shield ; and the toes are of mode-
rate length, armed with long curved
claws, that of the hinder toe
being often longer than the rest. The wings are rather short, and
somewhat pointed at the extremity (Fig. 1288), and the tail is com-
posed of twelve feathers.
These Birds are active on the wing, their flight being usually
effected by a series of jerks or undulations. On the ground they
generally progress by hopping with both legs at once. They always
pair, and their nests are usually beautifully constructed ; some of
them, in fact, are most elaborate and elegant fabrics.
Fig. 12S7. — Foot of a Finch.
Fig. 1288.— Wing of the Chaffinch,
The multitude of species included in this family has given rise to
numerous sub-divisions, and Mr. G. R. Gray divides the Fringillidcs
mto no less than nme sub-families. The first of these, that of the
Floceifzcs, or Weaver-Birds, includes some of the most ingenious of
feathered architects. These Birds have a strong conical bill, with
the base of the ridge projecting upon the forehead; the wings are
rounded, with the first quill very short ; and the legs and feet are
robust, with the hind-toe nearly as long as the middle one.
The majority of these small Birds are inhabitants of Africa ; but a
few species are found in India and the islands of the Archipelago.
Their food consists of Insects and seeds, and the species of the
genus Textor accompany the Buffaloes, and perch on their backs,
for the purpose of picking off the Parasitic Insects which infest
them. The following is a more particular description of some
species of Weaver-Birds.
Nests of the Pensile Weaver-Bird.— Barrow, in his " Travels
in Africa," notices clusters of suspended nests, attached to slender
twigs, fabricated by a species of Loxia, which unfortunately he
neither names nor describes. These nests usually overhang a river
or pool of water, and are shaped like a chemist's retort, with a
body and long neck, at the end of which is the aperture, close over
the surface of the water; the neck leads to a snug chamber, in
Vvhich the young are reared ; the structure is composed of inter-
woven grass. Though not capable of identifying the species, we
suspect it to be the Melicourvi, Loxia [Ploceus) ^ensMs of Son-
nerat. We have seen nests of a similar form, constructed of wiry
elastic grass, and attached to the leaves of palms, brought from Ceylon
and the continent of India — perhaps the work of the Ploceus
{Euplectes) ■philippcnsis. Colonel Sykes observes that this Weaver-
Bird "is very common in Dukhun, and there are few wells over-
hung by a tree where their nests are not seen pendent ; they
live in small communities, and are very noisy in their labours."
Fig. 1289. — Nests of Pensile Weaver-Birds.
Pringle describes the South African nest as woven of a kind of
tough grass, the cylindrical passage being twelve or fifteen inches
in length ; and twenty or more often hang from a single tree.
The Sociable Weaver-Bird {Ploceus socius, Cuvier). —
PhilcBleriis lepidus. Smith ; Euplectes lepidus, Swainson ; Loxia
soci'a, Latham ; Ploceus pater sonii. Lesson.
According to Dr. Smith, the banks of the Orange River constitute
the southern limits of the range of this species, which was only
obtained in great abundance in the districts around Latakoo far
from water. The most striking peculiarity, adds Dr. Smith, "ob-
served in this species is the extraordinary manner in which a
number of individuals associate and build their nests under a
common roof. When a nesting-place has been selected, and the
operation of building is to be commenced ab initio, the community
proceed conjointly to construct the general covering which interests
them all : that being accomplished, each pair begin to form their
own nest, which, like the roof, they construct of coarse grass ; these
are placed side by side against the under surface of the general
covering, and by the time they are all completed, the lower surface
of the mass exhibits the appearance of an even horizontal surface,
freely perforated by small circular openings. They never use the
same nests a second time, though they continue for many years
attached to the same roof. With the return of the breeding season
fresh nests are formed upon the lower surface of those of the pre-
ceding year, which then form an addition to the general covering. In
this manner they proceed year after year, till at last the weight
often becomes such as to cause the destruction of its support, upon
which a new building is commenced. They appear to prefer con-
structing these nests upon large and lofty trees ; but where such do
not occur, they will even condescend to form them upon the leaves of
the Arborescent A\oe (Aloe arborescens), as occasionally happens
towards the Orange River. The commencement of the roof is firmly
interwoven with the branches of the trees to which it is intended to
WFA VER-BIRDS.
503
be suspended, and often a great part of the principal branch is
actually included within its surface. Each female lays from three
to four eggs, of a bluish-white colour, freely mottled towards the
Fig. 1290. — Nests of the Socisble Weaver-Birds.
large end with small brown dots." Paterson and Le Vaillant give
a somewhat similar account of these nests, some of which they saw
of enormous size ; the latter traveller mentions one which had 320
Fig. 1291.— The Sociable Weaver-Bird.
inhabited cells, each cell being the property of a pair of Birds.
The grass used is a wiry kind, called Boschman's grass. Thus,
then, do these Weaver-Birds found a republic, and cluster together
under one roof their separate homesteads ; the labour of each busy
artificer contributing to the general good. Fig. 1290 shows the nests
of this Bird apparently just finished, or but little added to. The
general colour of the Sociable Weaver- Bird is brown, varying in its
shades ; the feathers of the back edged with pale buff, which is the
general tint of the under parts. Total length about five inches.
(See Fig. 1291.)
The Yellow-crowned Weaver-Bird fPloceus spilonohts).
P.flaviceps, Swains. ; P. stictonotus, A. Smith. — This species, of
which the male has the plumage varied with yellow and brown, is a
native of the districts bordering on the south-east coast of Africa ;
but, according to Dr. Smith, is not found to the west of Caffreland.
It is rare, and frequents the banks of rivers, suspending its nest,
which is of a kidney shape and composed of closely interwoven
grass, from the branch of a tree overhanging the water. The eggs
are three or four, of a delicate greenish-blue. The length of the
Bird is about seven inches. (See Fig. 1292.)
Fig. 1292. — The Yellow-crowned Weaver-Bird.
The Taha Weaver-Bird {Euplcctcs taha, Smith).— According
to its original describer, Dr. Smith, this species is a native of Africa,
but does not extend its range south of 26°. In districts north of this
degree it was common, and large flocks were often observed among
the trees near the banks of rivers ; but, according to information
gained from the natives, the Birds leave the trees at the commence-
ment of the breeding season for the reeds which skirt the rivers,
and from which they suspend their nests. These and other allied
species are very destructive to gardens and corn-lands, and the
natives are obliged to watch the crops to prevent the grain from
being devoured. The plumage of the male (upper figure) is mingled
yellow, grey, and brownish-black ; in winter ycllowish-brown
above, dashed with brownish-black; under parts greyish-white,
tinged sienna-yellow on the chest. The female (lower figure) re-
sembles the male in his winter dress. (See Fig. 1293.)
The Mahali Weaver- Bird (Pliopasscr mahah, Smith).—
This Bird was seen for the first time by Dr. Smith upon a tree on the
bank of one of the tributaries to the Orange River ; but he met with
small and occasionally large flocks as far north as the Tropic of
Capricorn, the species being disposed to congregate. Twenty or
thirty nests were to be seen on one tree. Insects and seeds are the
food of this species, and in search of these the Bird passes much
time upon the ground. If disturbed while feeding, the whole iiock
take wing, and settle in a neighbouring tree, where they remain till
they see the way clear for their return.
The nests, observes Dr. Smith, in figure and texture, had many of
the characters of those of Ploccics, but resembled those of some of the
South African PyrgifcB (Sparrows) in the manner in which they w^ere
armed. The walls of each nest were entirely composed of stalks of
grass, the thickest ends of which were so placed as to protrude
externally for several inches beyond the compact structure destined
to contain the eggs. Thus each nest appeared armed w^ith numerous
projecting spines, and bore considerable resemblance to the body of a
porcupine with its spines partially erected. The design is to oppose an
obstacle to the advance of Snakes towards the eggs and young. The
plumage is varied with different tints of brown, and with white, the
chest and under parts being cream-yellow ; the throat and under tail-
coverts white. Length six inches and a-half. (See Fig. 1294.)
.';o4
TP-EA VER-BIRDS.
The Red-billed Weaver-Bird (Textor erythrorhyiichus.
Smith).— This species inhabits Southern Africa, north of the 25th
degree of latitude ; and, as Dr. Smith states, is never seen where
herds of Buffaloes are scarce. Whenever discovered, it was always
Fig. 1293. — Taha Weaver-Birds.
in attendance upon these animals, flying over them or perched on
their back, busily employed in coUectiug Insects from the hide, and
passing rapidly from one part to another, the huge beast paying no
attention to its movements. Sometimes numbers of these Birds
were seen associated with the Builaloes, and sometimes only one or
two. Their food consists of Parasitic Insects, at least in part, such
havmg been found by Dr. Smith in the stomachs of those specimens
which he examined.
This Bird, besides being of service to its bulky associates by
ridding them of the Parasitic Insects which infest their hides,
performs for them another important service. On observing any
unusual appearance, the attention of the Bird is immediately
directed to it ; and if it sees anything to excite alarm, the Bird flies
up, whereupon all the Buifaloes instantly raise their heads, and
endeavour to discover the cause which led to the sudden departure
of their sentinel. If their apprehension is confirmed, they take to
flight in a body, accompanied by their winged and serviceable
friends, which, as soon as the herd halts to feed, return to their
avocation.
Dr. Smith never observed this Bird attaching itself to any
Quadruped but the Buffalo ; while two species of BiTphaga visit the
Rhinoceros. The general colour of the Red-billed Weaver-Bird is
blackish-brown ; the primaries are marked largely with white ;
bill yellowish-red, with a purplish tinge on the sides. (See Fig.
1295.)
Some species of this group, forming the genus Vidua, are remark-
able for the great development of some of the tail-coverts in the
male, which often considerably exceed the body in length : these
beautiful plumes, which lend so much grace to the appearance of the
Bird, only exist, however, during the breeding season. The following
affords a description of two of the species.
The Paradise Whidah-Bird (F"/rfz^<z ^«ra<f2!s-efl,Cuv.)— These
Birds, also termed Widow-Birds, les Veuves of the French, constitute
a small but interesting group of the Finches, remarkable for the
development of long caudal plumes in the males, characteristic of
the breeding season, and subsequently lost. With respect to the
name Widow (Veuve, Vidua), the author of the " Gardens and Mena.
Fig. 1294. — The Mahali Weaver-Bird.
gerie Delineated " informs us that " Edwards, the first modem writer
by whom this interesting bird (the present species) was figured and
described, having happened to say that the Portuguese called it the
Widow from its colour and long train, Brisson took the hint, and
gave it the name of Veuve in French, Vidua in Latin. The French
naturalist, had, however, overlooked the fact that Edwards had him-
self corrected the mistake, for such it was, in the following terms : — ■
' In my description of this bird I have said that it is called the Widow
by the Portuguese : but I am since better informed that it is called
the Whidah-bird, because it is brought frequently to Lisbon from the
kingdom of Whidah on the coast of Africa.' The name thus acci-
Fig. 1295.— The Red-billed Weaver-Bird.
dentally given has now, however, been universally adopted both in
popular and scientific language." (See Fig. 1296, a.)
The present species is a native of Western Africa, from Senegal to
Angola, and in all its habits is a true Finch. " In captivity, which
these birds endure without much appearance of constraint, they are
lively and active, jumping from perch to perch, and alternately raising
and depressing their long tails with great vivacity. They are usually
fed upon grain, with the occasional addition of green herbs, and are
THE GROSBEAKS.
505
fond of bathing in the water which is placed in their cage. Twice
a year they are subject to changes of plumage, which alter the ap-
pearance of the male especially, to such an extent that it would be
difficult to recognise in him the same bird. The long feathers which
are his peculiar attribute fall off towards the end of autumn, and,
with the other changes that take place in its plumage, leave him
little to distinguish him during the winter months from his plainer
mate. But in spring he recovers his long feathers, his more brilliant
hues, and his sharp but agreeable and varied note : the change being
usually completed by the beginning of June. It is said they live for
twelve or fifteen years." The colour of the male in full plumage is of
a bright black, with the exception of an orange rufous band round
the neck, spreading over the chest, and gradually falling into dull
white on the under parts. The tail is, as usual, composed of twelve
feathers, of which the four middle are elongated and vertical ; two
being flowing and pendent, and two (the middle) broad, with a shaft
projecting like a slender filament beyond the end. Size, that of a
.Sparrow. After the autumnal moult the colours are rusty brown and
white.
The Red-billed Whidah-Bird ( Vidua erythrorhynchd). — This
species inhabits the same regions as the preceding, but is of less size.
Of the four middle and greatly elongated tail-feathers two are convex,
Fig. 1296.— Whidah Birds.
and two (one within the other) concave, so that when all four are
closed they form a sort of cylinder, and but for their extremities ap-
pear at first sight as one.
The general colour of the male in full plumage is glossy blue-black,
with a white collar and white wing-coverts and scapularies, of which
hue are also the lower part of the back, the throat, the chest, and
under parts. In habits it agrees with the other species. (See
tig. 1296, /;.)
Nearly allied to the preceding, and perhaps uniting these with the
Irue finches, is the sub-family of the Grosbeaks [Coccofhrausfi/ics).
In these Birds the bill is very large, broad, and thick, with the man-
dibles nearly equal ; the wings are rather long and pointed ; the tail
short: the feet and legs stout and strongly scaled; the tarsi not
longer than the middle toe, and the hinder toe rather shorter than
the mner one. In the common European Grosbeak {Coccothraus/cs
vulgaris, Fig. 1297 represents its head), some of the quill-feathers
of the wing exhibit a remarkable conformation (Fig. 1298). Five of
the secondary quills, and the two innermost primaries, arc truncated
at the end, as though they had been clipped straight ; and the four
following primaries, proceeding towards the outer edge of the wing,
are broad, and notched at the extremity, with the outer angle turned
outwards.
These Birds generally inhabit the woods of mountainous countries
and appear to be very shy in their nature. They feed upon seeds and
truits, and are exceedingly fond of the kernels of stone fruit which
their powerful bills enable them to crack with great facility The
Fig. 1297.— Head of the Common Grosbeak.
only British species is the Common Grosbeak {Coccothraustes vul-
garis), or Hawfinch, as it is frequently called— a Bird which is very
common in some parts of the continent of Europe, but was long sup-
posed to be only an occasional winter visitor to our islands The fol-
lowing is a description of this Bird.
Fig. 1298.— Wing of the Common Grosbeak.
The Grosbeak, orHawfiaxh {Coccothraustes vulgaris).— 'Ine.
present species is the Haw Grosbeak and Grosbeak of the modern
British ; Gylfinbraff of the ancient British ; le Grosbek and Pinson
Koyal of the French ; Frogione, Froccione, Frosone, Frisone Frig-
gione, of the Italians ; Kernbeisser, Kirsch Kernbeisser, Kerschfink.
INusbeisser of the Germans ; Appelvink of the Netherlanders ; Loxia
coccothraustes of Lmnajus ; Frugtlla coccothraustes of Temminck :
Coccothraustes vulgaris of Brisson.
The Hawfinch is plentiful in some districts of France ; permanent
and not uncommon in Italy ; common in Germany, Sweden, and part of
Kussia. In Mr. Selby's "Illustrations," and indeed in most other Eng-
lish works, the Hawfinch is noted as an occasional visitant. Dr. La-
thamsays that " the hawfinch visits us chiefly in winter, but one was
shot in the summer months near Dartford in Kent." He goes on to re-
mark that \\hite records another instance at the same season, and
says that it had the kernels of damsons in its stomach. " These," con-
tinues Dr. Latham, " might possibly have bred here, though we have
no authority for its ever being the case." "The hawfinch," says
u"i r '^*^^^' " '^ "°' migratory, but remains with us during the
whole of the year. ' ' This observer sufliciently accounts for the rarity
of its appearance—" Its shy and retiring habits leading it to choose
the most secluded places of the thickest and more remote parts of
woods, and when disturbed it invariably perches on the tallest tree
of the neighbourhood."
Hard seeds and kernels form the principal food of the Hawfinch
3T
5o6
THE TRUE FINCHES.
but it feeds also on the berries of the hawthorn (whence its name) ;
so that it is probable that the soft part of fruits is not disagreeable
to it, although the bill is evidently formed for cracking the stony
kernel. Willughby states that it breaks the stones of cherries and
even of olives with expedition. The stomach of one which he dis-
sected in the month of December was full of the stones of holly-
berries. The majority of ornithologists give the Hawfinch credit for
forming a nest beautifully constructed of lichens and vegetable fibres,
with a lining of feathers and other soft materials. But according to
Mr. Doubleday, who has thrown much light on the history of this
Bird, and discovered it breeding in Epping Forest in May and June,
the nest, which is made in some instances in bushy trees at the height
of five or six feet, and in others near the top of firs at an elevation of
twenty or thirty feet, is remarkably shallow and carelessly put to-
gether, being scarcely deeper than that of the Dove. In materials
it resembles that of the Bullfinch, but is not to be compared with it
in neatness and compactness of construction. Eggs, from four to six
in number, of a pale greenish-white, varying in intensity, spotted and
streaked with greenish-grey and brown. Mr. Gould states that he
has known the Bird to breed near Windsor, and a few other places,
but certainly nowhere so abundantly as near Penshurst, Kent.
Mr. Selby remarks that in the pairing season it probably utter.s a
superior song, as Montagu says that even in winter, during mild
weather, he has heard it sing sweetly in low and plaintive notes.
The colours of the plumage are as follows : — rump, head, and cheeks
red-brown ; edging round the bill, space between that and the eye,
a line beyond the eye and throat, deep black ; a large ash-
coloured collar just below the nape ; back and greater part of the
wings deep brown, but there is an oblique white stripe upon the wing,
and beyond it a considerable space of a light whitish colour going
off into chestnut ; secondary quills as if cut off square at the ends,
or, as Edwards says, with justice, like the figures of some of the
ancient battle-axes, glossed with rich blue, less conspicuous m the
female ; tail-feathers white within, of a blackish brown on the external
barbs ; lower parts of the Bird vinous red ; iris pale red (according to
Temminck) ; feet and bill greyish-brown. Length seven inches. (See
Fig. 1299.) The female resembles the male, but the colours are much
less brilliant,
Fig. 1299. — The Hawfinch.
The other species of this group are generally distributed in both
hemispheres. Many of them are beautiful Birds, and some are
celebrated as fine songsters. One of the finest species is the Car-
dinal Grosbeak [Cardinalis virginianus), a common North Ameri-
can species, the general colour of the male of which is a fine bright
red. The head of this Bird is also adorned with a pointed crest,
which it can raise at pleasure into a perpendicular position, giving
it an air of great sprightliness. It is about an inch longer than the
European species.
Some singular little Birds belonging to this group were discovered
in the Galapagos Islands by Mr. Darwin, and have been described
by Mr. Gould under the generic name of Geospiza. Unlike the rest
of the group, these Birds seek their food upon the ground, frequent-
ing, according to Mr. Darwin, " the rocky and extremely arid parts
of the land, sparingly covered with almost naked bushes, near the
coasts ; for here they find, by scratching in the cindery soil with
their powerful beaks and claws, the seeds of grasses and other plants,
which rapidly spring up during the short rainy season, and as
rapidly disappear." They dig up roots and seeds from a depth of
six inches in the soil, and are in consequence very destructive to
vegetationj During the dry season they often eat portions of a
cactus, the Opicntia galapageia, which grows in those islands,
probably for the sake of the moisture which it contains. Two or
throe other nearly allied genera are found in the Galapagos group ;
but one of these [Cacforiu's) is strikingly distinguished from Geospiza
by the form of its bill, which, instead of being very short and thick,
as in the latter genus, is considerably elongated, and bears some
resemblance to that of a Starling. The species Cactornis scandens,
as its name implies, climbs about upon the cactus just referred to,
the fruit constituting a great part of its food ; but its also descends
to the ground, and searches for seeds in the manner of the Geospiza.
In the collection of the British Museum are numerous specimens
of the Grosbeak, including some from Java, South Africa, Malacca,
Tenasserim, and Malabar.
The third sub-family of the Fringillida is that of the TanagrincB,
or Tanagers, a group of splendidly-coloured Birds which are pe-
culiar to America, and almost entirely confined to the southern
division of that continent. The Tanagers are distinguished from
the Finches in general by the possession of notches in the upper
mandible, a character that induced Cuvier, and several other
naturalists, to place them amongst the Dentirostral Birds. The
bill is usually triangular at the base, with the ridge of the upper
mandible more or less arched ; the wings are rather short and
pointed, and the feet short and slender. The hind-toe is elongated
and strong, and all the toes are armed with stout, curved claws.
The tarsi are usually covered with transverse scales ; but, in some
cases, these give place to a single long plate, which occupies nearly
the whole length of the tarsus.
These beautiful little Birds, as already stated, are principally
found in the warmer regions of South America. Of 222 species
which Mr. Sclater refers to the group, 193 belong to the South
American continent ; and the remainder, with but few exceptions,
are from Central America and the southern parts of Mexico. A few
species are found in the West Indian Islands, and three are summer
visitors to the United States. The Tanagers feed upon fruits and
Insects, and usually collect in considerable troops. Their nests arc
built upon the branches of trees, and are mostly of a rather slight
texture. In the hot climates they are said to produce two broods
in the year, but the species which visit North America appear only
to breed once.
fig. 1300. — Organist Tanager.
Most of these Birds have a pleasing song, and some of them are
remarkable for their musical powers ; the genus Eupho7iia receives
its name from this circumstance. The typical species of this genus,
the Euphonia ?>iusica, or Organist Tanager (see Fig. 1300), is a
native of the West Indies ; it is about four inches in length, and the
plumage of the male is beautifully varied with black and orange.
Orange, scarlet, and black are in fact prevalent colours in this
group of Birds, and their appearance amongst the trees of their
native woods is said to be exceedingly brilliant. The British
Museum contains an excellent series of specimens from Brazil,
Bogota, British Guiana, Jamaica, Demerara, Colombia, Bolivia,
Ecuador, &c., including that beautiful Bird the Red-headed Tanager
(Pipranga rubiceps).
The True Finches— Sub-family Fringillma:.
The sub-family of the Friiigillina;, or True Finches, is a most
extensive and generally distributed group of Birds, many of which
are distinguished for the beauty of their plumage, whilst others are
amongst our most esteemed Singing-Birds. They have usually a
short, conical bill, which is broad at the base, and gradually slopes
to the extremity ; the upper mandible is very rarely notched. The
wings are elongated and pointed ; the tail variable in length and
form ; the toes and tarsi slender, the latter being about the same
length as the middle toe, and the former generally armed with long,
curved, and acute claws.
When the breeding season is over, these Birds usually collect into
large flocks, and fly in company in search of food. This consists
principally of the seeds of various plants, and some of the species will
also attack fruit. During the breeding season they capture great
numbers of Insects for the nourishment of their young, but at other
THE FINCHES.
vn
J. dSm' Zdslg,' Bechild,. (S« sroup of Fmche., c. d. l.g.
'^Anlon. out Nali.e Finches oono ocecds the Goldfinch ih beauty
"t„°r"cmnrorL:NNETTlV««/. ..««.*"-)■ Greater Redpole,
GrlvLinn't Brown Linnet, of authors. La Linottc ordma, c,
Button ;Bluthan.fling, Bechstcin. (See a, b. group of Fmches, F.g.
1301.)
Fig, ,301.— Group of Finches.— (7, b, the Comni
and docility; hence it is frequently kept in '^aS"'^"^ taught to
draw up a little bucket of water when thirsty and other tricks
wWch ndther good taste nor proper feeling would sanction The
sonc^ of this species is a twitter, soft and pleasing, bu of no power.
n"fs na'ttafstate the Goldfineh breeds in o-^ards large gardens
plantations, &c., often selecting some denst. ^""^'S^^lX^^^l %fm^°l
its nest, which is an elegant piece of ^^'°'-k™f"^'"Pl.^^\"|;.uT^Tr
externally of moss, lichens, dry grass, and wool, and lined )vith hair
and seed-down of the coltsfoot or the down of the ^^ '°^;^;^ J^'l^f-^
are of a bluish-white, marked at the larger end with o""fe-t'™^™
spots. The food of this species consists of he seeds of yanous
plants, among which we may mention those of the thistle, dandelion,
c-roundsel, burdock, &c. . „„^Kor
^ In winter it associates in small flocks of ten or twdve in number,
which flit about the hedges or old orchards in quest of food. 1 he uoia-
,on Linnet ; r, d, the Goldfinch ; e, f. the .Siskin.
Owin.^ to the difference between the winter '-^"'^^^""^'^^^^^P'd'^fnt
of this Bird, naturalists have multiplied ''%^>'"^°^"n'hcirwa first
under the head of two d>stmctspec.es-an error wlnc^
pointed out by Montagu, whose OP'^'O" ^^s o'^^^^^ ^he observa-
Llby and other ornithologists " --"Jd ^PPe--^^ *^,7 ^^mer plu-
tions of the latter author that Birds ^^ptureo^ ^^
mage with the top and breast of a fine carmine r . .^
that dress at the period of the .a"^';;^"^\i'^°^'Shis accounts for
while caged, but «tain their plain brown hvc^^^^^^^ ^^^^.^^ ^^^
the assertion of some observers, that tne urcy
same in its plumage at all seasons. n and is common
The Linnet is found over Europe general y, Orkneys.
throughout the British If "^s extending as ara^^^ ^^^ ^^^y^_
?;^^el plr^d^:i?h\r'He;"canar;:^ °Cgh?ommonf and neglected
5o8
THE FINCHES.
pasture lands are its favourite localities, where various plants furnish
it with food ; it is very partial to the seed of the flax, thistle, dande-
lion, and of cruciform plants. The nest of the Linnet is generally
built in some low bush, the thick spiny furze being preferred ; it
is composed of moss, stalks of grass, and wool, lined with hair and
feathers ; the eggs are of a bluish-white speckled with purplish
red.
In the winter these Birds congregate in large flocks, and visit the
rocky shores of the sea, where they flit about active and industrious
in search of food, ever and anon uttering a lively call. In the
spring they separate, and pair and revisit their upland haunts.
Allied to the common Linnet arc the Twite {Liiwfa viontana),
found in the hilly districts of our island, and abundant in Norway
and Sweden, and the Lesser Redpole {Linota linaria), resident
throughout the year in Scotland and the northern counties of Eng-
land, but a winter visitor to the southern counties. It is taken in
great abundance by the Bird-catchers late in autumn, and is the
smallest British species of the group.
Fig. 1302,— Nest of the Goldfinch.
The Chaffinch {Fringilla calebs). — The nest of this Bird is a
most artful and beautiful structure, composed externally of moss,
fine wool, lichen, the scales of bark, and often Spiders' webs, all
neatly felted together, and presenting a smooth and carefully-finished
exterior ; internally it is delicately lined with wool and hairs. It is
securely attached to the supporting stems by bands of moss, felted
with wool, which are twined round them and worked into the mass of
materials composing the nest. The elm, oak, hawthorn, and thick
tall bushes are generally selected. We have seen the nest in a
dense holly, and also on old apple-trees overgrown with moss and
lichens ; sometimes it is shrouded among the luxuriant ivy encircling
the trunks of elms or other trees. The eggs are bluish-white,
tinged with pink, and marked with streaks of purplish-red.
The Chaf&nch is a handsome Bird, almost equalling the Goldfinch
Fig. 1303. — Nest of the Chaffinch.
in the elegance and sprightliness of his appearance ; and although
his song is far inferior to that of the species already referred to, yet,
from its being an indication of the approach of spring, it is heard
with pleasure by most people. The Bird is, in fact, a favourite with
every one except the gardeners, for whose radish-seed he entertains
a most extraordinary predilection.
The Canary Bird. — Of the exotic species, the best known is the
common Canary Bird (Carduclis canan'a), a native of the Canary
Islands, where, and in Madeira, it is still found wild. The wild
Bird is very different in appearance from the domesticated varieties
with which we are familiar, being of a greyish colour; but it is said
by Dr. Hcinekin to be a beautiful songster. Like the other Finches,
it builds a nest with root's, moss, and feathers, usually in tall bushes
and trees ; it lays from four to six eggs, and is said to breed five or
six times in the season.
This favourite Cage-Bird was introduced into Europe in the six-
teenth century, and has since always been highly prized. It is now
bred in great quantities in large establishments in Germany,
whence the greater part of Europe is supplied with Canary Birds.
Several other exotic species are also brought to this country. Of
these, the commonest are the Amadavade {Fringilla amandavd),
and the Rice-Bird, or Java Sparrow (Oryzornis ory~ivora). The
former is a very small Bird, scarcely four inches in length, of a
brownish colour above, paler beneath, and spotted with white ; the
rump is red, and the quill-feathers of the tail and wings black. The
bill is also of a fine red colour. This elegant little Bird is common
in most parts of Southern Asia, whence it is imported into
Europe in great quantities. The Java Sparrow is a considerably
larger Bird than the preceding, and of a delicate bluish colour, with
the top of the head black, the cheeks and the bill red. It is a native
of Java and other parts of Asia, where it appears to be exceedingly
abundant; it feeds to a great extent on rice. (See Fig. 1,30,1.)
Fig. 1304. — Java Sparrows.
The Sparrow (Passer domesticus). — Any description of this
Bird would be simply superfluous. It is a constant visitor to our
houses throughout the year, and " as familiar as household words."
It builds in the niches of masonry ; in the fissures and crevices of
walls, bams, or houses ; in ivy or other foliage against the side df a
house, and also in trees. The nest consists of hay, straw, feathers,
and other materials, and in snug crevices and under the eaves of
houses is loosely put together, its shape varying according to that of
the site, but it is usually domed ; in trees it is large, firmly con--
structed of well-intertwined materials, and completely domed, with a^
THE BUNTINGS AND LARKS.
S09
lateral aperture, and lined with featlicrs and other soft materials.
It is, however, a shapeless and inartificial structure, destitute of
that t'rimncss and compactness so remarkable in the nest of our
Finches generally, as the Goldfinch and Chaffinch. A specimen of
the nest of the House-Sparrow in a tree is represented by Fig. 1305
Fig. 1305. — Nest of House Sparrow,
The Siskin, or Aberdevine [Fringilla sfitius). Le Tarin,
Buffon.— Norway, Sweden, and the north of Germany are the native
regions of this pretty little Bird, whence in severe winters it migrates
southwards, occasionally visiting our islands in immense flocks,
which resort to birch and pine woods, and alders along the margin
of streams, often in company with the Lesser Redpole.
Though the Siskin must be regarded rather as a winter visitor
than a permanent resident in the British Islands, still there are not
wanting examples of its breeding within our shores. Mr. Selby
assures us that it is ascertained to breed in some of the pine-woods
in the Highlands of Scotland. "Near Killin," he adds, ''these
birds were observed by Sir W. Jardine and myself to be in pairs in
the month of June, inhabiting a wood of very old and lofty pines,
but we were unable to procure the nests from the height and inacces-
sible nature of the trees." In captivity, the Siskin, judging by one
which we kept for a length of time, soon becomes familiar ; its song
is a trifling though not unpleasing twitter ; it is said to pair readily
with the Canary-Finch ; but in this particular our endeavours to
procure a mule breed altogether failed.
The male in our possession was coloured as follows : — Top of the
head black ; ear-coverts dusky ; a line above the eye, sides of neck,
throat, and chest, lemon-yellow; back and shoulders dark olive-
green with obscure dusky dashes ; quills brown, with an oblique
yellow bar, and another above, produced by the yellow edging of the
greater coverts. Flanks dusky with a few brown dashes ; rump
yellow, slightly washed with green ; two middle tail-feathers dark
brown ; the rest yellow tipped with brown, the outermost having the
external vane of this colour also. Bill and legs horn-colour. Length
four inches and three-quarters ; tail short and forked. The female
is less brightly and decidedly marked. The eggs are of a bluish-
white speckled with purplish-red. (See e, f, in group of Finches,
Fig 1301, ante.')
The BtJNTiNGS. — The Etnberizmcs, or Buntings, approach very
closely to the Finches. They have a conical, acute bill, with the
ridge of the upper mandible nearly sffaight, and its margins sinuated
and inflectpH, nr turnpH in. (See Fig-. 1306.) The palate is furnished
with a knob ; the wings are of moderate size; the tarsi are about
equal in length to the middle toe ; the hind-toe is longer than the
inner one, and the claws are slender, These Birds are very generally
distributed in both hemispheres. They are more terrestrial in their
habits than the FringillincB, generally feeding on the ground, and
building their nests either in low bushes or in tufts of grass. Like
the Finches, they collect into large flocks in the winter, and frequent
the open fields. Their food consists of seeds and Insects ; in the
course of the autumn they pick up large quantities of grain in the
stubble-fields, and become quite fat, when some of the species are
regarded as great delicacies. One of these is the Ortolan [Emberiza
hortulana), a very abundant Bird in the South of Europe, where
they are caught in great numbers at the commencement of autumn,
and fattened for the table upon oats and millet-seed. To facilitate
the process of fattening they are kept in a dark room. The Ortolan
occurs occasionally in Britain, with five other species of the genus
Emberiza; and two species o\ Plccfrophanes, ox Lark-Runtings,
also make their appearance here in the winter, but breed in the
colder regions of both Europe and America.
The Larks— Sub-family Alaudinm.
The Alaudinm, or Larks, are distinguished from all the other
FringillidcB by the great length and straightness of the claw of the
hind-toe — a character which they possess in common with the Pipits
Fig. 1306. — Head of the Corn Dunting.
{Anthiis) amongst the Dcntirostrcs (see Fig. 1307). The bill is
rather short and conical ; the upper mandible is not notched at the
tip, and the wings exhibit a remarkable]charactcr — the tertiary quills
are much elongated, usually as long as the primaries (Fig. 1308).
The position of these well-known Birds is indeed somewhat pro-
blematical, as they exhibit a combination of the characters of several
very distinct groups of Birds. Thus the Pyrrlndauda;, or Finch-
Larks, appear to lead directly to the True Finches ; and the genus
Fig. 1307.— Foot of the Skylark.
Plectrophatics, amongst the Buntings, also serve to connect the
Larks with the other members of the present family ; whilst, on the
other hand, the Pipits agree so closely with them in the size and
form of the hinder claw, and the great development of the tertiary
quills, that they appear almost to form a single group. But the
Pipits are evidently allied to the Motacillis, which ' are Dentirostral
Birds. On the whole, it seems as though these Birds stood on
the confines of the two groups, with their affinities about equally
balanced.
Fig. 1308.— Wing of the Skylark.
The Larks are generally distributed throughout the Eastern Hemi-
sphere, and one species also occurs in North America. Five
species have been found in Britain, the best known of which is the
Skylark.
The Skylark {Alauda arvensis). Alouette des Champs, Tem-
minck ; Feld Lerche, Bechstein. — This delightful songster is spread
generally over Europe, several parts of Asia, and the north of Africa.
Its favourite localities are extensive arable lands and open meadows ;
but, according to IVIr. Thompson, in Ireland the wild mountain pas-
ture is equally its abode. Occasionally the Lark sings while resting
on a clod of earth, but generally while in the air : rising spirally
on quivering wings, it trills forth its animated and varied lay, mount-
ing higher and higher, till it seems a mere speck in the clear blue
sky. Its descent is oblique, and at first gradual, till within twenty
Sio
THE BULLFINCHES.
Fig. 1309. — Ilcnd of the Skylark.
or thirty yards of the ground, when, ceasing its strain, it sweeps down
suddenly to join its mate. The Lark breeds in April, or early in May,
constructing a nest of vegetable stalks and dried grasses, lined with
fine fibres, upon the ground, amongst corn or other herbage : the
eggs are of a greenish-white spotted with brown : two broods are
reared annually, the latter in July or August. The ordinary flight of
the Lark is easy and undulating, and on the ground it trips along
with great facility, its feet, and especially the elongated slender hind-
claw, expressly adapting it for the grassy.'surface of the field. Its food
consists of Insects, Worms, grain and other seeds, the leaves of the
clover, &c. (See e, Fig. 1304, p. 466, ante.)
On the approach of w^inter
Larks begin to collect in im-
mense flocks, increased as the
severity of the weather sets in
by foreign arrivals : they fre-
quent stubble-fields, turnip-
fields, and similar situations,
and being accounted a delicacy
for the table, multitudes arc
captured at this season by
means of nets and sent to the
London market. Fig. 1309 re-
presents the head, and Fig.
13 10, the &^^ of the Lark.
The Woodlark {Alaitda
arborca). Le Lulu, I'Alouette
dcs Bois, or le cujelier of the French ; Baumlerche or Waldlerche of
the Germans. This species is found over every part of Europe, as high
northwards as Sweden; in the colder countries it is migratory, but
not in the more temperate. In our island it is most abundant in the
midland and southern districts, frequenting well-cultivated and
woody scenery ; its song is very sweet,
though less thrilling and varied than that
of the Skylark. It is generally uttered
on the wing, and is often continued for an
hour without intermission, the Bird describ-
ing a series of widely extended circles.
Sometimes it pours out its strains while
Fig. 1310.— Egg of Lark, perched on the branch of a decayed tree.
It breeds in April : its nest, placed under
the shelter of a low shrub or tuft of herbage, is formed of dried
stalks and grass, lined with fibres and hair ; the eggs are of a pale
wood-brown, marked with blotches of grey and dark brown. The
Woodlark does not associate in flocks during the winter, like the
Skylark, but merely in small families of five or seven individuals,
which separate on the approach
of spring or soon after Christmas,
when, if the weather be mild, the
males begin to utter their song.
Fig. 131 1 represents the head of
the Woodlark.
The Shore-Lark {Otocoris
alpestris) is rare in Britain. It is
the only species of the group found
in America, m the northern parts
of which continent it breeds dur-
ing the summer months, proceed-
ing southwards in the winter, some-
times as far as Virginia and
Carolina. It breeds on the rocky
Fig. 1311. — Head of the Woodlavk. coasts of Labrador, and on the
shores of the Arctic Sea. In
Labrador, the nest is made upon a patch of lichen, which
the Bird resembles so closely in its tint, that when sitting, she
will remain, trusting to this for concealment, until the intruder's foot
is almost upon her. ^Vllen danger approaches very near, however,
the Bird immediately flutters away, feigning lameness with so much
art, that one unaccustomed to the habits of the species would infal-
libly be deceived. The other two species are of exceedingly rare
occurrence.
In the British Museum numerous specimens of Larks may be seen,
including the following, with many others : — Short-toed, A. brachy-
dachyta. Naples ; Black, Melianocorypha tartarica, Asia ; Mongo-
lians, of China, with specimens from the Cape of Good Hope,'Erze-
roum, N. America (the Shore-Lark above described), the Crested
Lark, &c., &c.
The Bullfinches — Sub-family Pyrrhuhtice.
The PyrrhulmcB, or Bullfinches, forming the next sub-family,
greatly resemble the Grosbeaks in many of their characters, especially
in the large size of the head, and the stoutness of the bill (Fig. 1312),
which is compressed, with the ridge of the upper mandible convex.
The wings are rounded, the tarsi short, and the lateral toes are usually
unequal.
, The Bullfinches are principally inhabitants of the temperate re-
gions of the world, very few species being found between the Tropics.
They occur in both hemispheres, and feed principally upon seeds,
the hardest envelopes of which are unable to resist the action of their
powerful bills. They also devour berries of different kinds. They
generally live in wooded districts.
The Bullfinch {Pyrrhula vulgaris). Bouvreuil of the French ;
Fringuello morino, Ciufolotto, Suffuleno, Monachino, of the Italians ;
Dom-pape of the Danes and|Norwegians ; Dom-herre of the " Fauna
Suecica;" Bulfinck, Rothburstiger Gimpel, and der Gimpel of the
Germans ; de Goudvink of the Netherlanders ; y Chwybanydd and
Rhawn-goch of the ancient British.
In the Bullfinches the bill is short,
hard, conico-convex, thick, swollen
at the sides, compressed at the point,
with the ridge of the upper mandible
advancing on the forehead, and
arched. Tarsi short. (See Fig.
1312.) The common Bullfinch is a
native of the northern parts of Europe,
and is only known in the more
southern provinces as a Bird of
Passage; in our island it is station-
ary. In the mountain forests of
Germany it is very common.
This beautiful Bird tenants the
wooded districts, and is retiring in
its habits ; during the winter it associates in families of five or six
individuals, the brood of the year, which separate in spring; when
they pair, and commence nidification.
The native song of this Bird is low, soft, and pleasing, but inaudible
at a short distance ; it has, however, the imitative faculty in great
perfection, and can be taught to whistle musical airs with great ac-
curacy. In Germany considerable attention is paid to their instruc-
tion, which requires nine months of continued and regular teaching
before they can execute an air with firmness and precision ; which
should be delivered in a flute-like tone. Birds well instructed sell
at a high price, and are as interesting from their docility and affec-
tionate disposition as from their voice. The common call-note of
the Wild Bullfinch is a plaintive whistle.
Fig. 1312.-
-Head of the Bull-
finch.
Fig. 1313-
-The Eulllinch.
Its food, during summer and autumn, consists of various seeds, but
in the winter and spring it subsists chiefly on the buds of various trees
and shrubs, as the thorn, larch, birch, the plum and other fruit-trees,
and is frequently from this cause very injurious to gardens ; the buds
are not swallowed whole, but minced to pieces by the edges of the
powerful mandibles of the bill.
The Bullfinch builds in low thick bushes or underwood, or on the
flat foliage of a spruce pine or silver fir. It consists of a foundation
of birch-twigs or other slender sticks, upon which is intertwined a
basket of flexible fibrous roots, the whole forming a shallow nest. The
eggs, four or five in number, are of a bluish-white spotted with pale
orange-brown. Fig. 13 14 represents the nest of this species. Caged
Birds often become quite black, an effect resulting from their being
fed too profusely with hemp-seed. We knew a Black Bullfinch,
which, on its spring moult, recovered its natural dress.
THE CROSSBILLS.
511
The male Bullfinch has the head, wings, and tail velvet black, with
a tinge of purple ; the back of the neck, and back, fine bluish-grey ;
rump white ; cheeks, throat, chest and sides, roseate ; the_ greater
wing-coverts margined with pinkish-white. The female is much
duller in plumage, and the chest has only a faint tinge of the roseate
hue.
Fig. 1314. — Nest of Bullfinch.
Another species, of which a few specimens have been shot in this
country, is the Pine Grosbeak, or Pine Bullfinch {^Pinicola enuclea-
ior), which is an e.xceedingly abundant Bird in the Arctic portions
of both continents, but appears to be only a rare visitor to the more
temperate regions of Europe, although in America it performs pretty
regular migrations from the Arctic regions, where it breeds during
the summer, to the northern and middle parts of the United States.
It is considerably larger than our common Bullfinch, measuring
between eight and nine inches in length, but resembles it closely in
its general form, although the colours are very different. The head,
the neck, the fore-part of the breast, and the rump, are all of a
bright-red colour ; the back is greyish-brown or black, with the
feathers edged with red, and the lower parts light grey. The wings
and tail are dusky, but many of the feathers in the former are tipped
and margined with white, so as to produce two more or less distinct
white bands. In its habits, the Pine Grosbeak closely resembles the
common Bullfinch, and its food appears to be of the same nature.
In its Arctic residence, it is said to feed principally on the buds of
the birch-willow. In the more temperate regions which it visits,
it generally haunts the pine forests, and is rarely met with in any
place where these do not exist. In Russia it is said to be taken
and brought to market in great quantities, as its flesh is con-
sidered very good. It is also described as a most agreeable song-
ster. Several other species are found in the northern parts of both
hemispheres, but the habits of all are very similar.
Numerous specimens of the Bullfinches may be seen in the collec-
tion of the British Museum.
The Crossbills — Sub-family Loxi?ie8.
The Crossbill {Loxia ciirvirostra). — In the genus Loxia, sub-
family Loxina, we find the beak compressed and elongated, with
the mandibles bent in contrary directions, so that their points cross
each other (see Head of the Crossbill, Fig. 1315), while the tongue
is furnished at its top with a homy sfoop. The tarsi are short, and
the feet are formed for grasping tightly, as the Birds cling in various
positions to the twigs while procuring food. The use of this sin-
gular bill will be easily deduced from the following observations : —
The seed of the cones of the pine is the principal "food of the Cross-
bill ; and to obtain this the Bird fi.\es itself across the cone, and then
brings the point of each mandible together ; and in this position it
is enabled to insert them under the scales of the cone ; this done,
the beak is opened, not in the usual way, but by the lower mandible
being drawn sideways (a peculiar arrangement of the muscles effect-
ing the action), and the scale is consequently raised up, the tongue
is at the same time brought forward, and its scoop directed beneath
the seed, which is dislodged and carried to the mouth. At Fig.
13 1 6 is shown the skull of the Crossbill dissected, so as to illustrate
its structure, the arrangement of the muscles, and the peculiarity of
Fig- 1315. — Head of the Common Crossbill.
Fig. 1316.— Skull of the Crossbill, dissected.
the tongue :— A, Skull of Crossbill, side view : a, temporal muscle ;
b, great pyramidal muscle, b. Head viewed from below : h, great
pyramidal muscle; c, c, pterygoid muscles; d, d, graciles muscles.
C, Head viewed from the side : a, pterygoid process ; h, os omoidcum ;
c, OS quadratum ; d, d, os jugale. D, Head viewed from behind;
a, right temporal muscle ; b, great pyramidal muscle. E, Lower
jaw, side view : a, cavity for articulation ; b, b, coronoid processes.
F, Tongue seen from above : a, horny scoop ; b, b, extensor muscles.
G, Tongue, side view : a, horny scoop ; b, e.xtensor muscles ; c,
flexor muscle.
The Common Crossbill is the Becco incroce, Crocione, and
Crosiero of the Italians ; Bee croise of the French ; Fichten Kreuz-
schnabel of the Germans ; Kruisvink of the Netherlanders ; Mindre
Korsnab of the Scandinavians ; and Gylfingroes of the ancient
British. This species certainly breeds in the British Islands, and
we may specify the Holt Forest in Surrey, and various fir or larch
plantations in Gloucestershire, as determined localities. (See " Mag.
Nat. Hist.," May, 1830, p. 236, and June, 1830, pp. 310, 311, for
interesting communications on the subject by Messrs. Brown and
Long.) It appears that they breed in April, commencing their nest
in ]\iarch. This is placed on the topmost boughs of the fir or pine,
and consists of slender twigs of fir, then a layer of coarse grass, lined
with finer grass and a few long hairs. The eggs are of a slightly
bluish-white, sparingly speckled with red. The male has an agree-
able song. It is, however, in the vast pine-forests of Nora-ay, Sweden,
Germany, &c., that this Crossbill is the most abundant. ^ In those
gloomy solitudes it finds a congenial residence and food in abund-
ance. While at work upon the fir-cones, extricating the seeds, or
while climbing in flocks of ten or twenty among the branches,
using, like a Parrot, their beaks and feet, these Birds utter a con-
tinuous gentle twitter, different from the song of the male, which is
poured out principally during the breeding season. At various
times vast flocks from the continent visit different parts of our island
in the winter, evidently driven southwards by the severity of the
512
THE CROSSBILLS.
season ; they seek the shelter of fir-woods, and some perhaps re-
main altogether.
Besides the seeds of the fir, hemp-seed and the seeds of apples are
eagerly devoured, and they arc said to divide with ease an apple in
halves, in order to procure the kernels. Crossed as their bill is,
these Birds can pick up the smallest seeds, and shell or husk thern ;
they can also open the shell of an almond, first picking a hole in it,
and then inserting the bill and wrenching off pieces by the lateral
motion of the under mandible. The following narrative of the habits
of the Crossbill in confinement is very interesting : — " My friend Mr.
Morgan," says Mr. Yarrell, " kept a pair of these birds_ for some
time, and had opportunities for observing their curious habits. They
were impatient under confinement, and restless, climbing over the
wires of their cages, by the use of their beak and claws, like parrots.
One of their principal occupations was twisting out the ends of the
wires of their prison, which they accomplished with equal ease and
dexterity. A short, flat-headed nail that confined some strong net-
work was a favourite object on which they tried their strength ; and
the male, who was usually pioneer in every new exploit, succeeded
by long-continued efforts in drawing the nail out of the wood, though
not wkhout breaking off the point of his beak in the experiment.
Their unceasing destruction of cages at length brought upon them
sentence of banishment. During the period of their captivity a com-
plete change took place in the colour of their plumage, without the
shedding of a single feather."
The permanent colour of the plumage of this species is spotted
olive-green ; but the male of the year acquires in the autumn a gen-
eral roseate tint. (See Fig. 1317.)
Fig. 1317. — Crossbills.
Mr. Gould ("Birds of Europe") observes that in the minds of many
naturalists some doubts still exist, and that they existed in his own, as
to whether the rich rosy-red colouring assumed by this Bird is charac-
teristic of the breeding season, or the permanent livery of the adult
male. He states that during his visit to Vienna he had an opportunity
of observing both sexes in every stage, an examination of which
afforded him abundant proofs that the red plumage is acquired
during the first autumn, for he saw many lately fledged that had their
plumage thickly spotted ; others that had partially lost their spotted
appearance, and had partly assumed the red covering ; and others
that had their feathers entirely tinted of this colour ; while the adults,
as most ornithologists have stated, were characterised by a plumage
of olive-green, which appears to be permanent.
The same naturalist saw Crossbills, Swallows, Martins, and various
small Birds exposed for sale in the markets, for the purpose of the
table.
Besides the present species, the Parrot-Crossbill {Loxia feiyo^sit-
tacus) is found in Eastern Europe, and the White- winged Crossbill
{Lox2a leucopterd) occasionally occurs in the North ; the latter, and
a species nearly resembling the common Crossbill (Z,. americana,)
are natives of North America.
The last group of the Finch family is that of the PhytofomiiicE, or
Plant-cutters, distinguished from all the rest by having the margins
of their mandibles finely serrated. The bill is short, conical, and
stout, as in the Bullfinches. These Birds are found only in the tempe-
rate regions of South America : the typical species, Phytoma rara, is
a native of Chili. (See Fig. 1318.) They frequent the wooded parts
of the country, and feed upon buds, fruits, and herbage, which they
cut away with their bills, and thus often do great damage when they
visit the cultivated grounds. The amount of the injury is greatly in-
creased by the circumstance that the Birds mischievously cut off
quantities of buds, fruits, &c., for the mere pleasure of throwing
them down ; and, for this reason, the peasants wage a constant war
Fig. 1318.— The Chilian riant-culter.
with them, which, according to Molina, was rapidly diminishing llicir
numbers. They also occasionally feed on Insects. Their cry is said
to be very disagreeable, resembling the noise made by grating the
teeth of two saws together : Molina, the original describerof the typi-
cal species, says that its native name, rara, is an imitation of its note.
In the collection of the Zoological Society of London, at their
Gardens, Regent's Park, the following species may be seen alive : —
The Concave-casqued Hornbill {Buceros bicornis) ; the Rhinoceros
Hornbill {B. rhiiwccros) ; the Lunatcd Hornbill {B. lunalus) ;
the Ground Hornbill {Bucorvus abyssinicus).
SCANSORIAL OR CLIMBING BIRDS.
SI?
CHAPTER XXX.
INCLUDING CUCKOOS, PARROTS, Etc.
CLASS IL-AVES, OR BIRDS . ORDER SCANSORES, OR CLIMBING BIRDS.
the wings long and pointed ; the tarsi
short, and partly clothed with feathers,
and the outer toe capable of being
^^>r^^<7=^r^.
^\i
I ■■
'^-^?>^3^
■--^^
/
OOLOGY presents so many mat-
ters of interest that it would be dif-
ficult to point out one which has not
a special claim. Possibly, how-
ever, the subjects included in the present
chaptermay, to many readers, become of
chief interest, as they deal with one of our
most favourite songsters in the woods— the
Cuckoos, the harbingers of spring, and the
Parrots, which rank high among our do-
mestic pets. The principal character by which
the Scansorial Birds are distinguished from the
Passeres, with which it must be confessed they
are very closely allied, consists in the peculiar
arrangement of the toes, of which two are
always directed forwards, and two backwards
(Fig. 1319-) This disposition of the toes
enables these Birds to climb with great facility ;
some of them, as the Parrots, by grasping the
smaller branches, and using the feet in the
manner of hands ; whilst others, such as the
Woodpeckers, and their allies, may rather be
considered to run upon the surface of the
trunks and larger branches in every direction.
The feet are almost invariably clothed with
shields, rarely reticulated, and the tarsi are
never covered with a single long anterior
plate. .
In the form of the bill, and the mode of life,
there is but little agreement amongst these
Birds ; the bill in some being short and strong,
with the upper mandible much hooked ; in
others straight, with the extremity either point-
ed or truncated ; the former live principally
upon fruits and seeds ; the latter upon Insects.
In most cases, however, the wings are rather
ous. This order includes four
families-the Cuculidce, or Cuckoos"; the Fjctda ov Woodpeckers ;
Uic riittaaacB, or rarrots ; and the Ji/tamJ>hashdcB, or ioucans.
n
^
J:
short, and the flight by no means vigorous.
The Cuckoos— Family Cuculidcs.
In the Cuculidce the bill is usually slender and compressed, with
the ridge of the upper mandible arched, and its margin notched near
the tip ; the nostrils are placed in a membranous groove ; the tail long
and rounded, and the toes long and unequal. These Birds, which
are very numerous, are generally distributed over the globe, but are
most abundant in the Tropics. They are divided into several sub-fami-
lies, of the first of which our common Cuckoo is the type. This is the
sub-family of the Cuculina;, or True Cuckoos, in which the bill is
broad, and rather depressed at the base, with the ridge of the upper
mandible curved ; the nostrils are membranous (see Fig. 1320) ;
^
^^^^3
:>ji
i(^«
outer toe
directed either forwards or backwards,
at pleasure. The Cuciilinca are exclu-
sively inhabitants of the Eastern Hemi-
sphere, in the warmer parts of which
they are tolerably abundant ; but only
occur as summer visitors in the colder
regions.
The Cuckoo {Ciiaihis canorus). —
This species is an example of of the
typical group of the Cuculidce as already
stated. The Cuckoo is the kokkv? of
the Greeks; Cuculus and Coccy.x of
the Latins ; Cucculo, Cucco, Cuco,
Cucho, Cuccii, of the modern Italians ;
Cocou, Coucou, Cocqu, of the French;
Kukuk and Kuckuck of the Germans ;
Gjok of the Fauna Suecica ; Gjoeg of the
Danes ; Gouk of the Norwegians ; Cog
of the ancient British ; Gowk, Provin-
cial English. (See Fig. 1321.)
This well-known Bird arrives in our
islands early in spring : in White's ' ' Naturalist's Calendar' ' it is noted
as being first heard April the 7th ; and in Markwick's April the I5lh,
and last heard June the 28th. By the first of July it has generally
taken its departure for Northern Africa. In Ireland, according to Mr.
Thompson, the Cuckoo is usually heard from the iDth to the 20th of
April, and departs at the end of June ; but he adds that, m the year
1838, the stay of the Cuckoo was remarkably prolonged, and the
period of its arrival later than ordinary, and that one was heard at
the Falls near Belfast on the 7th of July. "The young birds of the
year generally remain till towards the end of August, so late^as the
27th of which month they have been observed in Antrim." The
Fig. 1319.— Foot of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker.
Bishop of Norwich, in his " Familiar History of Birds," records an
instance of about forty Cuckoos being congregated in a garden in
the county of Down, from the i8th to the 22nd of July, and, with
the exception of two which were smaller than the rest, taking their
departure at that time. These were no doubt all young Birds of the
Fig. 1320.— Head of the Cuckoo.
„ and it is probable that the two smallest were never able to
follow the others, but remained to perish. Of such a character were
the benumbed denuded Birds which have been occasionally found
year.
514
7HE CUCKOOS.
in hollow trees or
crept for shelter
and others.
)r the thickest part of furze-bushes, whither they had
, and which have been noticed by Willughby, Bewick,
Fig. 1321. — The Cuckoo.
The Cuckoo is insectivorous in its diet, and will sometimes feed
upon the wing. Gilbert White says, " In July I saw several cuckoos
skimming over a large pond, and found, after some observation, that
Fig. 1322. — A Young Cuckoo m the Hedge-Sparrow's Nest.
they were feeding on the Libellula;, or dragon-fiies, some of which
they caught as they settled on the weeds, and some as they wore on
the wing." The favourite food of this Bird, however, are the hairy
Caterpillars of some of the Lepidoptcrous order ; these it kills by
passing them through the sharp edges of its mandibles ; it then nips
off the hinder end of the Caterpillar, and with a jerk or two clears
the body of the alimentary canal, and immediately swallows it whole.
With the hairs of these Caterpillars the stomach is often completely
coated. In a communication by Mr. Thompson to the Zoological
Society in 1834, he states that in three Cuckoos, examined in 1833,
the stomach, with the exception of some small sharp gravel, was
entirely empty and coated closely over with hair.
" Attention was called to this, that the hair with which it is lined
might be observed. From its close adhesion to the inner surface of
the stomach, and from the regularity with which it is arranged, Mr.
Thompson was at first disposed to consider this hair as of spontaneous
growth ; but part of the stomach being subjected to maceration in
water, and afterwards viewed through a microscope of high power,
the hairs proved, to the entire satisfaction of Mr. Owen and himself,
to be altogether borrowed from the larvae of the tiger-moth {Arctia
caja), the only species found in the stomach of several cuckoos,
from different parts of the north of Ireland, which were examined by
Mr. Thompson in the months of May and June, 1833, and whose
stomachs were similarly coated." (" Proceeds. Zool. Soc," 1839, p.
29.)
The well-known notes of the Cuckoo are confined only to the male,
the female making only a chattering noise.
The singular habit of the Cuckoo in depositing its eggs in the
nests of other Birds is too well substantiated to admit of a doubt ;
the nests usually chosen are those of the Hedge-Sparrow, Titlark,
White-throat, Wagtail, &c. The &gg is very small in comparison
with the size of the Cuckoo, scarcely exceeding that of the common
Chaffinch : when the young Cuckoo is hatched, and acquired a little
strength, guided by the instinct of self-preservation, it dislodges all
its weaker companions by insinuating itself under them, and with a
sort of jerk forcing them overboard. Thus it
secures to itself the exclusive attention of its
dupes of foster-parents. Gilbert White men-
tions a young Cuckoo found in the nest of a
Titlark, which he describes as being very
fierce and pugnacious, pursuing his finger
as he teased it for many feet from the nest,
and sparring and buffeting with its wings like
a Game-Cock ; and Selby alludes to the same
bold and pugnacious disposition.
Many attempts have been made to keep
the Cuckoo alive in captivity, and several
have lived with care to the middle of winter,
when they have died. Mr. Thompson, how-
ever, instances two exceptions : one of these
lived for more than a year at Cranmore, near
Belfast, the residence of John Templeton,
Esq. : it was procured on the 26th of July, 1820;
and died in consequence of an accident on
January the loth, 1822. It was originally
taken from a Titlark's nest. Its engaging
manners, says Mr. Templeton, were the de-
light of the whole family and the admiration
of strangers. " It was generally fed on hard-
boiled eggs, and occasionally with caterpillars ;
it would sometimes eat forty or fifty at a time
of those of the Pa^pilio brassica: ; it, however,
showed a decided preference for rough ones,
as those of the Pa^ilio nrticce ; a seeming
treat was a little mouse about one quarter
grown, which it would hold in its bill and beat
against the ground, or anything hard, until
the animal Ijecame soft, when it exhibited
great powers of extending its throat and swal-
lowing. What, however, was most extra-
ordinary, it was never known to drink ; thougli
when presented with a drop of water at the
end of a finger or straw it would sip it, and it
seemed to delight, when seated on its mistress's
or other person's hand, to put its bill into
their mouths and sip saliva. It delighted
very much in heat and sitting in the sunshine,
and its feathers were so much broken by its
striking them agrinst the furniture, that it
could fly but very imperfectly, and was appa-
rently very thankful to any person who would
help it upon the first sash of the window.
At other times it sat upon the fender, turning
itself in various directions, and spreading it's
wings and feathers to receive the heat, of which
it could bear a temperature equal to 100 de-
grees, for a considerable time, with seeming
THE CUCKOOS.
satisfaction. During cold weather it slept at its mistress's
bedside, covered with a piece of flannel, which was well warmed
previous to its going- to rest. With this attention it generally
remained quiescent till morning; but on feeling cold, some-
times presumed so far as to creep under the bed-clothes. It
was only to those from whom it had received some hurt or persecu-
tion that it expressed dislike or fear, which it did by raising its neck-
feathers and putting itself in an attitude of defence. It never
uttered the cry of the male, cuckoo; but sometimes, when persons
were in the room laughing, it would apparently join and emit a noise
somewhat like the barking of a little dog. At other times the only
sound it made was a kind of low chattering e.xpressive of pleasure
when it got into a warm place, or on seeing its mistress after she
had been absent some hours. It received the unlucky tramp which
finally killed it, from having lost too much the apprehension of
injury." (" Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.," 1842, p. 223.)
Fig. 1322 represents a young Cuckoo in the nest of the Hedge-
Sparrow.
Fig. 1323. — A Young Cuckoo.
The young Cuckoo (Fig. 1323) differs greatly in colouring from
the adult, and is of more rufous tint, transversely barred with dusky
black. In length the adult male is about 14 inches ; weight about
4^ ounces. Bill black, yellowish at the base of the upper mandible :
inside of mouth red. Irides yellow. Head and whole upper part of
the Bird dark ash-colour. Throat, under side of the neck, and
upper part of the breast pale ash, the latter sometimes inclining to
rufous-brown ; lower part of the breast and belly white with
transverse undulating black lines. Quills, dusky ; inner webs barred
with white oval spots. Tail-feathers ten, of unequal length ; two
middle ones black, dashed with ash and tipped with white ; the rest
black, with white spots on each side of the shaft. The lateral
feathers in some have white spots only on the interior webs, but all
are tipped with white.
The Cuciiliiicc are widely distributed. They are found
during the summer in all parts of Europe, even as far north as
Lapland, and the most northern parts of Asia. Southwards they
extend over all the Tropical parts of Asia, and to the southern
e.xtremity of Africa. One species, the Great Spotted Cuckoo
{Coccystes glanda7-ius),v^''d\<:\\ is an inhabitant of the warmer parts of
Africa, is frequently to be seen in Southern Europe, and a single
specimen has found its way to Ireland.
In the collection of the British Museum are numerous specimens
of the Cuckoos, obtained from Jamaica, Brazil, Cayenne and other
parts of South America, Me.xicb, Australia, Java, India, South
Afiltii, the Indian Archipelago, Burneo, &c.
In the second sub-family, that of the Crotophaginm, or Anis, the
bill is compressed, with the ridge of the upper mandible curved, and
the nostrils placed at the base, and pierced in the substance of the
bill ; the wings are usually short and rounded, the tarsi long, and
the two outer toes longer than the others. These Birds are all in-
habitants of the Tropical regions, where they live in the forests,
feeding principally upon Insects and fruits. The typical genus,
Crotophaga, is confined to South America ; it has the bill much
compressed, and the ridge of the upper mandible dilated into a keel.
The CrotophagcB, or Anis, are usually about the size of a Black-
bird, or a little larger ; they are generally distributed in South
America, where they live in bands, principally on' the borders of
woods, especially in swampy places. They feed upon Insects and
their larva;, small Reptiles, and some fruits and seeds. Several
S^S
fw w.Y'' 'hi '° ''""^ ^'T'' 'S:,?s in a sort of common nest, where
hey hatch and bnng up their young in company. They are so bold,
hat when some members of their band have been shot, the rest of
the troop will settle again at a very short distance
The other Birds of this group are all found in the Old World and
pnncipally m Ind.a and the islands of the Eastern ArchipPlag"
A single species,_ the Cl,annel-b>ll {Scythrops novcc hnlland)ce Fie
1324,, is found in Austraha, where it is a Bird of Passage. It is
abou the size of a Crow, but has the tail so long that its total
length IS upwards of two feet. Its b.U is very stout, and has two
narrow channels close to the ridge of the upper mandible Ac
Fig. 1324.— The Channel-bill.
cording to Mr. Gould, it feeds principally on P/zs^w/^fe and Coleop-
tcra ; but other observers ascribe to it frugivorous habits, and its
diet probably consists both of fruits and Insects. It is found not
only in Australia, but also in many of the Eastern Islands, and its
name in the Island of Celebes is said to indicate a belief, on
the part of the natives, that its appearance presages rain. Some
of the other species are described as entirely frugivorous.
A third sub-family is that of the Coccyzince, in which the bill is
more or less elevated at the base, with the ridge of the upper man-
dible arched, and the aperture of the nostrils linear, and partly closed
by a scale ; the wings are of moderate size, and more or less
rounded ; the tail elongated ; the tarsi long, and covered with
broad scales ; and the toes and claws unequal in size.
These Birds are also, for the most part, inhabitants of Tropical
regions ; but, unlike the True Cuckoos, they occur in both hemi-
spheres. They also want the parasitic habits of the True Cuckoos,
as they build a nest, and bring up their young in the usual way ;
although, it is said, their eggs may occasionally be found in the
nests of other Birds.
The best known species is the Coccyztes americanus, or American
Yellow-billed Cuckoo, which is also called the Cow-Bird by the
inhabitants of the United States, from the resemblance of its note
to the word cou), frequently repeated. This Bird is found in all
parts of the United States, and as far north as Canada, migrating
from south to north in the months of April and May. It feeds
principally upon Caterpillars, and is said to be particularly partial
to some which infest apple-trees ; it also eats berries of different
kinds, and is charged with the crime of sucking the eggs of its
neighbours. (See Fig. 1325.)
The Yellow-billed Cuckoos pair early in May, when severe com-
5^6
bats take place amongst the males. They build their nests upon
the horizontal branches of trees ; frequently selecting apple-trees
for th.s purpose. The nests are constructed with a few twigs and
sticks, intermixed with green weeds, and are almost flat. They lay
four or five eggs, upon which the female sits with great assiduity,
almost allowing herself to be seized before she will quit the nest ;
and when compelled to do so, she falls to the ground and flutters
along, feigning lameness like the Lapwing, in order to draw the
intruder away from her treasures. Four specimens of this Bird
have occurred in Britain, and it appears so improbable that these
could have migrated across the Atlantic, that some ornithologists
have e.xpressed a belief that the Bird may yet be found in the north
of Europe. There does not seem, however, to be any good founda-
tion for this opinion.
THE WOODPECKERS.
The Woodpeckers— Family Picidce.
The second family of the Scansorial Birds is that of the Pictdcs,
or Woodpeckers. In these Birds the bill is elongated and straight
— much compressed towards the tip, which is usually obtuse or
truncated ; and the sides are generally furnished with a more or less
distinct ridge. The typical species forming the sub-family Pici?i(B,
which are distinguished by the great prominence of the lateral ridges
on the bill, are distributed in all parts of both hemispheres, but are
more especially abundant in the warmer regions. They are the well-
known Woodpeckers, of which some species are found in Britain.
They live in woods and forests, and run with great activity upon the
trunks and branches of trees, often ascending the trunks in a spiral
line, and continually tapping the surface with their bills. The
object of this action is the discovery of soft rotten places, in which
they may e.xpect to find Insects or larvs ; and when they hit upon a
spot of this description, they immediately dig into it with great energy
until they arrive at the concealed dainty. Fig. 1327 represents the
skeleton of the Woodpecker, the Bird being engaged in climbing
Fig. 1325.— The Yellow-billed Cuckoo.
Another species of this group is found in North America, but the
remainder are confined to the Tropics. Those of the genus Centra-
;ptis, inhabiting Africa, India, and the Eastern islands, are called
Lark-heeled Cuckoos, from their having the claw of the hind-toe
much elongated, as in the Larks ; they are also known as Pheasant-
Cuckoos, from the great length of their tails. These Birds, and
many others belonging to the group, seek their food upon the
ground, and some of them even devour small Reptiles.
The Saur other ina, or Ground Cuckoos, are very neary allied
to the preceding group ; but are distinguished by the greater
length and straightness of the bill, the upper mandible being curved
only at the tip. They are all inhabitants of the Tropical parts of
America, and live principally on the ground amongst bushes, feeding
upon seeds. Worms, and Insects, especially Caterpillars, and even
frequently swallowing small Snakes, Lizards, Frogs, young Rats,
and small Birds. The best known species is the Saurotkeravetu/a,
ari inhabitant of the West Indies, especially Jamaica and St. Do-
mingo, and measures about fifteen inches in length.
The last sub-family of the Cticulidce is that of the Indkatorittcs,
or Honey-guides, a group of small Birds, inhabiting the forests of
Africa, India, and Borneo. In these Birds, the bill is short, broad
at the base, and arched above, with the nostrils placed close to the
ridge of the upper mandible ; the wings are long and pointed,
the tarsi very short, and the outer anterior toe is the longest. At
the Cape of Good Hope, where they were first discovered, these
Birds received the name of Honey-guides, from their actions fre-
quently indicating to the natives the places in which the Wild Bees
had made their nests, and stored their honey. By the older natu-
ralists, from the time of Sparmann, it was said that the Indicators
actually led the human honey-seekers to the nests of the Bees by
fluttering before them, and constantly uttering a peculiar cry ; and
that the Hottentots, on obtaining possession of the honey, always
left a portion for their feathered guides. It appears probable, how-
ever, that the Birds, in endeavouring to get at the sweet booty,
betray their object by their cries, and that the natives are guided
to the place by this means. ' Their skin is said to be so tough, that
the Bees in vain endeavour to sting them when engaged in their
work of pillage ; although they sometimes succeed in destroying
their enemy by attacking his eyes. The common Honey-guides of
the Cape (hidicator 7najor and mitwrj, construct a bottle-shaped
nest, with filaments of bark woven together ; the nest is pendent,
with the narrow part downwards, in which is the opening.
Fig. 1326. — Head of the Great Black Woodpecker.
the tree, and seeking for its food beneath the bark. In running
upon the trees, the Woodpeckers constantly make use of the stiff
tail-feathers, to assist them in maintaining their position ; and the
feathers are pointed at the extremity, and usually more or less worn
(Fig. 1328).
Fig. 1327. — Skeleton of the Woodpecker.
Although these Birds feed occasionally upon fruits and seeds, the
greater part of their nourishment consists of Insects and larvs, which
they not only procure by digging into the decayed parts of trees,
but also pick off the surface of the bark. To enable them to take up
small Insects, the tongue has undergone a very beautiful modifica-
tion cf structure. It is constantly covered with a mucous substance,
secreted by very large glands, placed on each side of the throat, and
is capable of being protruded to a considerable extent beyond the
bill. Thus any small Insect, of course, adheres to its glutinous cover-
ing, and is drawn into the mouth by the retraction of the tongue.
THE WOODPECKERS.
S17
This power of extrusion and retraction is conferred upon the
tongue by a peculiar arrangement of the hyoid bone, which is thus
described by Mr. Yarrell. He says— " The great extensibility of
the tongue is obtained by the elongation of the two posterior
branches, or cortiua, of the bone of the tongue, which, extending
round the back of the head and over the top, have the ends of both
inserted together into the cavity of the right nostril. These elonga-
tions, forming a bow, are each accompanied throughout their length
by a slender slip of muscle, by the contraction of whii.,h the bow is
shortened, and the tongue pushed forward; another pair of muscles
folded twice round the upper part of the trachea, and from hence
passing forward, are attached to the anterior part of the tongue, and
Fig. 1328.— Tail of the Woodpecker.
by their contraction bring the tongue back again." The gland,
secreting the glutinous matter, communicates with the cavity of the
mouth by a long duct, which opens at the point where the two bones
of the lower mandible unite together, so that the tongue, when re-
tracted, is necessarily indued with a fresh supply of this secretion.
The tongue itself is horny at the tip, where it is also barbed with
several small filaments directed backwards, the office of which is
supposed to be the securing of larva, or Insects, whose size would
prevent their being captured by adhesion. (See Fig. 1329.) Mr. Yarrell
states that the Green Woodpecker (Gecitius viridis) feeds to a
great extent upon Ants, and that he has " seldom had an opportunit)
Fig. 1329. — Head and Tongue of Woodpecker — a, tongue ; ^, hyoid bone.
of examining a recently killed specimen, the beak of which did not
indicate, by the earth adhering to the base, and to the feathers
about the nostrils, that the bird had been at work at an ant-hill, and
this species is therefore more frequently seen on the ground than
any other of our woodpeckers ; it is also said to be a great enemy to
bees."
One of our British species, the Great Spotted Woodpecker {Dryo-
bates major), is said to have a peculiar habit, which would seem to
evince a considerable amount of reflective power. This Bird,
according to Pennant's " British Zoology," " by putting the point of
its bill into a crack of the limb of a large tree, and making a quick
tremulous motion with its head, occasions a sound as if the tree was
splitting, which alarms the insects, and induces them to quit their
recesses : this it repeats every minute or two for half-an-hour, and
will then fly off to another tree, generally fixing itself near the top
for the same puiposc. The iioisc may be distinctly heard for half a
mile."
The Woodpeckers roost at night in the holes of trees, and the
females lay their eggs in similar situations, generally enlarging a
natural hole with their bills for this purpose. When thus engaged,
they are said to carry the chips to a distance, in order that their
presence may not betray the proximity of the nest ; but a portion of
the chips remains in the bottom of the cavity, and upon these the
eggs are deposited.
Mr. George R. Gray divides the True Woodpeckers into three
sub-families, characterised principally by the position of the lateral
ridge of the bill. Thus, in the true P'ki7icB, this ridge rises from the
middle of the base, bends down on each side towards the margin,
and then rises a little to the apex : in the Gecinincs, of which our
Green Woodpecker is an example, the ridge is placed close to the
dorsal ridge of the bill ; and in the Melancr^iiice, it is about half-
way between the dorsal ridge and the margin. The Birds of the
last-mentioned group are entirely confined to the Western Hemi-
sphere, in all parts of which they arc tolerably abundant. The
typical species is the Red-headed \s'00&x,ftcV.&x{Melancrpeserytho-
cephahis), which is common in the United States, where it not
only feeds, like its European relatives, upon the Insects which it
finds upon or under the bark of trees, but also commits considerable
depredations in the orcliards and corn-fields— to such an extent, in
fact, that according to Kalm, a price was formerly set upon 'its
head. The following affords a description of some of the species of
Woodpeckers in greater detail than already given.
The Great Black Woodpecker {Picus martins). Dryocopus
martins, Boie ; Le Pic noir, Buffon. — This fine Bird is the
largest of its European congeners, being in length about seven-
teen inches. In England it is of very rare occurrence, barely
claiming a place in the catalogue of our British Fauna. Its native
regions are the northern and eastern parts of Europe, as far as
Siberia. In the forests of Russia and some parts of Germany
it is common. It breeds, like the rest of its race, in the deep
holes of trees, which are hewed out by the power of its bill, some-
times even in the solid undecayed wood. The eggs are three or
four in number, and white. The whole of the plumage is glossy
black, with the exception of the crown, which in the male is rich
vermilion. The female is duller, and has no vermilion on the
head, or only a small patch. (See Fig. 1330.)
Fig. 1330.— The Great Black Woodpecker.
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker fPicus principalis ; Cam-
pepkilus principalis, G. R. Gray.)— The Ivorj'-billed Woodpecker
is a native of North America. Wilson says that in strength and
magnitude it stands at the head of the ^vhole class of Woodpeckers
hitherto discovered : but he was not aware, when he wrote, of the
existence of a species in California, which "as far exceeds the ivory-
billed woodpecker of the United States, as the latter does the great
black woodpecker of Europe." This Bird is described by Mr.
Gould, in the "Proceeds. Zool. Soc," 1832, pp. 139, 140, under the
term of Picus impcr talis : it is two feet in length ; while the Ivory-
billed Woodpecker does not exceed 20 or 21 inches.
Si8
THE WOODPECKERS.
It is in the swampy forests of the southern districts of the United
States that the Ivory-billed Woodpecker is to be found ; in the
middle districts there are no woods suitable to its remarkable habits.
" Descending- the Ohio," says Audubon, " we meet with this splen-
did bird for the first time near the confluence of that beauti-
ful river and the Mississippi ; after which, following the windings
of the latter, either downwards towards the sea or upwards in
the direction of the Missouri, we frequently observe it. On the
Atlantic coast, North Carolina may be taken as the limits of its
distribution, although now and then an individual of the species
may be accidentally seen in Mar)-land. To the westward of the
Mississippi, it is found in all the dense forests bordering the streams
which empty their waters into that majestic river, from the very
declivities of the Rocky Mountains. The lower parts of the Caro-
linas, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi, are, however,
the most favourite resort of this bird ; and in those States it con-
stantly resides, breeds, and passes a life of peaceful enjoyment,
finding a profusion of food on all the deep, dark, and gloomy swamps
dispersed throughout them."
Beetles, larvae, and large grubs constitute the chief diet of this
species, and for these it attacks the bark and wood of decayed trees,
its strokes resounding far through the gloomy wilds. "Wherever
he frequents," says 'Wilson, "he leaves numerous monuments of
his industry behind him ; we there see enormous pine-trees with
cart-loads of bark lying around their roots, and chips of the trunk
itself in such quantities as to suggest the idea that half-a-dozen axe-
men had been at work there for the whole morning. The body of
the tree is also disfigured with such numerous and so large e,x-
cavations, that one can hardly conceive it possible for the whole to
be the work of a woodpecker." Audubon says he has seen it de-
tach pieces of bark seven or eight inches in length at a single blow,
busy in quest of Insects, all the while sounding its loud notes as if
highly delighted. Sound and healthy trees, however, are never
thus attacked e.xcepting for the purpose of nidification. The tree
selected for this purpose is either an ash or a hagberry ; and at a
Fig. 1331. — The Ivor)'-bnied Wooclpcckor.
great elevation, the pair, relieving each other by turns, begin their
operations. They generally select a spot under the junction of a
large branch with the trunk, as a defence against rain : they first
e.\cavate horizontally for a few inches, and th.en downwards, the
extent of the cavity varying from a foot to three feet downwards
into the core of the tree ; the diameter is about seven inches, but the
aperture will only just admit the Bird. The eggs, generally six, are
white. Two broods are usually reared each summer. Besides
Insects, this Woodpecker devours wild grapes, persimons, and hag-
berries. The flight of this species is very graceful, though, as
Audubon says, seldom prolonged to more than a few hundred yards
at a time, unless when it has to cross a large river, which it does in
deep undulations ; but the transit from tree to tree is performed by
a single sweep. It seldom utters any sound while on the \ying, but
as soon as it alights its voice is heard, the notes resounding to a
considerable distance, and may be represented by the monosyllable
^ait, ;pait, ;paif, in tone like the false high note of a clarionet.
The head and bill of this species are held in great esteem, as a
sort of charm or amulet, by many of the tribes of America, who
ornament their belts with them ; and Europeans purchase them as
beautiful curiosities. When wounded, this Bird generally ascends
the nearest tree in a spiral direction, till it attains the top branches,
where it hides ; but if intercepted and laid hold of, it defends itself
both with its beak and claws, inflicting severe lacerations.
The general colour of the plumage of the present species is black
with violet reflexions ; the head is ornamented with a crest of long
slender feathers capable of being raised or depressed, and in the
male of a rich carmine ; a stripe of white passes down each side of
the neck, and terminates on the scapulars ; the primary quills, ex-
cept the five first, are tipped with white, and the secondaries are
wholly white ; the bill is ivory-white. The female resembles the
male, except in the colour of the crest, which is black.
The Red-head Woodpecker {Mclanerpe^, or Picus eryfhro-
cephahis). — This beautiful, active, and lively Bird, type of the sub-
family of the Mela)ierpina:, is a native of the United States of
America, and is a migratory species, retiring to southern lati-
tudes on the approach of winter, though many continue during that
season in the States of New York and Pennsylvania, and especially
Carolina. In the summer this species abounds in the woods, and
even close to the precincts of towns and cities, and seems to be but
little afraid of man. " When alighted on a fence-stake by the road
or in a field, and one approaches them (says Audubon), they
gradually move sideways out of sight, peeping now and then to
discover your intention ; and when you are quite close and opposite,
lie still until you are passed, when they hop to the top ot the stake, and
rattle upon it with their bill, as if to congratulate themselves on the
success of their cunning. Should you approach within arm's length,
which may frequently be done, the woodpecker flies to the first
stake or the second from you, bends his head to peep, and rattles
again, as if to provoke you to continuance of what seems to him
excellent spojt. He alights on the roof of the house, hops along it,
Fig. 1332.— The Red-head Woodpecker.
beats the shingles, utters a cry, and dives into your garden to pick the
finest strawberries he can discover. ' ' No Birds are more destructive
in gardens ; they devour fruit of all kinds as it ripens, completely
stripping the trees ; they carry away to their retreat apples, peaches,
chemes? strawberries, cS:c. ; and as they visit the garden in scores,
or even hundreds, they soon clear it. They attack the Indian-corn
while in its succulent milky state ; and also rob the nests ot small
Birds of their eggs. To this luxurious bill of fare may be added
Insects, for which they search with singular dexterity and intelh-
THE WOODPECKERS.
S19
gence, drawing them from their retreats in the crevices of old trees
and beneath the mouldering bark. " No sooner have they satisfied
their hunger, than small parties of them assemble on the tops and
branches of decayed trees, from which they ch.ase different insects
that are passing through the air, launching after them for eight or
ten yards, at times performing the most singular manoeuvres ; and
on securing their victim return to the tree, where immediately after
a continued cry of exultation is uttered. They pursue each other
on the wing in a very amicable manner, in long beautifully curved
sweeps, during which the remarkable variety of their plumage be-
comes conspicuous, and is highly pleasing to the eye. When pass-
ing from one tree to another, their flight resembles the motion of a
great swing, and is performed by a single opening of the wings,
descending at first, and rising towards the spot on which they are
going to alight, with ease and in the most graceful manner."
Like the rest of this tribe, the Red-head, as it is generally called,
breeds in the holes of trees which it has worked out, and to which
the pair resort year after year, making it only a little deeper. It is
not, however, in hard living trees that this species often attempts to
make its breeding-chamber. Audubon says he does not remember
even a single instance of such an occurrence.
Wilson observes, that terrible enemy of the feathered race in
North America, the Black Snake {Coliibra constrictor), destroys
numbers of the young of this Bird. " It glides up the trunk of the
tree, and, like a skulking savage, enters the woodpeckers' peaceable
apartment, devours the eggs or helpless j'oung, in spite of the cries
orflutterings of the parents, and, if the place be large enough, coils
himself up in the spot they occupied, where he will sometimes re-
main for several days." The plumage of this lively, " frolicsome
bird " is very beautiful. The head and neck are bright crimson ;
back, wing-coverts, primaries, and tail-feathers black, with blue
reflexions; rump and secondaries white, the shafts of the latter
black ; breast and under parts white tinged with yellowish-brown ;
an irregular transverse band of black between the crimson of the
neck and the white of the breast. Length nine inches. (See Fig.
1332.)
The Great Spotted Woodpecker {Dryobates ox Pktis 7>iajor).
Le Pic varie, and Pic Epeiche, Buffon ; Die Bunt-specht, Becht,
Bechstein.
This species is one of our British Birds, and, though not very
abundant, is found in all our wooded districts. In Ireland it is rare.
On the continent it is widely diffused, and in the northern latitudes
is most probably migratory. Mr. Selby says that in Northumberland
there is an influx of these Birds, as he suspects, from Norway and
Sweden ; they arrive with the Woodcock, generally after stormy
weather, from the north or north-east. In its habits the Great
Spotted Woodpecker resembles the rest of his race, feeding on
Insects, berries, and fruits ; it rarely descends to the ground, but
traverses the trunks and branches of trees with the greatest address,
and excavates a deep hole for the purpose of incubation. During
the spring, and throughout the breeding-season, this Bird utters a
jarring noise, the call both of the males and females to each other.
The colouring is as follows : — Forehead greyish-white ; crown of
the head black ; occiput fine crimson ; cheeks and ear-coverts white ;
general colour of the upper surface black, proceeding from a streak
running from each corner of the lower mandible, and arching for-
wards on the chest, inclosing a patch of white on each side of the
back of the neck ; scapulars and part of the adjoining wing-coverts
white ; quills barred with white ; the four middle tail-feathers black,
the rest more or less white, and spotted near the tip with black ;
under surface white. The female wants the red occipital band.
The young on quitting the nest have the crown of the head red and
the occiput black, in which state, as Mr. Selby states, they have
been mistaken for the Pkus medius, a species not found in England.
(See Fig. 1333.)
The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker {Dryobates or Pi'cus minor J.
Le Petit Epeiche, Buffon. Pic Epeichette, Temminck ; Grass-pecht,
Bechstein. — In all its habits and manners this beautiful little species
is a true Woodpecker. It is generally diffused through Europe, and
in Germany gives preference tQ.the forests of fir-trees. In our
island it is partially distributed, being in some places very common ;
But m the northern counties it is rare.
" In England," says Mr. Gould, " it is far more abundant than is
generally supposed : we have seldom sought for it in vain wherever
large trees, particularly the elm, grow in sufScient numbers to invite
its abode : its security from sight is to be attributed more to its
habit of frequenting the topmost branches than to its rarity. Near
London it is very common, and may be seen by an attentive observer
in Kensington Gardens, and in any of the parks in the neighbour-
hood. Like many other birds whose habits are of an arboreal
character, the lesser spotted woodpecker appears to perform a
certain daily round, traversing a given extent of district, and return-
ing- to the same spot whence it began its route. Besides the elm, to
which it is especially partial, it not unfrequently visits orchard-trees
of large growth, running over their moss-grown branches in quest
of the larva; of insects, which abound in such situations. In its
actions It IS very lively and alert. Unlike the large woodpecker,
which prefers the trunks of trees, it naturally frequents the smaller
and more elevated branches, which it traverses with the utmost ease
and celerity : should it perceive itself noticed, it becomes shy, and
retires from observation by concealing itself behind the branch on
which It rests ; if, however, earnestly engaged in the extraction of its
food, Its attention appears to be so absorbed that it will allow itself
to be closely approached without suspending its operations. When
spring commences, it becomes clamorous and noisy, its call being
an oft-repeated note, so closely resembling that of the wryneck as to
be scarcely distinguishable from it. At other times of the year it is
mute, and its presence is only betrayed by the reiterated strokes
which it makes against the bark of trees." (" Birds of Europe.")
The forehead is greyish-white ; the crown of the head is rosy'red ;
streak over the eye, occiput, and nape of the neck black ; checks
Fig. 1333. — Great Spotted Woodpeckers.
and sides of the neck white ; from the corners of the lower mandible
a black streak proceeds downwards towards the shoulder ; upper
part of the back and lesser wing-coverts glossy black ; middle of
the back and scapulars white barred with black ; quills black
spotted with white ; tail-coverts and four middle tail-feathers black ;
upon the rest the black decreases to the outer feather, which is white,
except a black spot near the tip ; under parts greyish-white, with a
few dusky spots upon the sides of the breast. In the female the
crown of the head is white. (See Fig. 1334-)
520
THE WOODPECKERS;
The Green Woodpecker {Gecinus or Picus viridis). Gecinus
•viridis, Boie : le Pic vert Buffon ; Grunspecht, Bechstein ; Wood-
spite, Rain-Bird, Hew-hole, Yappingall, Yaffer, Popinjay, Provincial
English.; "Type of the Gecttiina.
Of our limited number of British Woodpeckers this is certainly
the most common ; it is, however, very doubtful whether it extends
to Ireland. On the continent of Europe it is widely spread, inhabit-
ing forests and wooded districts, where its loud cry may be often
heard, the Bird itself unseen. This cry, when frequently uttered, is
commonly supposed to foretel the approach of rainy weather ; hence
one of its English provincial names. In some of its habits this
species differs from the Woodpeckers generally, especially in often
leaving the trunks of the trees for the ground, where it searches for
Ants' nests, being extremely partial to these Insects and their larvae.
Fig. 1334.— Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers.
which it picks up very dexterously by means of its long tongue. In
this respect it agrees with the Golden-winged Woodpecker of America
{^Colaptes aura f us), a most beautiful and interesting species, re-
garded by Mr. Vigors as the type of the Ground Woodpeckers, to be
presently noticed. It must not be supposed, however, that the Green
Woodpecker seeks its food only on the ground ; it searches for
Insects on the bark of trees, or in the decaying wood, which it shivers
easily by blows with its strong wedge-shaped bill. It scales the
trunks with great rapidity, ascending either straight up or in a
spiral manner ; it also readily descends, not, however, head-fore-
most, but tail foremost, moving as it were backwards. Its flight is
rapid and undulating, the wings being opened and shut at every
stroke ; and in flying from trunk to trunk, if the trees are not very
far apart, it takes only a single sweep.
The Green Woodpecker works out a deep excavation, either in a
tree undergoing the process of decay, or in one of the softer kinds of
wood, carrying it often to a considerable depth. The aspen,
according to Mr. Selby, is often selected. When engaged at its
laborious task, the strokes are so rapid, and repeated with such velo-
city, that the head appears in an incessant vibration, while the strokes
resound to a considerable distance. The eggs, five in number, are
of a bluish-white.
In the spring this species utters a jarring sound, which appears to
be the call of the sexes to each other. The feathers round the base
of the bill, and round the eyes, black ; crown of the head and a
moustache-mark from the root of the bill blood-red, the base of the
feathers being bluish-grey ; upper surface generally green, passing
on the rump into gamboge-yellow ; under parts yellowish-grey with
a tinge of green ; quills barred with dusky black and yellowish-grey ;
tail blackish-brown barred with green. In the female the red on
the head is less conspicuous, and the moustaches are mostly black.
(See Fig. 1335.)
Fig. 1335. — Green Woodpeckers.
Nearly allied to the PicincB are the Colapthics, or Ground Wood-
peckers, already alluded to, in which the bill is destitute of lateral
ridges, or nearly so, and has the dorsal ridge curved to the tip,
which is somewhat acute. These Birds are found in both hemi-
spheres, but are far less arboreal in their habits than the common
Woodpeckers, seeking for the greater part of their food upon the
ground, in Ants' nests, and amongst the dung of animals. They
are, however, by no means exclusively terrestrial, but are frequently
seen seeking food upon trees ; and, like the True Woodpeckers,
they nidificate in hollows excavated by themselves in the trunks of
trees. They also feed more or less upon fruits, and, like the Red-
headed Woodpeckers, often attack the Indian corn-fields when the
grain is in its milky state.
The nearest approach to the Cuckoos is made by the Wrynecks,
or Yu}ici?icB, in which the bill is short, straight, and pointed ; the
wings pointed ; the tail rounded, and composed of soft feathers.
This sub-family includes only a fow species of Birds, of which one
is the Wryneck.
The Wryneck (F«;;-r torquilla).—'^^ Torcol, Buffon: Die
Wendehals, Bechstein ; Long-tongue, Emmet-hunter, Snake-Bird,
and Cuckoo's-mate, Provincial English.
This Bird is one of our summer visitors, and, though common in
the southern and eastern counties of our island, is very scarce in
the north and west. In Ireland, we believe, it is never seen. It
arrives in April, a few days before the appearance of the Cuckoo,
and its loud cry oi peep, peep, peep, monotonously repeated, is first
heard when the elm-tree-leaves are as large as a silver sixpence.
Groves, orchards, and woods are the resorts of this elegant Bird,
and also the lines of tall beech-trees along hedgerows. Ants are
its favourite food, and in quest of them it traverses the trunks of
trees, though its tail is not used as an assistant in climbing, examin-
ing every crevice, and picking them up by means of its long vermi-
THE PARROTS.
521
form tong-ue covered with a glutinous secretion. It also visits the
ground for the same purpose, where it hops and walks with con-
siderable facility, searching for the nests of these Insects ; and it is
astonishing to see with what rapidity it devours them, launching its
long tongue at them, and withdrawing it so rapidly that the eye can
scarcely follow the motion. This tongue is evidently endowed with a
high degree of sensibility, and perhaps of taste ; we have frequently
seen the Wryneck in captivity launch it forth when any substance
has been presented as food, and touch the morsel with it, keep-
ing it at the time in a state of quivering vibration ; it reminded us
of the tongue of the Dasypus peba. In Fig. 1336, the head and
Fig. 1336. — Head and Tongue of the Wryneck.
tongue of the Wryneck are well delineated. White (" Nat. Hist.
Selborne") says — " These birds appear on the grass-plots and walks ;
they walk a little, as well as hop, and thrust their bills into the turf,
in quest, I conclude, of ants, which are their food : while they
hold their bills on the grass, they draw out their prey with their
tongues, which are so long as to be coiled round their heads."
Colonel Montagu informs us, that having captured a female, which
he confined for some days in a cage, he was enabled to watch its
manners very minutely. " A quantity of mould, with emmets and
their eggs, was given it ; and it was curious to observe the tongue
darted forth and retracted with such velocity and such unerring aim
that it never returned without an ant or an &^% adhering to it, not
transfi.xed by the horny points, as some have imagined, but retained
by a peculiar tenacious moisture provided for that purpose. While
feeding, the body is motionless, the head only is turned to every side,
and the motion of the tongue is so rapid, that an ant's e.^^, which is
of a light colour and more conspicuous than the tongue, has some-
what the appearance of moving to the mouth by attraction as a
needle flies to a magnet. The bill is rarely used except to remove
the mould in order to get more readily at these Insects ; where the
earth is hollow, the tongue is thrust into all the cavities to rouse the
ants, and for this purpose the horny appendage is extremely service-
able as a guide to the tongue. We have seen the green woodpecker
take its food in a similar manner." The Wryneck breeds in the
holes of decayed trees, but does not excavate a chamber, like the
Woodpecker, the strength of the beak being inadequate for that
purpose. The eggs, nine or ten In number, and of a pure trans-
parent white, are laid upon the bare wood. When surprised upon
her eggs, the Wryneck defends herself with great spirit, erectmg
the feathers of the top of the head, and hissing like a Snake. The
young if molested also hiss, and turn their heads in various directions.
The name Wryneck is indeed given to this Bird from its singular
habit of twisting and writhing its neck with odd contortions when
alarmed or irritated.
The Wryneck leaves our island early in autumn, retiring south-
wards, and most probably passing the winter in Africa ; specimens,
indeed, have been received from that continent and from India. In
Europe the Wryneck is very generally spread during summer, being
found even as far north as Sweden ; but, according to Temminck, it
is rare in Holland. Though the colours of this Bird are not gaudy,
they are scarcely to be exceeded for simple beauty and propriety of
arrangement. The upper parts are brown and grey exquisitely
dotted, and chequered with spots, dashes, zigzag bars, and lines of
black and rufous, difficult to describe and difficult for the artist to
copy. The throat is yellowish-white, with transverse black bars ;
the breast and under parts are white, with arrow-head spots of black.
Length seven inches. (See Fig. 1337.)
The characters of the genus may be summed up as follows : — bill
short, straight, conical and depressed, the ridge rounded, mandible
sharp ; tongue long, vermiform, armed at the tip with a horny but
unbarbed point ; feet zygodactyle, the two anterior toes united
together at their base ; tail-feathers ten, soft, and flexible ; wings
moderate. The species are limited in number.
The two remaining sub-families of the PicicicBurs entirely confined
to the Tropics. The Picumnina:, or Piculets, have a short, straight,
compressed bill, rather acute at the tip, rounded wings, and a short
tail, with the feathers broad, and rounded at the extremity. They
are small Birds, which closely resemble the Woodpeckers in their
habits, except that they never appear to use their tails as a point of
support. They inhabit the forests of the warm parts of both conti-
nents—South America, India, and the islands of the Eastern Archi-
pelago. Like the Woodpeckers, they nidificate in holes of the
trunks of trees, which they enlarge with their bills ; they are said
only to lay two eggs.
The last sub-family is that of the CapitonincB, or Barbets, in which
the bill is stout and conical, more or less inflated at the sides, and
furnished at the base with numerous stiffbristles projecting forwards
Their wings and tail are short ; the latter is usually even at the endj
where its feathers are broad and rounded. These Birds, which are
Fig. 1337. — Wrynecks.
united by many authors with the Buccom'iKr, are all inhabitants of
the Tropics, where they feed upon Insects and fruits. The species
of the typical genus Capita are confined to .South America ; the re-
mainder are found in the Eastern Hemisphere. They are said to be
dull and solitary Birds.
The Parrots— Family PsiUacidcs.
These favourite domestic pets form one of the most interesting
groups of Birds, and exceed most others in intelligence and beauty.
In the Parrot tribe, the modification of the bill is very remarkable.
(See head of a Cockatoo, Fig. 1338.) In many Birds the upper
mandible is more or less movable at its junction with the forehead, for
where there is no trace of a suture, the bone is often slightly elastic.
In the Parrots this mobility is carried out to its fullest extent, a
sort of hinge uniting the upper mandible to the forehead (see Fig.
1339), while the slender bones connecting the upper mandible to the
base of the skull yield to every movement. Across the horny palate
of the beak is a sort of notch (see Fig. 1340), against which the
front margin of the lower beak works ; and this margin, chisel-like, is
sharp and thin ; while the articulation of the lower mandible is as
loose as possible. Hence, aided by the thick fleshy tongue, a Parrot,
as we have often seen, will by means of its beak clear the inside of a
fresh pea from the outer skin, rejecting the latter; and perform the
whole process, not only with 'facility, but with the greatest delicacy of
manipulation, if this term be allowable. In all Birds, as a rule, the
3X
S22
THE PARROTS.
margin of the orbit is incomplete. In the Pjrrot the bony ring, vary-
ing in breadth, is complete, and below it runs the slender bone con-
necting the uppper mandible with the os quadratum (see Fig. 1339,
F'g- I339-— Skull of the Macaw.
\Ve need not say that Birds have no teeth ; yet Geoffroy St. Hilaire,
in his " Theory of Analogues," says that though it maybe considered
a piece of pleasantry to assert that Fowls have teeth, he finds proofs
that such is the fact, notwithstanding the weight of authority against
him. To this opinion he was led in the first instance by e.xamining
Fig. 1340. — Palate of the Blue Macaw.
the beaks of two Chicks of the Ring Parrakeet {Palcsorm's torqtia-
ius), which, though matured, had not been able to breakthrough the
egg-shell. In the beaks of these younglings he observed a regular
set of toothlike projections, or, as he states, teeth, represented at
Fig. 1341. a, a lateral view of both mandibles, showing the teeth ;
b and c, the upper and under mandible viewed, the first from beneath,
the latter from above ; d, the serrations or teeth on the beak of the
Blue Macaw, which M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire subsequently observed,
and \yhich are more fully represented at Fig. 1342. a, the upper
mandible ; b, the lower insection to show the teeth ; c, a portion of
the beak, showing the serrations worn down by use. In the instance
of the Parrakeet Chicks, M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire could trace nerves
and blood-vessels running towards each toothlet ; but in the adult
Macaw, the tube in which these had apparently lain while the Bird
was a nestling was filled with a cartilaginous substance. The fact
is that these are not real teeth, but only indications of a structure
much more amply developed in the beak of the Duck tribe, which is
furnished with a series of horny laminse acting as strainers, and per-
Fig. 133S. — Head of a Cockatoo.
skull of the Macaw). The lower mandible is light, thin, and deep.
The tongue is thick, muscular, and in constant requisition ; it is
covered with papilla?, is moistened with saliva, and possesses both
taste and great mobility. (See Fig. 1340.) In the Lorikets, however,
which feed on the nectar'of the flowers of the Eucalypti in Australia, it
is furnished with a brush of delicate close-set filaments.
Fig. 1341.— Teeth of the Tarrakeel.
haps as feelers, and which are part and parcel of the horny sheath
of the osseous mandible (see Fig. 1343). a, the upper mandible of
the Shoveller-Duck ; b, the lower mandible of the common Duck.
These appendages in the Duck are rather the analogues of the
baleen plates of the Whale, than of teeth ; and in the Parrot, as from
e.\amination we can testify, they seem rather to indicate the pro-
gressive growth of the horny beak in the upper mandible, and evi-
Fig. 1342. — Teeth of the Blue Macaw.
dence the passage of nerves and blood-vessels to the edge of the
lower. We have before us the skulls of several Macaws and Par-
rots, adult, of which the lower mandible has its horny edge very
clearly marked ; while the hooked palatal part of the upper, anterior
Fig. 1343. — Beak of Shoveller-Duck.
to the notch, is marked with lines obliquely running from a central
line, like arrow-heads repeated, the apex of each pointing backwards.
thus
-W^
The nostrils in the Parrots arc seated in a mem ■
branous cere at the base of the upper mandible.
Often, as in the Macaws (see Fig. 1344), the cheeks are covered
with naked skin.
The foot of the Parrot is completely zygodactyle and prehensile
(see Fig. 1345) ; the tarsus is short, but stout, and the limb muscu-
lar ; the toes are long and furnished with strong claws, and are
formed expressly for holding or grasping an}' object which they can
enclose. In climbing, the Parrot uses its hooked beak, as well as
its feet ; and in feeding, it rests on one foot, holding the food to its
beak with the other. Compare the foot of the Parrot with that of the
Fowl, and of a Water-Bird (Fig. 1346), and the difference will at once
be appreciated. The plumage of the Parrots is in general richly
THE COCKATOOS.
.'!23
tinted, and some species are superb ; in all, and particularly in the
Cockatoos, the skin tlirows off a mealy powder, which saturates the
feathers, and communicates to them somewhat of a greasy feel ; this
is the case with other Birds also, as Eagles and Herons. The Par-
rots are a noisy race, associating- together in flocks, and feeding
upon fruits, buds, seeds, &c. ; they sleep crowded together, and are
fond of pruning each other's plumage ; they are monogamous, the
pairs forming lasting associations ; and they breed in the hollows
of trees. With respect to powers of flight, they vary considerably ;
some fly slowly, but others wing their way with the greatest rapidity,
and for a long continuance. It is to the warmer climates more
particularly that these Birds are confined ; and they are abundant
in the inter-tropics. In the southern hemisphere, however, they
occur in temperate latitudes, while in the northern hemisphere they
Fig. 1344. — Head of the Macaw.
are rare beyond the Tropic of Cancer ; the Carolina Parrot, in
America, and some of the genus Palceor?u's in India, however, are
extra-tropical. On the contrary. Parrots occur in the southern
extremity of America, throughout Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand,
and even in Macquarrie Island, in the fifty-second degree of south
latitude.
Of all Birds, Parrots are the most susceptible of being rendered
tame and familiar ; and towards their protectors they often manifest
great attachment, courting their notice and caresses : they are
Fig. 1345. — Foot of the Macaw.
decidedly the most intelligent of the feathered race ; and are quick
in learning to repeat words, sentences, and tunes : they mimic the
voices of other animals, the barking of Dogs, the mewing of Cats,
and the crowing- of poultry ; their memory is retentive, and their ear
is accurate. Individuals, however, differ in their qualifications, and
some species are superior to others in the facility with which they
learn their lessons, the Grey Parrot of Africa {Psittacus erythacus)
being pre-eminent.
In the classical writings of antiquity we have several references to
these Birds, -which appear to have been great favourites and in
general request. Aristotle well described their tongue as resembling
that of man, whence, as he conjectured, arose the facility with which
they pronounced words or sentences. The Greeks were the first
of European nations who became acquainted with Birds of the
Parrot tribe — viz., some of the species of the Indian genus Palcsornis
(Parrakeets); these, from all accounts, -were introduced into Europe
from India, at the time of the iVEacedonian conquest ; and having
been once brought into Greece, the great demand for them, and the
high prices, for which they sold, rendered the importation of them a
profitable speculation.
From Greece the Parrot soon found its way to Rome, and became
extravagantly admired. It was kept in cages of the most costly
materials, nor was any price, however inordinate, deemed beyond its
value. Until the time of Nero, the Romans were not acquainted
with the Parrots of Africa ; but as that country became more known,
these Birds, with other natural productions, were sent to Italy; and,
Fig. 1346. — Foot of Parrot and of the Water-Bird.
most probably, it -was from that quarter that the numbers of the
Parrot race were imported, which at a subsequent period supplied
the luxury of Heliogabahis. Among other articles in the bill of fare
detailed by jElian as entering into the feasts of this emperor, are the
combs of Fowls, the tongues of Peacocks and Nightingales, the
brains of Flamingoes and Thrushes, the heads of Parrots and
Pheasants ; and it is reported that with the bodies of the two latter he
fed his beasts of prey.
In captivity the Parrot lives long ; instances are on record of indi-
viduals attaining the age of eighty or one hundred years. We have
seen a Green South American Parrot said to have been ninety years
in the family.
The Parrots form several sub-families. Of these, one, the Strigo-
^incB, includes only a single species, the Stn'gops habroptiliis, of
New Zealand, where it is called the Kakapo by the natives. At
first sight this Bird appears to be intermediate between the Parrots
and the Owls, and, like the latter, it is strictly nocturnal in its habits,
passing the day in holes under the roots of trees, and in similar
places. Its wings are very short, and its powers of flight very
limited ; it lives principally on the ground, and, according to the
statements of Mr. Lyall, forms tracks of about a foot wide, which so
closely resemble footpaths made by men, that when first seen, they
gave rise to an expectation that natives were in the neighbourhood.
Its food, according to the same authority, consists partly of roots —
the beak being usually covered with dirt and mud — and partly of the
leaves and tender shoots of plants.
The Kakapo breeds in February, laying its eggs in the holes
which it ordinarily frequents, without any nest except the rotten wood
which already exists there. The eggs are usually two in number ;
very rarely three. The cry of the Kakapo is a hoarse croak ; and the
natives say that, during the winter, great numbers of these Birds
assemble together in large caves ; and that on their collecting, and
again on dispersing for the summer, they make a perfectly deafening
noise.
The Cockatoos — Sub-family Cacafui/tcs.
A second sub-family is that of the Cockatoos {Cacahiincs), in
which the tail is broad and even, and the head adorned with a crest
which is capable of being elevated and depressed at pleasure. These
fine Birds (Fig. 1347, i, 2) are confined to the Eastern Archipelago
and Australia ; but in the latter country they occur in great abund-
ance. They feed principally upon fruits and seeds, and often
commit great depredations, sometimes destroying considerably more
than they consume. They also eat Insects and larva;. They make
their nests in holes of trees, which they adapt to their purpose by
working at them with their powerful bills. When taken young they
are very docile, and some of them will learn to speak very dis-
tinctly ; although, as a general rule, their accomplishments in this
respect extend no further than to repeating their own name, their
ordinary voice being nothing but an abominable scream.
The best known species aie white, with yellow crests ; and of
these, two or three are commonly brought to this country. The
commonest are the Great and Small Sulphur-crested Cockatoos
{Cacatua galerita and sulphurea); the former (Fig. 1347, i) a
native of Australia, and the latter of the Moluccas. Amongst the
finest Birds of this group are the species of the genus Calypto-
rkynchus {Yig. 1348, the Banksian Cockatoo), of which several species
occur abundantly in Australia. The general colours of these large
Birds are black or brown, variegated with red or orange spots ; and
these colours form broad bands upon tlie quill-feathers of the tail.
The natives of those parts of Australia which abound with Cock-
atoos, take a singular method of killing these Birds, of which an
interesting account is given by Capt. Grey, in his " Travels in Aus-
tralia." He says — " Perhaps as fine a sight as can be seen in the
whole circle of native sports is the killing cockatoos with the kiley,
524
THE PARROTS.
or boomerang. A native perceives a large flight of cockatoos in a
forest which Incircles a lagoon ; the expanse °f ^^ater affords an
open clear space above it, unencumbered with trees but which raise
their gigantic forms all around, more vigorous in their growth from
^'g- 1347- — Group of Australian Parrots.
I. The Great Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Coi-a/'JWiWtvvV.!).— 2. The Galeated
Cockatoo {Callocephalon galcatum). — 3. Barraband's Parrakeet (Pauvornis
barrabandi). — 4. Ground Parrakeet {Pezoportis formosus).
the damp soil in which they flourish. In their leafy summits sits a
countless number of cockatoos, screaming and flying from tree to
tree, as they make their arrangements for a night's sound sleep.
The native throws aside his cloak, so that he may not have even
this slight covering to impede his motions — draws his kiley from his
belt, and, with a noiseless, elastic step, approaches the lagoon,
creeping from tree to tree, and from bush to bush, and disturbing
the birds as little as possible. Their sentinels, however, take the
alarm ; the cockatoos farthest from the water fly to the tree near its
edge, and thus they keep concentrating their force as the native
advances ; they are aware that danger is at hand, but are ignorant
of its nature. At length the pursuer almost reaches the edge of the
water, and the scared cockatoos, with wild cries, spring into the
air ; at the same instant the native raises his right hand high over
his shoulder, and, bounding forward with his utmost speed, to give
impetus to his blow, the kiley quits his hand as if it would strike the
water ; but when it has almost touched the unruffled surface of the
lake, it spins upwards with inconceivable velocity, and with the
strangest contortions. In vain the terrified cockatoos strive to
avoid it ; it sweeps wildly and uncertainly through the air — and so
eccentric are its motions, that it requires but a slight sketch of the
imagination to fancy it endowed with life — and with fell swoops, in
rapid pursuit of the devoted birds, some of whom are almost certain
to be brought screaming to the earth. But the wily savage has not
yet done with them. He avails himself of the extraordinary attach-
ment which these birds have for one another ; and fastening a
wounded one to a tree, so that its cries may induce its companions to
return, he watches his opportunity, by throwing his kiley or spear,
to add another bird or two to the booty he has already obtained."
The True Parrots— Sub-family PsittacincB.
Of this group of the Parrot family a general description has al-
ready been given ; but the following additional particulars will be of
interest: they are afforded by Mr. Dallas in "The Circle of the
Sciences."
In the sub-family of the True Parrots {PsittacincE), the tail is also
short and sanare ; but the head is destitute of a crest, and the
lateral margins of the bill are toothed or crenated. The Birds of
this group are amongst the best known of the family of Parrots, as to
it belong the grey and green species, so commonly brought to Europe
as pets. Many of them are exceedingly beautiful Birds, and they
are the most docile of Parrots ; their conversational powers are also
great, the Grey Parrot {Psittactts crythacus) especially, learning to
repeat many words, and even phrases, with great facility. This
power of pronouncing words distinctly, which the Parrots possess in
a far greater degree than any other Birds, has rendered them great
favourites in all ages, and numerous stories are related of absurdly
apposite speeches made by these Birds. Indeed, it would very often
appear that the Birds had some notion of the meaning of the phrase
they pick up ; and this, in some places, seems to have given rise to
a popular opinion, that a well-trained Parrot is capable of giving an
account of its thoughts and observations. Most of our readers will
probably remember a story, related in the " Arabian Nights," of a
jealous husband who purchased a Parrot as a spy upon the actions
of his wife, with the course adopted by the lady to get rid of such an
unpleasant inmate ; and although this may be rather too much for
our belief, there can be no doubt that these Birds, by blurting out
expressions which they have heard, in the presence of those for
whose ears they were never intended, may have given rise to eclair-
cissemerJs of an equally disagreeable nature.
Some of the more genuine anecdotes of the speeches of these
Birds are, however, sufficiently ludicrous. One of the best is that
related by Gesner, concerning a Grey Parrot belonging to King
Henry VIII. This Bird, which was kept in the king's palace at
Westminster, " by the river Thames, had picked up many words from
hearing the passengers talk as they happened to take water. One
day, sporting on its perch, the poor bird fell into the river ; and
then very seasonably remembering the words it had often heard
some, whether in danger or in jest, use, cried out amain, 'A boat !
a boat! twenty pounds for a boat!' A waterman who happened
to be near, hearing the cry, made to the place where the Parrot was
floating, and, knowing to whom it belonged, restored it to its royal
master, in the full expectation, as the bird was a great favourite,
of receiving the promised reward. The king, however, preferred
appealing to the Parrot himself to determine the sum, which being
consented to by the waterman, the bird immediately cried out,
'Give the knave a groat !' " Of a somewhat similar nature, but
perhaps rather more probable, is the old story of the two Parrots,
belonging to a serious old lady, one of which (a recent acquisition)
having bestowed some hearty forecastle curses upon his mistress,
the other, whose education had been better attended to, immediately
followed with the pious response, " We beseech thee to hear us, good
Lord."
The PsiftacincB are found abundantly in the luxuriant forests of
the Tropics, where they climb about upon the branches with the
help of their bill and feet, and feed principally upon fruits and seeds.
The well-known Grey Parrot, already referred to, which was pro-
bably the first to be imported into Europe, is a native of the hottest
parts of Africa. The commonest of the Green Parrots is the Ama-
zonian Parrot [Psiitacus amazonicus), which is rather larger than
the grey species, of a shining green colour, with a blue band across
the forehead ; the cheeks, throat, and part of the wings, yellow or
red. It is, as its name implies, an inhabitant of the banks of the
great South American river Amazon ; but it is also found in various
parts of South America, and is said to do considerable damage in
plantations.
_ The Lories (sub-family Lorina:) have a rather large but slender
bill, which is sometimes sinuated, or slightly notched at the margin ;
the wings are rather short, and the tail is short, more or less
graduated, and either pointed or rounded. These Birds, which,
although most of them are of small size, are amongst the most
brilliant of the Parrots, are inhabitants of the Eastern Archipelago,
New Guinea, Borneo, and the South Sea Islands. Many of them
exhibit a peculiar structure of the tongue, that organ being furnished
with a tuft of bristles, that is said to be employed by the Bird in
sucking the sweet juices of flowers, upon which, and berries, the
Lories subsist. There are specimens living in the Gardens of the
Zoological Society, Regent's Park, London ; including the Ornamental
l^oxy (Trichoglosszis ornatusj.a. native of the Moluccas; the Blue,
breasted (Eos indica), also a native of the Moluccas ; the Green-naped
[Trichoglossus cyainis gamc7izts), &c. This sub-family is also well
represented in the collection of the British Museum.
The Macaws— Sub-family Ar attics.
The sub-family ^r<z/«ig includes the gorgeous Macaws of South
America, with some other species inhabiting the Western continent.
In these Birds the bill is of great size and strength, with the upper
mandible much arched from the base, almost in a semicircle, and
forming a long point which hangs down in front of the lower jaw;
the lower mandible is short, and very deep. The cheeks are
frequently naked, and the tail very long and graduated. (See Fig
1349O
THE MACAWS.
52s
The True Macaws, forming the genus Macrocercus, or Ara, are
pre-eminent both in size and magnificence of plumage, even
amongst the beautiful family of Parrots. They are confined to the
hottest regions of America, Brazil, Guiana, and the West India
Islands, where they inhabit the borders of the forests, keeping almost
entirely'upon the trees, and rarely visiting the ground. Their food
is entirely of a vegetable nature, consisting of fruits and seeds ;
and the hardest rind is insufficient to preserve the kernel from the
Fig. 134S. — Banksian Cockatoo.
attacks of theirtreniendouslypowerful bills. They are distinguished
by having the cheeks completely denuded of feathers, or furnished
only with a few lines of minute plumes. The name Ara, applied to
the genus by Kuhl, is derived from one of the Indian names of the
Birds, which is an imitation of
their ordinary note. They lay
number ; and
they are said to breed twice in the
year. Both sexes take part in the
duties of incubation.
One of the finest species is the
Scarlet, or Red and Blue Macaw
{Macrocercus viacao), which at
times measures as much as three
feet from the bill to the extremity
,of the tail. The greater part of
the body is of a fine bright-red
colour; the rump, vent, and tail-
coverts, blue ; the quill-feathers of
the wings are of a fine blue ; and
the wing-coverts greenish-blue
and yellow. The tail, which,
when in fine condition, constitutes
about two-thirds of the total
length, is variegated with deep
blue and crimson. The upper
mandible is whitish ; the lower
one blackish or dusky ; and
the skin of the cheeks is white
and wrinkled. This magnificent
Bird was formerly common in
the West Indian Islands, but
it has now become exceedingly
Fig. 1349.— The Macaw.
rare in those localities. It is, however, still found on the con-
tinent of America, and specimens are frequently brought to
Europe.
The Blue and Yellow Macaw {Macrocercus araraiuta).—
The Blue and Yellow Macaw is a native of Brazil, Guiana, and
Surinam, tenanting the swampy forests along the banks of rivers,
and generally living in pairs, though sometimes they assemble in
large flocks. The food of this species consists principally of the
fruit of a kind of palm abundant in humid or marshy places.
On the wing the Blue and Yellow Macaw is rapid, dis-
playing great address and ease in its atrial movements, and
is often seen skimming over the tops of the loftiest trees,
the highest branches of which it selects for its roosting-place.
Like the Parrots generally, this Bird lays two white eggs in the
hollow of a decayed tree : both sexes attend to the duty of in-
cubation, and to the labour of rearing the young. Two
broods are said to be produced annually.
The colouring of this species is as follows :— Bill black,
cheeks naked, white, with three narrow lines of black velvety
feathers passing obliquely across. Beneath the under man-
dible is a broad black band, extending some distance under
the naked cheeks. General colour above, rich blue, passing
into green on the forehead, some of the wing-coverts, and rump.
Greater quills and tail nearly violet; wings and tail beneath,
yellow ; under parts generally of a rich saffron tint ; iris
yellowish ; legs dusky. Length about thirty-nine inches, of
which the long graduated tail measures about twenty-four
inches. (See Fig. 1349.)
A small species, the Green Macaw, or Maracana {Macro-
cercus severus), which is about tlie size of a Pigeon, is ex-
ceedingly abundant in Brazil and Guiana, where it is said to
visit the coffee plantations in immense flocks, committing
terrible depredations by devouring the berries.
Some of the other species of this group have the head entirely
covered with feathers, except a small circle round the eyes.
These form [the genus Psittacara, so called from their ap-
parently uniting the True Parrots, or Psittaci, with the
Macaws or Aras. They are smaller than the Macaws,
but their plumage is generally exceedingly beautiful, and
they learn to speak with greater ease. Le Vaillant states
that he saw a specimen of the Psittacara guiancnsis, or
Guiana Parroquet, which could say the Lord's Prayer in
Dutch, and whilst engaged in this exercise, would lie upon
its back, and fold its feet together in the attitude of prayer.
In Guiana, this species is said to be very destructive in the
coffee plantations.
The Carolina Parroquet {Conurus carolinensis).-^
Nearly allied to the last-mentioned Bird is the Carolina Par-
roquet, the only species of this group that occurs in North
America. It is found in the United States as far north as
Lake Michigan (lat. 42° N.), but on the east coast it
does not extend beyond Maryland. It is singular that a
Bird, belonging to a group which appears to be otherwise so
exclusively confined to the hottest regions of the Tropics, should be
found at such a distance from the natural home of its race ; but
although the range of this species extends from the hot countries of
Mexico to the very temperate region above mentioned, it does not
appear to be a Bird of Passage ; and indeed, Wilson says that he
has himself seen these Parrots on the banks of the Ohio in February,
flying about like Pigeons, in the midst of a snow-storm. The cause
to which Wilson ascribes the occurrence of the Carolina Parrot at a
higher latitude, in the centre of the continent than on the coast, is
not the prevalence of a milder climate in those parts, so much as the
existence of " certain peculiar features of country to whicJi these
birds are particularly and strongly attached ; these are low, rich,
alluvial bottoms along the borders of creeks, covered with a gigantic
growth of sycamore trees or button-wood — deep and almost impene-
trable swamps, where the vast and towering cypresses lift their still
more majestic heads — and those singular salines, or, as they are
usually called, licks, so regularly interspersed over that country, and
which are regularly and eagerly visited by the parroquets." Their
occurrencf, also, appears to depend even still more upon the presence
of their favourite articles of food — namely, the seeds of a plant called
the cockle-burr, with those of the cypress and hackberry, and beech-
nuts. These fruits are by no means common in Pennsylvania and
the States further to the north along the coast, but they are abun-
dant in the whole of the country already referred to as inhabited by
the Parrots. •
These Birds are exceedingly sociable in their habits, always flying
in large flocks, and roosting in companies of thirty or forty together
in the inside of a hollow tree. They are greatly attached to each
other, nestling close together, and scratching one another's heads
in a most affectionate manner. They manifest this attachment in
an equally striking manner when any of their companions fall into
misfortune. In illustration of this we may quote the following
passage from Wilson's " American Ornithology :" — ^" At Big Bone
Lick, thirty miles above the mouth of Kentucky River," he says,
526
THE PARRAKEETS.
" I saw them in great numbers. They came screaming through the
woods in the morning, about an hour after sunrise, to drink the salt
water, of whicli they, as well as the pigeons, are remarkably fond.
When they alighted on the ground, it appeared at a distance as if
covered with a carpet of the richest green, orange, and yellow ; they
afterwards settled, in one body, on a neighbouring tree, which stood
detached from any other, covering almost every twig of it ; and the
sun, shining strongly on their gay and glossy plumage, produced a
very beautiful and splendid appearance. Here I had an opportunity
of observing some very particular traits of their character : having
Fig. 1350. — The Blue and Yellow Macaw.
shot down a number, some of which were only wounded, the whole
flock swept repeatedly around their prostrate companions, and again
settled on a low tree, within twenty yards of the spot where I stood.
At each successive discharge, though showers of them fell, yet the
affection of the survivors seemed rather to increase ; for after a few
circuits around the place, they again alighted near me, looking
down on their slaughtered companions with such manifest symptoms
of sympathy and concern, as entirely disarmed me." In captivity,
the Carolina Parrot is docile and sociable, and soon becomes very
familiar. Like the other members of the group, it deposits its eggs
in hollow trees, but is said to carry its sociable habits even into the
business of incubation, several couples usually breeding in the same
cavity.
The Parrakeets— Sub-family PeioporintB.
The Alexandrine Parrakeet {Palaortiis alexaiidri).~l\ift
last sub-family is that of the Parrakeets, or Parroquets, embracing
the genus Palaornis, &c. The genus contains a number of beautiful
and interesting species, and is confined, or nearly so, to India and
its islands : Australia being just within the geographical range of the
group. It was with some of the Indian species of this group that
the ancients became first acquainted. Mr. Vigors (" ZooL Journal,"
vol. ii.), who observes that the ancient writers unanimously affirm
that the Parrots known in their times came exclusively from India,
adds : — " It is not easy to decide, although we may form a tolerable
conjecture on the subject, how many and which of the species of
PalcBor7iis were known to the ancients. yElian (De Nat. Anim.,
xvi. 2), tells us that they were acquainted with three species : but
as some of the more common species approach each other most
closely in their specific characters, it is not improbable that the
differences between them might have been passed over by observers
who were so little accustomed, and had so little occasion to pay
attention to minute distinctions, and that four or five species at
least were familiar to antiquity. The birds that came from the
remoter Indian islands, P. ;papuensis, malaccenst's, and xantho-
sonius in particular, are in all likelihood among the number of
those that have been known only in recent times : to these we may
add the newly characterised species from New Holland, the
P. barrabandi. The beautiful blossom-headed species also, P.
erythrocephaliis, and P. bengalaisi's, which are even now more
rarely met with than the neighbouring species, most probably did
not come under the observations of the ancients, for it is impossible
that they should have passed over without notice the lovely and
changeable roseate colour of the head, which casts into the shade
even the collar round the neck (so frequently alluded to by them), if
either of these birds had been before them. The poets, at least,
would have seized upon a character which involved so truly poetic
an image, and Ovid or Statins would have woven it up among the
most conspicuous wreaths of their beautiful elegiac garlands. The
species which we can imagine to have been best known to former
times, are the P. j>o7idiceriaiitiszx\AJlavitorqtcts, which are diffused
over the whole of the Indian continent, the former species more
particularly, which is now found dispersed over a great extent of the
Eastern Archipelago. P. s/e.i-^wa'rz' appears to have been the bird
sent from Ceylon to the Macedonian warrior from whom it derives its
specific name; Ceylon, or the ancient Taprobana, being the
principal resort, even down to the present moment, of that species.
It is probable also that the Romans, particularly in later times,
received a great number of the same species from that island. If to
these birds we add the P. torqiiatus, which is the species that
agrees most intimately with the descriptions of Pliny, and after him
of Apuleius, which is generally scattered over the Indian, as well as
the African continent on the eastern side, we shall probably have
before us all the species known to the ancients of this classical
group." The Alexandrine Parrakeet is a beautiful Bird ; its general
plumage is green ; a vermilion collar adorns the neck ; the throat and
a band between the eyes are black ; a mark of purple red ornaments
the shoulders. (See Fig. 1351.)
Fig. 1 35 1. — The Alexandrine Parrakeet.
The Rose-ringed Parrakeet {Pa!ceor?iis torqitattis). — This
beautiful species is probably that described by Solinus as " colore
viridi, torque puniceo ;" its colour is green, with a roseate collar,
and the bill deep ruby. Besides being found in India, it is said to
be abundant on the coast of Senegal. In captivity it is a gentle
engaging Bird, and soon learns to utter sentences with considerable
distinctness. (See Fig. 1352.)
These species of Palczornis are tolei-ably abundant in India,
associating in large flocks, and doing considerable damage to the
crops of fruit and grain. It seems that, as the grain-crops ripen,
THE TOUCANS.
S2>
they frequent the trees in the neighbourhood, whence they make
descents on the fields, retiring again to the trees with the heads of
the grain-plants, which they then eat at their leisure. They breed in
holes of trees and buildings, and lay three or four eggs.
A considerable number of the Birds of this sub-family have the
tarsi elongated, to adapt them for running with ease upon the
ground. The most thoroughly terrestrial species appears to be the
'Pczoporiis for7>iosiis, or Ground Parrakeet of Australia, a beautiful
little Bird, measuring about a foot in length, including the tail,
which is regularly banded with green and black ; the general
plumage is also variegated
with the same colours, each
feather having a blackish-
brown band. This Bird lives
entirely upon the ground ;
and Mr. Gould states that
he never saw it perching,
nor was he ever able to drive
it to take shelter in a tree.
He gives the following ac-
count of its habits: — "It
usually frequents either
sandy sterile districts,
covered with tufts of rank
grass and herbage, or low
swampy flats abounding with
rushes and the other kinds
of vegetation peculiar to
such situations. It is gene-
rally observed either singly
or in pairs ; but, from its
very recluse habits and great
powers of running, it is sel-
dom or ever seen until it is
flushed, and then only for a
short time, as it soon pitches
again, and runs off to a
place of seclusion, often
under the covert of the
grass-tree {Xanthorrhaa),
which abounds in the district
it frequents." Its eggs are
laid on the ground.
In reference to these Birds
we make the following addi-
tions : — ]\Ir. W. S. Dallas, in the " Circle of the Sciences, "remarks, in
respect to the Grass-Parrakeets, that they are inhabitants of
Australia, and, to a considerable extent, terrestrial in their habits ;
but less so than the Bird just described. One of the most charming
of these, and, indeed, of all the Parrots, is the dimmutive Warbling
Grass or Zebra Parrakeet {ilelopsittacus undnlatits), which is found
abundantly over the'i vast central plains of Australia, but is scarcely
ever seen in the districts between the mountain chains of that
singular country and the coast. They feed in large flocks upon the
seeds of the grasses which abound in the plains, but rest during the
heat of the day upon the branches of the gum-trees [Eucalyptus), in
the hollows of which they also lay their eggs, and bring up their
young. Upon these trees they also collect in crowds before starting
in search of water. In captivity these diminutive creatures are
amongst the most pleasing of the Parrots ; for they are not only
elegant in their forms, and lively in their movements, but, instead of
the horrible screeching noise, which renders so many of their larger
and more brilliant brethren exceedingly disagreeable neighbours,
they have a soft warbling note, which is very pleasant. Several
other species of Grass Parrakeets, belonging to the genus EuJ>kema,
are also found in Australia, and they are all exceedingly elegant
little creatures.
The following observations on the Grass-Parrakeets are extracted
from the last edition of the "Guide to the Gardens of the Zoological
Society of London : " —
" The Zebra Grass-ParrA5^eet {Melopsiiiacus utidulaius),
just mentionecl, more genornlly known by the native name of
' Betcherrygah' is easily distinguished by its breast of lovely
green, and back delicately banded with black and yellow. It is one
of the most universally diffused species of the Australian Parrots, and
makes periodical visits to all the settled districts, probably when the
droughts of the interior render its usual haunts untenable from the
scarcity of water. This exquisite little bird differs essentially from
all other Parrots in its faculty of song ; it warbles a low, continuous,
and not unlively melody, something like the strain of the English
Whitethroat. The natural breeding-place of the Zebra Parrakeet is
the hollow arm of some decaying tree ; but it accommodates itself to
circumstances with great facility, and if turned loose in a room will
soon excavate a nesting-hole in a brick wall. It breeds in confine-
ment very readily, if properly treated ; and is certainly one of the
most interesting, as well as one of the most beautiiul, cage-birds
hitherto known. The first living specimen was brought from
Fig. 1352.— The Rose-ringed Parrakeet.
Australia by Mr. Gould, on his return to England in 1840 ; but since
that period a thousand pairs have sometimes been landed in a single
venture.
" The Crested Grass-Parrakeets {Calopsiita nova hoi-
la?!dicB), also breed in this Aviary, and there is scarcely a doubt that
all the species which inhabit the cooler parts of Australia would
reproduce as certainly as those which are here mentioned, wherever
space and congenial treatment can be afforded."
A large number of living specimens of the Parrakeet group will be
found at the Zoological Society's Garden, London ; such as the
Ring-necked Pala;or?i!s torquatus. Pennant's Platycerus -pcn-
naiitl, the King-Parrakeet, the Pale-headed, Barnard's, the Gray-
breasted, the Crimson-winged, Yellow-collared, Crested Ground,
Alexandrine, &c. ; and stuffed specimens of these and many others
are contained in the collection of the British Museum. The Tropical
portions of Asia, and South America, Australia, New Zealand,
&c., are fully represented in these collections in respect to the
Parrakeets.
The Toucans — Family Rham-phastidce.
These richly-coloured Birds are at once remarkable for the
magnitude and figure of the bill, which was known in Europe before
the Birds themselves. Belon (a.d. 1555), in the 28th chapter of the
third book, ' ' De la Nature des Oyseaux vivants le long des rivieres
ayant le pied plat, nommez en Latin Palinij>cdes aves," gives a
figure of the bill of the Toco Toucan, which he describes as belong-
ing to a Bird of the New World (terres neufues), and as being half a
foot in length ; pointed and black at the tip ; white elsewhere ;
slightly notched along the edges ; hollow within ; and so finely
delicate that it is thin and transparent as parchment; its beauty, he
observes, has caused it to be kept in the cabinets of the curious.
He further observes that he has not seen the Bird itself, but suspects
it to be one of those " de pied plat," and therefore places it among
the River-Birds. The same writer, in the "Portraits d'Oyseaux,"
again figures the bill as belonging to a Water-Bird with this
description: "Bee d'un oyseau aquatique, apporte des terres
neufues." Belon's error may be readily pardoned : such a beak as
that of the Toucan, seen for the first time when Ornithology was not
a science, would puzzle any naturalist.
For upwards of a century after the date of Belon's works it does
not appear that the Birds themselves had found their way to
England ; the beak, however, of one species was in the collection of
John Tradescant, and was described in the " Museum Tradescan-
tium " as that of the Ara9ari of Brazil (a.d. 1656), and it is
probable that Tradescant had acquired correct information con-
cerning the nature of the Bird to which it belonged, if indeed he had
not seen a specimen. Petiver (1702) gives a figure of the Toucan,
which, though rude, as were all the engravings of objects of Natural
History at that day, is substantially correct, even to the arrangement
of the toes.
WiUughby figures the Toucan {Rhaiti;phastos toco?) under the
name of^the Brazilian Pie of Aldrovandus, the Toucan of Marcgrave
and others, the Xochitenacatl of the Mexicans. In this figure the
toes are incorrect, owing to a mistake of the artist, for WiUughby
was evidently aware of their zygodactyle character.
The beak of the Toucan (Figs. 1353 and 1354) is, as Belon well
Fig. 1353.— Head and Tongue of the Toucan
observed, of large size, with serrated margins, but of light structure.
being cancellous within. Its proportionate size to the head may be
appreciated by comparing it with the beaks of other Birds which
have this organ well developed, as the Rook and Crow (tig. 1355).
528
THE TOUCANS.
The osseous portions of the mandibles, observes Professor Owen,
are disposed in a manner adapted to combine with the great bulk of
those parts a due degree of strength, and remarkable lightness ;
consequently the bony structure is of the most beautiful and delicate
kind. " The external parietes are extremely thin, especially in the
upper mandible ; they are elastic, and yield in a slight degree to
moderate pressure, but present considerable resistance if a force be
applied for the purpose of crushing the back. At the points of the
mandibles the outer walls are nearly a line in thickness ; at other
parts in the upper mandible they are much thinner, varying from
one-thirtieth to one-fiftieth of an inch in thickness ; in the lower they
Fig. 1354. — Head of the Toucan.
are from one-twentieth to one-thirtieth of an inch in thickness. On
making a longitudinal section of the upper mandible, its base is seen
to include a conical cavity about two inches in length and one inch
in diameter, with the apex directed forwards. The walls of this cone
consist of a most beautiful osseous network intercepting irregular
angular spaces, varying in diameter from half a line to two lines.
From the parietes of this cone a network of bony fibres is continued
to the outward parietes of the mandible, the fibres which immediately
support the latter being almost invariably implanted at right angles
to the part in which they are inserted. The whole of the mandible
anterior to the cone is occupied with a similar network, the meshes
of which are largest in the centre of the beak, in consequence of the
union which takes place between different small fibres as they pass
I^'g- I355-— Heads of the Rook and Crow.
from the circumference inwards. It is remarkable that the principle
of the cylinder is introduced into this elaborate structure ; the
smallest of the supporting pillars of the mandibles are seen to be
hollow or tubular when examined with the microscope. The
structure is the same in the lower mandible, but the fibres composing
the network are in general stronger than those of the upper
mandible." The nostrils are situated at the base of the upper
mandible, where it rises above the level of the skull, and conse-
quently they have a backward aspect, and are secured from any
injury. The tongue is long, slender, flat, and horny, and furnished
on each side with a series of short processes like the barbs of a
feather. It is soft at its base.
Figure 1356 represents the structure of the head and beak of the
Toucan, as investigated by Professor Owen : a. Section of the upper
mandible of Rham;phastos toco, a, The cancellated structure of
the beak ; b, the cavity at the base ; c, branches of the fifth pair of
nerves ; d, d, external orifices of the nostrils ; e, e, osseous parietes
of the nasal passages ; f, osseous tubes protecting the olfactory
nerves ; g, pituitary membrane exposed, and branches of the ol-
factory nerves radiating from it ; k, superior semicircular canals
of the internal ear ; ?', i, hemispheres of the cerebrum ; A-, the cere-
bellum. B, Vertical longitudinal section of the head. The same
letters indicate the same parts as in the upper figure ; /, the tongue ;
9n, the glottis ; 71, the internal aperture to the nostrils ; o, the os
hyoides ; ^, the trachea ; q, the oesophagus ; r, the beginning of
the spinal cord ; s, articulating surface of occipital bone ; i, the
nasal septum or partition ; 11, the air-cell anterior to the orbit, from
which the air passes into the mandible ; v, the cancellated structure
of the lowerjaw.
Fig. 1356. — Internal Structure of Beak and Head of the Toucan.
Figure 1357 shows thh upper surface of the tongue ; /, the fringed
or feathered portion ; jn, the orifice of the larynx ; ti, the orifice of
the pharynx ; o, cornua of os hyoides ; p, trachea or windpipe ; q,
gullet. (Owen.)
Fig. 1357. — Upper surface of the Toucan's Tongue.
Fig. 1358 conveys a clear idea of the zygodactylous arrangement
of the toes in the Birds of the present family.
Those who wish to enter minutely into the anatomy of the Toucan,
we refer to Professor Owen's elaborate paper, in Mr. Gould's
" Rhamphastidae. "
The Rhamphastidm are all natives
of Tropical America, where they live
retired in the deep forests, mostly in
small companies ; their flight is
straight but laborious, and while on
the wing the beak is raised and
directed forwards so as to offer as
little resistance as posible to the air.
Among the branches of the trees their
movements are easy and active ; they
appear to glide from branch to branch,
and in this manner ascend to the very
summits, D'Azara states that the
Toucans are to a certain extent omni-
vorous, living a great part of the year
on fruits, but during the breeding
Fig. 135S.— Foot of the Toucan, season attacking the smaller Birds in
their nests, and devouring their eggs
or their young. Even the eggs and young of the Macaws and
other large Birds often fall victims to their carnivorous propen-
sities.
Mr. Swainson, who had seen the Toucans in their native forests,
was led to suspect the same fact, and informed Mr. Broderip that
he had frequently observed them perched on the tops of lofty trees,
evidently watching the departure of Birds from their nests ; besides
which, the remains of food found in the stomachs of such as were
shot, proved that eggs and young Birds, as well as fruit, constituted
their diet. He never, however, observed them in the act of de-
struction.
Dr. Such stated that he had seen these Birds in Brazil feeding on
the Toucan-berry, and had frequently observed them engaged in
quarrels with the Monkeys, and that he was certain that the Toucans
fed also on eggs and nestlings. Mr. Gould, in his " Monograph of
the Rhamphastidffi," divides them into two great sections : i. Rham-
■phastos, with the bill smooth, the nostrils concealed and placed at
the edge of the thickened frontlet of the bill ; the wings short and
THE TOUCANS.
529
rounded ; the tail square ; the g-eneral ground-colour black ; the
throat, chest, and tail-coverts being of a lively or brilliant hue — red
or yellow. 2. Pteroglosstis [Aracaris), with the bill more con-
tracted in its dimensions, more solid, with the edges more decidedly
serrated, the nostrils vertical, naked, and round upon the upper
edge of the frontlet of the beak ; the tail long and graduated ; the
predominant colour olive-green, varied with red, yellow, &c. In
both groups the skin round the eyes is naked and richly tinted.
Fig. 1359. — Group of Toucans.
We may here appropriately introduce the description by Mr.
Broderip of the habits and manners of a Toucan in captivity ; the
species was the R. erythrorhyncus : — Mr. Vigors stated that the
Bird had been fed on a vegetable diet ; but that the proprietor had
told him that on the occasion of a young Canary-Bird having es-
caped and gone near to the Toucan, the latter appeared more than
usually excited ; that thereupon the barrier between them was re-
moved, and that the Toucan instantly seized and devoured the
Canary-Bird. On the next day Mr. Broderip went to the place
where the Toucan was exhibited, and thus describes what he saw : —
" After looking at the bird which was the object of my visit, and
which was apparently in the highest state of health, I asked the
proprietor to bring up a little bird, that I might see how the toucan
would be affected by its appearance. He soon returned, bringing
with him a goldfinch, a last year's bird. The instant he introduced
his hand with the goldfinch into the cage of the toucan, the latter,
which was on a perch, snatched it with his bill. The poor little
bird had only time to utter a short weak cry ; for within a second it
was dead, killed by compres-
sion on the sternum and abdo-
men, and that so powerful that
the bowels were protruded after
a very few squeezes of the tou-
can's bill. As soon as the gold-
finch was dead, the toucan
hopped with it, still in his bill,
to another perch, and placing it
with his bill between his right
foot and the perch, began to
strip off the feathers with his bill.
When he had plucked away most
of them, he broke the bones of
the wings and legs (still holding
the little bird in ^he same posi-
tion) with his bill, taking the limbs
therein, and giving at the same
time a strong lateral wrench.
He continued this work with
great dexterity till he had almost
reduced the bird to a shapeless
mass ; and ever and anon he would
take his prey from the perch in his
bill, and hop from perch to perch,
making at the same time a
peculiar hollow clattering noise ;
at which times I observed that
his bill and wings were affected
with a vibratory or shivering mo-
tion, though the latter were not
expanded. He w^ould then return
the bird to the perch with his
bill, and set his foot on it. He
first ate the viscera, and con-
tinued pulling off and swallow-
ing piece after piece, till the
head, neck, and part of the back
of the sternum, with their soft
parts, were alone left : these,
after a little more wrenching,
while they were held on the
perch, and mastication, as it
were, while they were held in the
bill, he at last swallowed, not
even leaving the beak or legs of
his prey. The last part gave him
the most trouble ; but it was clear
that he felt great enjoyment ;
for whenever he raised his prey
from the perch he appeared to
exult, now masticating the mor-
sel with his toothed bill and
applying his tongue to it, now
attempting to gorge it, and now
making the peculiar clattering
noise accompanied by the shiver-
ing motion above mentioned.
The whole operation, from the
time of seizing his prey to that
of devouring the last morsel,
lasted about a quarter of an hour.
He then cleansed his bill from
the feathers by rubbing it against
the perches and bars of the
cage. While on this part of the
subject it may be as well to men-
tion another fact, which ap-
peared to me not unworthy of
notice. I have more than once
seen him return his food some time after he had taken it to his crop,
and, after masticating the morsel for awhile in his bill, again
swallow it ; the whole operation, particularly the return of the
food to the bill, bearing a strong resemblance to the analogous
action in ruminating animals. The food on which I saw him so
employed was a piece of beef, which had evidently been macerated
some time in the crop. While masticating it, he made the same
hollow clattering noise as he made over the remains of the goldfinch.
Previous to this operation he had examined his feeding-trough, in
which there was nothing but bread, which I saw him take up and
3 Y
530
THE TOUCANS.
reject ; and it appeared to me that he was thus reduced from
necessity to the abo\-e mode of solacing his palate with animal food.
" His food consists of bread, boiled vegetables, eggs, and flesh, to
which a little bird is now added about every second or third day.
He shows a decided preference for animal food, picking out all
morsels of that description, and not resorting to the vegetable diet
till all the former is exhausted.
" It is said that the nerves are very much expanded within the
internal surface of the bill in these birds ; and independently of the
sensual enjoyment which the toucan above mentioned appeared to
derive from palating his prey, I have observed him frequently
scratching his bill with his foot, which maybe considered as furnish-
ing additional evidence of the sensibility of this organ. While
taking his prey he never used his foot for the purpose of conveying it
either to his bill or elsewhere. The bill was tlie sole vehicle and
the organ actively emploj'ed ; the foot merely confined the prey on
the perch.
" But there is yet another of the peculiarities of this bird which
cannot be passed over in silence, When he settles himself on the
roost, he sits a short time with his tail retroverted, so as to make
an acute angle with the line of his back ; he then turns his bill over
his right shoulder, nestling it in the soft plumage of the back (on
which last the under mandible rests), till the bill is so entirely
covered that no trace of it is visible. When disturbed, he did not
drop his tail, but almost immediately returned his bill to the com-
fortable nidus from which on being disturbed he had withdrawn it.
" He broke, a short time ago, some of his tail-feathers, and the
proprietors informed me that before that accident the bird when at
roost retroverted his tail so entirely that the upper surface of the
tail-feathers lay over and came in contact with the plumage of the
back ; so that the bird had the appearance of a ball of feathers, to
which indeed, when I saw him, he bore a very considerable resem-
blance. The proprietor informs me that he always roosts in the
same wa}'."
The Toucan {Rhamphasfos toed). — This species is the most com-
mon in museums, and appears to have been the first with which
European naturalists became acquainted. It is one of the largest of
its family, measuring twenty-seven inches total length, of which the
bill is seven inches and a-half, and the tail seven : it is at once
distinguished by the black oval mark at the tip of the beak. This
Bird is distributed throughout the whole of wooded districts from the
river Plata to Guiana. (See Fig. 1360.)
Fig. 1360. — The Toco Toucan.
CuviER's Toucan [Rkamphasios cuvierl).— This rare species is
a native of the wooded borders of the Amazon. (See Fig. 1361.)
The beak is brownish-black on the sides, with a large basal belt and
culminal line of greenish-yellow, the basal belt being bounded
behind by a narrow line of black, and before by a broader one of
deep black, which is only apparent in certain lights ; the top of the
head and whole of the upper surface black, with the exception of
the upper tail-coverts, which are bright orange-yellow ; cheeks,
throat, and chest white, with a tinge of greenish-yellow, terminated
by a band of scarlet ; under surface black ; under tail-coverts
scarlet. Total length 24 inches ; bill ■jl, wings 9, tail 6i, tarsi 2.
The Curl-crested Aracari {Pferoglossus ulocomus, Gould.)—
This rare species, one of the most beautiful of its tribe, was first
figured and described by Mr. Gould, in his monograph of the present
family. Two examples formed part of a collection of Birds brought
to this country from Rio de Janeiro. Of these Mr. Gould was so
fortunate as to obtain the tincst, apparently a male, now in the
museum of the Zoological Society ; anotheris in the British Museum.
The native country of this species is probably the dense forest-belt
along the river Amazon ; but we have no details respecting its
Fig. 1361. — Cuvier's Toucan.
history. The beak of this Ara5ari is lengthened, both mandibles
being edged with thickly-set white serratures ; the upper has the
culmen of an orange colour, bordered by a longitudinal stripe of dull
blue extending nearly to the tip, below which the sides of the
mandible are fine orange-red ; a white line surrounds the apertures
of the nostrils ; the under mandible is straw-colour, becoming
orange at the tip ; a narrow band of rich chestnut encircles both
mandibles at their base. The crown of the head is covered with a
crest of curled metal-like feathers without barbs and of an intense
glossy black ; as they approach the occiput these singular feathers
lose their curled character and become straight, narrow, and
spatulate. It is, as Mr. Gould observes, impossible for the pencil to
do justice to the brilliancy of these curiously curled appendages, the
structure of which appears to consist in a dilatation of the shaft of
each feather, or perhaps an agglutination of the web into one mass.
The feathers on the cheeks have the same form as those on the
occiput, but are more decidedly spatulate, being of a yellowish-white
colour, tipped at the extremity with black. The occiput and upper
tail-coverts are of a deep blood-red ; the chest is delicate yellow,
with slight crescent-shaped bars of red ; the back, tail, and thighs
are olive green ; the quills brown ; the tarsi lead-coloured. Total
length 18 inches; bill 4, tail 7J. (See Fig. 1362.)
The Many-banded Aracari {Ptcroglossus ;plurictnctus). —
This beautiful Bird is a native of Brazil. In the male of this kind
a broad band of black advances from the nostrils along the whole of
the culmen, and forms a narrow belt down the sides of the upper
mandible at its base ; the elevated basal margin of the bill is yellow ;
the sides of the upper mandible beautiful orange-yellow, fading into
yellowish-white towards the tip ; under mandible wholly black with a
yellow basal ridge ; head, neck, and chest black ; whole of the upper
surface, except the rump, which is scarlet, dark olive-green ; breast
marked with two broad bands of black, the upper separated from the
throat by an intervening space of yellow dashed with red ; a similar
but broader space separates the two bands of black, the lower of
which is bounded by scarlet, advancing as far as the thighs, which
are brownish-olive ; under the tail-coverts light yellow; naked space
round the eyes, tarsi, and feet dark lead-colour. The female differs
from the male in having the ear-coverts brown, and a narrow belt
of scarlet bordering the black of the throat. Total length 20 inches ;
bill i\\, wings 6i, tail 8J.
THE TOUCANS.
3JI
HuiiBOLDT's Aracari, OR TOUCAN (Pleroglossus Inimholdtii,
Gould).— This species is a native of Brazil, probably near the
Amazon. It is described as follows by Mr. Gould : — Bill larg-e in
proportion to the body ; ab.ind of black occupies the culnien from the
base to the tip ; the remainder of the upper mandible of a dull
yellowish-orange, with the exception of an indefinite mark of black
which springs from each serrature, and a fine line of the same colour
surrounding it near the base ; lower mandible black, with the
exception of the base, which is surrounded with pale yellowish-
orange; the head, back of the neck, throat, and chest black; all
the upper suface, except a spot of scarlet on the rump, of a dull
ohve ; primaries blackish-brown ; under surface pale straw-yellow
with a slight tinge of -green ; thighs chestnut : naked space round
the eyes and tarsi lead-colour. Total length above, 1 6 to 17 inches •
bill 4, wing i\, tail 6], tarsi ig. '
The omnivorous character of these Birds affords us a clue to the
Fig. 1362.— Cud-crested Ara
trees, where various Birds habitually nidify, and there feels for eggs
or nestlings, and draws them forth ;
it can penetrate the basket-work of
nests suspended from the branches,
or the more solid structure of such
as are composed of strong ma-
terials. At the same time it can
use this organ in the acquisition
of fruits, which, being plucked one
by one, it jerks up before swallow-
ing. In its mode of feeding, its
long, elastic, feathery tongue is of
great use, enabling the Bird to turn
the morsel about, and co-opera-
ting with the movements of the
mandibles.
The Toucans and Ara9aris breed
in the hollows of decayed trees,
which they enlarge, and render
commodious by means of the beak,
as Faber and Oviedus were as-
sured ; and it would appear that
from this habit the Spaniards
have applied the name of Carpen-
tero to them, which the Brazilians
call Tacataca, in imitation of the
sound made by chipping the de-
cayed wood. Oviedus, in his
"History of the West Indies,"
observes that no Bird better de-
fends her young against the at-
tacks of the Monkeys, so dangerous
to nestlings, than the Toucan ; for
when she perceives the approach
of these enemies, she so settles
herself in her nest as to put her
bill out at the hole, and gives the
Monkeys such a reception with its
sharp point, that they instantly
retreat, glad to escape.
The Toucans differ from the Ara-
^aris, not only in the points we have
already enumerated, but also in the
circumstance that the females re-
semble the males in the colour of
the plumage, but are rather less in
all their proportions ; while in
many of the Ara<;aris there is
considerable difference in the
colouring of the two sexes. The
young of both genera assume, at
an early age, the permanent tints,
but their bills are not fully de-
veloped for a considerable period :
during life the colouring of the
bills is generally very vivid, but
after death the bright hues fade,
and become sometimes almost
obsolete — a fact which should be
always borne in mind by those who
examine specimens in cabinets or
museums.
The collection of stuffed speci-
mens in the British Museum em-
braces, among others, the follow-
ing species : the Toco Toucan, the
Red-billed, Yellow-throated, Cu-
vier's, Brazilian, the Culminated,
&c. There are also numerous
specimens of the Ara^-ari. In the
collection of the Zoological So-
ciet)', in their Gardens at Regent's
Park, London, are two living
Toucans — the R. caritia/us and
the Toco, H. toco.
53»
THE DOVE TRIBE.
CHAPTER XXXI.
CLASS II.-AVES, OR BIRDS ; ORDER COLUMB^, OR DOVES.
N the " Specchio Generale del Sistema
Ornitologo," the Prince of Canino re-
gards the Pigeon tribe as an order, under
Uiis title — "Order 4. Coluinbcc ;" but in
his "Comparative List of the Birds of
; Europe" he places these Birds in the third
section of his Passeres, under the title
Gyrantes. In Mr. G. R. Gray's arrange-
ment they constitute the fourth order,
termed Columbia. Cuvier places them
at the end of the Gallinaceous order ;
and Mr. Vigors considered them to be an
aberrant family of the same order. On
the contrary, Meyer regarded them as a distinct
order; Temminck arranged them as his ninth order ;
and De Blainville has also thrown them into an
order, which he calls Spousoi-es, ou Ics Columbins,
and which he places between the Passeres {Inses-
sores) and the Pheasants and Partridges {Pasores).
We shall treat them as a separate order, Cohtmla:.
The principal character by which the True Doves
are distinguished from the Gallinaceous Brds, is de-
rived from the structure of the bill. The upper man-
dible is horny, and arched in its apical portion, but
the base is occupied by a second convexity, formed
by a cartilaginous plate which covers the nasal
cavities, and in the anterior portion of which
the nostrils are pierced; this, in its turn, is clothed with a skin
which is smooth and scurfy in some species ; whilst in others,
and even in particular varieties, it acquires a fleshy development, and
forms a warty lump at the base of the bill. (See Fig. 1363.) The
cesophagus speedily widens into a large crop, situated on both sides
of the alimentary canal ; and during the breeding season it is fur-
nished with numerous glands for the secretion of a milky juice. This,
mi.xing with tlie food in the crop, softens it so as to render it more
fit for" the nourishment of the young Birds, which are fed for a con-
siderable time with food regurgitated by
their parents. The gizzard is very
pow-erful, the intestine long and slender,
and the cceca small. Fig. 1364 presents
us with two views of the crop, turned
inside outwards and distended with
spirits : — A. The crop of a Pigeon when
it had no young : b. The crop of a male
Pigeon during the time of roaring the
young; a. The inner surface of the gullet
or oesophagus ; b. The portion of
cesophagus leading from the crop to
the gizzard, with the glands for secret-
ing gastric juice ; c. The inner surface of the crop, which in B
displays the glandular structure, as developed during the breeding
season, the glands at that time assuming a new character and
office, and secreting the milky fluid in great abundance. The
analogy between these glands, their temporary development for a
given purpose, and the mammary glands of Quadrupeds, need not
be insisted on.
The tarsi are usually short, rather stout, and covered with scutella,
but sometimes feathered. The toes are four in number, of moderate
Fig. 1363.-
-Ilead of the Rock-
Dove.
1364. — Crop of the Pigeon.
length, the hind-toe being placed on the same plane as the anterior
ones, which are not united by a membrane, even at the base, although
in some cases the outer toe is completely united to the middle one at
the base ; the upper surface of all the toes is covered with short
scutella, and beneath these the toes are considerably flattened, and
clothed with a papillate skin. The claws are rather short, and
cur\'ed. (See Fig. 1365.)
The quill-feathers of "the wings and tail are very uniform in number.
The former are generally long and pointed, and have ten primary
quills ; the tail is almost always composed of twelve feathers — rarely
of si.xteen. The general plumage is distinguished from that of the
Gallinaceous Birds by the absence of the plumules, or accessory
feathers, greatly developed in the latter.
The CohdnbcB, in general, are arboreal in their habits ; but most
of them seek their food on the ground ; and they all, notwithstanding
the shortness of their legs, walk with ease and considerable celerity.
Their flight, as might'be expected from the form and size of their
wings, is strong and sustained, and some species perform consider,
able migrations. In this respect they offer a striking contrast to the
heavy, short-winged Gallinaceous Birds, whose flight is usually slow,
and only capable of being maintained for a short distance. In their
mode of drinking, also, they diff'er remarkably from all other Birds ;
for, instead of taking up a small quantity of water in the mouth, and
then swallowing it by raising the head, they immerse the bill in the
water, and drink without stopping until they are satisfied. The
Pigeons generally nestle in trees or in the holes of rocks ; rarely on
the ground. The young, when hatched, are quite helpless, and re-
quire to be fed carefully by their parents for some time, during which
they remain in the nest. The duty of incubation, and the care of the
young, is shared by both jparents.
These Birds are found in all the
warm and temperate parts of the
globe ; but it is in the warmer re-
gions that they occur in the greatest
abundance. There, also, many of
the species attain a splendour of
plumage which rivals almost any-
thing else that we meet with
amongst the feathered inhabitants
of the air, and of which our native
species, although by no means
deficient in beauty, can give us no
idea. Everywhere the Doves are
regarded with more or less favour,
doubtless owing, in a great
measure, to their reputation for
conjugal fidelity, and the peculi-
Fig. 1365. — Foot of Ring-Dove from arly melancholy sound of their
above and beneath. voice, which is universally a plain-
tive cooing. These characters,
coupled with the continual exhibition of all the signs of a most tender
affection between the sexes during the breeding season, induced
the ancients to consecrate the Dove to Venus. In many Christian
countries, also, the Dove is regarded as a sacred animal, because,
under its form, the Holy Spirit is described as having descended
upon our Saviour at his baptism. The following cut illustrates a
group of this family. (See Fig. 1366.)
At what period man added the Pigeon to his list of domestic re-
tainers of the feathered race is not very clear, but it was evidently at
a remote period. We find abundant references to it in the classical
writers, and we know that it was among the clean animals according
to the law of Moses. In the East, the Dove, or Pigeon, has always
been regarded with favour, and has been employed, time immemorial ,
as a carrier of letters or written messages ; its rapidity of flight, its
almost unerring instinct in finding its way home, and the eagerness
with which it returns to its dwelling, recommending it for such a use.
In Persia, and other parts of the East, Pigeons are kept in multitudes
for the sake of the manure produced : towers are built on the out-
skirts of the town for them, and vast clouds of these Birds may be
seen issuing from them, returning to them, or wheeling in the air
around their pinnacles. The passage in Isaiah (1.x. 8), " Who are
these that fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their windows," is, as
Mr. Morier has observed, illustrated by reference to those Pigeon-
towers which he noticed around the outskirts of Ispahan. W^ith re-
spect to the extraordinary flights of these Birds, he says, " Their
numbers, and the compactness of their mass, literally looked like a
cloud at a distance, and obscured the sun in their passage." It is
probable that the Jews, requiring Pigeons as they did for offerings
at the Temple, built similar towers : the Egj'ptians certainly did, as
THE DODO.
533
is proved by ancient paintings and the mosaic pavement at Prasneste,
where Pigeon-towers similar to those of Ispahan are represented, but
without the conical crowns.
Sub-divisions. — These Birds may be divided into five families.
In the first, the Didi/iicii/ida;, the bill is about as long as the head,
with the upper mandible much depressed at the base, strongly arched
in its apiL:al portion, and hooked and acute at the tip ; the lower
mandible has the apex truncated, and three distinct teeth on each
side, near the ape.x. The nostrils are placed in the middle of the
membranous depressed portion of the base, The tarsi are stout ;
Fig. 1366 A Group of Pigeons.
a, the Pouter ; b, the Carrier ; c, the Jacobin ; d, the Ring-Dove, or Cushat ; e, the Rock-Dove (the
orinin of our doiaestic birds) ; /, the Fan-tailed Pigeon ; g, the Nun ; /;, the Tumbler.
and the toes long, with long curved claws. This family includes
only a single species, the Didu/iculus strtgirosiris, a Bird a little
larger than a Partridge, which inhabits the Navigator's Islands.
This Bird has the head and neck, and the whole lower surface, with
the exception of the under tail-coverts, black, glossed with green ;
the upper surface and the lower tail-coverts are chestnut-red, and
the bill, and a ring of n.aked skin round the eyes, are yellow. From
some notes on this Bird, communicated to the Zoological Society by
Lieut. Walpole, R.N., it appears that the Didiinaih remam almost
constantly upon trees, feeding upon berries and fruits during the
day, and roosting at night amongst the branches. They fiy pretty
well, and are generally seen either in pairs or small flocks. They
nidificate amongst the rocks in the interior of the islands, and the
young, like those of other Pigeons, are naked and helpless. Their
flesh is excellent. The natives, according to Lieutenant Walpole,
"are fond of keeping the Didunculi tame, as pets, either taking
them from the nest, or, when older, with bird-lime. They attach the
bird by a long string fastened round one leg, to a stick about two
feet in length, with a fork at the end, which is stuck generally in the
wall inside the hut, but sometimes in the ground outside. Th«i
natives, when they walkj often carry with them these sticks with the
birds attached, and train the birds to leave the stick occasionally,
and hover over it till it is again presented for the bird to perch on —
the line by which it is attached being long enough to admit of this
operation." The Didienctilus is, however, particularly interesting
from its constituting the nearest
approach, amongst existing Birds,
\o the singular extinct Bird, the
Podoi the true position of which
has been shown, by Messrs. Strict'
land and Melville, to be amongst
the CulumbcB.
The Dodo— Family Dididcs.
The Dodo {Didics irieptus). —
Dronte, Bontius ; Walgh-Vogel of
the Dutch mariners, according to
Clusius ) Dod-aers of the Dutchi
and Dod-eersen ; Solitario of th^
Portuguese ; Gallus galli7iaceui
pe?-cgri?itts, Clusius ; Cygiius en-
cicUatus, Nieremberg. It is the
type of the second family of the
ColiiDiba: — viz., Dididcs.
Till the discovery, in 1505, of
the islands now called Bourbon,
Mauritius, and Rodriguez (but first
termed the Mascarenhas Islesj
from the name of the Portuguesd
navigator who discovered them))
they appear never to have been
occupied as a residence by man ;
perhaps no human foot had ever
trod their shores, no human voice
broken the stillness of their wood-
land solitudes. In these islands,
for ages, had the Dodo existed
undisturbed, at least by the great
marauder, by whom at last its
race was to be extinguished. (See
Fig. 1367-)
It appears, indeed, if the species
be the same, that the Dodo was
at one time not confined to those
islands, and that it was, previously
to 1505, known to the Portuguese
mariners under the name of
Solitario ; for Vasco de Gama, in
1497, after doubling the Cape of
Storms (the Cape of Good Hope),
found an island near a bay (Angra
de San Blaz) where Sohtarios
were plentiful ; and again in 1499,
touchmg at the same place, the
crew took a number of them. T he
sailors compared these Birds to
Swans, and called the island " Ilha
des Cisnes," or Isle of Swans.
In 1614 Castleton visited Bourbon ;
there he found the Dodo abundant,
and so tame as to allow itself to
be killed with sticks or stones.
He had also met with the Bird in
Mauritius, where they are, as he
states, in great plenty, and known
by the name of giants. The
Island of Rodriguez, which, though
previously known, had perhaps not been visited, being surrounded
by coral reefs, and also being destitute of secure anchorage, was
examined by Leguat in 1691, who, with several companions, re-
mained some time with a view to colonisation. He there found the
Dodo, which he terms Solitaire, or the Solitar)', because it never
congregates in flocks, though it is very abundant. He gives some
particulars respecting it, which agree in the main with those detailed
in Herbert's " Travels," published in 1634, and accompanied by a
figure.
" The males have generally a greyish or brown plumage, the feet
of the Turkey, and also the beak, but a little more hooked. They
have hardly any tail, and their rump, covered with feathers, is
rounded like the croup of a horse. They stand higher than the
turkey-cock, and have a straight neck, a little longer in proportion
than it is in that bird when it raises its head. The eye is black and
S34
THE DODO.
lively, and the head without any crest or tuft. They do not fly, their
wing's being too short to support the weight of their bodies ; they
only use them in beating their sides, and in whirling round." The
females he states to be of a blond or pale brown colour ; they build a
nest with leaves of the palm-tree on a clear spot of ground, laying
only one egg, larger than that of a Goose. The weight of the males
is forty-five or fifty pounds, and the i5esh is, as he says, a delicacy.
In this description one important point is omitted ; that is, the hooded
character of the head, well expressed in the account alluded to in
Herbert's "Travels." Leguat's figure is either very bad or his
Solitaire is distinct from the Dodo.
In the voyage to the East Indies, by Jacob van Neck and Wybrand
van Warwyk, 1598, the Dodo is noticed as inhabiting the Island of
Cerne (Mauritius) ; and De Bry, in his description of the Island of
Cerne, says — " Cerulean parrots abound there, as well as other
birds ; besides which is another kind, of large size, exceeding our
swans, with vast heads, and one-half covered with a skin, as it were,
hooded. These birds are without wings, in the place of which are
three or four black feathers. A few curved, delicate, ash-coloured
feathers constitute the tail. These birds are called Walck-Vogel,
Fig. 1367.— The Dodo.
because the longer or more slowly they were cooked, the worse they
were for eating. Their breasts and bellies were nevertheless of a
pleasant flavour, and easy of mastication ; but another cause for the
appellation we gave them was the preferable abundance of turtle-
doves, which were of a far sweeter and more grateful flavour." De
Bry gives a figure in his frontispiece. Clusius, in his " E.xotica,"
1605, gives a figure of this Bird, taken from a sketch ad naturam,
by a Dutch voyager, who had seen the Bird in 1598. In the "Voyage
of Jacob Heemskirk and Wolfert Harmansz to the East Indies in
;6oi, 1602, 1603," and in Willem Ysbrantsz Bontckoe van Hoorn's
" Journal of the Fast India Voyage, &c., in 1618 to 1624," the Dodo
is noticed as inhabiting the Mauritius. Herbert, in his " Travels,"
1634, describes and figures the Dodo; it is also described and
figured well by Bontius, 1658. To this catalogue of authorities more
might be added— but we will not weary our readers. Among the
many descriptions of the Bird by travellers and writers of credit, we
will content ourselves with that of Bontius. "The Dronte, or
Dod-aers," he says, " is for bigness of mean size between an ostrich
and a turkey, from which it partly differs in shape and partly agrees
with them, especially with the African ostriches, if you consider the
rump, quills, and feathers ; so that it was like a pigmy among them,
if you regard the shortness of its legs. It hath a great ill-favoured
head, covered with a kind of membrane resembling a hood ; great
black eyes ; a bending, prominent, fat neck ; an extraordinary long,
strong, bluish-white bill, only the ends of each mandible are of a
different colour — that of the upper, black ; that of the nether, yel-
lowish ; both sharp-pointed and crooked. It gapes huge wide, as
being naturally very voracious. Its body is fat, round, covered with
soft grey feathers, after the manner of an ostrich's ; in each side,
instead of hard wing-feathers or quills, it is furnished with small,
soft-feathered wings, of a yellowish ash-colour ; and behind, the
rump, instead of a tail, is adorned with five small curled feathers of
the same colour. It hath yellow legs, thick, but very short ; four
toes in each foot, solid, long, as it were scaly, armed with strong
black claws. It is a slow-paced and stupid bird, and which easily
becomes a prey to the fowlers. The flesh, especially of the breast,
is fat, esculent, and so copious, that three or four dodos will some-
times suffice to fill an hundred seamen's bellies. If they be old, or
not well boiled, they are of difficult concoction, and are salted and
stored up for provision of victual. There are found in their stomachs
stones of an ash-colour, of divers figures and magnitudes ;
yet not bred there, as the com-
mon people and seamen fancy,
but swallowed by the bird ; and
though by this mark also nature
would manifest that these fowl
are of the ostrich kind, in that
they swallow any hard things,
though they do not digest
them." (Willughby's Trans-
lation.)
There is some reason to be-
lieve that a living Dodo was
exhibited in England in 1638.
(See Sloane's MSS., No. 1839,
5, p. 108, Brit. Mus.) In the
British Museum is preserved a
painting of this Bird, the copy
of an original which was taken
from a living specimen sent to
Holland from Mauritius, while
that island was held by the
Dutch. This copy was the pro-
perty of Sir Hans Sloane, and
afterwards of Edwards, by
whom it was deposited in the
Museum. As it agrees with
other figures — -namely, one in
Clusius, one in Herbert's
" Travels," and one in Wil-
lughby's " Ornithology," taken
from Bontius, we have every
reason to rely upon it as an
accurate representation. For-
merly a perfect specimen,
noticed by Ray, existed in Tra-
descant's Museum. This spe-
cimen afterwards passed into
the Ashmolean Museum at
Oxford, where it still existed as
late as 1700; it subsequently
fell to decay, the head and a
foot alone remaining. A foot
of this Bird is preserved in
the British Museum, and a
breast-bone in the Museum at
Paris.
We have seen a cast of the head of that in the Ashmolean Mu-
seum, and a most extraordinary head it is ; there is something
greatly Vulture-like in the whole of its conformation. For example,
as we find in the Vultures, it was evidently capable of being retracted
within a hood or duplicature of skin thinly covered with downy
feathers ; the beak is stout, deep, and powerful, considerably
elongated, and strongly hooked at the tip ; its base is covered
with an extensive cere, at the termination of which, near the edge of
the upper mandible, are the nostrils ; the gape is wide, extending
beyond the eye ; the skin of the throat was loose and thinly clothed ;
and the top of the head appears to have been naked, or only sprinkled
with feathers. The measurements are as follow :— from the eye to
the end of the beak, six inches ; to the nostril, three inches ; breadth
of the skull across the forehead, three inches and a quarter ; mean
depth of beak, two inches and a quarter. Though we say the head
is Vulture-like in its contour, we would guard ourselves from the
assertion that it was to the Vulture family the Dodo belonged, as
M. Blainville and some naturalists contend ; other parts of its
structure, to judge from the painting and the descriptions of early
travellers, militate against such a supposition. Cuvier refers it to the
Gallinaceous order. "Mr. Dallas remarks that the nostrils were placed
HERONS,
THE DODO.
S^S
on the sides of the depressed portion of the bill, which was covered by
a naked skin ; the face was similarly clothed. The feet were very
short and stout, but bore a considerable resemblance to those of a
Pigeon. The wings were also very short, and quite incapable of
raising the Bird into the air, even had they been furnished with the
ordinary stiff quill-feathers ; but, instead of these, they bore a few
soft decomposed plumes, like those of the Ostrich ; and the tail was
adorned with a tuft of similar, but smaller feathers. This rudimen-
tary condition of the wings led to the Dodo's being placed amongst
the Cursorial Birds by many writers. The general colour of the
Dodo was a blackish-grey, but the plumes of the wings were of a
light ash colour.
In the little island of Rodriguez, lying in the ocean to the east of
the Mauritius and Bourbon, where the Dodo abounded, it appears,
from some bones in the possession of the Zoological Society, that
three species of wingless Birds formerly existed. One of these Mr.
Bartlett considers to be identical with the Dodo of the Mauritius :
another was nearly twice the size of the Dodo ; whilst the third was
rather smaller than that Bird, The latter is probably the Solitaire,
which is described by Leguat, a French voyager, in the following
terms (see Fig. 1368) : —
Fig. 136S. — Le Solitaire, from Leguat.
" Of all the birds in the island," says he, "the most remarkable
is that which goes by the name of the Solitary, because it is very
seldom seen in company, though there is an abundance of them. The
feathers of the male are of a brown-gray colour ; the feet and beak are
like a turkey's, but a little more crooked. They have scarce any
tail, but their hind-part, covered with feathers, is roundish, like the
crupper of a horse ; they are taller than the turkeys. Their neck
is straight, and a little longer, in proportion, than a turkey's when
it lifts up its head. Its eye is black and lively, and its head without
comb or cap. They never fly ; their wings are too little to support
the weight of their bodies : they serve only to beat themselves, and
to flutter when they c^Jl one another. They will whirl about for
twenty or thirty times together, on the same side, during the space
of four or five minutes. The motion of their wings makes then a
noise, very like that of a rattle, and one may hear it two hundred
paces off. The bone of their wings grows greater towards the ex-
tremity, and forms a little round mass under the feathers, as big as
a musket-ball. That and its beak are the chief defence of this bird.
'Tis very hard to catch it in the woods, but easy in open places,
because we run faster than they, and sometimes we approach them
without much trouble. From March to September they are extremely
fat, and taste admirably well, especially while they are young.
Some of the males weigh forty-five pounds.
" The females are wonderfully beautiful, some fair, some brown;
I call them fair, because they are of the colour of fair hair. They
have a_ sort of peak, like a widow's, upon their breasts (beaks ?),
which is of a dun colour. No one feather is straggling from the
other all over their bodies, they being very careful to adjust them-
selves, and make them all even with their beaks. The feathers on
their thighs are round, like shells, at the end, and being there very
thick, have an agreeable effect. They have two risings on their
craws, and the feathers are whiter there than the rest, which livelily
represents the fine neck of a beautiful woman. They walk with so
much stateliness and good grace, that one cannot help admiring and
loving them ; by which means their fine mien often saves their
lives."
Making allowance for some poetic license, which the gallantry of
the worthy Leguat appears to have induced him to take in his
description of the females, this appears to be a trustworthy account
of the aspect and manners of a Bird nearly allied to the Dodo ; and
in this case, at any rate, Leguat is not deserving of the censure of
Cuvier, who does not consider his testimony of any great value. At
all events, some of the bones above referred to belonged to a Bird
about the size attributed by Leguat to the Solitaire, and recent
authors have appropriated Gmelin's name of Didus solitarius to
this Bird. To the third species, Mr. Bartlett gives the name of
Didics tiazaretius, which was employed by Gmelin for a Bird de-
scribed by Frangois Coache, many years ago, under the name of the
l)odo, but to which he ascribes only three toes. The occurrence of
at least three species of large Wingless Birds upon these islands,
separated as they are by many miles of sea, is a most remarkable
circumstance ; and, as the Birds could by no possibility pass from
one island to the other, the only plausible supposition by which
their presence can be accounted for is, that these islands at one
time formed part of a great continent, which is now submerged be-
neath the waves of the great Indian Ocean. As the Birds were in
existence at a comparatively recent period, some naturalists are not
without expectations that the same, or allied, species may still be
found in the neighbouring and almost unexplored island of Mada-
gascar. It will be exceedingly interesting, if we should hereafter
receive living specimens of Birds, the very existence of which was
regarded as apocryphal by many eminent naturalists.
The various figures of the Dodo here given are derived from
Fig. 1369. — The Dodo, from De Biy.
different works : — Fig. 1369, the Dodo, from De Bry ; Fig. i3;o, the
same, from Clusius ; Fig. 1371, the same, from Herbert; Fig. 1372,
the same, from Bontius ; Fig. 1368, le Solitaire, from Leguat ; Fig.
1373, the Head of the Dodo, from a cast from the Oxford specimen ;
Fig. 1370. — The Dodo, from Clusius.
Fig. 1374, the Leg of the Dodo,
Museum. Tarsus, four inches
inches ; middle toe, three inches.
The third family is that of the
from the specimen in the British
and a-half; circumference, four
Gourida;, or Ground Pigeons, in
which the bill is of moderate size, slender, straight, and much arched
536
THE PIGEONS.
at the apex ; the tarsi long and stout ; and the toes long, margined
uith a sort of membrane, and furnished with short curved claws.
These Birds approach more nearly than any of the other members of
the order to the true Gallinaceous Birds ; their tarsi are longer, and
they generally live in flocks upon the ground, where they seek their
Fig. 137 1. — The Dodo, from Herbert.
food, consisting of seeds, &c., and rarely perch upon trees. They
are found in the warm parts of both hemispheres, and some of them
attain a considerable size ; the type of the family, the Crowned
Pigeon of the Indian Archipelago {Goiira coronata), being nearly
as large as a Turkey. It is kept in the poultry-yards in Java, but
does not breed in Europe. Many of the species are exceedingly
beautiful; one of them, the Nicobar Pigeon {CaI(Z7!as Jiicobaricd),
is remarkable not only in this respect, but also for the resemblance
Fig. 1372.— The Dodo, from Bontius.
in the arrangement of the tail-feathers to that of the Cock. This
Bird is of a dark purplish, or nearly black, colour, with the feathers
of the neck long, pointed, and glossed with blue, red, and gold ;
the wings are blue ; the back brilliant golden-green ; and the tail
white. It is found in several parts of India.
The True Pigeons— Family Columbidm.
The Coliimbidcs, or True Pigeons, is the family to which all our
British species belong. These Birds present the characters of the
order in their greatest perfection. The bill is rather slender, horny,
arched, and acute at the tip, covered with a soft tumid skin at the
base ; the nostrils are pierced in the form of longitudinal slits in
the front of the basal swelling ; tarsi are short, and usually about
equal in length to the hinder toe ; the anterior toes are elongated.
These Birds generally live in wooded places, and roost in the trees.
They feed, however, for the most part on the ground, picking up
seeds of all kinds, young herbage, and roots. In the autumn some
of them eat large fruits, such as beech-mast and acorns, which they
are obliged to swallow whole, their bills not being strong enough
to make any impression on them. Some of them make their nests
amongst the branches of trees ; others in hollow trees, or in holes
of rocks ; and it appears that, in Norfolk, the Stock- Dove {Columba
CBnas) often 'lays its eggs in deserted Rabbit-burrows, generally
without a nest. This Bird also nestles in thick furze-bushes upon
the heaths in the same county; but in other localities it is said to
live in woody places, and to build in trees, like its congeners. The
largest of the British species is the Ring-Dove, or Cushat {Columba
^alunibus), which is generally distributed in all the wooded parts
of the country ; the Stock-Dove, on the contrary', is found only in
the southern and midland counties of England ; and these are also
the parts most frequented by the Turtle- Dove {Columba tiirtur),
which, however, is only a summer visitor to this country. A fourth
Fig. 1373. — Head of the Dodo, at O.xford.
British species is the Rock-Dove {Columba livia). The following
gives a more specific account of these and other species.
The Ring-Dove, or Cushat {Colmnba ^alumOits). — This Bird
is the largest of our Wild Pigeons, and is common in the wooded
districts of our island, as well as of the greater portion of Europe. In
the winter it assembles in numerous flocks, which resort to the
stubble-lands in quest of food. It devours all kinds of grain, peas,
beech-mast, acorns, berries, and the green leaves of the turnip.
During this season of the year its numbers are often increased by
the arrival of flocks from the more northern parts of Europe ; but in
our island, and in France and the southern countries, it is not
migratory. No naturalist has regarded tlie Ring-Dove as identical
with the Domestic Pigeon. Its mode of building its nest — a flat
platform of twigs laid crossways on the fork of a branch — its size,
Fig. 1374. — Foot of the Dodo, in the British Museum.
its refusal when in captivity to breed with the pigeon, and the
failure of every attempt to reduce it to a state of domestication, are
of themselves, setting aside colouring, sufficient proofs of specific
distinctness.
The Stock-Dove {Columba cBnas). — This Bird derives its name
from being, as was presumed, but erroneously, the stock to which
the common Pigeon is referable. This error arose, no doubt, from
our early ornithologists having confounded the Stock-Dove with the
Rock-Dove, and so mixed up the history of both. Montagu, in his
" Dictionary of Ornithology," confounds these Birds together,
deeming the Columba livia and the C. csnas to be identical. His
description, however, refers to the C. livia (Rock-Dove) ; and it
would seem that he was unacquainted with the true C. anas.
White, in his " History of Selborne," well distinguishes the Stock-
Dove and the " small blue rock-pigeon," observing, that " unless the
stock-dove in winter greatly varies from itself in summer, no species
seems more unlikely to be domesticated and to make a liou3c-dovc.
We very rarely see the latter settle on trees at all, nor does it ever
haunt the woods : but the former, as long as it stays with us, from
November perhaps to February, lives the same wild life with the
ring-dove : frequents coppices and groves, supports itself chiefly by
mast, and delights to roost in the tallest beeches. Could it be
known in what manner the stock-doves build, the doubt would be
settled with me at once, provided they construct their nests on trees,
like the ring-dove, as I must suspect they do."
From this it appears that White had only a partial degree of in-
formation respecting the Stock-Dove. This Bird is indigenous in
our island, breeding in the woods ; but its localities are circum-
scribed. In winter the flocks are increased by accessions from
the northern provinces of Europe ; but these visitants depart in
spring.
In our island the Stock-Dove limits its range almost exclusively to
the midland counties, and is common in Hertfordshire. It is rarely
THE CAKRIER PIGEON.
S37
seen in the southern or western counties, and still more rarely in the
northern. It makes a nest of twigs, in the holes of decayed and
timeworn trees, and in cavities on the top of pollards, but never
places it on the forked or spreading branches of a tree. As is the
case with all the Dove tribe, its eg-gs are two in number.
The Stock-Dove is not only found in Europe, but in the'northern
provinces of Africa, and in various parts of Asia. We have seen
specimens from the neighbourhood of Trebizond and Erzeroum, where
it is said to be common.
Selby thus details the colours of the Stock-Dove : — " Head and
throat deep bluish-grey ; sides of the neck glossed, with different
shades of green and purple ; the feathers shorter and more distinct
than those of the rock-dove ; lower parts of the neck and breast pale
lavender-purple ; belly, thighs, and under tail-coverts, bluish-grey,
with a slight purplish tinge ; back, deep bluish-grey ; wing-coverts
paler, and some of the greater ones spotted and barred with black,
but not forming any defined bar as in the above-mentioned species.
1375. — The Carrier Pigeon.
Quills blackish-grey, the outer webs near the base of the feathers
passing inlu bluish-^rey ; lower part of the back and tail-coverts
bluish-grey ; tail bluish-grey, with a broad black bar at the end, and
having the outermost feathers margined with white ; iris brownish-
red ; legs and toes bright cochineal-red."
As we have already stated, the Stock-Dove has been confounded
with the Rock-Dove, and the characters of the latter have been con-
sequently given as those of the former. The Rock-Dove, however,
is a totally distinct species, and its habits are unlike those of any
other of our Cohnnha}. As its name imports, it frequents rocks and
precipices, especially along the sea-coast, and is far from being un-
common. It is partial to deep caverns, in which it breeds. It haunts
the caves in the cliff at St. Abb's Head, on the Berwickshire coast ;
those in the Isle of Bass ; of Caldy Island, South Wales ; and of the
wild precipices of the Orkneys. We have seen it frequenting the
Steeples of churches near the coast, and have remarked numbers in-
habitmg the holes and crevices in the higher parts of Canterbury
Cathedral. In the latter instances it may be said th,at the Birds arc
merely the emancipated descendants of our domestic breed. If so,
with their freedom they have regained their genuine colours in most
instances.
We have seen many .specimens from Northern Africa and Western
Asia. Selby states that it is numerous in the rocky islands of the
Mediterranean, where it lives and breeds in caverns on the shore ;
in the island of Teneriffe it is met with in incredible numbers.
The Rock-Dove is more slender than the Stock-Dove, and is
astonishingly rapid in flight. It may at once be distinguished from
the latter by the white colour of the lower part of the back, and the
two distinct bands of leaden black across the wings. These dis-
tinctive marks are found in our ordinary Dovecote Pigeons; and
when in the fancy kinds they become, by the breeder's art, impercep-
tible, they are ever ready to return, and hence one of the difficulties
of keeping up a particular fancy stock. It is, then, to the Rock-
Dove, a species almost universally
spread in its wild state throughout the;
Old World, that the Domestic Pigeon
and its varieties must be referred. All
these varieties breed with each other,
and with the wild Rock-Dove ; and
without due care, all soon degenerate,
as it is termed, and acquire the origi-
nal form and colouring.
The Carrier Pigeon.— Of all our
Domestic Pigeons none equal the
Carrier in rapidity of wing and powers
of endurance. It was originally
brought to Europe from the East ; and
Lithgow, the traveller, tells us that one
of them would carry a letter from
Babylon to Aleppo, which is thirty days'
journey, in forty-eight hours. It is
recorded that a gentleman of Cologne,
having business to transact in Paris,
took with him two Carrier Pigeons
which had young at the time, and on
arriving in Paris at ten o'clock in the
morning, he tied a letter to each of
liis Pigeons, and despatched them at
eleven precisely. One of them arrived
in Cologne at five minutes past one
o'clock, the other nine minutes later ;
and, consequently, they had performed
nearly 150 miles in an hour, reckoning
their flight to have been in a direct
ine. The ordinary flight of this Bird
is about a mile a minute. We need
not say that it is to its home, from
which it is purposely taken, that the
Pigeon maiies its way. It is evident
to all conversant with this Bird, that
it has the strongest affection for its
own home — an instinctive nostalgia,
which, in old Birds, can scarcely be
eradicated by time : confined for weeks
or months — on gaining their liberty,
off they ily to the old " familiar spot,"
and if taken away again, still return
on the first opportunity. Young
Birds are much more easily recon-
ciled to a change of tenement, and soon
learn to regard the new place as their
own. It is this desire — this longing for
home, which impels the Pigeon carried
to a distant spot and turned loose, to
attempt to regain it ; and regain it the
Bird does, at least, in general ; but the
query arises— how does it know in
what direction its home lies ? how does it know which way to direct
its rapid course ? If the distance be short, we can easily conceive
that the Bird, making wide circles at a great elevation, may, at one
part of the circle, discern some known object, which will at once
indicate the direction to be followed. A circle of three or four miles
would give the Bird the command of a very wide extent of country :
and a tall object, as a spire, previously visited voluntarily, or seen
from its abode, would afford the desired clue. This perhaps may
account, in ordinary cases, for the return of the Pigeon to its home ;
but it will not account for the return of the Bird from great distances.
We hear of Pigeons being brought from towns on the continent, as
Brussels, &:c., and set at liberty in London ; and of their return in a
comparatively short space of time, few of their number failing to find
their way. Trials of this kind have been often repeated ; and,
unless the weather proves misty, or fogs hang over the sea, the Birds
cross the Channel safely and regain their home. That they are
3Z
538
THE DOVES.
sometimes dispersed and lost in foggy weather proves that they use
their sight in pursuing their homeward course : but still the difficulty
remains — how is that course determined ? The same difficulty meets
us in the migration of the Swallow. Its winter abode is Western
Africa. It finds its way to the African shores, and returns again to
Europe : but, what is more, the same pair will steer not only for
England, but for the very chimney or barn which they habitually
tenant as their summer breeding-place ; and it is probable that they
visit a determinate spot in Africa. It is one of the facts in natural
history which we must be content to leave unexplained. (See Fig.
I375-)
The following account of a race between an express railway tram
and a Carrier Pigeon, which took place in 1877, will be read with
interest.
" Yesterday (July 13), an exciting race took place from Dover to
London, between the Continental mail express train and a carrier
pigeon conveying a document of an urgent nature for the French
police. The rails, carriages, and engine of the express train were,
as might be expected, of the best possible construction forpowcrand
speed. The pigeon, which was bred by Messrs. Hartley and Sons,
of Woolwich, and ' homed ' when a few weeks old to a building in
Cannon Street, City, was also of tlie best breed of homing pigeons,
known as 'Belgian voyageurs. ' The bird was tossed through the
railway carriage window by a French official as the train moved from
the Admiralty Pier, the wind being west and the atmosphere hazy,
but with the sun shining. For upwards of a minute the carrier
pigeon circled round to an altitude of about half a mile, and then
sailed away towards London. By this time the train which carried
the European mails, and was timed not to stop between Dover and
Cannon Street, had got up to full speed, and was journeying at the
rate of sixty miles an hour towards London. The odds at starting
seemed against the bird, and the railway officials, justly proud and
confident in the strength of their iron horse, predicted the little aerial
messenger would fail ; but the race was not to the strong. The
carrier pigeon, as soon as it ascertained its bearings, took the nearest
route in a direction midway between Maidstone and Sittingbourne,
the distance, as the crow flies, between Dover and London being
seventy miles, and by rail seventy-six and a-half miles. As the
Continental Mail Express came puffing into Cannon Street Station,
the pigeon had been home twenty minutes, having beaten the train
by a time allowance representing eighteen miles."
The Rock-Dove [Columba livia). — Le Bisset, and Le Roche-
raye, Coulon, Colombe, and Pigeon of the French; Palombella,
Piccione di Torre, Piccione di Rocca of the Italians ; Feldtaube,
Haustaube, Hohltaube, Blautaube, and Holtztaube of the Germans ;
Rock-Pigeon, English; Colommen, ancient British. (See Fig. 1376.)
Fig. 1376.— The Rock-Dove.
We have already stated that this Bird is the original of most of
our domestic varieties. In a state of nature, this Bird, which is very
generally distributed over the northern temperate portion of the
Eastern Hemisphere, lives and breeds entirely in holes of rocks, and
is to be found abundantly on all our rocky coasts. It feeds on grain,
and is also said to eat considerable numbers of several species of
Snails. It produces two broods in the year, each consisting of a pair
of Birds. Our space will, of course, preclude any description of the
numerous varieties of this Bird produced by domestication, some of
which differ so widely from each other and from the original stock,
that it is difficult to imagine that they all belong to the same species.
The nearest approach to the wild species is made by the common
House Pigeon, many specimens of which almost exactly resemble
their original parents in form and colour ; but the various kinds of
fancy Pigeons, as they are called, exhibit most remarkable differ-
ences in both these particulars. Thus, in the Tumblers, which in
their general form present the closest resemblance to the common
Pigeon, the head and bill are greatly reduced in size, and the Birds
have also acquired the curious habit of turning over suddenly in the
air : in the Carriers the head and bill are much elongated, and the
naked skin about the base of the bill, and round the eyes, is greatly
developed, fleshy, and warty. The Pouters have an enormously in-
flated crop, which projects in front of the breast, causing the Bird
to throw its head back, and hold itself in a most unnaturally upright
position ; and the Jacobins have the feathers of the head and neck
inverted, in such a manner as to form a sort of ruff, or hood. The
most remarkable change, however, is perhaps that which has pro-
duced the variety of the Fantails, or Broad-tailed Shakers, in which
the tail, which is beautifully expanded in an arched form, contains
no less than thirty-six feathers, the normal number being only
twelve.
I'HE Turtle-Dove {Turtur aur-itus, Ray ; Cohunha tiiriur,
Linn.) — Tourterelle of the French ; Tortora of the Italians; Turtel-
taube of the Germans ; Colommen fair of the ancient British.
Among our summer visitors must be enumerated this interesting
Bird, which arrives in our island about the beginning of May. It is
when nature is clad in her freshest robes of beauty, when the wild
flowers garnish our hedgerows, and the thickets resound with the
notes of warblers, that the voice of the Turtle is heard in our land.
In all ages, and in all countries visited by it, has the Turtle been .a
favourite ; its innocence, its beauty, its attachment to its mate, its
plaintive voice, and the time of its appearance, combine to give it
interest ; it is the emblem of peace and tranquillity ; and in the strains
oi poetry its presence is associated with quiet rural life and undis-
turbed happiness.
" Hinc alta sub rupe canet fiond.ator ad auras.
Nee tamen, inteiea, raucc, tua ciira, palumbes,
Nee gemere aeria cessabit turtur ab ulmo. "
Virgil.
The winter residence of the Turtle appears to be in Africa : in
summer it is spread over southern and temperate Europe, and various
parts of Asia. In Greece, Asia Minor, and Italy it is very common.
Mr. Strickland observed it at Smyrna, in April, 1836. In our island
it is much more abundant in the southern and eastern counties than
in those farther north ; we have seen it in numbers both in Essex,
Kent, and Surrey. Thick copses, wooded parks, dense hedgerows,
where bushy pollard oaks rise up at inter\'als, are its favourite places
of resort; and in secluded retreats, several pairs are often found to
form a sort of colony, building their nests in adjacent trees. The
nest (see Fig. 1377) is a platform of twigs, and is placed in the
forked branch of an oak or fir-tree, among the ivy-laden boughs of
the elm, near the stem, or in thick pollards. Wo once saw the
nest of a pair of Turtles in a stunted pollard oak, close to the gate
of a farmyard in Essex, and watched the Birds playfully chasing
each other in the air around the tree. Early in the morning the
Fig. 1377.— The Nest of the Tmtle-Dove.
THE PASSENGER-PIGEON.
539
Turtle wings its way from the copse or park to the fields in quest of
food and i't repeats its visit in the afternoon, returning home on the
approach of dusk. Various kinds of grain, as wheat, not yet
mature, together with peas, rape, mustard-seed, hemp-seed, &c.,
constitute i'ts diet. On the approach of autumn the Turtle congre-
gates in small flocks of ten or twelve, which scour the fields during
the day, and return to their roosting-placc in the evening. Early
in September this Bird leaves our island for its winter abode ; some-
times, however, it lingers till the close of the month before taking
its departure. .,,„,, ^ r
The Turtle is about eleven mches in length. The upper part ot
the head and neck is ashy grey, with a pearly tinge ; the back is
brown ; the wing-coverts are dusky-brown in the centre, with a
border on each feather of reddish-brown inclining to rufous ; quills
brown ; tail-feathers dusky-brown, and all, with the exception of the
Fig. 137S.— The Turtle-Dove.
two middle, tipped with white. The sides of the neck present a
patch of small stiff black feathers with white margins ; front of the
neck and breast light vinous ; abdomen white. The young Birds
are destitute of the peculiar patch of feathers on the sides of the
neck. (See Fig. 1378.)
The Passenger-Pigeon {Edopistes migratoria).—T\\\i, Bird
^'S- '379- — The I'asstiigcr-rigeon.
must not be confounded with the Carrier-Pigcon already described-
Were not the testimony of Wilson, Audubon, and others who have
described the habits of this Bird above suspicion, one might be
tempted to think that their accounts were somewhat over-coloured ;
such, however, is not the case. They narrate, graphically, scenes
of which they were themselves eye-witnesses. The Passenger-
Pigeon is a native of America (where it is generally termed the Wild
Pigeon), and is celebrated for inundating, in flocks of thousands,
various districts to which the hordes are attracted by food, their
visits being irregular and uncertain. The Passenger-Pigeon is a
Bird of extremely rapid flight, propelling itself by quickly-repeated
flaps of the wings as it passes along in a straight course over the
country. During the pairing season, however, it often flies in circles,
occasionally clashing its wings in the manner of a domestic Pigeon,
which in its manners it generally resembles. Speaking of the
rapidity of the present species, M. Audubon states that " Pigeons
have been killed in the neighbourhood of New York with their crops
full of rice, which they must have collected in the fields of Georgia
and Carolina, these districts being the nearest in which they could
possibly have procured a supply of this kind of food. As their
power of digestion is so great that they will decompose food entirely
in twelve hours, they must in this case have travelled between 300 and
400 miles in six hours, which shows their speed to be, at an average,
about one mile in a minute. (See Fig. 1379.)
" This great power of flight is seconded by as great a power of
vision, which enables them, as they travel at that swift rate, to inspect
the country below, discover their food, and thus attain the object
for which their journey was undertaken.
" The multitudes " (says Audubon, whose account we follow) " of
wild pigeons in our woods are astonishing. Indeed, after having
viewed them so often, and under so many circumstances, I even now
feel inclined to pause, and assure myself that what I am going to
relate is fact. In the autumn of 1813 I left my house at Henderson,
on the banks of the Ohio, on my way to Louisville. In passing over
the Barrens a few miles beyond Hardensburgh, I observed the
pigeons flying from north-east to south-west, in greater numbers
than I thought I had ever seen them before ; and feeling an in-
clination to count the flocks that might pass within the reach of my
eye in one hour, I dismounted, seated myself on an eminence, and
began to mark with my pencil, making a dot for every flock that passed.
In a short time, finding the task I had undertaken impracticable,
as the birds poured in in countless multitudes, I rose, and counting
the dots then put down, found that 163 had been made in twenty-one
minutes. I travelled on, and still met more the farther I proceeded.
The air was literally filled with
pigeons ; the light of noonday
was obscured as by an eclipse,
and the continued buzz of wings
had a tendency to lull me to
repose.
" Before sunset I reached
Louisville, distant from Har-
densburgh fifty-five miles ; the
pigeons were still passing in
undiminished numbers, and
continued to do so for three
days in succession. The peo-
ple were all in arms. The banks
of the Ohio were crowded with
men and boys incessantly shoot-
ing at the pilgrims, which there
flew lower as they passed the
river. Multitudes were de-
stroyed. For a week or more the
population fed on no other flesh
than that of pigeons, and talked
of nothing but pigeons. The at-
mosphere during this time was
strongly impregnated with the
peculiar odour which emanates
from the species." After these
details M. Audubon proceeds
to reckon the number of indi-
viduals in a single flock, and
that not a large one, extending
one mile in breadth, and 180
miles in length, allowing two
Pigeons to each square yard.
The product is one billion one
hundred and fifteen milions one
hundred and thirty-six thou-
sand. The flock takes three
liours in passing any given spot.
What must be the quantity of
food required for such a legion ?
" As evci-y pigeon daily con-
sumes fully half a pint of food,
540
THE PIGEON TRIBE.
the quantity necessary for supplying this vast multitude must be
eight millions seven hundred and twelve thousand bushels per day. "
Where food, such as beech-mast, is abundant, strewing the ground,
these flocks wheel round and alight, and the woods are filled with
their numbers. About the middle of the day, after their repast is
finished, they settle on the trees to enjoy rest and digest their food.
"As the sun begins to sink beneath the horizon they depart en
masse for the roosting-place, which not unfrequently is hundreds of
miles distant, as has been ascertained by persons who have kept an
account of their arrivals and departures.
" One of these curious roosting-places on the banks of the Green
River in Kentucky I repeatedly visited. It was, as is always the
case, a portion of the forest where the trees are of great magnitude,
and where there was little underwood. I rode through it upwards of
forty miles, and found its average breadth to be rather more than
three miles. My first view of it was about a fortnight subsequent to
the period when they made choice of it, and I arrived there nearly
two hours before sunset. Few pigeons were then to be seen, but a
great number of persons with horses and waggons, guns and ammu-
nition, had already established encampments on the borders. Two
farmers from the vicinity of Russelsville, distant more tiian a hundred
miles, had driven upwards of three hundred hogs to be fattened on
the pigeons that were to be slaughtered. Here and there the people
employed in plucking and salting what had already been procured
were seen sitting in the midst of large piles of these Birds. Many
trees two feet in diameter I observed were broken off at no great
distance from the ground ; and the branches of many of the largest
and tallest had given way, as if the forest had been swept by a tor-
nado. Everything proved to me that the number of Birds resorting
to this part of the forest must be immense beyond conception. As
the period of their arrival approached, their foes anxiously proceeded
to receive them ; some were furnished with iron pots containing sul-
phur — others with torches of pine-knots — many with poles, and the
rest with guns. The sun was lost to our view, yet not a pigeon had
arrived. Everything was ready, and all eyes were gazing on the
clear sky which appeared in glimpses amid the tall trees. Suddenly
there burst forth a general cry of ' Here they come.' The noise
which they made, though yet distant, reminded me of a hard gale at
sea, passing through the rigging of a close-reefed vessel. As the
birds arrived and passed over me I felt a current of air that surprised
me. Thousands were soon knocked down by the pole-men ; the
birds continued to pour in ; the fires were lighted, and a most mag-
nificent as well as wonderful and almost terrifying sight presented
itself. The pigeons arriving by thousands alighted everywhere, one
above another, until solid masses as large as hogsheads were
formed on the branches all round. Here and there the perches gave
way with a crash, and falling on the ground destroyed hundreds of
the birds beneath, forcing down the dense groups with which every
stick was loaded. It was a scene of uproar and confusion ; no one
dared venture within the line of devastation : the hogs had been
penned up in due time, the picking up of the dead and wounded be-
ing left for next morning's employment. The pigeons were con-
stantly coming, and it was past midnight before 1 perceived a de-
crease in the number of those that arrived. Towards the approach
of day the noise in some measure subsided ; long before objects were
distinguishable the pigeons began to move off in a direction quite
different from that in which they had arrived the evening before, and
at sunrise all that were able to fly had disappeared; iThe bowlings of
the wolves now reached our ears, and the foxes, lynxes, cougars,
bears, racoons, and opossums were seen sneaking off, whilst eagles
and hawks of different species, accompanied by a crowd of vultures,
came to supplant them, and enjoy their share of the spoil." The
breeding-places of these Pigeons are even more extensive than their
temporary roosting-places ; fifty miles in length of forest by four or
five in breadth being colonised by them, and every tree crowded with
■nests, varying from fifty to a hundred in number. The breeding-time,
according to Audubon, is not much influenced by season, but the ter-
ritory selected is where food is most plentiful and most easily attain-
able, and where water is at a convenient distance. The nests are
composed of a few dry twigs supported on the forks of the branches.
The eggs are two in number, and, as is the case with our common
Domestic Pigeon, the brood consists in general of a male and female.
When the young are fully grown, but have not yet left the nests, a
scene similar to that described as occurring in their roosting-place
commences. Parties from the surrounding country throng to the on-
slaught. Trees are cut down, and thousands of the young or
"squabs," are taken. While the axemen are at work, the forest
presents " a perpetual tumult of crowding and fluttering pigeons,
their wings roaring like thunder, mingled with the frequent crash of
falling timber." By the Indians, as Wilson says, a Pigeon-roost or
breeding-place is considered an important source of national profit,
and dependence for the season ; and all their active ingenuity is
exercised on the occasion.
We have seen several pairs of the Migratory Pigeon in captivity ;
it breeds freely in a suitable aviary, and is as contented and tame as
our ordinary domestic race.
The Migratory Pigeon has the head small ; the neck slender ; the
legs short ; and the tail, which is composed of twelve feathers,
graduated and tapering. Bill black ; iris bright red ; feet carmine
purple ; claws blackish ; head above and on the sides light blue ;
throat, fore-neck, breast, and sides brownish-red ; lower part and
sides of the neck reflecting metallic tints of gold, emerald, green, and
rich crimson ; the general colour of the upper parts is greyish-blue ;
some of the wing-coverts marked with a black spot ; quills and
larger wing-coverts blackish ; the primary quills bluish on the outer
web ; the larger coverts whitish at the tip ; the two middle feathers
of the tail black, the rest pale blue, becoming white towards the end ;
under parts white. Length sixteen inches and a-half. The female
is somewhat smaller than the male, and the colours of the plumage
are duller, though their distribution is the same. Length fifteen
inches.
The last family of the Columbis is that of the Treronida, or Tree
Pigeons, in which the bill is short and stout, with both mandibles
nearly equal in thickness, and equally arched towards the tip ; the
tarsi are very short, and usually more or less feathered ; and the
inner toes are much shorter than the outer. These Birds are con-
fined to the warmer parts of the old continent, their principal
habitation being in India, the islands of the Eastern Archipelago,
and Australia. Their nourishment consists, for the most part, of
fruits, and they are especially arboreal in their habits. In the form
of the bill, however, they present some resemblance to the extinct
Dodo, already described. Many of them are most beautifully
coloured, rivalling, in this respect, the Parrots and Pheasants.
The collections of the Dove family are rich both in the British
Museum and the Gardens of the Zoological Society at Regent's
Park, London. In the latter is a specimen of the Talpacoti Ground •
Dove fChainccpelia talpacoti), which bred in the Gardens in 1878 ;
of the Specious Pigeon (C sj>ecwsa), a native of South America.
Among others in the Gardens are living specimens, the description
of which we quote as follows from the "Guide" of the Zoological
Society for 1878 : —
" The Wonga-Wonga 'Pigeon {Leucosarcia picata) ; the Bronze-
wing Pigeon {Pliaps chalcoptera); the Crested Dove {Ocypkaps
lophotes). Australia is rich in pigeons, not less than twenty-one
species being figured in Mr. Gould's work. Of these, the most
desirable to acclimatise in Europe is the Wonga-Wonga, and the
most graceful is the Crested Dove. The latter breeds very freely in
confinement, when suitably accommodated. The Wonga-Wonga,
on the contrary, is, unfortunately, as far as our experience goes, a
shy breeder, but might perhaps do better in a more retired situation.
It would be well worthy to have some pains bestowed upon it, as it is
not only of considerable size, but, according to Mr. Gould's observa-
tion, a first-rate bird for the table, possessing a whiteness and
delicacy of texture in its pectoral muscles, which are unapproached
by any other species of this widely-spread and useful family.
" The Crowned Pigeon {Goura coronata) ; the Victoria Crowned
Pigeon (G. victoriczj. These noble birds, although natives of New
Guinea and its adjacent islands, not only bear the vicissitudes of
our climate which the protection this Aviary affords, but have fre-
quently reproduced in it. The Victoria Crowned Pigeon, from the
island of Jobie, is easily distinguished from the other species by the
beautiful white-tipped vane which surmounts the crest, its red-brown
breast, and grey wing-spot. The Gouras make a platform-nest like
all the arboreal pigeons, and go up to roost at night, although
during the day they spend the greater part of their time upon tlie
ground. As is the case with the passenger-pigeon, and the whole
group of fruit-eating pigeons of the genus Carpophaga, as far as
has been hitherto observed, they lay but one egg, forming an excep-
tion to the general rule which obtains in birds of this group, and
which has caused a recent writer to call them Bipositorcs."
GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
S4»
CHAPTER XXXIL
CLASS II.— AVES, OR BIRDS : ORDER RASORES, OR GALLINACEOUS BIRDS, AS FOWLS, Etc.
ERHAPS of all the orders of Birds, that of
the RASORES, or SCRAPERS, is the most
valuable to mankind. It includes the
numerous species of Gallinaceous Birds, or
those which agree more or less in structure
with our common Fowl ; and the name
Rasores^ or Scrapers, alludes to the habit
of scratching in the ground in search of
food, which, as every one knows, is so
common with domestic poultry.
These Birds are generally of moderate
size, with the body rather stout, and the
neck short, or of moderate length. The
head is rather small, and the bill, which is
usually shorter than the head, is more or less arched,
and has the upper mandible projecting beyond the
lower one, both at the apes and the margins. The legs
are of moderate length, but usually very stout ; the
tibi,a5 are feathered quite down to the tip ; and the
feathers, in some cases, cover the tarsi, and even the
toes. The anterior toes are always three in number,
usually rather short, stout, furnished with broad, blunt
nails, and frequently more or less united by a web at
the base ; the hinder toe is usually small, and raised a
little upon the back of the tarsus ; but in the species
which frequently perch upon trees, and some others,
the hinder toe is more elongated, and placed on the same level
with the rest. The back of the tarsus is also frequently furnished,
especially in the males, with one or more spurs, which are often
of considerable length, and constitute formidable offensive weapons
in the combats which prevail amongst these Birds during the breed-
ing season, as in the case of Game-Cocks, which are specially
bred for the sport of Cock-fighting.
The plumage is firm, and the accessory feathers, or plumules, are
always of large size. The Birds, and especially the males, are fre-
quently adorned with magnificent colours ; and in many cases,
particular parts of the plumage in this sex acquire a great degree of
development, rendering the appearance exceedingly elegant. The
wings are usually short and weak, and the flight by no means
powerful or prolonged ; it is generally accompanied by a whirring
sound, which is almost characteristic of this order.
The general conformation of the digestive organs (Fig. 1380) is as
follows ; — The oesophagus is narrow, but is dilated below the middle
into a large, somewhat globular crop. The stomach, or gizzard, is
exceedingly strong and muscular, and lined with hard, tendinous
plates, by the action of which, assisted in most cases by stones, or
other hard substances which the Birds swallow, the comminution of
the food is effected. The intestine is long, and furnished with very
large cceca ; the latter organs, in fact, are larger in these than in
any other Birds.
These Birds are found in all parts of the world, from the Tropics to
the frozen regions of the north ; but the finest and most typical
species are inhabitants of the temperate and warmer parts of Asia.
They feed principally on seeds, fruits, and herbage ; but also, to a
considerable extent, on Insects, Worms, and other small animals.
Their general habitation is on the ground, where they run with great
celerity ; but many of them roost on trees. They are mostly poly-
gamous in their habits, the males being usually surrounded by a con-
siderable troop of females ; and to these, with one remarkable
exception, the whole business of incubation is generally left. The
nest is always plac«d on the ground in some sheltered situation,
and very little art is exhibited in its construction : indeed, an
elaborate nest is the less necessary, as the young are able to run
about and feed almost as soon as they have left the e.g'g ; and at
night, or on the approach of danger, they collect beneath the wings
of their mother.
The Rasorial Birds form seven families. In the Tinamous
CTitiamtdcsJ, the bill is rather straight, with the base covered with
a membrane, and the tip suddenly hooked. The wings are short
and concave ; the tail short, or entirely wanting ; the tarsi are
scutellate in front, and the toes long — the hinder one being some-
times wanting. The genus Tinamotis, belonging to this family,
makes a very near approach to the Bustards.
These Birds are peculiar to South America, where they live in the
fields, or on the borders of woods. Their flight is heavy ; but they
run with considerable swiftness. They feed principally upon grain,
visiting the newly-sown fields of corn and maize during the night,
to pick up the seeds which have not been covered by the soil The
females lay about seven eggs, in tufts of herbage ; and the younir.
when hatched, soon disperse, the family being rarely found united
into a flock. Their flesh is exceedingly good ; and as they do not
rise wdhngly, but rather prefer endeavouring to conceal themselves
when pursued, they are taken without much difficulty by means of a
noose at the end of a stick. They vary considerably in size, the
largest species being about as big as a Pheasant, or from fifteen to
eighteen inches in length ; whilst the smallest do not exceed six
inches.
The Chw7iidida have the bill rather short and stout, compressed,
Fig. 1 3S0.— Digestive Apparatus of the Common Fowl.
€, oesophagus ; y, crop ; -js, ventriculiis succenturiatus ; ■;, gizzard ; /, pancreas ;
d, duodenum ; co, coeca ; gi, large intestine ; «, ureter ; o, oviduct ; cl,
cloaca ; i, small intestine ; /, liver ; vf, gall-bladder ; c, gall-duct.
and much arched towards the tip ; the nostrils are placed at the
base, and protected by a horny sheath or covering. The wings are
long and pointed, and the tail'of moderate size ; the tarsi are short
and stout ; the anterior toes long, united at the base, and the hinder
one small and elevated. The best known species of this family is
the White Sheathbill {Chiom's alba), a Bird about fifteen inches in
length, of a white colour, with the feet reddish-black. It frequents
the shores of Australia, New Zealand, and other islands approach-
ing the Antarctic ocean, where it feeds upon MoUi<sca and other
animal matters, resembling some of the Wading-Birds so closely
in its habits, that it has been placed amongst them .by many
naturalists.
It is probable that it occasionally feeds upon carrion, as Forster,
its original describer, states that, having killed some of them in
Cook's second voyage, the sailors were unable to eat the flesh in
consequence of its abominable odour ; although, as he observes,
they were not, at that time, particularly nice in the choice of food.
M. Lesson, and Messrs. Quoy and Gaimard, however, found the
flesh particularly good ; and, in Cook's third voyage, it is said to be
equal to that of the Duck.
The Grouse — Family Tetraonidce.
In the family of the Tetraonidce, or Grouse, the bill is rather
short, broad at the base, compressed and arched, with the tip
542
THE CAPERCAILZIE.
obtuse ; the nostrils are placed at the base of the bill, sometimes
covered with feathers, or protected by a hard scale ; the legs are
stout, with the tarsi usually naked and scutellate, but sometimes
clothed with feathers to the toes (Fig. 1381). The hind-toe is rarely
Fig. 13S1 Foot of the Black Cock.
wanting, usually rather small and elevated. The wings are generally
short and rounded, and the tail is also rounded at the extremity.
This family, which includes a great number of species, is divided
into four sub-families. The Tetraouina, including the typical
species, have the bill short, very broad at the base, and gradually
narrowed and compressed towards the tip ; the nostrils are clothed
■with small feathers, as are also the tarsi, and sometimes even the
toes. These Birds live principally upon the ground, where they run
with great swiftness, and feed almost entirely upon vegetable sub-
stances — such as berries, seeds, and the buds of trees and shrubs.
They are generally found in mountainous districts, some living on
open heaths, whilst others prefer wooded spots. They vary greatly
in size — the largest being nearly as large as a Turkey ; the smallest
scarcely exceeding a Pigeon in size. The following affords a
description of the most important species.
Fig. 13S2. — The Capercailzie.
The Capercaillie, Capercali, or Capercailzie \Tctrao
urogalhis).~CocVi of the Wood; Cock of . the Mountain. Coq de
Bruyere of Buffon ; Kjader of the " Fauna Suecica ;" Tjader-hona
of Hasselquist ; Auer-Hahn of Frisch ; Auerwaldhuhn of Bechstein ;
Ceiliog Coed of the ancient British.
That this noble Bird was once indigenous in the British islands,
and formerly lingered in the Highlands of Scotland and some districts
of Ireland (viz., in the county of Tipperary, 1760), has been clearly
proved ; but the forests which once sheltered it have been thinned or
cut down, and from this cause and others it appears to have been en-
tirely extirpated ; we say " to have been," because for some years past
various attempts have been made to introduce the species again into
the woods of the Highlands, and, we believe, with little success.
(See Fig. 1382.)
The Capercailzie is abundant in Norway, Sweden, Russia towards
Siberia, the north of Asia, and some parts of Germany and Hungary,
wherever pine-forests of sufficient extent afford it a home. It is
found in several parts of the Alps. The male is equal in size to a
Turkey, weighing from eight to twelve pounds, or even more ; some
have exceeded fifteen. The female is considerably smaller. The
breeding season commences early in the spring, before the snow is off
the ground ; at this period the cock stations himself on a pine, and
commences his call to the females, or " play " as it is termed in
Sweden. This, says Mr. Lloyd, " is usually from the first dawn of
day to sunrise, or from a little after sunset until it is quite dark. The
time, however, more or less depends upon the mildness of the weather
and the advanced state of the season.
" During his play, the neck of the capercali is stretched out, his
tail is raised and spread like a fan, his wings droop, his feathers arc
rutfied up, and, in short, he much resembles in appearance an angry
turkey-cock. He begins his play with a call something resembling
speller, feller, jieller ; these sounds he repeats at first at some
little intervals ; but as he proceeds they increase in rapidity, until at
last, and after perhaps the lapse of a minute or so, he makes a sort
of gulp in his throat and finishes with sucking in, as it were, his
breath.
" During the continuance of this latter process, which only lasts a
few seconds, the head of the capercali is thrown up, his eyes are
partially closed, and his whole appearance would denote that he is
worked up into an agony of passion. At this time his faculties are
much absorbed, and it is not difficult to approach him ; many,
indeed, and among the rest Mr. Nilsson, assert that the capercali can
then neither see nor hear, and that he is not aware of the report or
flash of a gun, even if fired imme-
diately near to him. To this asser-
tion I cannot agree ; for though it
is true that, if the capercali has
not been much disturbed previ-
ously, he is not easily frightened
during the last notes of his play ;
yet, should the contrary be the
case, he is constantly on the watch,
and I have reason to know that,
even at that time, if noise be made,
or that a person exposes himself
incautiously, he takes alarm, and
immediately flies.
" The play of the capercali is
uotloud, and, should there be wind
stirring in the trees at the time, it
cannot be heard at any consider-
able distance. Indeed, during
the calmest and most favourable
weather, it is not audible at more
than two or three hundred paces.
" On hearing the call of the
cock, the hens, whose cry in some
degree resembles the croak of the
raven, or rather, perhaps, the
sounds gock,gock, gock, assemble
from all parts of the surrounding
forest. The male bird now de-
scends from the eminence on which
he was perched to the ground,
where he and his female friends
join in company. The capercali
does not play indiscriminately
over the forest, but he has his
certain stations (Tjador-lek, which
may perhaps be rendered his
playing-grounds). These, how-
ever, are often of some little
extent. Here, unless very much
persecuted, the song of these
birds may be heard in the spring
for years together. The caper-
cali does not, during his play,
confine himself to any particular tree, as Mr. Nilsson asserts to be
the case, for, on the contrary, it is seldom he is to be met with
exactly on the same spot for two days in succession."
The female makes her nest upon the ground, and lays from six to
twelve eggs ; her brood keep with her till the approach of winter,
but the cocks separate from the mother before the hens. The food
of this Bird consists of the leaves of the Scotch fir, of juniper-berries,
cranberries, blueberries, and occasionally, in winter, of the buds of
the birch. The young are sustained at first on Insects, and es-
pecially the larvje of Ants. In the male the windpipe makes a loose
THE GROUSE TRIBE.
543
fold of two curves before it enters the chest, gaining by this contri-
vance great increase of length. The tarsi are hairy ; the toes are
rough beneath, with horny points, enabling the Bird to rest securely
on the smooth or slippery branches. The general colour of the
males on the upper part is chestnut-brown, irregularly marked with
blackish lines ; the breast glossy greenish-black, passing into black
on the under surface ; elongated feathers of the throat black ; tail
black. In the female, the head, neck, and back are marked with
transverse bars of red and black ; the under surface is pale orange-
yellow, barred with black. Professor Nilsson assures us that the
Capercailzie is often reared up in a domestic state in Sweden, and
is bold and disposed to attack persons, like the Turkey-Cock ; and
both this naturalist and Mr. Lloyd affirm that these Birds will breed,
with due care, in confinement ; in fact, they give several instances
by way of proof
In the early part of the winter, up to spring, the London market is
supplied with the Capercailzie in abundance from Norway, and,
owing to the rapidity of steam navigation, the Birds are almost as
fresh as if just shot, keeping well for many days ; the flesh of the
female is e.xcellent.
The Bl.\ck Grouse, or Black-Cock {Tetrao tetrix). — Female,
Grey Hen, Lyrurus tetrix, Swainson. Coq de Bois of the French ;
Gallo di Monte, Gallo selvatico, Gallo cedrone of the Italians; der
Birk-hahn of the Germans ; Orrfulgl of the Norwegians.
" The bonny black-cock " is still a native of the wild districts of
the British Isles. It is common in the Highlands of Scotland, in
Northumberland, some parts of Derbyshire and Staffordshire, in
North Wales, in Surrey, Hampshire, Dorsetshire, and Devonshire,
wherever wild heaths and pine-woods favour its increase. In 1878,
H.R.H. the Prince of Wales introduced the breed on his estate at
Sandringham, Norfolk. On the continent it is found in France and
Germany, and is abundant in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and
Russia. In its general habits and manners this fine species and the
preceding closely agree, but the Black-Cock is not so strictly a
Forest Bird ; for though it frequents pine-woods, and the glens and
ravines among mountain scenery, where the birch and alder overtop
an oozy bed teeming with long rank herbage, it is often seen on the
sides of the heathy hill, or amidst the furze, heath, and willows
covering a wide extent of bog-land intervening between the pine-
woods and the cultivated country. During winter the males asso-
ciate in flocks, but separate early in the spring, each choosing its
own station, of which it is sole master, and for which it has often to
engage in desperate contests with its rivals. It now begins its loud
call-note of invitation, uttered chiefly in the morning, while it dis-
plays a variety of attitudes ; and mating with several females, it
soon establishes its seraglio. At this season the plumage of the
male assumes the richest lustre, and the naked skin over the eye
becomes of the deepest scarlet. The female breeds in May, making-
a rude nest under the shelter of intertangled herbage or brushwood,
and depositing from six to ten eggs of a yellowish-grey tinge, spotted
with light brown. The young of both sexes have at first the same
garb — that of the female ; but the young males assume their own
dress in the autumn, and form a distinct society from that of the
females, which is dissolved on the approach of spring. The shoots
of heath, various moorland berries, the buds of the birch and alder,
the young shoots of the fir tribe, and grain of various kinds, consti-
tute the food of this species. The young feed abundantly on Insects
and their larvae.
The Black Grouse is shy and wary, especially the old male ; and
the sportsman who has killed several brace of Poults, or young
Birds, may perhaps have not seen above one or two full-plumaged
cocks during the whole day's sport. The adult male (see Fig.
1383), which exceeds the female in size, weighs about four pounds.
The colour is deep black, with a white band across each wing. The
upper surface glitters with brilliant blue and purple reflexions.
Under tail-coverts white. The tail is forked, and each part curls
outwardly in consequence of the form of the four outer feathers,
which are square at their ends, with a semicircular sweep laterally,
the outermost on each side being the longest and most curled. The
female (see Fig. 1384) weighs about two pounds. Above, orange-
brown, speckled, barbed with black ; the greater wing-coverts tipped
with white ; breast chestnut-brown, barred with black. Tail slightly
forked, ferruginous, spotted with black : under tail-coverts white,
streaked with black.
The Dusky Grouse {Bonasia or Tetrao obscnrzts).—\n the
north-western regions of America, where the mountain-chain
separates the waters of the Mississippi from those which flow to-
wards the Pacific, the Dusky Grouse may be regarded as taking the
station of the Black Grouse of Europe. "The dusky grouse," says
Bonaparte, "is eminently distinguished from all other known species
by having the tail slightly rounded, and composed of twenty broad
rounded feathers. This peculiarity of the extraordinary number of
tail-feathers is only found besides in the cock of the plains, in which,
however, they are not rounded, but very slender, tapering, and
acute." Like the rest of the species of the genus Tetrao (and sub-
genus Bo7iasia), the present Bird is tyrannically polygamous, and the
males soon desert the females, indifferent alike to them and to their
progeny. The male of this species is entirely dusky black, and
exceeds the female in size. The general plumage of the latter is
dusky brown, variegated with ochre-yellow. (See Fig. 1385).
The Pinnated Grouse {Tdrao cufiido).—U\\% species, cele-
brated for the exquisite flavour of its flesh, is strictly confined to
r-^^z/f^r-^"'"'"**'
Fig. 13S3.— Black Grouse— Male.
certain portions of North America ; open dry plains interspersed
with trees or partially overgrown with shrub-oak being its favourite
haunts. "Accordingly," says Wilson, "we find these birds on the
grouse-plains of New Jersey, in Burlington county, as well as on the
bushy plains of Long Island ; among the pines and shrub-oaks of
Pocamo, in Northampton county, over the whole extent of the
Barrens of Kentucky ; on the luxuriant plains and prairies of the
rig, 1384.— Black Grouse— Female
544
THE GROUSE TRIBE.
Indiana territory, and on the vast and remote plains of the Columbia
river." In the bushy thickets of these localities they find food and
shelter. The male is remarkable for a naked sacculated appendage
on each side of the neck, which at ordinary times hangs wrinkled
and flaccid, but which, during the pairing season, is distended with
air, and much resembles in size and colour a large orange. With
this appendage is evidently connected the strange noises which this
Bird utters at that season, like the subdued blowing of a horn or
conch, consisting of three notes, each strongly accented. " While
uttering these tones the bird e.'ihibits all the ostentatious gesticula-
tions of a turkey-cock, erecting and fluttering his neck-wings (or
pointed frills), and passing before the female, and close before his
fellows as if in defiance." Now and then are heard some crackling
Fig. 1385. — The Dusky Grouse.
notes, chiefly uttered by the males while engaged in fight, on which
occasion " they leap up against each other exactly in the manner of
turkeys, but seemingly with more malice than effect." The males
begin their call before daybreak, and continue it till eight or nine in
the morning, when the parties separate to seek for food.
In severe weather these Birds approach barns and farm-houses,
mix with the poultry to glean up the scattered grains of Indian corn,
and seem almost domesticated. Many are at this time taken in
traps, and the gun thins their numbers. The nest of this species is
placed under brushwood on a tussock of long grass, and formed
with little art ; the eggs are about fifteen in number, and of a
brownish-white. The young form coveys or packs, which separate
on the approach of spring.
The male of the Pinnated Grouse weighs about three pounds and
a-half. The neck is furnished with a sort of winglet above each sac,
composed of eighteen feathers, of which five are black, and the rest,
which are shorter, black streaked with brown. The head slightly
crested, and over each eye is a semicircular comb of rich orange.
(See Fig. 1386.)
The general plumage is variegated with transverse markings of
black, reddish-brown, and white. The tail is very short and of a
dusky brown. Breast and under parts brown, transversely marked
with white ; throat marked with touches of reddish-brown, white,
and black ; under the eye a dark streak of brown. The female is
considerably less than the male ; of a lighter colour, destitute of the
neck-wings, of the naked sacculated appendages, and the semi-
circular comb over the eye. Green lichen, various moorland berries,
clover-leaves, the buds of the pine, grain, and Insects, constitute the
food of the Pinnated Grouse.
The Ruffed Grouse {Bonasia or Tetrao umbellus). — This
species, the Partridge of the Eastern States, and the Pheasant of
Pennsylvania and the Southern States, inhabits an e.xtensive range
of country. " It is common at Moose Fort, on Hudson's Bay, in
lat. 50° ; frequent in the upper parts of Georgia ; is very abundant in
Kentucky and the Indian territory, and was found by Captains Lewis
and Clarke in crossing the great range of mountains that divides the
waters of the Columbia and Missouri, more than 3,000 miles by
admeasurement from the mouth of the latter. Its favourite places of
resort are high mountains covered with the balsam pine, hemlock,
and other evergreens. Unlike the Pinnated Grouse, it always prefers
the woods, is seldom or never found in open plains, but loves the
pine-sheltered declivities of mountains near streams of water."
This Bird is solitary in its habits, being usually found singly or in
pairs, and seldom in coveys of more than four or five together.
Fig. 1386.— The Pinnated Orouse,
Fig. I3S7. — The Ruffed Grouse.
The male is remarkable for producing a drumming noise,_princi-
nallv during the spring, but occasionally at other seasons ; it is the
call of the cock to his mate, and when heard in the solitudes of the
woods has a singular effect. This noise is not the voice of the
Bird, but is occasioned by smart strokes of the wings. "The bird
standing on an old prostrate log, generally in a retired and sheltered
situation, lowers his wings, erects his expanded lad, contracts hlS
throat elevates the two tufts of feathers on the neck, and inflates his
whole body somewhat in the manner of a turkey-cock, strutting and
wheeling about with great stateliness. After a few manreuvres of
this kind he begins to strike with his stiffened wings in short and
quick strokes, which become more and more rapid until they run
into each other," producing a hollow drumming noise, which may
be heard at a considerable distance. This is most commonly per-
formed in the morning and evening, but is repeated at intervals
during the day, and guides the gunner to the retreat of the Bird,
which is easily shot. ,. . . . • .
The female breeds in May, artfully concealing her nest, which
contains from nine to fifteen eggs. She carefully attends her brood,
and, like the Partridge of Europe, puts vanous manoeuvres into
practice, in order to decoy intruders from the place of their conceal-
ment.
CO
THE GROUSE TRIBE.
545
The Ruffed Grouse flies with great vigour, and with a loud
whirring noise, and when sprung, sweeps to a considerable distance
through the wood before alighting. Great numbers are killed for the
table ; and, according to Wilson, the Birds are in the best condition
in September and October, during which months they feed chiefly on
whortle-berries and the little red aromatic partridge-berry.
The general colour of the male is chestnut brown, mottled and un-
dulated with blackish-brown and grey ; tail grey, undulated and
barred with blackish-brown ; shoulder-tufts velvet-black, with green
reflexions, and covering a large space of the neck destitute of
feathers. The female is paler-tinted than the male ; the shoulder-
tufts are orange-brown.
The Cock of the Plains {Tetraourophasianus ; Centrocercus
urophasianus). — This species, which is a native of the barren arid
plains along the river Columbia and the interior of North California,
appears to have been first recorded by Lewis and Clarke, and has
been described by Mr. Douglas, who found it among the Rocky
Mountains. From the slender form of the quill-feathers of the wings,
and those of the tail, the flight of this species is slow, unsteady, and
accompanied by a whirring sound. "When startled," says Mr.
Douglas, "the voice, ctcck, Click, c«c/{', is like that of the common
pheasant. They pair in March and April. Small eminences on the
banks of streams are the places usually selected for celebrating the
weddings ; the time generally about sunrise. The wings of the male
are lowered, buzzing on the ground ; the tail spread like a fan,
somewhat erect ; the bare yellow ccsophagus is inflated to a pro-
digious size— fully half as large as his body— in marked contrast
with the scale-like feathers below it on the breast, and the lle.xilc
Fig. 1388.— The Cock of the Plains.
"P^f (,./>:,
Pig. 13S9. — A Group of Game.
a, ihe Capeicailzii; ; /', the Peacock ; c, the Quail ; d, the Red-legged Partridge ; c, the Red Grouse ; f, tlie Black
Grouse ; g, the Plarmigan ; h, the Common Partridge.
silky feathers on the neck, which
on these occasions st.ind erect.
In this grotesque form he displays,
in the presence of his intencled
mate, a variety of attitudes. His
love-song is a confused, grating,
but not offensively disagreeable
tone, — something that we can imi-
tate, but have a difficulty in ex-
pressing — Hii rr-hu7-?--/iu rr -}■'>■-
r-hoo, ending in a deep hollow
tone, not unlike the sound pro-
duced by blowing into a large
reed. Nest on the ground, under
the shade oi Purs/iia and Ar/c-
misia, or near streams, among
Phalaris aritndinacca, carefully
constructed of dry grass and slen-
der twigs. Eggs, from thirteen
to seventeen, about the size of
those of the common fowl, of a
wood-brown colour, with irregul.ir
chocolate blotches on the thick
end. Period of incubation twenty-
one to twenty-two days. The
young leave the nest a few hours
after they are hatched. In the
summer and autumn months these
birds are seen in small troops, and
in winter and spring in flocks of
several hundreds."
The flesh is dark-coloured, but
not particularly good in point of
flavour. The sacculation of the
oesophagus, to which allusion has
been made, is double, and the
skin covering it deep orange-yel-
low. The male is about twenty-
two inches in length, and weighs
from six to eight pounds. The
general colour of the upper parts
is light brown, mottled and varie-
gated with dark umber-brown and
yellowish-white. Shafts of all the
feathers of the breast black and
rigid ; the featliers of the side are
white and scale-like : throat and
head varied with blackish on a
\vhite ground : on each side of the
protuberances, and higher up on
the neck, is a tuft of feathers,
having the shafts greatly elon-
gated, naked, gently curved, and
tipped with a pencil of black barbs.
In the female these filamentous
feathers arc wanting ; her size is
much less than that of the male,
and there are no scale-like fea-
thers on the chest and sides. (See
Fig. 1388.) The annexed cut re-
presents a group of game.
The Ptarmigan and the
Red Grouse {Lagopus vulgaris
or fint/t/s). — Gelinote blanche,
4 A
THE GROUSE TRIBE.
of the
this genus
546
I'Attat'es blanc, of the French; Pernice, alpestre and Lagopo
bianco" of the Italians; Schncehuhn and Hassenfiissige Wald-
huhn of the Germans ; Rype of the Norwegians ; Riupkarre
(male) the Riupa (female) of the Icelanders ; Tarmachan
Highland Gael ; Coriar yr Alban of the Welsh. In
the legs and toes are completely clothed with hair-like feathers to
the very claws, and in winter so thick and deep does this covermg
become, as to give to the leg the appearance of a" hare's foot."
Small closely-set feathers also invest the base of the beak, which
increase, during the colder season, till little more than the pomt of
the latter is visible. A naked skin rises above each eye.
The Ptarmigan is a native of the dreary mountain regions of the
north of Europe, the Alpine districts of Central Europe, and the
northern parts of America, including the islands lying to the south-
west of BafBn's Bay. It is found in the British Islands, specially on
the Grampians, where great granite and slaty masses afford it con-
cealment It is found also in tolerable abundance on the elevated
summits of the mountains in the north of Scotland, and the adjacent
islands. Mountain berries and heath-shoots in summer, buds and
leaves in winter, constitute the food of the Ptarmigan ; and at this
season the Birds are often obliged to burrow under the snow, partly
perhaps for shelter, but principally in quest of food. After the
breedino- season the various young coveys and their parents asso-
ciate in large flocks, consisting of forty or fifty individuals, which
Bird
Fig. 1390. — Ptarmigans.
separate into pairs early in the spring. The nest, if it deserve the
name, consists of a few twigs and stalks of grass, loosely arranged
in a slight depression on the ground ; the eggs, fourteen or fifteen in
number, are of a pale reddish-white, spotted with dark brown. The
young run about as soon as they leave the shell, and are quite on the
alert, concealing themselves with great skill on the appearance of
danger. The alarm-call of the Ptarmigan is a strange croaking cry ;
and so well do the mingled colours of these Birds blend with the
frao-ments of out-cropping rock, weather-stained and covered by
many-tinted lichens and mosses, that a person may pass very near a
covey without perceiving them, unless one utters his call, or they
rise suddenly upon the wing.
One of the most remarkable facts connected with the history of
this species is its change from a rich and spotted livery, its summer
dress, to one of pure white. In spring, for example, the plumage is
varied with black and deep reddish-yellow, the quill-feathers being
white, with biack shafts. Towards autumn the yellow gives place
to greyish-white, and the black spots become irregularly broken, till
at last they disappear, the plumage whitening to the purity of snow.
At the same time it acquires greater fulness ; aud the legs and feet
are so densely clad as to resemble those of a hare. As spring re-
turns, the Ptarmigan begins to lose the pure white of his plumage,
and regains his summer dress. (See Fig. 1390.)
Red Grouse. — With respect to the Red Grouse (Lagopus
scoticusj it is exclusively peculiar to the British Islands, being found
in no part of the continent. This beautiful and valued tsira is
common on the high moorland districts of the northern counties of
England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, where the heath affords it
shelter and concealment. During the autumn and winter it associ-
ates in flocks or packs, which are often wild and shy, and not easily
approached. Early in the spring the sexes pair ; the female lays
her egp-s in March, making a rude nest of sprigs of heath and grass
upon the ground, under the shelter of a tuft of heath or of the
bilberry plant ( Vacciniian myrtillus). The young are strong on
the wincT by August. The male takes no part in the labour of incu-
bation, but ioins the female and the young brood as soon as hatched
and is as attentive to the latter as the female parent. The Red
Grouse feeds upon the tender shoots of heath, on bilberries, whortle-
berries, and the berries of other species of Vaccimum, and also upon
oats, for which it will visit the stubble lands bordering the moors.
Its flight is rapid and powerful. . , , ,,•..-
The plumage of the Red Grouse is very rich, the general tint being
deep chestnut, diversified with zigzag bars and dots of black ; the
leers and toes are thickly clad with hair-like feathers ; and a bright
sclrlet fringed skin, largest in the male, surmounts the eye.
The OdontophorincB are distinguished by having two teeth on
each side of the lower mandible, near the point. The bill is short,
and arched towards the 'tip, with the apex of the upper mandible
prolonged beyond the lower one ; the nostrils are situated at the base
^ '^ ■' of the bill, in a short rounded
groove, and covered by a mem-
branous scale ; the wings are con-
cave and rounded, the tarsi elon-
gated and slender, and the toes
long, the outermost being longer
than the inner. These Birds are
inhabitants of America, where they
take the place of the Partridges
and Quails of the Eastern Hemi-
sphere, and are generally known
by the same names. The best
known species is the American
Quail {Oi'tyx -jirginiatia), a Bird
about nine inches in length, which
is found in all parts of North
America, and as far south as Hon-
duras. These Birds, which are as
much the objects of pursuit with
the American sportsmen, as the
common Partridge with those of
our own country, are generally
found about the plantations, where
they feed upon grain. They oc-
casionally seek shelter in woods,
but usually keep in the open fields,
concealing themselves amongst
the briers of hedge-banks. In
May the females make a nest of
dry grass and herbage on the
ground, and generally protected
by a large tuft of grass. In
this they lay from fifteen to
twenty-four eggs, and the young
■isi, i"-"^ " ' ' quit the nest as soon as they are
hatched, running about with their
mother in search of food. When
disturbed under these circum-
stances, the mother immediately puts every artifice in practice to
lure the intruder away from her helpless brood, running along the
path before him with her wings dragging on the ground, as if
severely wounded, and returning by
danger has been eluded, to collect
a circuitous route when the
the chicks, which, in obedi-
Fig. 139 1. — The American Quail.
ence to the first note of alarm, have secreted themselves amongst
the herbage. When the eggs are hatched under a common
THE PARTRIDGES.
S47
hen, the young Birds arc perfectly contented with their captivity
until the approach of spring and the breeding season, when they
invariably take their departure. Another species, the Californian
Quail [Ortyx cali/ornica), has the top of the head ornamented with
several remarkable curved feathers. (See Fig. 1392.)
;#^
'^^'"i^*.
•^./j,
Fig. 1392. — The Californian Quail.
In the TernicintB, the bill is of moderate size, nearly straight, with
the tip of the upper mandible slightly overhanging that of the lower
one ; the nostrils are placed in a groove which e.xtends beyond the
middle of the bill ; their aperture is linear, and furnished with an
elongated scale. The tarsi are of moderate length, and stout ; the toes,
usually three in number, rather long, and free at the base ; the wings
short and rounded, and the tail nearly concealed by the dorsal feathers.
These small Birds, which are pretty generally distributed over the
Eastern Hemisphere, present a considerable resemblance to the
Bustards in their general appearance. They live generally on barren
deserts, where they run with great celerity, and, when disturbed,
generally conceal themselves in the taller herbage, or endeavour to
escape by running, but rarely take to flight. They feed upon seeds
Fig. 1393. — The Common rartridge.
and Insects, and are said to be polygamous ; but little is known of
their habits. Only a single species 'is found in Europe, the Anda-
lusian Quail {Tu>-/i!X tachydrumiis), and this is especially a native
of the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, both in Europe and
Africa. It is considered by Tcmminck to be a Migratory Bird, and
specimens have occasionally strayed so far to the north as to reach
this country. Several species are found in India and the islands of
the Eastern Archipelago ; and Mr. Gould has brought seven or eight
from Australia. The last-named ornithologist confirms Temminck's
opinion as to the migrations of these Birds. A Javanese species,
7'ur?i!X ^ugnax, is of an exceedingly quarrelsome disposition, and
is much sought after by the natives of that island, who amuse them-
selves with its combats.
The Partridges— Sub-family Perdicince.
The last sub-family is that of the PerdicincB, including the
Partridges and Quails, in which the bill is short and compressed,
with the margins of the mandibles entire, and the nostrils protected
by a hard scale ; the tarsi are elongated, covered in front with
scales, and occasionally armed with spurs or tubercles, and the
hinder toe is more or less elevated. The Pcrdic!?icc arc very gene-
rally distributed over the temperate and warmer regions of the
Eastern Hemisphere. Some, like our common Partridge, are sta-
tionary ; whilst others, such as the Quails, perform regular migra-
tions. They live principally upon the ground, in pastures, especially
in mountainous districts, and in corn-fields ; a few inhabit rocky
places, and some are even found in woods. They feed principally
upon seeds, berries, and buds. The nest is of a very simple nature,
and generally placed on the ground in a small hollow ; the eggs are
numerous, and the young run about from the moment of their
leaving the f^gg, in company with the mother, who often employs a
stratagem, similar to that related of the American Quail, to save her
young from danger.
The CoiiJiON Partridge {Perdix cincrcd). — Perdris, Pcrdris
grise, on des Champs, of the French ; Perdice, Pernisette, Perni-
gona, and Starna of the Italians ; Rebhun of the Germans ; Coriar
of the ancient British ; Pertrisen of the modern Welsh.
The common Partridge is too well known to require minute de-
scription : it appears to be confined within the boundaries of Europe,
everywhere frequenting cultivated districts and rich corn-lands;
hence its increase is encouraged by the conversion of heath, moor-
land, and wood, into fields of waving grain. The pairing-time of
these Birds is about the beginning of February, at which season the
males engage in desperate conflicts ; and as they are more numer-
ous than the females, the successful combatant in one battle has
often to renew the strife with other rivals. The female produces
her eggs about the latter part of May or beginning of June,
depositing them in a rough nest or shallow depression of the
ground, in a corn-field or clover-field, under a tuft of grass in a
meadow, or amongst whin bushes. They vary from twelve to
twenty in number, and are of a greenish ash colour. So close
does the female sit, and so unmoved is she by apprehension
of danger, that she frequently falls a victim to the mower's
scythe while brooding over her nest. The young, after three
weeks' incubation, are hatched in June, or from the beginning
to the middle of July ; and the male immediatelyjoins his mate
in the care of the young brood. From the earliest times the
Partridge has been celebrated for the various artifices employed
to draw off the attention of men and Dogs from the young,
which, at the warning call of their parents, have dispersed, and
lie cowering in the grass or amidst the standing corn ; nor is
this all — they will fight resolutely in defence of their brood,
and have been known to engage in combat with the Kite and
the Crow, and accomplish their object. The feeding-time of
the Partridge occupies two or three hours after sunrise, and
again in the evening before sunset. The interval they employ
in basking and dusting their plumage in sunny places, in
preening their feathers, and in taking short flights from one
spot to another. They roost at night upon the ground, near
the centre of a field, in a bare spot, and at sunset may be
heard calling to each other, till the covey, which sits crowded
together, is complete. (See Figs. 1389 h, and 1393.)
The Red-legged Partridge {Perdix rubra), a species
abundant in France and Italy, and a native also of the islands
of Guernsey and Jersey, has, within the last few years, been in-
troduced into some of the preserves of g'ame in our island, and
in various parts has considerably multiplied, but to the injury
of the Common Partridge, which it fiercely persecutes, usurp-
ing its legitimate territory. Its flesh is very inferior to that
of the latter ; and the sportsman, to his annoyance, finds that
the Birds, instead of rising, run, soon spoiling the behaviour of
his best-trained Pointers. The Red-legged Partridge is very
beautiful, having the feathers of the sides ornamented with a
series of crescent-shaped bars of black, white, and chestnut ;
the throat is white, bordered by a deep black band; the
upper surface is reddish-brown ; the under surtacc reddish-yellow.
548
THE PHEASANTS.
The Quails. — To our common Partridge, not only in plumage
and form, but in the spurless condition of the legs, the Quails
(Coturnix) bear a close resemblance. The European Quail {Cotur-
nix dactylisonatis ; the opruS of Aristotle ; Coturnix of the Latins ;
Quaglia of the modern Italians ; Caille of the French ; and Wachtel
of the Germans) is known over the greater part of the Old World, and
is a summer visitant, though not in great numbers, to our island.
In Italy, Spain, and Portugal, the Quail may be regarded as station-
ary, flocks or bevis remaining during the winter, but increased every
spring by an accession of visitors from the parched plains of Africa,
the winter asylum of myriads, which make Europe and the adjacent
parts of Asia their annual summer residence. During their periodi-
cal flights between Europe and Africa, and vice versa, the shores
and islands of the Mediterranean are replete with myriads. Sicily
swarms with them — their autumnal arrival is looked forward to with
great anxiety, and they are shot and captured by wholesale. Ac-
cording to Baron de Tott, no country abounds in Quails more than
the Crimea. During the summer these Birds are dispersed over the
country, " but assemble at the approach of autumn, and cross the
Black Sea to the southern coasts, whence they afterwards transport
themselves into a warmer climate. The order of this emigration is
invariable : towards the end of August, in a serene day, when the
wind blows from the north at sunset, and promises a fine night, they
repair to the strand, take their departure at six or seven in the even-
ing, and have finished a journey of fifty leagues by break of day."
Nets are spread on the opposite shore, and persons are assembled
to capture the Birds exhausted by their flight. The migrations of
the Quail have, in fact, been noticed by the ancients, from Aristotle to
Pliny ; and the latter asserts that, blown by adverse winds out of
their course, whole flocks are often swept into the sea, and that
sometimes they settle on vessels in such numbers as to cause their
sinking. " Advolant * • * non sine periculo navigantium cum
appropinquavere terris, quippe veils saepe insident, et semper noctu,
merguntque navigia." (Plin. " Hist. Nat." lib. x.) Hasselquist
states that in Egypt amazing flocks of these Birds arrive in the
month of March, when the wheat ripens there, and are caught in
thousands by means of nets. (See Fig. 1389 c.)
The flesh of the Quail is very delicate. Our London markets are
supplied principally from France, and thousands are there captured
by means of a Quail-pipe which imitates their call ; but, as Mr.
Selby observes, "by this device males only are taken, which may
account for the few female specimens found amongst the many hun-
dreds kept in confinement by the London poulterers." We may
add that the males precede the arrival of the females by a few days.
According to Pliny, the Romans entertained a prejudice against
the flesh of these Birds, in consequence of their feeding on the grains
of the hellebore, and their being subject to epilepsy. Other nations,
however, do not seem to have partaken of this prejudice. The
Quail is polygamous ; the nest consists merely of a few dried stalks
in some convenient receptacle on the ground, generally in a field of
wheat : the eggs are from twelve to eighteen in number, of a light
greenish hue, blotched with brown. The pugnacious habits of the
Quail are well known: "As quarrelsome as quails in a cage," was
an ancient saying. The males fight with the spirit and resolution of
Game-Cocks ; hence the Greeks and Romans kept them for the pur-
pose of fighting.
The colours of the Quail are very pleasing, being a mixture of
black, chestnut, yellow, and white ; the markings vary in intensity, but
the males are always characterised by a black border round the throat,
which is wanting in the female. Length, seven inches and a-half.
The Francolins [Francoltnus) closely resemble the Partridges,
but the tarsi of the males are armed with one or two spurs. They
differ considerably from the True Partridges in their habits, living in
damp places, in woods and forests, and perching constantly upon
trees. One species, the common Francolin {F. vulgaris), is an
inhabitant of the south of Europe, Asia, and the north of Africa.
Like the common Partridge, which it resembles in the form of its
bill, it feeds upon Insects and seeds ; but some of the African
species derive their nourishment from bulbous plants ; and to enable
them to dig these out of the ground, the bill, especially the upper
mandible, is considerably elongated. Their flesh is very good.
In the family of the Pteroclidce, or Sand Grouse, the bill is rather
short, compressed, nearly straight, and curved at the tip, with the
nostrils at the base, and half closed by a membranous scale. The
tarsi are rather long, and covered in front with small feathers ; the
toes short, especially the hinder one, which is nearly rudimentary,
and placed high up upon the tarsus. The wings and tail are
elongated and pointed, and in some species the two middle feathers
of the tail are considerably longer than the others. These Birds
live for the most part on the plains and sandy deserts of the hot
countries of the Old World.
Two species {Pterocles arenarius and P. alchata) are found in
Europe, but these frequent only the most southern parts of the
continent. They fly well, and often perform long journeys, although
they cannot be regarded as Migratory Birds; their food consists
principally of seeds and Insects. They nidificate on the ground,
amongst stones or herbage, and lay four or five eggs.
The Pheasants— Family Phasianidce.
The fifth family, that of the Phasianidcc, or Pheasants, includes
the most beautiful of the Rasorial Birds ; indeed, some of them may
perhaps be justly regarded as pre-eminent, in this respect, over all
the rest of their class. In these Birds the bill is of moderate size,
and compressed, with the upper mandible arched to the tip, where it
overhangs the lower one ; the tarsi are of moderate length and thick-
ness, usually armed with one or two spurs ; the toes are moderate,
and the hinder one short and elevated.'/- The wings are rather short
and rounded, and the tail more or less elongated and broad, but
frequently wedge-shaped and pointed. The head is rarely feathered
all over ; the naked skin is sometimes confined to a space about the
eye, but generally occupies a greater portion of the surface, occa-
sionally covering the whole head, and even a part of the neck, and
frequently forming combs and wattles of very remarkable forms. In
some species the crown is furnished with a crest of feathers.
The Birds of this family are, for the most part, inhabitants of the
Asiatic continent and islands, from which, however, several species
have been introduced into other parts of the globe. The Guinea
Fowl of Africa, and the Turkeys of America, are almost the only
instances of the occurrence of wild Phasianidous Birds out of Asia.
Some species, such as the common Fowl, the Peacock, the Turkey,
and the Guinea Fowl, have been reduced to a state of complete
domestication, and are distributed pretty generally over the world.
The PhasianidcB constitute four distinct sub-families. In the
MeleagrincB, or Turkeys, the tail is short and pendent in repose,
and the head and neck are naked, and covered with a carunculated
skin. This sub-family includes only the Turkeys and Guinea Fowl
of America and Africa, representatives of which are well-known
denizens of our poultry-yards.
'lYi'e. Co'b.lhlO'Vk Ivsx.-EX {Meleagris gallopavd). Coq d'lnde and
Dindon (Dinde, fem.), French ; Gallo d'India, Gallinaccio (Gallina
d'India, fem.) of the Italians ; Indianische Hahn of the Germans.
(Sec Fig. 1394.)
Fig. 1394. — The Common Turkey.
This noble Bird, one of the ornaments of our poultry-yard, is a
native of America, whence it appears to have been imported into
Europe in the early part of the sixteenth century. But it must be
confessed that nothing very tangible or definite respecting its intro-
duction has been recorded. So involved in obscurity is the early
history of the Turkey, and so ignorant do the writers of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries appear to have been about it, that they
have regarded it as a Bird known to the ancients under the title of
"Meleagris" — namely, the Guinea Fowl, or Pintado — a mistake which
was not cleared up till about the middle of the eighteenth century ;
but the name, originally applied in error, has been since continued
rather for the sake of convenience than because of its propriety.
The appellation of " Turkey," which the Bird bears in our country,
arose, according to Willughby, from a supposition that it came origin-
ally from the country so called ; and Mr. Bennett observes that such an
erroneous opinion may possibly have arisen from that confusion which
appears to have at first existed between these Birds and Guinea
Fowls, the latter being commonly obtained from the Levant, and
being also, in the si.xteenth century, exceedingly rare in England.
Oviedo, in his " Natural History of the Indies," the title then given
to the newly-discovered regions of America, speaks of it as a kind
of Peacock, abounding in New Spain, which had already (1526) been
transported in a domestic state to the islands and the Spanish Main,
where it was kept by the Christian colonists. Mexico was first dis-
covered by Grijalva in 1518. In the fifteenth year of Henry VIII.
(1521), Turkeys are reported to have been introduced into England;
THE PHEASANT TRIBE.
.S49
and in 1541 we find these Birds among the dainties of the table.
Archbishop Cranmer (Leland's "Collectanea") ordered that of
Cranes, Swans, and Turkey-Cocks there should be at festivals only
one dish. In 1573, Tusscr, in his " Five Hundred Points of Good
Husbandry," notices these Birds as amonc;: the farmer's fare at
Christmas. At the present day the Domestic Turkey is spread over
the greater portion of Europe, and is too well known to need descrip-
tion.
The habits of the Wild Turkey (see Fig. 1395) arc admirably de-
tailed by Audubon and the Prince of Canino, whose accounts we
shall follow. The native country of this species extends from the
north-western territory of the United States to the Isthmus of
Panama, south of which it is not to be found. It was formerly com-
mon in many parts of Canada, as well as in districts within the
States, whence it has been driven by the advance of colonisation,
and must now be sought for in remoter localities. The unsettled
seldom taking wing unless to escape the hunter's Dog, or cross a
river, which latter feat is not performed till after some delay, during
which they ascend the highest eminences, and strut about and
gobble as if to raise their courage to a pitch bolilting the emergency.
Even the females and young assume, at this juncture, a pompous
demeanour, spread out their tails, and "pur" loudly. When the
weather is settled, and they themselves prepared, they take to flight
for the opposite shore ; the old and robust easily cross a river of the
breadth of a mile, but the young and meagre Birds often find their
strength fail, and fall into the water, not, however, to be drowned, as
might be imagined. They bring their wings close to the body,
spread out their tail, stretch forward their neck, strike out vigor-
ously with their legs, and rapidly make w.ay to the shore. It is
remarkable that, after landing on the opposite banks of a large
stream, the flocks ramble about for some time as if bewildered and
many fall a prey to ferocious beasts or the hunter. When they'have
FisJ 1395.— Wild Turkeys.
parts of the States of Ohio, Kentucky, Illinois, aud Indiana, an im-
mense country to the north-west of these districts, and the vast
regions drained by these rivers, from their confluence to Louisiana,
including the wooded parts of Arkansas, according to Audubon, are
the most abundantly supplied with this magnificent Bird. The
Wild Turkey is, to a certain degree, migratory in its habits, and
associates in flocks during the autumn and winter months. About
the beginning of October, when the fruits and seeds are about to
fall from the trees, these Birds collect together, and gradually move
towards the rich bottom-lands of the Ohio and Mississippi. The
males, or " gobblers," associate in parties, varying from ten to a
hundred, and search for food apart from the fernalcs ; the latter,
with their young broods, usually join each other, forming parties of
seventy or eighty, and assiduously avoid the old males, which evince
a disposition to attack and destroy the young till they are fully
grown. The flocks of the district all move in the same direction.
arrived in their land of abundance, they disperse in small flocks,
composed of individuals of both sexes and all ages intermingled ;
this occurs about the middle of November. The mast, or fruit of
the beech, has now fallen in abundance ; but besides this, maize,
the peccan-nut, and the acorn are also relished, and they devour
Beetles, Grasshoppers, Tadpoles, young Frogs, and small Lizards.
At this season they often venture near farm-yards and barns, and
numbers are killed for sale.
Early in March they begin to pair, the females having previously
assumed a solitary mode of life, feeding and roosting apart by
themselves : when they call, the males respond, and the woods
sometimes resound for miles with the clamour. Rival males often
engage in mortal combat. As soon as the females begin to lay,
they relinquish the society of their mates, and soon attend exclu-
sively to the duty of incubation ; the nest, which consists of a few
leaves, is artfully concealed in some brake or under the covert of a
SSO
THE PHEASANT TRIBE.
dense thicket, and the female both leaves and visits her nest with
the greatest caution, lest the male should discover it, in which case
he would ferociously crush the eggs in a moment, The Crow, the
Polecat, and the Snake are also dreaded ; and it often happens that
several hens associate together for mutual safety, rearing their broods
in one united nest, which is always watched by one or more, so
that no Crow, Raven, or Polecat dares approach it. When the
young are hatched, the female leads them abroad, keeping a^n
anxious and incessant watch lest Hawks and other enemies, includ-
ing the Turkey-Cock, should attack them ; the troops move onwards,
ke^eping to the higher grounds, for the young are only covered with
down, and if wetted in this stage of existence seldom survive. At
the expiration of about a fortnight they are able to raise themselves
from the ground, on which they have hitherto reposed at night, and
follow their mother to a perch on the low arm of a tree, where they
nestle under her broadly curved wings. The brood vanes in number
from ten to fifteen or eighteen. The growth of the young is rapid,
In Aucnast, though still led by their respective parents, several broods
associate together, and the young display almost as much alertness
in securing their safety as do the adults. -, , , ,
In colour the Wild Turkey closely resembles the bronzed black
varieties of the domestic race, but the plumage is more brilliant, gleam-
ing with violet, green, and gold according to the incidence of the
lic?ht The long pectoral tassel of hair, and the naked, changeable,
carunculated skin of the head and throat, are the same in the wild
as in the domesticated race. Fig. 1396 represents the gizzard ot
the Turkey.
head of this species, which is the Gallina di Numidia of the
Italians, Pintade of the French, Pintado of the Spanish, Perl Huhn
of the Germans. In a subsequent illustration of a " Group of
Domestic Poultry," the figure of this Bird will be seen.
The Guinea-Fowl, or Pintado, as its name indicates, was originally
from Africa. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and
received from the former the name of Meleagris. According to the
ancient fable, the sisters of Meleager, mourning the death of their
brother, were turned into Birds called Meleagrides (in the singular
Meleagris), having their feathers sprinkled with tear-drops. The
term Meleagris, however, strange to say, has been transferred by
Belon, Gesner, Aldrovandus, and others to the Turkey, a native of
America, and of which the ancients had no information.
Fig. 1396.— Gizzard of the Turkey.
The HONDUR.A.S Turkey (il/e/e^zi'rw oce/Ziz/a).— Beautiful as is
the common Wild Turkey of North America, it is far surpassed by
the Honduras Turkey, which rivals the Peacock in its gorgeous
Fig. 1397. — The Honduras Tiivkey.
dress, effulgent with golden bronze, steel blue, emerald green, and
velvet black. (See Fig. 1397.)
The Guinea-Fowl (Numida meleagris J. Fig. 1398 shows the
Fig. 139S. — Head of the Guinea-Fowl.
The Guinea-Fowl is noticed by Aristotle, by Pliny, by Varro (" De
Re Rustica "), and by Columella, a writer on husbandry in the reign
of Claudius Ca:sar, and by others. According to Athenasus, the
^tolians first introduced this Bird into Greece ; but though it must
have been naturalised there, it does not appear to have spread very
widel)'. In the middle ages we lose all trace of it ; no writers of
those times appear to notice it, nor can we distinctly point out the
period of its introduction into the British Isles. This, however,
must be comparatively recent ; its name does not occur in the list of
Birds in the famous feast of Archbishop Nevill, in the reign of
Edward IV. ; nor does it appear in the Duke of Northumberland's
Household-Book, 1512 ; nor yet in the Household-Book of Henry
VIII. Yet, in all these lists, the Peion, or Peacock, makes a con-
spicuous figure. In the early part of the eighteenth century the
Guinea-Fowl was tolerably common in England, and is now com-
pletely naturalised.
Adanson, Dampier, Le Vaillant, and other travellers in Africa,
have observed the Wild Guinea-Fowl in different parts of that con-
tinent ; but, as several species are known, we cannot be certain
which of them is intended.
The common Guinea-Fowl {Numida t)teleagris) appears to be
dispersed through an extensive range of Africa, frequenting low
humid situations, and the banks of rivers and marshes. It is
eminently gregarious, assembling in large flocks, which wander
about during the day in search of food ; as evening approaches,
they seek the branches of trees, and roost crowded together. In its
rapid mode of running, and in its short flight when forced to take
wing, we are reminded of the Partridge, which it also somewhat
resembles in the contour of its body. A wild race of these Birds is
found in St. Domingo and others of the West India islands ; this
race is said to have been imported from Guinea.
In a domestic condition, the Guinea-Fowl retains almost unaltered
its original habits ; it is restless, addicted to wandering, and
impatient of restraint. It will stray for miles from the farm to
which it belongs, and it often happens that a long-missed female
will make her appearance with a young brood attending her. In
close confinement the female rarely hatches her eggs, the want of free-
dom interfering with her instincts; few Birds, indeed, are more recluse
and shy during the time of incubation, or more cautious in conceal-
ing their nest. It is generally made among dense brushwood or in
similar retreats. The number of eggs varies from twelve to twenty.
They are smaller than those of the Fowl, of a pale yellowish-red,
minutely dotted with darker points. Both the eggs and flesh of the
Guinea-Fowl are excellent. Cream-coloured Guinea-Fowls are some-
times to be seen ; in these the white spots are still to be distinguished.
Another variety has a white breast, and the general colouring
destitute of the richness which renders the wild and the undegenerate
domestic race so attractive. The shrill querulous notes of this Bird,
which it perpetually repeats, are veiy disagreeable. The Guinea-
Fowl has not yet reached the colder latitudes of Europe ; it is not
mentioned by Linnaeus in his Swedish Fauna ; and it is said that
neither Denmark, Norway, nor Northern Russia possesses it.
The Crested Guinea-Fowl, or Pintado {Numida crislala).
THE PHEASANT TRIBE.
551
—This species is less than the common Gumea-Fowl ; its head is
crested with hair-hke feathers ; the general plumage is bluish-black
spotted with grey. Quills yellowish-brown ; edges of the secondaries
pure white.
The True Pheasants— Sub-family Phasianinai.
In the sub-family of the Phasianhia-, or True Pheasants, the tail
is more or less elongated, usually very long, wedge-shaped, pointed,
and composed of narrow, wedge-shaped feathers. Of this group,
which includes the Pheasants and Domestic Poultry, the best known
■wild species is the common Pheasant [P/iauaniis colchicus).
This Bird, which is too well known to need description, although
naturalised in this country, and included in our lists of Birds, cannot
be regarded as a native species ; and except in some very favour-
able situations, considerable care is necessary to prevent its ex-
tinction. It is a native of Western Asia, and is supposed to have
=i-.))Mv
Fig- 1399.— The Crested Guinea-Fowl.
been originally introduced into Europe from the banks of the Phasis
a river of the ancient kingdom of Colchis, situated at the eastern
extremity of the Black Sea; and from this locality its scientific
name is derived. It is now, however, very generally distributed
over the whole of the southern parts of Europe.
The description of the habits of the common Pheasant will serve,
with but little variation, for the whole group. Its favourite haunts
Fig. 1400.— Group of Chinese Pheasants,
are woods and thickets, always in the neighbourhood of water; and
it frequently takes to marshy islands, overgrown with rushes or
osiers. In the summer the Pheasants roost on the ground ; but
during the latter part of the autumn and winter, they pass the night
upon "the trees. They feed upon grain and seeds of various kinds,
intermixed with fruits, green herbage, roots, and Insects. Mr.
Yarrell says that he has seen them feeding on blackberries, sloes,
and haws ; and that sometimes their crops are distended with acorns
of such large size, that the Birds must have had some trouble in
getting them down. They are also said to be particularly fond of
The root of the common buttercup (Ramniailiis bulbosus). In their
movements. Pheasants closely resemble the common Fowl, walking
and running in the same manner, and with great swiftness ; in fact,
rarely taking wing unless pressed with immediate danger. They
are polygamous, and the males and females only associate during
the breeding season, which is in the spring. At this time, the
males, which have kept together during the winter, separate, each
taking up a particular station, where he collects a number of females
round' him, by strutting about, clapping his wings, and crowing.
The females deposit from ten to fourteen eggs amongst long grass
or bushes ; the nest consisting merely of a small hollow, lined with
dried leaves ; they are then deserted by the male, and the whole
labour of incubation and bringing up the young brood is left entirely
to them.
The Pheasant breeds pretty readily in confinement; but under
these circumstances the female is apt to be somewhat careless in
hatching the eggs, which are therefore usually put under a common
Hen ; and the possessors of preserves even collect all the eggs that
can be found, hatch them in this way under a Hen, and turn the
young out into the covers when fledged. In captivity the Pheasant
will breed with the common Fowl and Guinea-Fowl; and even in
the wild state, hybrids of this Bird, with the Black Grouse, have
been met with. A variety, the Ring-necked Pheasant, distinguished
by having a white ring round its neck, is also supposed by some to
be a hybrid with the Phasianus torqiiatus, a native of China. The
young Birds are very subject to a disease called the gapes, which is
caused by the presence in the windpipe of a parasitic Worm belong-
ing to the genus Fasciola, which causing the trachea to inflame,
often produces suffocation. Various remedies are employed against
this disease ; in its eariier stages, gariic, chives, or young onions,
are said to have a beneficial effect ; but when the disease has be-
come serious, the best remedy is fumigation with tobacco, the Birds
being enclosed in a tight box, and smoked until they are nearly
or completely stupefied. Pheasant-shooting is a favourite amuse-
ment with sportsmen, and perh.-!ps no other description of game is
so subject to the depredations of poachers. The number of these
Birds sometimes killed at battues is enormous ; but it must be con-
fessed that this practice is not one of the most sportsmanlike.
Numerous species of Pheasants are found in the wooded regions
of the Asiatic continent and islands. Amongst these, two of the
most beautiful are the Gold
and Silver Pheasants of China,
which are not uncommon in
aviaries. Fig. 1400 represents
three specimens of Chinese
Pheasants : a, the Silver ; b,
the Golden ; and c, Reeve's
Pheasant.
The Golden Pheasant {Pha-
siaiiiis pictiis) is one of the
most magnificent species, its
plumage being variegated
with brilliant scarlet, yellow,
and blue, and the head orna-
mented with a large yellow
crest, which can be elevated at
pleasure. Cuvier supposes
that this Bird was the original
of Pliny's description of the
Phoenix. In the Silver Phea-
sant {P. nyctheincnts) the
general colour of the plumage
is white, but each feather is
adorned with fine black lines,
and the whole lower surface
of the body is black. One of
the finest species is the Argus
Pheasant {Argus giganteus.
Fig. 1401), which inhabits the
larger islands of the Eastern
Archipelago. The male mea-
sures between five and six
feet, from the tip of the bill to
the extremity of the tail, the
greater part of which is formed
by the two central feathers.
The general colour of the
SSa
THE PHEASANT TRIBE.
plumage is brown ; but the most remarkable character of the
Bird consists in the enormous size of the secondary quill-feathers
of the wings (see Fig. 1402), which often exceed three feet in
length ; and from their being adorned with a series of occUated
spots, along the whole length
of each, give the Bird a very
elegant appearance when the
wings are expanded. The
Pucras Pheasant {Piicrasia
i)iacrolopJia) is closely allied
to the common species ; but
the other, the Tragopan, or
Horned Pheasant {Ceriornis
satyra, see Fig. 1403), makes
a nearer approach to the ordi-
nary Fowl. This Bird is re-
markable for the singularity
of the appendages with which
the head of the male is
adorned ; the sides of the head
are naked, and behind each
eye there is a long horn of a
Head of the Argus Pheasant, bluish colour, which is also the
tint of the dilatable wattles
that hang down from the chin. The plumage in the male is of a
rich red colour, adorned with small white spots ; but in the females
it is brown. The latter are also destitute of the appendages of the
head.
The following remarks on the naturalisation of Pheasants in Eng-
land are extracted from the " Guide " of the Zoological Society to their
Gardens at Regent's Park, London, where an extensive series of
living Birds may be seen : —
" The Game-Birds of the Himalaya, and other parts of Eastern
Asia, include so many fine species which are capable of living in
Europe, that their introduction into this country has, from the first,
been a cherished object of the Zoological Society. The common
Pheasant is a comparatively modern accession to the coverts of Eng-
land, and is not naturally more adapted to our climate than many
Fig. 1401.-
other species of Pheasants which are known to inhabit India,
Mongolia, China, or Japan. Within these last few years nearly the
whole of these splendid Birds have been introduced into this country
in a living state, principally by the agents and correspondents of the
Society. Some of them have succeeded well in captivity, and breed
Fig. 1402. — Secondary Quill-Feather of the Argus Pheasant.
regularly in the Society's Gardens. Others have done well for the
first 3'ear or so after their acquisition, but have subsequently fallen off,
and will require fresh introduction.
" The Monal {Loj>hoJ>horus im^eyaniis). — The Monal, or Impeyan
Fi^. 1403. — The Tragopan, or Horned I'hc.isanl.
THE PHEASANT TRIBE.
*,ll
Pheasant, of the Himalayas, is one of the most striking Birds of its
tribe, and cannot fail to fix tlie attention of all who behold it. The
rich beauty of its plumage, its size, and the grotcsqueness of its
actions at particular periods are equally remarkable." Fig. 1404
represents the head, and Figs. 1405 and 1406 the male and female
Birds.
The male is a handsome Bird, nearly as large as a Turkey, and of
a general black colour ; but the feathers reflect most beautiful
metallic blue, green, golden, and coppery tints. The head is adorned
Fig. 1404. — Head o( the Inipey.in Theasant.
with a remarkable tuft of plumes, which, like the feathers of the back,
appear golden-green by reflection. The tail is of a fine chestnut-red
colour, and the rump white. The females are far inferior in beauty
to the males, being of a general brown tint, more or less variegated
with grey and tawny. The Bird feeds principally upon bulbous
roots, for digging up which, the elongated upper mandible is parti-
cularly adapted.
"The Amherst's Pheasant {Thatmialea amkersiics). — This
Pheasant is a strict congener of the well-known Gold Pheasant (77^.
■pictd), already described ; but is even more showy and magnificent in
Fig. 1405. — The Impeyan Pheasant — Male.
plumage. It was for many years known only by a few imperfect
skins in our museums, but within these last few years has been
obtained by collectors in the Chinese provinces Yunan and Western
Szechuen, in considerable numbers. The living e.xamples in the
Society's collection were procured from the latter locality. The
males breed freely with hens of the Gold Pheasant, and the resulting
hybrids are barely distinguishable from Pure Birds.
" The Purple Kaleege {Euplocamus horsfiehW) ; The White-
crested K.4LEEGE {E. albo-cristatus) ; The Lineated Kaleege
{E. lineatus). — The division oiPhasianitlcB to which these fine Birds
belong, has long been familiar to European eyes in the Silver
Pheasant, already described ; which was probably one of the first
introductions resulting from our commerce with China. Males of
the Horsfield's or Purple Kaleege were obtained by the Society
through Captam Ncsbit, of the "Nile," in the year i8si. The
Lmeatod kaleege of Arracan and the Burmese provinces is the most
recently rntro. uced of the Kaleeges, most of which breed regularly
m the Society s Gardens. '
" The Argus Pheasant {Argus giganfcus).-1\^x^ has been
already described. For pairs of this rare and valuable Bird the
Society are indebted to the kindness of Mr. I. G. Fanshawe F 7 S
and Sir Harry St. George Ord, K.C.B. r<i"!.nawe, i ./..&.,
"The Temminck's Tr.\gopan [Cerioynis tcmm!ncki\~T\^<i
Tragopans or Horned Pheasants, are among the most remarkable of
the Gamc-Birds of Eastern Asia. The Horned Tragopan {Cerioniis
Fig. 1406. — The Impeyan Pheasant— Female.
satyra) was the first species of the group introduced. This Trago-
pan is found in Nepal, Bhotan, and Sikim, being replaced on the
slopes of the north-western Himalayas by the Black-headed Tragopan
{C. 7>!elaiwccphala). Tcmminck's Tragopan is a representative of
this splendid group of Pheasants in Central and Western China ;
and Blyth's Tragopan, the most recent addition to the genus, isfirom
Upper Assam.
"The Peacock Vhea.sdiniXPolypleciron chinquis).—1\\ft Polyplec-
trons obtained the name of Peacock Pheasants from the metallic eyes
which adorn the principal feathers of the body, and all the feathers
of the tail. This gorgeous scheme of decoration may be observed as
occurring also in the Ocellated Turkey of Honduras. There are
several Polyplectrons found in North India and the Malay countries,
but the present Bird is the only species which has bred freely
in captivity. Contrary to the usual habits of Gallinaceous Birds,
the Polyplectrons are strictly monogamous, and lay only two eggs."
The Common Fowl. — The most important species of this group,
and perhaps the most valuable of all Birds, is the Common Fowl
{Gallus domestiacs). This Bird has been under the protection of
man from time immemorial ; and the earliest historical records
which we possess, the curious paintings of the Egyptians, show that
this, and most of our ordinary Domestic Animals, were as completely
domesticated at that early period as in our own day. The original
stock of the Domestic Fowl has been supposed to be the Gallus
bafzkivus, or Jungle-Fowl, of Java, which will be presently described ;
but naturalists are far from having arrived at any certainty upon
this point ; and it seems not improbable, cither that this valuable
Bird forms a species per se, or that it has been produced by an
intermixture of closely related species.
With respect to the habits of our Domestic Fowls nothing need be
said. The crow of the Cock, the cackle of the Hen, the care of
Chanticleer over his harem, his attention and spirit, the cluck with
which he calls the females to some acceptable food, their mode of
dusting their feathers, their habit of swallowing gravel and small
pebbles, to assist in the trituration of grain, subjected to the action
of the muscular gizzard — these and many other points in their
economy are known to all.
The varieties of Fowl are too numerous for description ; but the
following illustration shows some of the most interesting kind, together
with other Animals common in the farm and poultry-yard.
The Bankiva, or Javan Jungle-Fowl {Gallus banki-
viis, Temm.). The Javan Cock of Latham; Ayam utan of the
Malays. — This beautiful species is a native of Java, and, though
smaller in size, closely resembles the Black-breasted Red Game
breed of our own country. It tenants the jungles, and in some
districts is very abundant. We have seen many specimens in the
Gardens of the Zoological Society. A larger variety, or perhaps a
distinct species, is found on the continent of India. The plumage of
the male is as follows : — the hackles of the neck and rump are long,
and of a fine rich orange-red ; the upper part of the back below the
4B
554
THE PHEASANT TRIBE.
DOMESTIC FOWLS; MALE AND FEMALE TURKEY.
THE PHEASANT TRIBE.
55S
hackles bl.iish.b!ack ; the shoulders bright chestnut-red : the greater
coverts and secondaries deep steel-blue : the qui Is brownish-black,
edcred with pale reddish-yellow ; tail black, with green and steel-
blue reflexions ; breast and under parts black ; the comb, which is
upright and deeply indented, the naked space round the eyes, and
the wattles scarlet. The Hen closely resembles a Brown Garne Hen,
of the same breed as the Black-breasted Red, or Duck-winged Game-
Cock This is the 15ird to which allusion has just been made as the
probable origin of our domestic race. (See Fig. 1408.)
,s</,'n-■/l,u^^
Fig. 140S. — The Eankiva, or Javan Jungle- Fowl.
Sonnerat's '^vfiG'L^-Vow'L [Gallus so?ineraiu'). Jungle-Fowl
of the sportsmen in India ; Rahn Komrah of the Mahrattas. — This
splendid Bird, of which many specimens have lived long in the
menagerie of the Zool. Soc, is celebrated for its high courage and
prowess, and is in great request among the Cock-fighters of Hindo-
Fig. 1409. — Sonnerat's Jungle-Fowl — Male.
Stan, who consider it more than a match for a larger Bird of the
ordinary breed. Its port is erect and stately, and its form is admir-
able. In size this species is nearly equal to the Domestic Fowl, but
lighter and more graceful. The comb is only slightly indented ;
the wattles are large and double ; the hackles (though they scarcely
come under this term) of the neck, of the wing and tail-coverts, dark
greyish, with bright golden orange shafts dilating in the centre and
towards the tip into a flat hornyplate. In some of these feathers the
shaft takes an elliptical or oar-like shape ; in others it puts on the ap-
pearance of a long inverted cone, from the centre of the base of
which a battledore-like process arises. The substance and appear-
ance of these plates have been not inaptly compared with the wax-
like plates which ormemcnt the wings and tail of the Bohemian
Chatterer. The effect produced by this modification of the shafts
is singular and beautiful. Feathers of the middle of the back,
breast, belly, and thighs deep rich grey, with paler shafts and edges ;
tail generally rich deep green ; the feathers which immediately
succeed the hackles are rich purple, with a pale yellow edge ; those
next in succession are golden green, with grey edges, and all arc
glossed with brilliant metallic reflexions ; bill, legs, and feet yellow.
The living Bird presents altogether a rich and striking object, es-
pecially when the sun shines on the plumage. (See Fig. 1409.)
Female less than the Cock by about a third, without comb or
wattles, but a trace of nakedness round the eye. The plumage
(generally) is without the horny structure which distinguishes that
of the male. Upper parts uniform brown ; neck feathers with dark
Fig. 1410.— Sonnerat's Jungk-Fowl— Female.
edges, those of the back and wing-coverts with a pale streak along
the shaft, and those of the wings, tail-coverts, and tail waved and
mottled with darker pencillings ; throat and front of the neck white ;
feathers of the rest of the lower parts greyish-white, edged with dark
brown ; legs and feet bluish-grey. (See Fig. 1410.)
Peafowl — Sub-Family Pavonince.
The last sub-family of the Phasianidous Birds is that of the
Pavonincs, or Peafowl, distinguished by having a tuft or crest upon
the head, and the tail-coverts greatly elongated— these being the
feathers which, in the common Peacock, form that beautiful orna-
ment usually known as the tail. The Common Peacock {Pavo cris-
tatus) is undoubtedly one of the most magnificent of Birds.
It, and its immediate allies, have only a single spur on the tarsus ;
but the species of the genus Poly^ilectron, already described, are
furnished with two, or even more, of such weapons. In these Birds
the tail-coverts are much shorter than in the True Peacocks, and,
in the best known species {^Polyplcciron bkalcaratus), are of a
reddish colour, each adorned with a doubie ocellated, green spot.
The Peacock {Pavo cristatus). Tai>z or Taiii- of the Greeks ;
Pavo of the Latins ; Paon, French ; Pavon and Pavone, Italian ;
Pfau, German. . i- . j
This gorgeous Bird, which is too well known in its domesticated
state to need description, is a native of India. It is common in
many districts, and abounds in the jungles along the banks of the
Ganges, in the forests of the Jungleterry and Baughulpore districts,
and in the dense woods of the Ghauts. When taken yoting, it is
easily domesticated, and many Hindoo temples in the Dukhun have
considerable flocks attached to them. The Peafowl was known to
the ancients. We find it noticed in the Scriptures as being one of
the importations from India in the time of Solomon, and a forcible
allusion to the splendour of its plumes is made in the Hook of Job.
It is generally believed that Alexander the Great obtained tnis
SS6
THE MOUND-BIRDS.
Bird during his Indian expedition, and introduced it into Greece,
wlience it has spread through the greater portion of Europe. But
there is good reason to believe that it was well known in Greece at
an earlier period ; and a talented writer has well observed that it is
mentioned in two plays of Aristophanes (third year of 88th Olympiad,
and second year of 91st, respectively ; whereas Alexander was not
born till the second year of the 98th Olympiad) ; and observes it was
improbably introduced before the time of Pericles. To the Romans
it was very familiar ; and indeed must have been common in Italy at
an earlier period Admired as the Peacock was, its beauty did not
protect it from slaughter, for it was killed to add to the delicacies of
the tables of the great and luxurious ; and its brain, together with the
tongues of Flamingoes, entered into the composition of a favourite
dish of the Emperor Vitellius. In our country, a roasted Peafowl,
served up with the plumes attached to it, swelled the rude pomp of a
baron's entertainment. The Peafowl is restless and wandering in its
habits, and cannot well be kept in a small space ; it perches or
roosts by preference on the topmost branches of trees, and indeed is
fond of any elevated situation. It seeks its food, however, and also
constructs its nest, on the ground. In its wild state it chooses a re-
tired spot, among close brushwood, as the place of incubation,
making an inartificial nest of sticks, twigs, and leaves ; the eggs
are from twelve to fifteen in number. In domestication its habits are
Fig. 141 1. — The Peacock.
the same ; indeed, domestication has effected but little alteration in
these points; nor has it degenerated into numerous varieties. White
Peacocks, it is true, are sometimes to be seen, and imperfectly
coloured Birds are not uncommon, but here the changes terminate.
The beautiful plumes of this Bird are usually called its tail, and by
many are supposed to be so ; this, however, is not the case ; the plumes
of the Peacock, which are not developed till the third year, are its tail-
coverts ; they overhang and conceal the true tail-feathers, which are
short, but which may be easily seen when the plumes are elevated.
In the collection of the Zoological Society of London, at their
Gardens in Regent's Park, are some fine specimens of the Peafowl.
The following additional remarks on them are extracted from their
" Guide : " —
" The Common Peafowl {Pavo cristatns). The Black-shoul-
dered Peafowl {P. nigripcimis) ; The Javan Peafowl (.P.
■Hiuticits). The Common Peafowl is a native of India and Ceylon.
• In someof the unfrequented portions of the eastern province,' says Sir
James Emerson Tennant, in his interesting work on the latter country,
' to which Europeans rarely resort, and where the Peafowl are unmo-
lested by the natives, their number is so extraordinary that, regarded
as game, it ceases to be sport to destroy them, and their cries at early
morning are so tumultuous and incessant as to banish sleep and
amount to an actual inconvenience ! ' The Black-shouldered Pea-
fowl is commonly called the Japan Peacock, but is not found in
Japan. For a long time its origin was unknown ; but it has recently
been ascertained to occur wild in Cochin-China. The Javan Pea-
fowl is a splendid Bird. It replaces the Common Peafowl in the
Malay peninsula and Java, and is readily distinguished by its differ-
ent colouring and peculiar crest." There is a specimen of a hybrid
between the Japan Peacock and the Crested Peahen bred in these
Gardens.
The Mound-Birds.— Family Mega^odiida:.
We next come to a remarkable family of Birds, inhabitants of the
islands of the Eastern Archipelago and Australia, in which the
hatching of the eggs is generally left to the heat of the sun, assisted
by the warmth evolved from a mass of vegetable matter collected by
the parents, in which the eggs are imbedded. This is the family of
the Megapodiida, in which the bill is rather stout, arched towards
the apex, and obtuse at the tip ; the wings are rounded, the tarsi
long and stout, and usually covered with large scales ; the feet
large, and the hind toe elongated, and placed on the same level with
the other toes. The claws are long and stout. These Birds are
divided into two sub-families, distinguished by the form of the bill. _
One is the MegapodincB, or Mound- Birds. The species of this
sub-family are found generally in the shady forests of the Indian
islands. Of the habits of an Australian species, the Jungle-Fowl
(Ulegapodnis tumulus), the following is a description : —
The Mound-making Megapode {Mcgapodius tumulus, Gould).
Jungle-Fowl of the colonists of Port Essington ; Ooregooga of the
aborigines of the Coburg Peninsula. — In the genus Megapodius the
beak is slender, nearly straight, and much resembles that of a Fowl ;
the head is crested ; the toes are very large and robust, and the
claws of great size and strength. Fig. 1412 represents the head
and foot of the Megapode.
Fig. 1412. — Head and Foot of the Megapode.
On Mr. Gilbert's arrival at Port Essington, his attention was
attracted to numerous great mounds of earth, which were pointed
out to him by some of the residents as being the tumuli of the
aborigines. The natives, on the other hand, assured him that they
were formed by the Jungle-Fowl for the purpose of hatching its eggs.
But this last statement appeared so extraordinary, and so much at
variance with the general habits of Birds, that no one in the settle-
ment believed them ; and the great size of the eggs brought in by
them as the produce of this Bird, strengthened the doubt of the
veracity of their information. Mr. Gilbert, however, knowing the
habits of Leipoa, took with him an intelligent native, and proceeded
about the middle of November to Knocker's Bay, a part of Port
Essington harbour, comparatively but little known, and where he
had been informed a number of these Birds were to be seen. He
landed beside a thicket, and had not advanced far from the shore
when he came to a mound of sand and shells, with a slight mixture
of black soil, the base resting on a sandy beach, only a few feet
above high-water-mark; it was enveloped in the large yellow-
blossomed Hibiscus, was of a conical form, twenty feet in circum-
ference at the base, and about five feet high. On asking the native
what it was, he replied, " Oregoorga Rambal " (Jungle-Fowl's house
or nest). Mr. Gilbert scrambled up the sides of it, and found a
young Bird in a hole about two feet deep ; the nestling, apparently
only a few days old, was lying on a few dry withered leaves. The
native assured Mr. Gilbert that it would be of no use to look for eggs,
as there were no traces of the old Birds having lately been there.
Mr. Gilbert took the utmost care of the young Bird, placed it in a
moderate-sized box, into which he introduced a large portion of
sand, and fed it on bruised Indian corn, which it took rather freely.
Its disposition was wild and intractable, and it effected its escape
on the third day. While it remained in captivity, it was inces-
santly employed in scratching up the sand into heaps ; and Mr.
Gilbert remarks that the rapidity with which it threw the sand from,
one end of the box to the other was quite surprising for so young
and small a Bird, its size not being larger than that of a small
Quail. At night it was so restless that Mr. Gilbert was constantly
kept awake by the noise it made in endeavouring to escape. In
scratching up the sand the Bird only employed one foot, and having
grasped a handful, as it were, threw the sand behind it with but
little apparent exertion, and without shifting its standing position on
the other leg.
Mr. Gilbert continued to receive the eggs without any opportunity
of seeing them taken from the ground until the beginning of
February, when, on again visiting Knocker's Bay, he saw two taken
from a depth of six feet, in one of the largest mounds he had met
with. In this instance the holes ran down in an oblique direction
GOLDEN AND SILVER PHEASANT: COMMON PHEASANT.
THE PHEASANT TRIBE.
557
from the centre towards the outer slope of the hillock, so that
although the egg's were six feet deep from the summit, they were
only two or three feet from the side. " The birds," says Mr. Gilbert
in continuation, "are said to lay but a single egg in each hole, and
after the c^^ is deposited the earth is immediately thrown down
lightly until the hole is filled up ; the upper part of the mound is
then smoothed and rounded over. It is easily known when a
Jungle-Fowl has been recently excavating, from the distinct impres-
sions of its feet on the top and sides of the mound, and the earth
being so lightly thrown over, that with a slender stick the direction
of the hole is readily detected, the case or difficulty of thrusting the
stick down indicating the length of time that may have elapsed since
the birds's operations. Thus far it is easy enough ; but to reach
the eggs requires no little exertion and perseverance. The natives
dig them up with their hands alone, and only make sufficient room
to admit their bodies, and to throw out the earth between their legs ;
by grubbing with their fingers alone they are enabled to follow the
direction of the hole with greater certainty, which will sometimes,
at a depth of several feet, turn off abruptly at right angles its direct
course being obstructed by a clump of wood or some other impedi-
ment. Their patience is, however, often put to severe trials. In
the present instance the native dug down six times in succession to
a depth of at least six or seven feet without finding an fig'g, and at
the last attempt came up in such a state of exhaustion that he
refused to try again ; but my interest was now too much excited to re-
linquish the opportunity of verifying the native's statements, and by
the offer of an additional reward I induced him to try again ; this
seventh trial proved successful, and my gratification was complete
when the native, with equal pride and satisfaction, held up an e.g^,
and, after two or three more attempts, produced a second ; thus
proving how cautious Europeans should be of disregarding the
narrations of these poor children of nature, because they happen to
sound extraordinary or different from anything with which they were
previously acquainted."
The Jungle-Fowl is almost exclusively confined to the dense
thickets immediately adjacent to the sea-beach : it appears never to
go far inland, except along the banks of creeks. It is always met
with in pairs or quite solitary, and feeds on the ground, its food con-
sisting of roots, which its powerful claws enable it to scratch up
with the utmost facility, and also of seeds, berries, and Insects,
particularly the larger species of Coleoptera. It is at all times a
very difficult Bird to procure ; for although the rustling noise pro-
duced by its stiff pinions when flying away be frequently heard, the
Bird itself is seldom to be seen. Its flight is heavy and unsustained
in the extreme ; when first disturbed it invariably flies to a tree, and
on alighting stretches out its head and neck in a straight line with
its body, remaining in this position as stationary and motionless as
the branch upon which it is perched : if however it becomes fairly
alarmed, it takes a horizontal but laborious flight for about a
hundred yards with its legs hanging down as if broken.
The head and crest of the Mound-making Megapode are of a
deep cinnamon-brown. The back of the neck and all the under
surface dark grey. Back and wings cinnamon-brown ; tail-coverts
dark chestnut ; bill reddish-brown. Tarsi bright orange, with the
exception of the lower scales of the front, and those of the toes,
which are dark reddish-brown. (See Fig. 1413.)
Fig. 1413. — The Mound-making Megapode.
The Ocellated Leipoa {Leipoa oceUata, Gould). Native
Pheasant of the colonists ; Ngow of the aborigines of the lowlands,
and Ngow-00 of those of the highlands of Western Australia. In
this genus the beak is more feeble than in Talegalla, the head
clothed with feathers and crested. Fig. 1414 represents the head
and foot of Leipoa.
This species abounds in the country north of Perth (W. Australia),
and in the barren sandy plains of the interior, one hundred miles
north and east of York. It was seen by Captain Grey at Gantheaume
Bay, and, accordmg to the natives, exists at King George's Sound.
In size It IS mferior to the Talegalla, to be presently described, more
slender and more elegantly formed. The Ocellated Leipoa is a
Ground-Bird, never taking to a tree except when closely hunted ;
when hard pursued, it will frequently run its head into a bush, and
IS then easily taken. Food gcner.illy consists of seeds and berries.
The note is mournful, very like that of a Pigeon, but with a more
inward tone. The eggs are deposited in a mound of sand, the
formation of which is the work of both sexes. According to the
natives, the Birds scratch up the sand for many yards around, form-
ing a mound about three feet in height, the inside of which is con-
Fig. 1414.— Head and Fool of the Leipoa.
structcd of alternate layers of dried leaves, grasses, &c., anions
which twelve eggs and upwards are deposited, and are covered up
by the Birds as they are laid; or, as the natives express it, "the
countenances of the eggs are never visible." Upon these eggs the
Bird never sits ; but when she has laid out her lay, as the henwives
say, the whole are covered up, when the mound of sand resembles
an Ant's nest. The eggs, which are white, and very slightly tinged
with red, are hatched by the heat of the sun's rays, the vegetable
lining retaining sufScient warmth during the night; they are de-
posited in layers, no two eggs being sufTered to lie without a division.
The plumage is as follows : — head and crest blackish-brown ; neck
and shoulders dark ash-grey ; fore-part of neck, from the throat to
the breast, with lanceolate feathers, which are black with a white
stripe down the centre ; feathers of the back and wings marked
with three distinct bands of greyish-white, brown and black near
the tip of each, the marks assuming an ocellated form ; primaries
brown, with zigzag lines near the tip; under-surface pale buff;
flanks barred with black ; tail blackish-brown, broadly tipped with
buff; bill black ; legs blackish-brown. (See Fig. 1415.)
Fig. 1415. — The Oscellated Leipoa.
The following description of this Bird has been copied from that given
in the ''Guide" to the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London :
"The Brush-Turkey {Talegalla Iathami.)—\n the whole
economy of the Class of Birds there is nothing more remarkable than
the reproduction of the family of the Mcgapodes [McgapoJidcs), to
which the Talegalla, or, as the Austrafian colonists call it, the
Brush-Turkey, belongs.
"Since the year i8i;4, the singular phenomenon of the mound-
raising faculty of the" Talegalla," which had been well ascertained
in Australia by Mr. Gould, has been annually displayed in this country.
" On being removed into an enclosure, with an abundance of
vegetable materal within reach, the male begins to throw it up into
a heap behind him, by a scratching kind of motion of his powerful
feet, which project each footful, as he grasps it, for a considerable
distance in the rear. As he always begins to work at the outer
margin of the enclosure, the material is thrown inwards in concentric
circles, until sufficiently near the spot selected for the mound to be
jerked upon it. As soon as the mound is risen to a height of about
558
THE CURASSOWS.
four feet, both Birds work in reducing it to an even surface, and
then begin to excavate a depression in the centre. In this, in due
time, the eggs are deposited as they are laid, and arranged in a
circle, about fifteen inches below the summit of the mound, at
regular intervals, with the smaller end of the &gg pointing down-
wards. The male Bird watches the temperature of the mound very
carefully : the eggs are generally covered, a cylindrical opening
being always maintained in the centre of the circle for the purpose
of giving air to them, and probably to prevent the danger of a
sudden increase of heat from the action of the sun or accelerated
fermentation in the mound itself. In hot days the eggs are nearly
uncovered two or three times between morning and evening.
Fig. 1416. — Head and Foot of the Brush-Turkey.
" On the 3'oung Bird chipping out of the egg, it remains in the
mound for at least twelve hours without making any effort to emerge
from it, being at that time almost as deeply covered up by the male
as the rest of the eggs.
" On the second day it comes out, with each of its wing-feathers
well developed in a sheath which soon bursts, but apparently with-
out inclination to use them, its powerful! feet giving it ample means
of locomotion at once. Early in the afternoon the young Bird retires
to the mound again, and is partially covered up for the night by the
assiduous father, but at a diminished depth as compared with the
circle of eggs from which it emerged in the morning. On the third
day, the nestling is capable of strong flight, and on one occasion,
one of them being accidentally alarmed, actually forced itself, while
Fig. 1417.— The Brush-Turkey.
on the wing, through the strong netting which covered the enclosure.
The account of the habits of the Talegalla, given by Mr. Gould in
his ' Birds of Australia,' in 1842, strange as it appeared at the time,
is thus perfectly verified in every repect." (See Figs. 1416 and
1417-)
The Curassows.— Family Cracidce.
The last family in the order is that of the CracidcE, or Curassows,
which appear to be the American representatives of the Pheasants.
They have the bill of moderate size, but more or less arched to the
tip, with the nostrils situated at the base ; the wings are short and
rounded ; the tail elongated, and very broad ; the tarsi and toes
elongated — the former stout, the latter slender ; and the hind toe is
placed in the same plane with the others.
These Birds are inhabitants of the forests of Tropical America,
where they feed upon seeds, fruits, buds, and Insects. They live
upon the ground, but roost and make their nests on trees. Some of
them may be domesticated to a considerable e.\tent ; but others are
very wild and untractable.
The Common or Crested Curassow {Crax alector, Fig. 1418), is
almost as large as a Turkey, or about three feet in length ; it is of a
shining black colour, glossed with purple and green, and the top of
the head is furnished with a crest of curled or twisted feathers,
which the Bird can raise or depress at pleasure. The abdomen and
tail-coverts are white. The bill is strong, and much elevated at the
base, where it is surrounded by a skin, in which the nostrils are
pierced.
These Birds are found abundantly in Brazil, and from that
Fig. 141S. — The Crested Curassow.
country to Mexico ; they collect in small companies, and feed
principally upon seeds and fruits. They are even domesticated in
their native country ; and a rather smaller species, the Red
Curassow {Crax rubra), has even been brought into Holland,
where it was found to be almost as prolific as the common Fowl.
They associate readily with other Poultry, and their flesh is said to be
exceedingly delicate. A nearly allied species {Crax globiccra), has
a large, yellow, globular knob at the base of the bill. This is still
more striking in the Pauxi {On rax ;paHXi), which has an oval blue
tubercle, of a stony hardness, and as large as the head, situated at
the base of the bill. This Bird is said to nidificate on the ground.
The Guans (Pciiclnpc) and their allies, are also inhabitants of
the great forests of Tropical America. They are more elegant in
their forms than the Curassows, and bear a considerable resemblance
Fig. 1419. — The Crested Guan.
to the Pheasants. The throat has a naked skin, which the Bird can
dilate at pleasure. They live solitary, feeding principally upon
fruits, and perching and making their nests on trees. Their flesh
is said to be very delicate food ; but the Birds are timid and wild,
and do not appear to submit to domestication so readily as the
Curassows. (See Fig. 14 19.)
In the collection of the Zoological Society of London, living
specimens of the Curassows, &c., may be seen.
CURSORIAL BIRDS.
Si?
CHAPTER XXXIir.
CLASS 11.— AVES, OR BIRDS: ORDER CURSORES, OR RUNNERS.
■^"^ F the Cursorial Birds, which have been in-
O eluded by many authors among'st the Gral-
latores (which will be described in the next
chapter), the Common Ostrich is a well-
known example. They are nearly all large
Birds, with strong', and generally elongated
legs ; the wings, on the contrary, are always
reduced to a rudimentary condition (Fig.
1420), although the bones, in number and
'. form, agree with those of the wings of other
Birds. In consequence of this small size of
the wings, these Birds are quite incapable of flight ;
and the only use they ever appear to make of their
wings, is to spread them out as if to catch the air in
running. In accordance with this deficiency of the
power of flight, the bones are almost entirely desti-
tute of the air-cells which, in the ordinary Birds, gives
so much lightness to the skeleton ; and the sternum
is reduced to a simple convex shield (Fig. 142 1),
without any trace of the keel, which in other Birds
gives attachment to the powerful pectoral muscles.
To compensate for this deficiency, however, the great
size and muscularity of the legs render the pace of
theie Birds, in running, exceedingly swift ; the pelvis is of large
size, and the two sides of the arch unite at the pubis, which is not
the case in any other Birds. The anterior toes are strong, either
two or three in number, and terminated by strong nails. The hinder
toe is entirely wanting, except in the genus Apteryx, in which this
organ is present in a rudimentary condition.
Fig. 1420. — Skeleton of the Ostrich,
The plumage is of a very peculiar character, the barbs of the
feathers being always separate, and often exhibiting a close resem-
blance to hairs. The bill is usually rather short, depressed, and
somewhat triangular; but in the Apteryx it is elongated and cylin-
drical, with the nostrils placed at the tip. The head and neck are
usually naked, or covered only with a short, downy plumage; the
head is sometimes furnished with a horny crest, and the neck with
fleshy wattles.
These remarkable Birds, of which very few species are known, are
confineil to the warmer parts of the earth— one species being found
in Tropical Africa ; another in the islands of the Eastern Archipelago ;
a third in Australia ; and a fourth in South America. The singular
genus Apteryx, of which two species have been described, is confined
to New Zealand.
Sub-divisions.— The order includes only two families— the
StruthionidcB and the ApterygidcB. The best known species is
the Ostrich, Struthio camelus, of which the following is a descrip-
tion : —
The Ostrich [Siruthio camelus). Srpoueoica/iijXoc of the Greeks ;
Struthiocamelus of Pliny ; Autruche of the French ; Struzzo
and Struzzolo of the Italians ; Strauss of the Germans. The Penus
Sfnifhto IS characterised by the beak being depressed, str.aieht
rounded and ungmculate at the tip, with the nostrils longitudinar
prolonged half-way down the bill, and open, the legs robust with
only two toes stout and strong, and connected' at their 'base
by a thick membrane; of these the innermost is much larger
than the outer toe, and is furnished with a hoof-like claw ; outer toe
clawless ; wmgs furnished with beautiful waving plumes, and two
Fig. 1421. — Sternum of the Emeu.
plumeless shafts not unlike a Porcupine's quill ; head and upper half
of the neck scantily covered with thin down ; eyes large and well
guarded with eyelashes; tongue extremely small, short, and
rounded. Fig. 1422 represents the head and foot of the Ostrich ;
Fig. 1423 the front view of the head, with the beak open to show tlit;
tongue.
The resemblance of the Ostrich, in many structural peculiarities, to
the Ruminating Quadrupeds was not overlooked by the ancients,
which led them to assign to it the name of Camel-Bird, in allusion to
Fig. 1422. — Head and Foot of the Ostrich.
certain points of analogy between it and the Camel; indeed, Aris-
totle asserts the Ostrich to be partly Bird and partly Quadruped, and
Pliny observes that it may be almost considered as belonging to the
class of Beasts. The voluminous thighs, divested of feathers, are
more like those of a Quadruped than a Bird ; added to which the bifid
hoof-armed foot, well padded beneath, bears a marked resemblance
to that of the Camel. In this animal there is a large callous p.ad or.
the chest, upon which, when reposing, it throws a great portion o;
the weight of the body. In the Ostrich, the sternum, which has nr
keel, but is simply convex and shield-like, is also covered with a
callous pad, or elastic cushion, having a hard rouyh surface ua-
S6o
THE OSTRICHES.
clothed with feathers, and on which the Birds rest while reposing.
The eyes, with their long lashes and overhanging brow, are also
Camef-liko. The vast size and sacculated form of the proventri-
culous (or cavity before the muscular gizzard), with its extraordinary
apparatus of glands for pouring out a solvent fluid capable of re-
ducing the coarsest vegetable aliment, is not to be overlooked.
(See Fig. 1424, the stomach of the Ostrich ; Fig. 1425, the same laid
open.) Nor ought we to pass unnoticed the comparatively developed
condition of the diaphragm, which muscular expansion in the Apteryx
is complete.
1423. — Head and Tongue of the Ostrich.
Like the Camel, this celebrated Bird is destined to inhabit the
wide-spread desert, beneath a burning sun. It is found in the sandy
wilds of Arabia, and of Africa from the north to the south ; every-
where avoiding the presence of man, who, time immemorial, has
been its unrelenting persecutor.
Fig. 1424.— Stomach of the Ostrich,
In South Africa flocks of Ostriches are often seen on the Great
Karroo, in company with troops of Quaggas. all amicably feeding
together, and, when alarmed, scouring the desert with extraordinary
rapidity. The swiftness of the Ostrich is indeed very great;
elevating itself and vibrating its expanded plumes, it leaves " horse
and rider" far behind. In South Africa several horsemen, taking
different sides of a plain, often manage to tire the Bird down ; but
when driven to extremities it frequently turns infuriated on its
pursuers, and will inflict dreadful wounds with its claw. Dr. Shaw
gives an account of a person who was ripped open by the blow of an
enraged Ostrich, which was kept tame, and which, though gentle to
persons with whom it was familiar, was fierce and violent^towards
strangers. In Arabia and North Africa the chase of the Ostrich is
accounted one of the most severe of exercises both for the Arab and
his courser, requiring not only speed, but skill ; and did the Bird,
instead of wheeling round in circles of greater or less extent, dart
forward in a direct line, the hunter would find his efforts fruitless ;
as it is, he is generally enabled, after some exertion, to dash across
the path of the Bird, and throw his djerid or fire his gun. From the
swiftness of the Ostrich, audits power of endurance at full speed
for hours, we may easily conceive that its strength must be very
great. Adanson saw two tame Ostriches at the factory of Podor, on
the south bank of the Niger. " They were both so tame," he says.
"that two little blacks mounted together on the back of the largest,
and no sooner did he feel their weight than he began to run as fast
as ever he could, till he carried them several times round the
village, and it was impossible to stop him otherwise than by
obstructing the passage. To try their strength, I made a full-grown
negro mount the smallest, and two others the largest. This burden
did not seem to me at all disproportioned to their strength. At first
they went at a moderate gallop ; when they were heated a little, they
expanded their wings as if to catch the wind, and then scoured along
with such fleetness that they seemed not to touch the ground ; they
would have distanced the fleetest race-horses that were ever bred in
England." (See Fig. 1426.)
The Ostrich is polygamous. "The male ostrich in South Africa,
at the time of breeding," says a personal observer, " usually asso-
Fig. 1425. — Stomach of the Ostrich laid open.
ciates to himself from two to six females. The hens lay all their
eggs together in one nest, this being merely a shallow cavity
scraped in the ground, of such dimensions as to be conveniently
covered by one of these gigantic birds during incubation. The hens
relieve each other during the day, and the male takes his turn at
night, when his superior strength is required to protect the eggs or
the new-fledged young from jackals, tiger-cats, and other enemies.
Some of these animals are not unfrequently found lying dead near the
nest, killed by a stroke from the foot of this powerful bird. As many as
sixty eggs are sometimes found in and around an ostrich nest ; but a
smaller number is more common. Each female lays from twelve to
si.xteen eggs. They continue to lay during incubation, and even
after the young brood are hatched ; the supernumerary eggs are not
placed in the nest, but around it, being designed (it is reported) to
assist in the nourishment of the young birds, which, though as large
as a pullet when first hatched, are probably unable at first to digest
the hard and acrid food on which the old ones subsist. The period
of incubation is from thirty-six to forty days. In the middle of the
day the nest is often left by all the birds, the heat of the sun being
then sufiicient to keep the eggs at the proper temperature."
With respect to the passage in Job xxxix. 15, it may be observed,
that within the torrid zone the eggs are merely laid in the warm
sand, the incubation of the female being required only at night ; so
far, however, is she from neglecting her offspring, that she watches
over them with as much solicitude as any other Bird, hovering
around the spot where they are deposited, and if surprised, making a
short circuit and returning to the object of her care.
The flesh of the Ostrich when young is very palatable, and the
eggs are excellent. If, however, the Bird perceives that the latter
have been disturbed by the hand, or that the nest has been visited,
she breaks them all and abandons the spot ; hence the natives
abstract these delicacies, by means of a long stick, with the utmost
caution, and endeavour to prevent the prints of their footsteps from
being visible ; if this be well managed, the Hen will continue to lay
for some time.
The food of the Ostrich consists of the tops of shrubby plants,
seeds, and grain ; strange to say, however, it will swallow with in-
discriminating voracity stones, sticks, pieces of metal, cord, leather,
and other substances, which often occasion its destruction. A fine
specimen in the gardens of the Zoological Society, where the living
animals may be seen, died some years ago in consequence of swal-
lowing part of a parasol.
The voice of the Ostrich is, under ordinary circumstances, a hoarse
sonorous sort of chuckle ; but it is said to utter, especially at night,
a roaring so like that of the Lion, as to deceive the Hottentots. The
young Ostrich is covered with coarse mottled and striped plu-
mage of a blackish-brown and yellowish-white : the feathers of the
back having the shafts dilated into a thin homy strip. The height
of the adult male is from seven to eight feet or more, standing
THE OSTRICHES.
561
upright. The beautiful plumes, which are so valued in commerce,
are procured from the wings and tail.
Great as is in modern days the slaughter of Ostriches, in the times
of the Roman emperors it must have been far more considerable.
We read of the brains of si.x hundred having been, on one occasion,
served up in a single dish : and Vopiscus is said to have devoured
an entire Ostrich (a Chicken doubtless) at one sitting. By the
Mosaic law the Ostrich was forbidden as food, and the Arabs still
regard it as unclean.
Fig. 1426. — Ostriches in Flight.
The Rhea, or American Ostrich {Rhea amcricatia). — This
Bird, called also the Nandou, is scarcely more than half the size of
the African species, from which it also differs in having the head
covered with feathers, and the feet furnished with three toes. It is
of a nearly uniform gray tint, and the feathers of the wings and tail,
although elongated, possess none of the beauty of those of the True
Ostrich ; they are only employed in the manufacture of light dust-
ing-brooms. It is very abundant in the great plains of Tropical
America, where it is pursued on horseback, and captured by the
lasso, or by throwing at its legs an instrument formed of two heavy
balls, or stones, attached together by a leathern throng. Mr.
Darwin, who had frequent opportunities of observing these Birds,
has given an excellent account of their habits. He says that the
Ostriches take the water readily, and swim across broad and rapid
rivers, and even from island to island in bays. They swim slowly,
with the greater part of their bodies immersed, and their necks
extended a little fonvards. According to the Earl of Derby, these
Birds are polygamous ; and the male Bird prepares the nest, collects
the eggs (which are frequently laid by the females at random on the
ground), and performs all the duties of incubation. Mr. Darwin
confirms these observations, and says that four or five females have
been seen to lay in the same nest, and that the male, when sitting,
lies so close that he himself nearly rode over one. At this time the
males are said sometimes to be very fierce, and they have been known
to attack a man on horseback, trying to kick, and leap on him.
Specimers of this Bird may be seen in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society, London.' '{See Fig. 1427.)
The Emeu {Dromaius novce honandia).—i:h.\s Bird, a native of
Australia, is nearly as large as the African Ostrich, measuring from
five to seven feet in height. It has three toes on each foot, and
these are furnished with nearly equal claws ; the head is covered
with feathers, but the throat is naked, the plumage of the body
closely resembles long hairs, hanging down on each side of the body
from a central line, or ^parting. The neck is covered with feathers.
These Birds are abundant in the southern parts of Australia ; but in
the mote populous parts of the British colonies there, they are now
extinct. They are much sought for, both by natives, and Europeans,
for the sake of their flesh, that of the young Birds being described
as very delicate ; whilst that of the old is compared to beef. Their
eggs are also eaten ; and its said that, during the breeding season,
the natives of some parts of Australia live almost entirely upon
Emeu's eggs. The old Birds are hunted by trained Dogs, which
have been taught to avoid the powerful kicks of their quarry, by
running up alongside of the Bird, and then springing suddenly upon
its neck. They are monogamous ; and the males, as in the case of
the Rhea, perform the duties of incubation. The eggs are nearly
as large as those of the Ostrich, but of a dark-green colour ; and
the young, when first hatched, are rather elegantly striped with
black and whitish grey. Figs. 1428 and 1425 represent the foot
of the Rhea and the Emeu, and they may
be compared with that of the Ostrich, re-
presented in Fig. 1422 ante.
The Common Cassowary {Castiarius
galeatus) ; the Australian Cassowary
(C. australis) ; the Two-Wattled Casso-
wary (C bkaniniilatus) ; the Bennett's
- Cassowary, or Mooruk{C hcnnctti. — The
following description of these Birds is ex-
tracted from the "Guide" of the Zoolo-
gical Society of London, and refers to
specimens living in their Gardens : — The
Cassowaries and the Emeu are nearly allied
and form a family of Struthious Birds,
quite distinct from the Ostrich and the
Rhea. They are practically wingless — the
quills being represented by a few denuded
feather-spines, but have the feet exces-
sively large and strong, and in some
species armed with formidable nails, with
which they strike severe blows. Casso-
waries are usually wild and difficult to
manage, and can but very rarely be in-
duced to breed in captivity. On several
occasions, when eggs have been deposited
by the Birds of this genus in the Society's
Gardens, the male (who takes sole charge
of the duties of incubation) has not
succeeded in hatching them out. In the
summer of 1866, however, we had better
luck, and a fine young Bird of the Common
Cassowary was successfully reared.
" The Common Cassowary, which is only
found in Ceram, is replaced in the Aroo
Islands by another species (the Casuanus
bicaru7iculatics), distinguished by having
the caruncles on the throat widely sepa-
rated ; and in Northern Australia by a third
species {C. aitsfralh), of which living specimens have only lately
reached this country. Other species are found in New Guinea
and New Britain. Fig. 1430 represents a group of Cassowaries.
562
THE APTERYX.
The egfgs and some of the bones of a gisrantic Bird belonging to
this family, the ^pyornis maximiis, have been discovered in the
island of Madagascar. The largest of the eggs, which were found
imbedded in alluvial soil, measured no less than twelve inches and
two-thirds in length ; whilst the e.^^ of the Common Ostrich is only
about half this size. The difference in the contents of the two eggs
is much greater ; for M. Isidore Geoifroy Saint Hilaire, who was the
first describer of these extraordinary remains, calculates that the
largest egg of the ^pyornis received by the Paris Museum would
Fig. 1428.— Foot of the Rhea.
contain loj quarts, or about as much as si.x eggs of the Ostrich,
si.xtecn of the Cassowary, or 148 of the domestic Hen. One of the
eggs had been perforated by the natives, and used as a vessel for
carrj'ing water. From the dimensions of the bones, it is supposed
that this Bird must be at least double the size of the Ostrich ; and it
culated that this Bird must have been at least fourteen feet in height.
It appears exceedingly probable that these Birds, if they do not
still e.xist in the more inaccessible parts of the islands of New
Zealand, were inhabitants of that distant land when it was first
peopled with human beings, as the traditions of the natives describe
a gigantic Bird, to which they give the name of Moa, with which
their ancestors are said to have waged a war of destruction. The
natives showed one traveller the place where the last Moa was de-
stroyed after a tremendous battle, in which several of its assailants
Fig. 1429. — Foot of the Emeu.
were killed. The egg of one of these Birds was discovered by Mr.
Walter Mantell, who describes it as so large that his hat would but
just serve as an egg-cup for it ; it would, therefore, appear to be
nearly as large as that of the jiEpyor7iis.
Fig. 1430. — Group of Cassowaries.
appears not improbable that it may still be in existence in the
interior of the almost unknown island in which its remains were
found.
Another group of gigantic Extinct Birds is also placed in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of the Struthionida by some authors, but
distributed by others between these and the Grallatores. These
are the Dinornidce, the bones, and even the eggs of which, have
been found in considerable quantities, imbedded in the volcanic
sands of New Zealand.
Several species have been distinguished, amongst which the
Dinornis gigantcus was pre-eminent in stature. It has been cal-
The Apteryx— Family Aj>ierygtd(S.
The second family of the Ciirsores, the Apterygidce, mcludes
some wingless Birds, inhabitants of New Zealand.
The Apteryx [Apteryx atistralis).—The Apteryx stands about
two feet in height. Its wings are trifling rudiments, buried beneath
the general plumage of the body, and not to be discovered without
difaculty ; they are each terminated by a little hooked claw.
The beak is long, slender, and slightly arched, remmdmg one of
that of the Curlew. The upper mandible is somevv-hat swollen and
THE APTERYX.
notched at its tip, and a longitudinal furrow runs along- each side
from the base to the extremity. (See Fig. 1431.) The situation of
the nostrils is most extraordinary; they are minute narrow fissures,
one on each side of the tip of the beak ; and therefore not situated
as in other Birds which insert their long beaks into mud for the pur-
pose of procuring Insects, and which have the nostrils at the base.
The limbs are extremely powerful ; the tarsi are thick and short,
and covered with hard scales. The toes are four in number; the
three anterior toes are robust, with strong claws, and are well
S6j
includes four species, all of which are represented in the Society's
collection. The first Kiwi acquired by the Society was a female of
Apfcryx maiitelli, presented in i8s2 by Lieut.-Govcmor Eyre, and
most carefully brought from New Zealand by the kindness of Admiral
Erskine, then in command of II. M.S. Ihuatniah. After being
nearly seven years in the Gardens, this Bird laid an egg on the 9th
of June, 1859, and subsequently deposited others. The egg, when
fresh, weighs 14I oz., the contents thereof weighing 13^ 01. The
weight of the living Bird was nearly 60 oz. ; so that in this species
Fig. 1431.— Cill of the Aplcryx-.
adapted for digging. The hind-toe is a thick, sharp, homy spur,
used as an offensive weapon. (See Fig. 1432.) There is no vestige
of a tail. The tongue is short and simple.
The feathers are long and lanceolate, and fall loosely like those
of the Emeu, but there is only a single plume from each quill.
These feathers are of a chestnut-brown, margined on each side with
blackish-brown : the tint of those on the under parts is lighter. The
eye is small, and a number of long bristle-hairs are scattered around
and about the angles of the mouth, The bill is of a horn colour, or
yellowish, like a piece of cane. (See Fig. 1433.)
Fig. 1432. — Foot of the Apteiyx.
The following further description of the Apteryx has been ex-
tracted from the " Guide" to the Gardens of the Zoological Society
of London, where attempts have been made to acclimatise it.
"The Southern Apteryx (^//crja-^M^v/Z/j-;) The Owen's
Apteryx {A. o-Minii ;) The Mantell's Apteryx {A. maufclli ;)
The Haasx's Apteryx (^. Iiaast7.)—1\\(^ genus ^/Av^.r, or Kiwi,
Fig. 1433. — The Apteryx.
the weight of the e^% appears to be nearly equal to one-fourth of the
whole weight of tlie Bird. A second Kiwi of tlie same species, believed
to be a male, was added to the collection in September, 1864, by
Major Keane, by whom it was brought from New Zealand ; and a
third was subsequently presented by Surgeon Henry Slade, of the
Royal Navy.
' ' For their examples of Owen's Apter\'X the Society are indebted
to the Acclimatisation Society of Otago, New Zealand ; for their
unique specimen of Haast's Apteryx — the largest and most
recently discovered form of this singular group — we have to thank
Dr. F. von Mueller, C.M.Z.S., of Melbourne, Australia.
" The Kiwi is purely nocturnal in its habits, and never shows itself
to visitors during the daytime, unless brought out by the keeper for
the purpose of being exhibited. After hastily swallowing one or
two earthworms which are provided for it, it invariably makes a
hasty retreat to its den, and hides itself deep in its straw until again
summoned forth to gratify the curiosity of a fresh band of sightseers.
If, however, a visit be paid to the Apteryx in the night-time, it will be
found running about lively enough, probing into the ground, and
round every corner of the place where it is confined, with its long and
sensitive bill."
564
GRALLATORIAL, OR WADING BIRDS.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
CLASS II.-AVES, OR BIRDS ; ORDER GRALLATORES, OR WADING BIRDS.
ADING BIRDS, or
Grallatores, as they
are termed by natural-
ists, include the Cranes,
Herons, Bustards. Plovers, &c.
Many of them may be found in
our own islands, where circum-
stances encourage their growth.
Some of them, as the Snipes, are highly esteemed as
food or sport. In these Birds the feet are always
formed for walking ; usually of great length ; and
the toes are never united by a membrane, in the
same way as in the Natatorial order. They
are, however, sometimes surrounded by membrane-
ous lobes, and in many cases furnished with a
small web at the base. The great length of the legs
is generally due to the elongation of the tarsi ; but
the tibiae are also frequently very long, and gene-
rally bare of feathers for a greater or less extent.
The naked portion of the tibiae is covered with a
reticulated skin, like that of the tarsi and toes ; but
the latter are often more or less covered with horny
plates or scutella. The toes are usually four in
number — three in front and one behind ; the latter
varies greatly in its development, being sometimes
very small, and sometimes as long as, or longer than
the others ; it is placed either on the same level
with the anterior toes, or raised more or less upon the back of
the tarsus. The anterior toes are usually elongated, and the two
outer are often united together for a certain portion of their length.
(See Fig. 1434.)
The great length of the legs, in the majority of these Birds,
enables them to wade with much facility in shallow water, in
search of the Fish and other Aquatic Animals upon which they
feed; hence the name of Grallatores, or Waders, applied to the
order. In many cases, however, this does not apply ; for the
legs of several species are too short to be of any use to them
in wading ; whilst other species, in which the legs are much
elongated, are inhabitants of dry situations, and are never found in
the vicinity of water. Some species run upon the surface of aquatic
plants, and others swim and dive with greater facility than many of
the true Natatorial Birds. They are all active Birds, running with
great swiftness, and usually possessing great power of flight.
The development of the neck keeps pace with that of the legs, and
in most cases the beak also is of considerable length. The latter
organ is almost always longer than the head ; usually of an elongated
conical form ; sometimes almost cylindrical ; and occasionally
flattened and more or less dilated. The tongue is fleshy, and usually
triangular.
The wings are well developed, often of great size, and the Birds
are almost always powerful fliers, although many of them, when
disturbed, appear to prefer trusting to their long legs to betaking
themselves to the air. The plumage is soft, and bears a certain re-
semblance to that of the Natatorial Birds, but the feathers are gene-
rally furnished with a distinct plumule.
The habits of these Birds vary considerably. Most of them in-
habit the vicinity of water or marshy places, where they wade about
in search of Aquatic Animals, or walk upon the
moist ground and amongst the rank herbage,
seeking for Worms and Insects. A few arc
found in dry situations, but their food is of much
the same nature as that of their marsh-loving
brethren, and very few appear to take any con-
siderable portion of vegetable nourishment.
Sub-divisions. — The Birds of this order may
all be referred to six family types — namely, the
RallidcB, or Rails ; the Scolopacida;, or Snipes ;
the Ardeida, or Herons ; the CharadrUda, or
Plorers ; the Oiidce, or Bustards ; and the
Gruida, or Cranes. In the first of these, the
Rallidce, or Rails, the bill is short, rarely longer
than the head, strongly compressed and wedge-
shaped ; the upper mandible usually has a
groove on each side, near the middle of which
the nostrils are situated. The latter are per-
vious — that is to say, they open through the
bill. The ridge of the bill is often more or
less expanded at the base, and sometimes forms
a large plate, covering the forehead (Fig. 1435). The legs are
stout, not very long, sometimes short ; but the toes are usually of
great length, and frequently armed with very long claws. The wings
are of moderate size, and, in some genera, armed with spines at
the carpal point. The neck is rather short, and the head small,
oblong, and compressed. The body, also, is much compressed in
form, and the tail is very short. The throat and oesophagus are
of moderate width, and there is no crop; the stomach forms a
strong gizzard, and the intestine is long, and furnished with rather
large coeca.
Fig. 1434. — Foot of the Gallinule.
The relations of these Birds are somewhat singular. In their
general form, and, indeed, in some points of their internal anatomy,
they resemble the Gallinaceous tribe, and their food also partakes of
the same nature ; whilst, on the other hand, some of them are fur-
nished with membranous lobes on the toes. Many can swim with
ease, and a few actually exceed many of the true Natatorial Birds
Fig. 1435. — Head of the Jacana.
in the facility with which they not only move upon the surface of tlie
water, but even dive into its depths. They generally live amongst
the sedges, rushes, and other plants at the edges of water, and some
also in corn-fields ; but, in either situation, the compressed form of
THE RAIL TRIBE.
565
their bodies is peculiarly adapted to allow them to pass with ease
amongst the stems of the plants. Their elongated toes, also, enable
them to support themselves upon floating- aquatic plants.
The Rallidceietd principally upon Worms, Mollusca, and Insects ;
but many also eat a good deal of vegetable food, such as blades of
grass and seeds. Some of them are solitary, others more or less
gregarious in their habits. They build a large nest of dried grasses
and sedges, placing it upon the ground amongst thick herbage ; the
eggs vary considerably in number, and the young are able to run,
and frequently to swim, as soon as they are hatched.
The British species all belong to that section of the family which
constitutes the family Rallidce of Mr. G. R. Gray. They have the
beak but slightly arched towards the tip, the wings unarmed, and
the claws of moderate length. In the Gallinules (ffa///«K//«(s), or
Water-Hens, the base of the ridge of the bill is dilated into a soft,
oblong plate, which occupies a greater or less extent of the forehead.
These Birds are especially aquatic in their habits, living amongst
the reeds and sedges of the banks of rivers and lakes, and in marshy
places, and swimming and diving with great facility. Their food
consists of Insects, Worms, and Mollusca, with a considerable pro-
portion of seeds, especially those of the graminaceous plants. The
British species of Gallinule {Gallinula chloropus) is particularly
described as follows : —
The Moor-Hen {Gallhtida c/iloro^us). — Poule d'eau of the
French ; Gallinella of the Italians ; Wasserhuhn and Braune Meer-
huhn of the Germans ; Dwfriar of the Welsh ; Common Gallinule
and Water-Hen, English. In the genus Gallinule the beak is short
and straight, the cutting edges of the upper mandible falling over
those of the lower ; a naked frontal plate ; toes long and simple.
The Moor-Hen, or Water-Hen, is dispersed over the greater part of
Europe, Asia, Africa, Japan, and the Indian Archipelago, if indeed
the species be identical, which is a question not settled. The Prince
of Canino considers the two American species {^G. galeata and G.
marfim'ca) to be both distinct (as he does also the American Coot,
Fulica americajia) from their European representatives.
In our island the Water-Hen is abundant where secluded sheets of
water, ponds, meres, or pools, bordered by beds of reeds and rushes,
overhung by old willows and other trees, afford it an asylum.
Though its feet are not fringed, it swims very gracefully, and dives
with singular address, both in order to escape danger and to obtain
food. In the former case it often remains immersed amidst the
shelter of the herbage, with little more than its beak above the
water, watching till the danger is past. On the land it runs with
great rapidity ; and when suddenly surprised on the bank — where, as
we have often seen, it delights to bask in flocks of ten or twenty — it
dashes half running, half flying, into the water, and either dives, or
skims half flying over the surface to the covert of the reed-bed, and
instantly disappears. While walking on the grass, it has a habit of
flirting up its short tail, so as to display the white under-coverts ;
and in all its actions is smart, quick, and animated.
According to Mr. Gould, the female is clothed in a dark rich plu-
mage, and has the base of the bill and the frontal plate of a bright
crimson red, tipped with fine yellow ; while the male, contrary to the
general rule, has the upper surface more olive than the female, and
the bill also is less richly tinted. The female, though more richly
clad, is one-fifth less than her mate. The food of this species, in
addition to Aquatic larvae. Worms, &c., consists of aquatic weeds,
and grain, as wheat and barley. The Water-Hen selects a retired
spot in which to breed, and conceals the nest amidst the sedges,
reeds, and flags of the water-side ; sometimes it is placed upon a
low, thickly foliaged floating branch, or the stump of an old pollard ;
it is formed ef matted flags and rushes. The eggs are of a yellowish-
white, marbled with tints of brown, and vary from five to nine in
number. On leaving her nest, the female always covers up her
eggs, principally with a view to their concealment from the Rat or
the Snake. The young are at first covered with black hairy down,
and immediately take to the water. In five or six weeks they are
fully fledged, and able to provide for themselves. Numbers, how-
ever, fall a prey to the Rat, the Weasel, the Hawk, and the Pike.
Base of the bill and frontal plate red ; head, throat, neck, and under
parts blackish-grey ; ridge of the wing and under tail-coverts white ;
upper parts of the body dark olive green ; legs dusky green, with a
garter of red above the tarsal joint. (See Fig. 1436.)
The Coot {Fulica atra). Foulque, Macroule, or Morrelle of
the French ; Schwarzes Wasserhuhn of the Germans ; Mcir Koet
of the Netherlanders ; Folaga and Folacra of the Italians ; Jar
ddwfr foel of the Welsh. — In the genus Fulica the bill is strong,
straight, sub-conical, and compressed, and the base of the upper
mandible is carried upon the forehead in the form of a broad ex-
panded plate. The feet are large, and the toes are margined by
lobated membranes. Plumage full and deep.
The Coot is very generally spread over temperate Europe, and is
particularly abundant in Holland. In our island it is common,
frequenting large sheets of water, especially such as are surrounded
with a broad belt of reeds and tall luxuriant aquatic plants, forming
a dense covert for concealment. It swims and dives with the utmost
address ; nor is it inactive on land, and may be often seen early in the
morning in humid low meadows adjacent to the water, wandering in
search of Slugs, Worms, and Insects, which, with Aquatic larva;,
Snails, and the fry of Fishes, &c., constitute its food. When winter
sets in severely, and the inland waters arc frozen, it journeys to the
more southern districts of our island, visiting saline marshes, arms
and inlets of the sea, and the moutlis of rivers, as the Southampton
Water, where numbers congregate during the inclement season, and
may be seen crowding the mud-flats. The nest of the Coot is a huge
mass of grass, flags, and other herbage, sometimes situated among
the reeds near the water's edge, at other times absolutely within the
margin of the water, and rising above its surface to the height of
eight or ten inches. From the nature of the materials composing
the nest, conjoined with its situation, it not unfrequently happens
that it is torn from its moorings by floods and carried down with the
current ; and instances have been known of such occurrences taking
place, the female continuing to sit upon her eggs, which remained
uninjured.
Fig. 1436. — The Moor-Hen.
The eggs, from seven to ten in number, are of a greenish-white,
thickly spotted with brown. The young are clothed with black
down, tipped with grey, and immediately take to the water, under
the protection of their parents till able to shift for themselves. The
Coot is not roused to take wing without difficulty, and then flies low
and heavily, with the legs hanging down, or it just skims above the
surface of the water, which it strikes with its feet by way of aiding
its progress. It can, however, undertake a long-continued flight,
as is evident from its semi-migratory habits ; and Mr. Selby states
that he has more than once seen this Bird flying at a considerable
elevation, with a very unexpected degree of strength and speed.
Fig. 1437. — The Coot.
The description is as follows :— Bill pale rose-red; irides scarlet;
frontal plate largest in the male, milk-white ; head and neck deep
greyish-black ; under parts greyish-black, with a slight bluish tinge ;
upper parts slaty-black ; naked part of the tibia; orange ; tarsi
greenish-grey tinged with yellow. (See Fig. 1437.)
566
THE RAIL TRIBE.
There are numerous exotic species, some of them considerably
larger than the European members of the group. Amongst these,
one of the most remarkable is the Notornis of New Zealand, a Bird
which was long supposed to be extinct, as it was only known, like
the Dinoriiis of those islands, by the occasional occurrence of
its bones. It has, however, been taken alive within the last few
years.
The True Rails I^Rallincs) are destitute of the dilatation of the
base of the bill which is characteristic of the Gallinules. They
closely resemble the Gallinules in their habits, but remain less ex-
clusively in the neighbourhood of water ; the common Crakes {Crex),
of which four species are found in Britain, being generally inhabitants
of corn-fields. The commonest species is the Corn-Crake (Crex
^rafcnsis), whose cry of crek, crek, is familiar to most country-
people— although, as Mr. Macgillivray observes, its appearance is
so little known, that to many it is " vox et frcsterea nihil." The
Common Rail {Rallus aquatics) is less abundant than the Corn-
Crake in this countrj'. The following is a description of some of the
True Rails.
The Water-Rail {Rallus aquaticus). Rale d'eau of the
French; IMerIa d'acqua of the Italians ; Wasser Ralle of the Ger-
mans ; Cwtair of the Welsh.— The Water-Rail is distributed over
Europe, and some parts of Asia, having been seen by Dr. von
Siebold in Japan. In our island it is not uncommon, but is very
shy and recluse, tenanting secluded marshes and ponds, where
the thickest reed-bods screen it from observation, through which,
from the compressed form of its body, it glides with the utmost
facility and address : it thus easily eludes the pursuit of the Dog,
winding about till it gains some deep hold or other recess, and can
therefore seldom be flushed. It also swims and dives with remark-
able ease, and if pushed hard instantly disappears, rising at a dis-
tance and pressing forward to the reed-bed.
While moving undisturbed in search of food, the Water-Rail, like
the Moor-Hen, has a habit of flirting up its short tail so as to show
the cream-white under-coverts. In the winter, this Bird, if it does
not positively migrate, resorts to the sides of large streams and
rivers, where various Insects, Worms, &c. , are always to be pro-
cured. The nest of this species is made of coarse grasses, and
concealed amidst the thickest herbage in the most inaccessible part
of its haunt. The eggs are from six to eight in number, of a
yellowish-white colour marked with spots of brown. When first
excluded, the young are covered with black down, and follow their
parents, swimming with equal address.
Bill brown at the tip, orange-red at the base ; throat pearl grey ;
sides of the neck, the breast, and under-surface bluish or slate grey ;
flanks greyish-black barred with white and cream yellow ; under
tai!-coverts cream white ; the whole of the upper surface yellowish-
brown, the centre of each feather being velvet black ; legs brown
flesh-colour; irides orange ; length twelve inches. (See Fig. 1438.)
Fig. 1438.— The Water-Rail.
The Corn-Crake {Crex pratensis). Rale de Genet, ou Rio
der Caillcs of the French; Re di Quaglie of the Italians ;'Weissen
Knarrer of the Germans ; Regen yr yd of the Welsh ; Landrail
Corn-drake, Daker Hen, English. — The Com-Crake is spread over
the whole continent of Europe, and is very abundant in Holland.
It visits the southern districts of our island in April, but seldom
appears in the north before the beginning of May. In some
localities it greatly abounds ; in others it is little known. In the
rich meadow-lands of Cheshire the monotonous cry of this Bird, like
crake-crake-crake, may be heard during May and June resounding
on every side ; now close at hand, as if the Bird were not a yard
distant ; now far off ; while the voices of others in different parts are
unremittingly exerted. This note, which is the call of the male to
his mate, and which ceases on the commencement of incubation,
may be imitated by drawing the finger or a stick across the teeth of
a comb. So shy and cunning is the Bird, that it is seldom to be
seen ; and unless by means of a Dog accustomed to such work, it is
almost impracticable to force it to take wing; it seems to elude pur-
suit as if by magic, and is here and there, threading its way through
the long grass, before its pursuer can imagine it has even left the
spot from which its call first resounded. Its swiftness and dexterity
are indeed almost incredible. The Corn-Crake breeds on the
ground, making a nest of dried grass in some depression, the female
laying from eight to twelve eggs ; they are of a yellowish-white,
covered with dull rust-coloured spots, and in size nearly equal to
those of a Partridge. The young, when first excluded, are covered
with a blackish hairy down, and follow the parents ; and in six
weeks are able to fly. Worms, Insects, vegetables, and seeds con-
stitute the food of this Bird ; it is very fond of Grasshoppers. Its
southward migration takes place in October, when it passes over to
the continent, and continues its gradual progress. The flesh of the
Corn-Crake is in high esteem as a delicacy. The description is as
follows : — A large ash-coloured eyebrow, prolonged upon the sides
of the head ; all the feathers of the upper parts blackish-brown in
the middle, bordered laterally with ash-colour, and terminated with
reddish ; the long feathers which extend on the quills entirely
bordered by a large band of olive-reddish ; coverts of the wings of a
rusty red ; quills reddish externally ; throat, belly, and abdomen
white ; breast olive-ash ; sides reddish, striped with white ; upper
mandible brown, lower whitish ; iris reddish-brown ; eyebrows
flesh-colour; feet flesh-colour or reddish-brown. Length nine inches
and a-half. (Sec Fig. 1439.)
Fig. 1439 The Corn-Crake.
In the collection of the Zoological Society of London, at their
Gardens in Regent's Park, the following, among other specimens
of the RallidcB, may be seen — viz. : examples of several species of
the peculiar short-winged Rails of the Pacific Islands — such as the
Weka Rail {Ocydromus anslralis) and the Earle's Weka (O.
earlei) of New Zealand, the Woodhen (0. sylvestris) of Lord Howe's
Island, and the New Caledonian Rail {O. lafresnayanus). These
Birds are quite unable to fly, and only use their soft-feathered wings
to aid them in running.
In a second section of the family — the PalameidcB of Mr. G. R.
Gray — the bill is considerably arched towards the tip ; the wings are
armed with spurs, and the claws are very long and acute (Fig.
1440). These Birds are all exotic, and resemble the Rails in their
general habits, but feed much more generally upon vegetable sub-
stances ; the great length of the toes, in most species, enables them
to run with great ease upon the floating leaves of aquatic plants.
In the Common Jacana {Parra Jacana), which inhabits Brazil, the
claw of the hind toe is excessively elongated and acute, from which
circumstance the name of the surgeon has been applied to it. The
base of the bill is furnished with a large free dilated plate, which
stands up in front of the forehead.
In the genus Palamedea the forehead is furnished with a singular
horn-like process, and the wing bears two spurs. The best known
species, P. cornuta, inhabits the marshy districts of Brazil and
Guiana. This Bird is larger than a Goose, and of a blackish
colour, with a red patch on the shoulder. It lives in pairs, and has
a very strong voice, which may be heard at a great distance. The
Chaja {Chauna chavaria) is another nearly allied species, which
has a circle of movable feathers on the occiput. This is also an
inhabitant of Brazil, where it is frequently brought up in a domesti-
THE SNIPE TRIBE.
567
cated condition amongst tlie Fowls and Gcesc, whicli, as it is
exceedingly courageous, it is said to protect from the attacks of
Birds of Prey. A remarkable peculiarity exhibited by this Bird is,
that the skin is separated from the iiesh by a considerable interval,
Fig. 1440.— Foot of the Jacana,
occupied by a loose cellular structure which is filled with air, so that
the skin crackles under the finger. The same arrangement of the
skin occurs in some Cormorants and Gannets.
The Snipes— Family Scoloj^acidce.
The members of this family are all inhabitants of marshy lands,
the borders of swamps, lakes, and rivers, and the shores of the sea.
Their food consists of Worms, Slugs, Aquatic IMolluscs, &c. ; for
this purpose their bill is at once a probe, a feeler, and an organ of
prehension. Most of the genera, observes Mr. Selby, procure food
by thrusting the bill into the soft earth or the mud of the shore,
■whence they extract their prey. To facilitate this operation an extra-
ordinary development of nerve is distributed over the bill, but more
especially concentrated at the tip, which is thus endowed with an ex-
quisite sense of feeling, and the membrane of that part is often pulpy.
In many species the bill is further provided with a peculiar muscle
which operates to expand the pulpy points of the mandibles, enabling
the Bird, with the bill still buried in the ground, to seize its prey
the moment it is felt. From this peculiar mode of searching for their
prey, many species, as the Snipe, Woodcock, (Src, have been called
Birds of Suction. The distribution of the Scolopacidce is verj'
general, their powers of flight are considerable, and they are all more
or less migratory in their habits. They incubate on the ground ; the
eggs are four in number, of a peculiar form, being small and pointed
at one end, large and obtuse at the other, and they are usually
placed in the nest in a circle with the acute ends meeting in the
centre, so as to occupy as small a space as possible. The flesh of
many is in high estimation.
Fig. 1441 illustrates a group of the Scolopacida:, representing — a,
the Curlew ; b, the Godwit ; c, the Purre, or Stint.
The Curlew {Niimcnius arquatus').- — In the genus Niimcnius
the bill is long, slender, curved, compressed, hard and sub-obtuse at
the point ; the upper mandible exceeding the lower, rounded towards
the end, and channelled for three-fourths of its length ; nostrils
lateral, linear, and pierced in the channel ; legs slender ; hind-toe
small, touching the ground ; anterior toes united by a membrane as
high as the first joint ; wings moderate.
The Curlew is the Courli's of the French ; Chiarlotto and Chiurle
maggiore of the Italians ; dcr Grossc Krumschriiblichte Schncpfe
and Kcilhacke of the Germans ; the Waup, Scottici ; Gylfinhrof the
Welsh. The Curlew is spread over every part of the Old World,
from the Torrid zone to the Polar regions. It is found in India,
China, Japan, and South Africa.
In its habits the Curlew is migratory, and during the winter col-
lects in large flocks, which frequent the low oozy shores of the sea,
easily perforated by their bills, which they plunge into the mud in
search of food. It wades in the shallows, and when out of its depth
swims with considerable facility. Few Birds arc more shy and wary
than the Curlew, and while on the wing it utters a clear whistle as
the flock wheels round in wide circles through the air.
In the high northern regions are the favourite breeding haunts of
the Curlew, whither immense flocks repair early in the spring ; but
numbers continue in our island, leaving the low shores and southern
districts for the wild and heathy parts of the interior, the wilds of
Northumberland, and the bleak islands of Scotland. The nest con-
sists of withered grass or rushes placed in a depression under the
covert of heath or other herbage. The eggs, four in number, are of
a pale olive-green, blotched with two tints of brown. The young,
which are at first covered with a yellowish-white down varied witli
dark spots and markings, are assiduously attended by their parents,
who manifest great courage in their defence, sweeping round the
head of the intruder, uttering a loud cry of coiii-lis, conriis, in quick
repetition. In about six weeks the young are able to take wing.
The Snipe {Scolopax gallinago). — In the genus Scolofiax, sub-
family Scolopacince, the beak is long, straight, compressed, and
slender, but swollen, minutely dimpled, and pulpy at the tip ; the
upper mandible is furrowed through half its length ; the nostrils are
lateral, basal, and longitudinal in the commencement of the furrow.
Legs slender, of moderate length ; wings pointed ; eyes large, and
placed back in the head. (See Fig. 1442.)
The Common Snipe is the Becasseau becassine and Chevre voland
of the French ; Beccacino and Pizzarda of the Italians ; Wald-
schneppe of the Germans ; Ysnittan y Finiar of the Welsh.
This Bird is widely spread over Europe and the adjacent parts of
Asia, being everywhere of migratory habits ; though it must be ob-
served that it breeds in our island wherever favourable localities
afford it shelter. It was found in considerable numbers in the
Orkneys, by Sir H. Davy (1817), in the month of August ; he ob-
served that each nest contained two young Birds, sometimes three,
and describes the parents as exceedingly attached to their offspring;
adding, that if any one approach their nest, they make a loud and
drumming noise over the head of the intruder, as if to divert his
attention. The Snipe has been known to breed also in Dorsetshire,
in the New Forest, in Cambridgeshire, in Norfolk, in Scotland,
Wales, and Ireland. The nest is made of dry grass or herbage,
rudely put together, and placed in some depression under the covert
of heath, fern, or long rushes near water, in swampy spots, or on
marshy hills. The eggs are comparatively large, of a greenish-
white, spotted at the larger end with different tints of brown.
In winter our home-bred Birds are joined by vast accessions from
Norway and other northern parts of Europe, the greatest number
arriving in the beginning of November. These are ever on the
move from place to place, frequenting swamps, the margins of
rivulets, and oozy meadows along streams and rivers, in quest of
food; this consists of Worms, Insects, &c., in order to obtain which
they thrust their bill up to its base in the mud, and are guided by
its exquisite sensibility.
About the beginning of April the Snipe calls to his mate, uttering
a piping or clicking note, often repeated, and accompanied at
intervals by a humming noise, " apparently produced by the action
of the wings, as the bird, whenever this sound is emitted, is observed
to descend with great velocity, and with a trembling motion of the
pinions. At this season it soars to an immense height, remaining
long upon the wing ; and its notes may frequently be heard when the
bird itself is far beyond the reach of sight. These flights are per-
formed at intervals during the day, but more commonly towards the
evening, and are continued during the whole time that tlie female is
engaged in incubation." Of the ordinary flight of this Bird, of its
excellence for the table, and of the colours of its plumage, nothing
need be said.
The Jack-Snipe {Scolopax galUiiula). La Petite B(5cassine and
Becassine sourde of the French ; Moorschneppe of the Germans ;
Judcock, provincial English. — This species appears to be confined
to Europe and Northern Asia, and is a periodical w-inter visitant to
our island, making its first appearance about the second week of
September. Early in March it quits our latitudes for the Polar
regions, where it breeds ; we believe that there is no authenticated
instance of its having been known to incubate in any of our fens.
The Jack-Snipe frequents oozy bogs and marshes ; when flushed, it
utters no alarm-cry, and after a short direct flight drops in some
miry spot, and is not to be easily roused again. This species is the
smallest of the genus, being about halt the siiie of the Common
S68
THE SNIPE TRIBE.
Snipe, and seldom exceeding two ounces and a quarter in weight :
but its flesh is exquisite, It i's generally found solitary ; and, unlike
the Common Snipe, having fixed upon one locality as its haunt, it
seldom quits it for another, even though harassed by the sportsman.
It sits very close, and will allow itself almost to be trodden upon
before taking wing. The plumage of this Bird is too well known to
require a detailed description. (See Fig. 1443-)
Europe and Asia, its migratory range is very extensive, extending
to Italy, Madeira, Barbary, Greece, Aleppo, and E.gypt. It has
been noticed in Cashmere and Japan. It breeds in Russia, Finland
Norway, Sweden, Siberia, &c., and also in Switzerland and Great
Britain. With respect to its breeding in our islands, we might cite
numerous authentic instances on record, but the fact is too well
established to require such labour.
Fig. 1441. — Group oi Scohpacida, or Snipes.
The Woodcock {Scolofax nisticold). Becasse of the French ;
Beccaccia of the Italians ; Waldschnepfe of the Germans ; Cyffylog
of the Welsh. (See Fig. 1444-)
Though the Woodcock is a native of the northern latitudes of
fig. 1442.— Head and Leg of the Snipe.
■ The first flights of Woodcocks from the north to our island
generally occur towards the end of September or the beginning of
October; but these flocks, after remaining a short time, wing their
way to the more southern regions of Europe, and Northern Africa, a
few stragglers only remaining behind, which are afterwards joined
by other arrivals during the latter part of October, November, and
December. They generally come over in hazy weather with little
wind, and that blowing from the north-east. Their favourite haunts
are woods, moist thickets, close brakes, glens, and similar places,
Fig. I44.'5.— The J.ick Snipe.
THE SNIPE TRIBE.
569
where they remain concealed during the day, but as soon as dark-
ness sets in they leave these retreats, and scatter themselves over
moist meadows and swampy open grounds, where they search for
food— namely. Slugs, Insects, and especially Worms, thrustmg their
bill into the earth, and drawing forth their captives. The digestion of
this Bird is very rapid. Mr. Selby states that he had known one to
consume, within a single night, more large earth-worms than half
filled a garden-pot of considerable size. The nest of the Woodcock is a
loose structure of grass and leaves, in a depression among herbage
and thickets, near the root of a tree or bush. The eggs are usually
four in number, of a pale yellowish-white, blotched and spotted at
the larger end with ash grey, and two shades of yellowish-brown.
During the pairing season the Birds often pursue each other on the
approach of dusk, circling the wood for an hour or two, and uttering
a sharp but not very loud whistling note; besides this the male
often flies low on heavy and flapping wings, keeping up an inces-
sant croaking, or rather purring noise, not unlike that of the spinning-
wheel. As the season advances, these circling flights and noises
Fig. 1444. — The Woodcock.
are discontinued, "the low croaking and occasional whistle being,"
as a writer observes, "peculiar to the period of incubation, like
that singular noise made by the Snipe in spring, as it rapidly
descends in the air during its circuitous flight over its native mo-
rass."
We need not say that the Woodcock is highly celebrated for the
exquisite flavour of its flesh. When, however, the spring change of
plumage commences, it loses its delicacy, and becomes rank and
worthless. The return of the Woodcock to the regions of the north
from our latitudes takes place in March, and by the middle of April
all, save those that remain stationary with us, have disappeared.
The female somewhat exceeds the male in size.
The African Painted Snipe {Rynchcea capensis). — From the
genus Scolopax are separated the Painted Snipes of Africa and
India, which form the genus Rynchcca : they are characterised by
the beak being slightly arched at the tip. Their habits and manners
are those of the Snipes generally. They are remarkable for the
brilliancy of their colours, and for the ocellated spots upon the quills
of their wings and tails. (See Fig. 1445.)
Fig. 1445. — The African Painted Snipe.
The Ruff {Philoynachtis, or Machetes ptignax).—Y^v<\-!\&, the
Reeve. Le Combatt nt and Paon de Mer of the French ; Salsarola
and Uccello rauto of t e Italians ; Streisschnepfe and Rampfhahlein
of the Germans; yrYtnladdgar of the Welsh.
This Bird is generally distributed over Europe and the adjacent
parts of Asia, and is a summer, not winter, visitant to our island,
arriving in April, breeding in our fens, and departing in autumn.
An occasional straggler remains with us during the winter. In
Holland it is very abundant. In England the fens of Lincolnshire
and Cambridgeshire are its principal resort. It would appear that
the males are the first to arrive at their destined station ; at all
events they keep themselves in distinct bands, separate from the
females. As the breeding-time draws near, beautiful long plumes
round the neck, forming a ruff, and large full ear-tufts, rapidly
develop. The males now begin to hill, as it is termed — that is, they
seek some spot a little elevated above the surrounding marsh, to
which, as to a common centre, numbers are gradually drawn. Each
individual selects its own station or little territory, for the possession
of which it strenuously contends ; the attempt of a rival to encroach
upon the circle is immediately followed by a hard-fought battle, the
territory being ceded by the vanquished to the victor. Those battles
and contests are almost incessant, at least during the day : for at
night they all return to the marsh in order to feed (in this respect
their habits being nocturnal), but in the morning each resumes its
station, and the contests are again carried on. Here, full of ani-
mosity against each other, and jealous of each other's rights, they
await the arrival of the females. The arrival on the hill of one of
the other sex is the signal for a general contest. The scene is now
one of perpetual warfare, female after female arriving at the hill, so
that " the theatre of these battles," as Selby observes, " soon be-
comes bare of grass from the constant traversing of the combatants."
Not only have the neck and ear plumes now attained their perfec-
tion, but the face of the male becomes covered with small yellowish
papilla;, or fleshy excrescences, instead of the short feathers with
which it is ordinarily clothed. During the whole of May and the
early [part of June this scene of warfare continues with unabated
energy. The manner in which the Ruff fights has much resem-
blance to that of the Game-Cock ; the head is lowered, the plumes
are thrown up into a disc, the tail is expanded, and each adversary
attempts to seize the other with his bill, following up his advantage
by a blow with the wing. The contest is seldom fatal, the van-
quished being rather wearied out and dispirited by the superior
strength and determination of his antagonist, than seriously injured.
Towards the latter part of June this combativeness abates, the
papilla; on the face disappear, and shortly afterwards the fine plumes
are moulted off, their place being supplied by ordinary feathers.
(See Fig. 1447.) . .
The females, or Reeves, which, as we have intimated, only visit
the hill at intervals, breed among the swamps. The nest consists of
little more than a slight depression amidst a tuft of grass, rushes,
or other herbage. The eggs are four in number, and closely resemble
those of the Snipe, but are somewhat larger. In the group of
Grallatorial Birds, to which the present species belongs, the females
usually exceed the males in size; 'here, however, the females are
much smaller than the males, and moreover undergo no corres-
ponding changes of plumage. With respect to the beautiful plumes,
which for a season ornament the Ruff, one circumstance is very
remarkable— namely, the diversity of their colouring: in no two
examples is the colour precisely alike. We have seen them pure
white ; white elegantly barred with black ; reddish-brown intermixed
with black, or barred and spotted ; pure glossy black ; grey and
black, &c. It appears, moreover, that in no individual are these
colours the same in any two seasons.
The Ruff is among the list of Birds whose flesh is accounted as a
delicacy for the table ; and considerable profit is made by various
fowlers in the fens of Lincolnshire, who devote themselves at certain
seasons of the year to the business of catching them and feeding
them for sale. The means employed for taking them are chiefly
clap-nets, into which they are lured by various devices, one of which
is a stuffed Bird of their own species. The seasons for taking them
are, first, April and May, when the males are hilling, and pugnacious
in the extreme ; and, secondly, September, after the young are fully
fledged and ready for the autumnal migration, when they, with the
old Birds, pass to more southern latitudes. -Their natural food con-
sists of Worms, small Insects, &c., with which the soft ooze or mud
of the marsh abounds ; but they are easily reconciled to a change of
diet, and feed eagerly upon bread and milk, boiled wheat, and other
articles of a farinaceous quality, upon which they thrive and become
plump. Captivity, which subdues the spirit of most wild creatures,
does not abate the pugnacity of the full-plumed males taken in the
spring. Not only will the appearance of a Reeve e.xcite them to
strife, but a bowl of food set before them will produce the same effect,
and lead to a tumultous conflict, which, as the arena is very limited,
and the weaker have no chance of escape, is sometimes known to
result in fatal consequences.
Of the variable colour of the neck and ear plumes we have already
spoken. The rest of the colouring may bo thus descnbed :— Ihe
upper parts of the body are varied with a mixture of brown, pale yel-
low, and black ; the sides of the chest and flanks are barred with
black on a pale yellow ground ; the under surface is white. In some
individuals these tints are much darker than in others. The Reeve
4D
570
THE SANDPIPERS.
in summer has the upper surface varied with black on a cinerous
orey ground; in winter the colour becomes more uniform, losing the
markings of black.
The Phalaropes {Phahiro;(>incB) resemble the Coots in having the
toes bordered with membranous lobes (Fig. 1446), and, like these,
were included by Temminck in his order of Piii}iatipcdes. As
might be expected from this con-
formation of the feet, the Phala-
ropes are veiy aq\iatic in their
naoits, swimming with great ease,
and being often met with amongst
floating seaweed at a great dis-
tance from land. Their move-
ments, when swimming, are very
elegant, resembling those of the
Teal ; and they are continually dip-
ping their bills into the water, in
search of the small Insects and Crustacea, upon which they feed.
Two species are found in this countrj', but only as winter visitors,
their summer residence and breeding station being on the shores
of the Arctic regions.
Fis
1446. — Foot tA LoUpcs
liy/erbon'iis.
visiting this country in the autumn and winter, and retiring to the
high northern latitudes to breed during the summer ; some appear
only to pay us a passing visit in their vernal and autumnal journeys
between their summer and winter residences. Nevertheless, great
numbers of many species reside permanently, and breed in our
islands ; in fact, some individuals of almost all the species pass the
summer here. Fig. 1448 represents some of the TriiigincB.
Thd Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa melamtra). Beak and
Foot. (See Fig. 1449.) In the genus Limosa the bill is very long,
more or less curved upwards, soft and flexible, depressed at the apex,
which is dilated and obtuse ; upper mandible furrowed ; legs long
and slender; hind-toe small ; outer and inner toes united by a basal
web ; w'ings moderate. This species is the Grande Barge rousse of
Buffon ; the Red Godwit of Latham ; Dunkelfussiger Wasserlaufer
of Meyer ; Eostog of the ancient Welsh.
The Godwit (with other allied species) undergoes a double moult,
which nearly changes the entire colour of the plumage, and has led
to some confusion ; the young of the year differ from the adults. In
its winter plumage this Bird is the Limosa 7nela?iura of Lesler, and
the Jadreka Snipe of Latham. In its spring plumage it is the
Scolo^ax belgica and ^. cegoccphala of Gmelin. The young of the
Fig. 1447.— Ruff and Reeves.
The Tri7igiticB, including the Sandpipers and numerous allied
Birds, differ from the Snipes principally in the greater length of their
legs. The bill is long, slender, grooved throughout, sometimes
straight, sometimes curv^ed either upwards or downwards. The
hinder toe is very small, and elevated on the back of the tarsus, or
sometimes entirely wanting, and the anterior toes are usually
slightly webbed at the base. Many of the Sandpipers present a
considerable resemblance to the Snipes in their appearance ; and,
like these, they are generally found in the neighbourhood of water —
some of them even swimming with facility. They collect in flocks
during the winter, seeking for their food, which consists principally
of Worms, Insects, and MoUusca, by inserting their long bills into
the mud or soft ground of the shore. In the winter they not unfre-
quently visit the sea-coast. They run and fly rapidly, and most of
them produce a loud and shrill cry. They are Migratory Birds,
year is the Totantts ruftis of Bechstein. The female exceeds the
male in size, but her colours are less bright.
The Black-tailed Godwit breeds in the high northern latitudes,
but occasionally within the limits of the British Islands ; during the
winter it is spread along the shores of the whole of Europe, and
specimens have been received both from India and Africa. In
England the present species is not very abundant at any period,
though it breeds sparingly in some of our fens. During the winter
it frequents oozy shores and the embouchures of rivers, and plunges
its long sensitive bill into the mud in search of food — viz., Marine
Insects and Worms, &c. The nest is formed of dry grass and
herbage, and the four eggs are of a light olive brown, dashed with a
darker tint. Its flesh was formerly in high esteem. Winter plum-
age : — upper parts uniform brown ash, the shaft of each feather
being of a darker tint ; rump blackish ; front of neck, the breast,
THE GODWIT—THE STTLT-PLOX^ER.
S7I
and sides, bright grey ; under parts and base of tail-feathers, and
also of the quill-feathers, pure white ; a broad belt of black across
the tail-feathers, of which the central are slightly tipped with white ;
bill orange-yellow at the base, black at the tip.
Spring Plumage :— Feathers of the top of the head black,
bordered with bright red ; throat and neck red, transversely striped
with fine zigzag markings : upper part of the back and scapulars
deep black, terminated with a band of red, and bordered by spots of
that colour ; wing-coverts ash ; lower part of the back and tail
black ; under parts of base and quill-feathers white. Length
fifteen inches. In the young the plumage of the upper parts is
brown and blackish-brown, greatly varied with red.
Fig. 1448. — Sandpipers.
The Common or Red Godwit {Limosa ritfa, Brisson) is
closely allied to the preceding, which it resembles in habits and
manners, and extent of range, but may be distinguished by shorter
legs, by the absence of white on the basal part of the quill-feathers,
and by the tail-feathers being always distinctly barred. It is not
known to breed in our island : its summer haunts are Iceland,
Lapland, Sweden, and other northern countries. Both species fly
very rapidly, and utter a singular cry while on the wing. The
Prince of Canino notices two species, distinct from either of the
preceding, as peculiar to America. (See b, in group of Scolo^acidcB,
Fig. 1 141, p. 568, ante.
Fig. 1449. — Beak and Foot of the Black-tailed Godwit.
The last sub-family is that of the TotanincB, to which Mr. Mac-
gillivray gives the English name of Tatlers. In these Birds the bill
is very long, slender, compressed, and acute ; the legs are also very
long and slender, and the toes of moderate length, webbed at the
base — the fourth very small, or entirely wanting.
The Tota>iin(B are genuine Wading Birds, which always frequent
the water's edge, and generally seek their food in the water,
although they occasionally imitate the Birds of the preceding sub-
families in their practice of pushing the bill into the sand or mud of
the brink. Some of them also take to the water, and swim without
hesitation, although the structure of their feet does not appear very
well adapted for such a purpose. They are found not only upon the
banks of rivers and lakes, and in the marshy grounds in their
vicinity, but also frequently upon the sea-shore ; and in the winter
they generally collect into small bands, and frequent the neighbour-
hood of the sea, and especially the estuaries of rivers. Their food
consists of Insects, Mollusca, Crustacea, Worms, and other
Aquatic Animals. They run and fly swiftly, and emit loud and shrill
cries. Most of the species perform migrations of greater or less
extent; the British species being generally winter visitors, and
breeding in regions far to the north, although some of them generally
remain during the summer, and one or two appear to be permanent
residents.
The Bl.\ck-winged Stilt-Plover [Himantofius mclan-
opterus). Charadrius himanfopus, Linn. ; H. riifipes, Bechst. ;
H. atropteriis, Meyer; I'Echasse and I'Echasse d manteau noir of
the French ; Cavaliere grande Italiano of the Italians ; .Schwarz-
fltigeliche Strandreuter of the Germans; Long-legged Plover and
Long-shanks, English; Cwttyn hirgoes of the Welsh.
The members of the genus Ilnnaiitopiis are remarkable for the
extreme length and slendemess of the legs ; they are not numerous,
but are distributed in every quarter of the globe. The present
species only occasionally occurs within the British Islands, and is
equally scarce and accidental in its visits in Holland and the
northern parts of Europe. It is essentially a native of the eastern
parts of Europe, whence it is spread throughout Asia to Japan, in-
cluding India and the Indian Islands, and also from the north to the
south of Africa. According to the Prince of Canino, the two species
found in America are both distinct, and Mr. Gould has described
the species found in Australia and Java as different, under the title
of H. leucoccptialus.
" The long-legged plover, as its conformatton w^ould lead us to
conclude, is a bird whose most congenial habitat is morasses and
the low flat shores of lakes, rivers, and seas. Hence in the eastern
portions of Europe, where it is said to arrive from Asia in small
flocks, it takes up its abode along the lakes and among the vast
morasses of Hungary and Russia, where, according to" M. Tem-
mirick, it rears its progeny, and where it fearlessly wades in search
of its food, without much chance of its being carried out of its
depth ; but should such an occurrence happen, or the waves drift it
from the shore, it possesses, like many of the true wading birds,
the power of swimming with great ease and lightness. Few birds
exceed it in the powers of flight ; its wings far exceed the tail, and
it passes through the air with astonishing rapidity. When on firm
ground, it appears as if tottering on long and awkward stilts ; but
firm ground is not its congenial habitat." (Gould, " Birds of
Europe.")
In the last part of his " Manuel," M. Temminck states that this
Bird makes its nest upon a little eminence constructed in the
marshes, laying four eggs of a tarnished green colour, marked with
numerous ashy spots, and with moderate and very small reddish-
brown spots. In this species the cheeks, neck, and all the lower
parts are white, with a roseate tinge ; the occiput, back of the neck,
and upper parts black glossed with green ; the very old male has
the occiput and back of the neck varied with white, sometimes quite
white ; bill black ; iris crimson ; legs vermilion. Length of head
and body fourteen inches. (See Fig. 1450.)
Fig. 1450.— The Black-winged Stilt-Plover.
The Avocet, or Scooper {Rectirvirostra avocei(a).—ln the
genus Rccurvirostra the bill is long, slender, tapering, depressed,
and bending upwards at the tip, which is very flexible ; legs long
and slender, and the three anterior toes united for nearly the whole
of their length by a scolloped membrane. (See Fig. 1451.)
572
THE HERON FAMILY.
The Avocet is widely diffused through temperate Europe. It is
found in Siberia, on the shores of the Caspian, about the salt lakes
of Tartary, and also in Egypt, and other parts of Africa. In our
island these Birds are not uncommon along the eastern coast, south
of the Humber, and breed in the fenny parts of Lincolnshire, and
also in Romney Marsh in Kent. They are very rare in the north of
England and Scotland. They abound in Holland. During the wmter
the Avocet assembles in small flocks, frequenting muddy flat shores
and the mouths of rivers, feeding upon Marine Insects, minute Crus-
tacea , and Shell-fish, in quest of which it wades in the shallows,
only swimming when unexpectedly out of its depth. Its slender,
recurved, elastic beak, resembling whalebone, by no means organised
as a feeler for plunging into the mud, enables it to scoop up from the
surface of the slimy ooze the minute Insects or Worms on which it
feeds : during this operation it appears as if it were incessantly
beating the mud with its beak. Its actions are all quick and lively,
and its flight is rapid and vigorous. During the summer the Avocets
are scattered in pairs over the fens and saline marshes, and select a
dry spot on which to breed. The nest is merely a slight depression
sheltered by such herbage as the morass affords. The eggs arc
Fig. 1451. — The Avocet.
greenish, spotted with black. When disturbed during incubation, or
while guarding their down-covered young, they fly round the intruder
in circles, uttering without intermission their peculiar cry, twit-twit,
twit-tioit, and, like the Stilt-Plover, will feign lameness, and crouch
on trembling limbs, in order to decoy the object of their fear to a
distance. The Avocet is a beautiful Bird : its general plumage is
white, with the exception of the head, and back of the neck, the
middle wing-coverts, and greater quill-feathers, which are black ;
legs bluish-grey. The toes, which are webbed, give the Bird superior
advantage in traversing the soft ooze in search of food. Length
eighteen inches. There are American species of this Bird.
The Herons — Family Ardeidce.
In this family, that of the Ardeidce, or Herons, we find the most
typical species of the order — stately Birds, which stalk majestically
along, and often stand sedately watching for their prey. The legs
are long and slender, with a large portion of the tibia naked ; the
tarsi are usually scutellated, and the hind-toe is of large size, and
placed on the same level as the anterior toes. The bill is large,
strong, and usually conical ; the oesophagus is wide, and the stomach
large, furnished with a thin muscular coat and a soft epithelium, in-
dicating a very different description of food from that which forms
the diet of the Birds to which we have previously referred. The
■wings are very large and powerful, but the flight of the Birds is
generally slow. They frequent the margins of water, feeding
upon Aquatic Animals of all kinds ; but Fish and Frogs constitute a
considerable portion of the nourishment of the larger species. They
are generally migratory in their habits, and often perform very long
journeys. We have first to describe the
Spoonbills — Sub-family Plataleince.
In this group the singular form of the bill at once arrests attention ;
it is long, powerful, gradually flattening from a stout base, and at
last expanding into a rounded shovel-like termination. The upper
mandible is transversely marked with slight furrows, and channelled
along its edge from each nostril, which has an upper site, near the
base of the mandible. The form of the nostrils is oblong. The face
is more or less naked. The limbs are long and robust. The three
anterior toes are united by a web as far as the second joint. The
wings are long and ample. The feathers of the neck are very close-
set. Figs. 1452 and 1453 represent the beak of the Spoonbill. The
Birds of this group are shy and retiring, and live in society in wild
wooded marshes, about the borders of lakes and the mouths of
rivers, but rarely visit the sea. Their food consists of Fishes, Mol-
luscs, small Reptiles, the larvae of Aquatic Insects, &c. They gene-
rally build on trees, but occasionally in bushes, or even amidst the
Fig. 1452. — Bill of the .Spoonbill.
luxuriant vegetation of the swamp. It is not till the third year that
the young assume the colouring of the adult ; and the beak, which is
covered with a vascular membrane, gradually acquires its full dimen-
sions and hardness.
Fig. 1453. — Head of the Spoonbill.
The Common Spoonbill {Platalea leucorodia). Pale, Poche,
Cueillar, Truble, and Spatule blanche of the French ; Becquaroneglia
and Cucchiarone of the Italians ; Weissar-Laffler and Laffelgans of
the Germans ; Lepelaar of the Netherlanders ; y Lldon big of the
ancient British.
The Common Spoonbill is widely spread over Europe, the adjacent
districts of Asia and Africa. It visits Holland every spring in consi-
derable numbers, migrating with the Storks ; and is also to be found
in the marshy districts of France. It is essentially a Bird of passage,
resorting in winter to Africa, where it extends its range southwards,
even to the Cape of Good Hope, frequenting the mouths of rivers and
^^fe3_
Fig. 1454. — The Spoonbill.
marshes : in our island it rarely makes its appearance. Pennant
mentions a large flight which arrived in the marshes near Yarmouth,
1774. Montagu records it as having been sometimes seen during
winter on the coast of South Devon, and mentions the receipt of two
CRANES, HERONS, AND SPOONBILL
THE IBISES.
573
specimens from that part of the country, one in November, 1804, and
a second in March, 1807. Dr. Latham mentions an instance of its
occurrence on the Kentish coast. Mr. Yarrell records two specimens
which were shot in Lincolnshire in 1826 ; and Mr. Selby states that,
when in London in May, 1830, he obtained a male and female, in
fine adult plumage, from Norfolk ; adding, " From the time of the
year at which these birds were killed, it is not improbable that they
would have remained to breed in the district selected ; and though
my collection has profited by their capture, I must still regret that
they were not allowed to remain in security." The food of this Bird
consists of the fry of Fishes, Aquatic Worms, Molluscs, Insects, and
the roots of some weeds and grasses, in quest of which it explores
the muddy water with its broad bill, at the same time rapidly opening
and shutting the mandibles. The flesh of the Spoonbill is said very
nearly to resemble that of a Goose, without any fishy or unpleasant
fiavour. In its anatomy, says Mr. Selby, this Bird shows an affinity
to the Cranes ; the windpipe previous to entering the chest assumes
a double flexure, to the extent of about two inches, forming a convo-
lution similar to the figure 8 ; the flexures touch, but do not cross
each other, the points of contact being united by fine membranes.
Temminck and others have supposed that this peculiarity was to be
found only in the male ; but, as is now well known, it equally occurs
in the female. The nest of this species is sometimes placed on
trees, sometimes in rushes and reeds ; the eggs are generally three
in number, white, and usually marked with obscure red spots. The
general plumage of the Spoonbill is white, with the exception of a
broad pectoral mark of ochreous yellow, which extends round the
base of the neck ; the naked skin round the eyes and throat yellow, but
on the lower part of tlie latter slightly tinged with red. Bill black,
bluish in the hollows of the furrows, and ochreous yellow at the apex.
Iris red ; legs black. Length two feet six inches. Length of bill eight
inches and a-half. Head with a fine crest of long slender feathers,
which can be raised or depressed at will. The female is somewhat
smaller, with a less developed crest, and a paler chest-mark. The
young have no crest ; the undeveloped bill is soft and flexible, about
four inches long, and covered by a smooth ash-coloured skin ; the
naked parts of the head are of a dull white. The general plumage
is white, excepting the quills, which are black along the shafts and
at their ends. The yellow patch on the chest does not appear till
the second or third year. A beautiful species, known as the Roseate
Spoonbill {Platalea ajaja), is found in many parts of South America.
It has a plumage of a beautiful rose colour, with wings of a rich
carmine.
From the Spoonbills we pass readily to the Ibises {TantalincB), in
which the bill is gently curved downwards like that of the Curlew.
In their general structure and habits they closely resemble the
Spoonbills, frequenting the margins of waters, and feeding princi-
pally upon Worms and Mol/iisca. The only species found in Britain
is the Glossy Ibis {Ibis falcinellics).
The Gl^OSS\ \ms {Ibis falrinellies) ; Tantalus falcinellus, Linn.,
le Courlis vert of Buifon ; Green Ibis, Latham ; Glossy Ibis of the
same.
This species, probably the Black Ibis of Herodotus, and celebrated
for destroying Snakes, whence it was one among the Sacred Birds
of Egypt, is migratory in its habits, annually visiting the borders
of the Danube, Poland, Hungary, and Siberia, and occasionally
other countries still more to the west ; sometimes even appearing in
our island. It is common through the greater part of Asia and
Fi^. 1455.— The Glossy Ibis.
Africa, and its remains, with those of the Sacred Ibis, are found
amongst the mummies of the Egyptian catacombs.
The Glossy Ibis lives in societies, and its migrations are per-
formed in numerous flocks. It frequents the banks of rivers and
lakes, and grounds recently inundated, feeding on Reptiles, Worms,
Insects, and also aquatic plants. Its general colour above is
glossy greenish-black with a metallic lustre ; under parts bright
chestnut ; a naked skin extending from the bill to the eye is green ;
bill and legs blackish-green. (Sec Fig. 1455.)
The Sacred Ibis {Ibis religiosa). tantalus afhiopicus, La-
tham ; Abou Hannes, Bruce. — This species is no doubt the White
Ibis of Herodotus, described as being " familiar with man, and
having no feathers on the head and neck ; white all over, except the
head and neck, the tips of the wings, and the end of the rump, which
are very black."
It is to the celebrated traveller Bruce that we owe the recognition
of this species as the Sacred Ibis, abundantly represented on
Egyptian monuments, but which had been regarded by Linna;us as
the Tantalus ibis, a species which, as Cuvier observes, is not of
common occurrence in Egypt, but is brought from Senegal. The
views of Bruce have since been amply confirmed by Geoffrey, Savigny,
and Baron Cuvier, as well as by other naturalists.
The Sacred Ibis, called in Upper Egypt and Ethiopia, Abou
Hannes, or Father John, and by the people of Lower Egypt Abou-
menzel, or Father Sicklebill, visits that country, being a Migratory
Bird, as soon as the waters of the Nile begin to rise ; and their
numbers increase with the spread of the inundation, and diminish as
it subsides. On their first arrival, they repair to the low lands over
which the water is beginning to flow, and as its depth and extent
augment, they gradually retire to higher grounds, and spread them-
selves along the sides of canals and water-courses which intersect the
cultivated country.
This species lives either solitary or in small companies of eight or
ten individuals, which may be seen leisurely walking about, or
exploring the humid ground and mud in quest of food, which consists
of Land and Fresh-water Shells, which are swallowed whole, to-
gether with Worms, Insects, and small Reptiles. Its flight is lofty ;
and, as it sweeps along from one spot to another, it utters at in-
tervals a hoarse loud cry.
Where the Sacred Ibis breeds does not appear to be ascertained :
most probably in the central parts of Africa. Salt, on rounding
Cape Guardafui from the south, saw near the coast a lagoon abound-
ing in wild Fowl, and on the borders of it stood numbers of these
Birds, which, as he says, are called Abou Hannes by the Arabs, the
True Ibis of the Egyptians as described by Herodotus — -a fact proved
by the head and neck being bare and of a deep black colour. " It
maybe worthy," he adds, "to remark that Strabo mentions this
bird as frequenting the coast to the east of the Straits of Babel-
mandeb." It has been a matter of dispute whether this Ibis kills
and devours Snakes, or the contrary, Herodotus having stated tliat
armies of Flying Serpents, the bones of which he saw in incredible
multitudes in a narrow gorge between two mountains in a part of
Arabia, a little beyond the city of Brutus, were intercepted every
spring by the Ibis, and destroyed. It would appear, however, that
it was not by this Bird, but by the Black Ibis, that this feat was
annually performed. That both Birds may swallow small Snakes we
cannot doubt ; but the narration of Herodotus carries with it its own
refutation. He saw the bones of Snakes in incredible multitudes,
whence it may be inferred that the Reptiles in question were not
devoured at all ; and we cannot suppose the Ibis would kill them for
any other object than that of preying upon them. It is evident that
Herodotus was himself imposed upon : he describes the Serpents,
which he does not say he had seen alive, as resembling the Water-
Snake, but with wings destitute of feathers, and smooth like those
of a Bat. M. Savigny found in the crops of the fresh-killed specimens
of the Sacred Ibis, which he examined in Egypt, only Land and
Fresh-water shells {Cyclasto?>iata, AmpullaricB, PlanorbcB) ; but,
on the other hand, Cuvier detected the remains of the skin and
scales of Snakes, still undigested, in one of the mummies of the Ibis,
which he deposited in the anatomical gallery of the Paris Museum.
We again repeat it, that, though the story told by Herodotus is
unworthy of serious notice, both this species and the Black Ibis may
devour small Serpents and other Reptiles, The Ibis religiosa, says
Cuvier, " was entertained in the temples of ancient Egypt with the
observances of religious worship, and after death was embalmed,
and this because, according to some, it devoured the serpents which
would become the pest of the land; according to others, because
there was some similitude between its plumage and one of the phases
of the moon ; and, finally, because, according to others again, its
appearance announced the rise of the Nile." The last was pro-
bably the true reason.
The sacred Ibis is about the size of a Fowl ; in its immature state
the neck is partially covered with down of a blackish tint, which
disappears when the plumage is mature, leaving the head and neck
bare, which, with the beak and legs, are of a decided black colour.
The general plumage is of a pure white, with the exception of the
tips of the quill-fcathcrs, which are of a glossy black, with violet
574
THE STORKS.
reflexions ; as are also the last four secondaries, which have the
barbs singularly elongated and silky, so as to form a graceful plume,
hanging down over the wings and tail, presenting an effective
contrast with the purity of the rest of the pluinage.. (See Fig. 1456.)
The Scarlet Ibis {Ibis rubra).— 'l\\\?. is one of the most
beautiful of the species. Nothing can be more intense in colour than
the Scarlet Ibis, when its plumage is developed under the hot sun of
Tropical America. In Europe, however, it rarely reproduces that
gorgeous livery ; and at each successive moult the adult Birds
usually become more pale.
Fig, 1456. — The Sacred Ibis.
Specimens of each of these species of the Ibis may be seen alive
in the collection of the Zoological Society of London, at their
Gardens in Regent's Park.
The Storks, sub-family Ciconinis, have the bill stout, conical,
compressed, and pointed, with the nostrils placed near the base,
without a groove ; the gape does not e.xtend under the eyes. (See
F'ff- '457-) The tarsi are reticulated; the toes rather short and
Fig. 1457.— Bill of the Stork.
stout, and united at the base by a considerable membrane ; the claw
of the middle toes is not denticulated. In the Common Storks, of
which two species {Ciconia alba and nigra) are found in this
country, the bill is straight and pointed ; but in the Jabirus
{Afycferm) it is turned up at the tip ; and in the Open-bills [Anas-
tomus) the two mandibles are in contact at the base and apex, but,
from their being slightly curved in opposite directions, have a con-
siderable space between them in the middle.
The STORKS are all large Birds, which chiefly inhabit the warmer
regions of the earth, where they frequent marshy places feeding
upon Reptiles Batrachians, Fishes, and other small Animals, not
excluding small Quadrupeds and Birds. Many of them devour in-
discriminately almost anything that comes in their way, includine
garbage of a 1 kinds ; hence, like the Vultures and other Carrion-
eating Animals, they are regarded with great favour by the inhabit-
ants of warm climates. Several species perform long migrations,
visiting temperate and cold climates during the summer -but the
majority appear to be permanently resident in warm countries
_ Ihe British species are, of course, migratory in their habits and
in fact must be regarded only as occasional visitors to our shores '
but in Holland and Germany they are tolerably abundant The best
known species is the White Stork {Ciconia alba), of which the
following is a description.
The range of the Common, or White Stork (Cicogne blanche,
Buffon ; Weisser Storch, Meyer) is very extensive, being everywhere
a Bird of migratory habits. The vast flocks that have visited Europe
and sojourned there during the summer, collect together, and win<^
their way for the warmer parts of Asia and Africa, there to pass the
winter. Belon states, that when in Abyssinia, during the month of
August, a great flight of Storks came from the north, and when
they reached the commencement of the Mediterranean Sea, they
there made many circuitous turns, and then dispersed into smaller
companies ; and Dr. Shaw informs us that when he was j'ourneying
over Mount Carmel he saw the annual migration of those which had
quitted Egypt, and that each of the flocks was half a mile in breadth,
and occupied three hours in passing over. Their course is usually
unattended with any noise, excepting that of their wings ; but when
anything occurs to startle them or engage their attention, they
make an extraordinary clattering noise, which may be heard at a
great distance, by striking the mandibles quickly and forcibly to-
gether.
The Stork breeds in Turkey, S)rria, Greece, and Egypt, but it also
visits Europe, and is common in Holland and Germany, extending
its migrations to Sweden and Northern Russia. In Seville, it is
abundant ; but seems only an accidental visitor near Rome. When
we consider how abundant the Stork is in Holland, and that it
extends its migrations to more northern latitudes, it is somewhat
surprising that individuals should so rarely visit our marshes. Per-
haps it was formerly more common than at present, and its rarity
may be attributed partly to the drainage of our great morasses and
partly to the persecution which it would assuredly bring down upon
itself by such an untoward visit, whereas on the continent it has for
ages experienced the utmost toleration. In Holland and Germany
the Stork approaches without fear the dw-ellings of man, and is
treated as a welcome guest ; annually returning to the steeple or
turret, or to the false chimney erected by the Hollander for its nest,
and which has been the nursery of many a generation.
The stump of a decayed tree is sometimes chosen as the site of
the nest ; but wherever it takes up its abode it is there respected.
In Spain, the Storks build their brood-nests on the towers of churches,
and are held sacred ; and Dillon states that in Seville almost every
tower in the city is peopled with them, and that they annually
return to the same nests. One of the causes of their being venerated
is their destroying all the vermin on the tops of the houses. At
Bagdad, Niebuhr says, hundreds of these Birds are to be seen there
on every house, wall, and tree, quite tame. We are told by Fryer
that they are so exceedingly numerous among the ruins of Persepolis,
that the summit of almost every pillar of these magnificent monu-
ments of antiquity contains a Stork's nest.
It would appear that the Turks hold this Bird in more than usual
esteem ; their name for it is Hadji Lug-lug : the former word, which
is the honorary title of Pilgrim, it owes to its migrations and ap-
parent attachment to their sacred edifices ; the latter is a word formed
in imitation of the noise which the Bird makes.
Where convenient buildings are not to be found, the Stork will
construct its nest on the flat shelf-like masses of branches and foli-
age presented by the fir or cedar. The nest is made of sticks and
twigs, and is a solid compact mass, lasting for many years ; it is
lined with reeds, grasses, and moss. The eggs are from three to
five in number, and of a creamy white ; in size equalling that of the
Goose. Incubation continues for a month, at the expiration of
which period the young are hatched, and assiduously attended to
by the parents until they are fully feathered and able to depend upon
their own exertions.
Elevated on its stilt-like legs, the Stork walks slowly and with
measured steps, traversing the marsh in quest of Frogs and other
Reptiles, small Mammalia, and even the young of various Water-
Fowl, on which it preys. It clears the streets of carrion and offal.
Previously to their autumnal return to the south, which occurs to-
wards the close of August or at the beginning of September, the
Storks of a district assemble together, till at length vast flocks are
gradually collected ; all is bustle and commotion ; they make short
excursions, and keep up a continual clattering of their bills, under
the excitement of the contemplated voyage through the upper regions
of the air. On some favourable night they mount up into the sky,
and sail away towards their destined haven, returning to their
old familiar haunts and a hearty welcome in March or April.
The Stork stands nearly four feet high in its ordinary attitude, and
measures three feet six inches in length from bill to tail. The eyes
are surrounded by a small black naked space, which does not j'oin
the bill. The general plumage is pure white, excepting the quills,
greater wing-coverts, and scapularies, which are black. Bill and
legs red-iris brown. (See Fig. 1458.)
During repose the Stork sleeps like the Crane, always standing
balanced on one leg, with the neck bent, and the bill resting on the
breast.
The Adjutant, or Argala {Lejiiopfilus argald). Ciconia
argala, Vigors. — In the genus Leptoptilus are placed some gi-
gantic species of Stork, distinguished at once by the vast size and
volume of the beak, with proportionate enlargement of skull and
muscularity of neck, which, together with the head, is bare of
feathers, and only sprinkled with scattered hairs or a little down.
A large pouch of skin, capable of being inflated, hangs like a loose
dewlap from the lower part of the neck, anterior to the breast, giving
to the Birds an uncouth aspect, and reminding us of some of the
THE ADJUTANT AND MARABOU.
S7S
Vulture tribe, a resemblance which their g-cnoral form, movements,
and carrion appetite tend to streng-then. They are, in fact, voracious
and hig'hly carnivorous, and the structure of the stomach is in ac-
cordance with their appetite. The solvent ,a:lands are differently
arranged from those of any other Bird. Instead of being- placed
round the upper portion of the stomach, they form two circular
Fig. 1458 Tlie Stork.
figures, about one inch and a-half in diameter, one placed on the
anterior, one on the posterior part of the stomach ; each gland is
compused of five or six cells, which pour out the solvent fluid through
/r
Fig- I459-— Stomach of the Adjutant,
one common tube or duct : the gizzard is lined with a horny cuticle.
Fig. 1^50 shows the stomach of the Adjutant.
Tlie Adjutant, or Argala, is a gigantic Bird, measuring from the
lip of the bill to the claws seven feet and a-half, and in extent of
wing from fourteen to fifteen feet, while in its ordinary erect attitude
it stands five feet high. The beak is enormously thick and massive,
and the gape wide. (See Fig. 1460.)
This Bird is a native of the warmer parts of
India, and is to be found near Calcutta : its great
voracity renders it extremely useful, and it is not
only tolerated, but revered by the natives, who
are indignant against those who molest it : it
swallows Snakes, Lizards, Frogs, vermin of all
kinds, carrion, and bones, and with the Kites
and Crows by day, and Jackals and Hyainas at
night, assists in the office of " scavenger public,"
clearing the streets, lanes, and fields of all sorts
of offal.
The Argalas, says Dr. Latham, who was fur-
nished by Mr. Smeathman with the account, are
met with in companies, and when seen at a dis-
tance near the mouths of rivers, coming from an
observer, which they often do with their wings ex-
tended, may well be taken for canoes upon the
surface of a smooth sea — when on the sand-banks,
for men and women picking up Shell-Fish or other
things on the beach. One of these, a young Bird
about five feet high, was brought up tame, and
presented to the chief of the Bananas, where Mr.
Smeathman lived ; and, being accustomed to be fed
in the great hall, soon became familiar, duly at-
tending that place at dinner-time, placing itself
behind its master's chair, frequently before the
guests entered. The servants were obliged to
watch narrowly and to defend the provisions with
switches ; but, notwithstanding, it would frequently
seize something or other, and once purloined a
whole boiled Fowl, which it swallowed in an in-
stant. Its courage is not equal to its voracity, for
a child of eight or ten years old soon puts it to
flight with a switch, though at first it seems to
stand on its defence by threatening with its
enormous bill widely extended, and roaring with a
loud voice like a Bear or Tiger. It is an enemy
to small Quadrupeds, as well as Birds and Reptiles,
and slily destroys Fowls or Chickens, though it
dares not attack a Hen openly with her young.
Everything is swallowed whole ; and so accommo-
dating is its throat, that not only an animal as big
as a Cat is gulped down, but a shin of beef broken
asunder serves it but for two morsels. It is known to
swallow a leg of mutton of five or six pounds, a
Hare, a small Fox, &:c. After a time the bones are
rejected from the stomach, which seems to be
voluntary, for it has been known that an ounce
or two of emetic tartar given to one of these Birds
produced no effect.
General colour above, ash grey ; under parts
white. The under tail-coverts delicate and floating, forming plumes
of the most exquisite texture.
The Marabou, or Marabout {Leptojitilus crumen'fcras ; or
L. marabou). Ckonia marabou. Vigors, not Teraminck. The
beak of this species is represented at Fig. 1461.
The Marabou is smaller than the Argala ; it is a native of Tropical
Africa, and the neighbourhood of the large towns of the interior,
where it was seen by Major Denham, in the character of a privileged
visitor, on account of its utility as a scavenger. It is easily domes-
ticated, and becomes annoyingly familiar ; it has been known not
only to snatch pieces of meat from the table, but a boiled Fowl,
swallowing it at a bolt. The Marabou flies high, and roosts in the
topmost branches of tall trees, whence, as from a watch-tower, it
looks abroad for its prey. On its sides grow the beautiful plumes
called Marabou feathers. (See Fig. 1462.)
The Jabiru {Mycteria a/ncn'ca/ia). — The gigantic Storks of this
genus, of which there are American, Asiatic, and Australian, are
characterised by the greatest part of the head and neck being desti-
tute of feathers ; the bill, which appears to be somewhat turned up
at the extremity, owing rather to the curvature of the lower mandible
than of the upper, is large, elongated, sharp-edged, and strong ;
the upper mandible is nearly if not quite straight and trigonal.
Length from the forehead to the tip, upwards of thirteen inches.
Nostrils basal and linear. Anterior toes united at the base by a
membrane. Habits closely resembling those of the Stork.
The Jabiru inhabits the borders of lakes and morasses in South
America, where it feeds upon Reptiles, Fish, small Quadrupeds, &c.
It is of gigantic stature, standing between four and five feet high,
and is endowed with great power in the head and neck, its loug
576
THE TRUE HERONS.
sharp bill being a formidable spear-like weapon. The general
colour of the plumage of this species is white ; the occiput is
feathered, but the rest of the head and the neck are naked, the skin
being black, with a tinge of red about the lower part of the latter.
Fig. 1463 represents the Jabiru of Senegal {M. setiegalensh).
The Open -bills {Aiiasfomits) are about the size of the Common
Stork : they inhabit the warmer regions of Asia and Africa. A
species found at the Cape, \.\\^ Anastomus lamclliger, -vihich is
of a brown tint, with a purplish metallic gloss, is remarkable for
having the tips of the stalks of nearly all the feathers terminated by
a shining black horny disc of an oblong form.
Fig. 1460. — The Adjutant,
In the collection of the Zoological Society of London, at Regent's
Park, the scries of Storks is large, living specimens of most species
being maintained. Among these are the White Stork, already
described ; the Maguari Stork (C maguari), the White-Necked
Stork {C. episcopiis), &c. The stuffed specimens in the British
Museum are also numerous.
The True Herons (sub-family ArdeincB) present a great re-
semblance to the Storks in their general form, but are distinguished
Fig. 1461. — Bill of the Marabou.
by the following characters : — The bill is usually of a conical form,
and nearly as stout as in the Common Storks ; but the nostrils are
situated in pits on the sides of the upper mandible, and from this a
furrow runs to a greater or less distance forwards, sometimes nearly
reaching the extremity of the bill. The gape opens as far as the
eyes, which are surrounded by a naked skin. The tarsi are scutel-
latod ; the toes rather long and slender, and less united by membrane
than those of the Storks ; the inner margin of the claw of the middle
toe is denticulated. ,
The Common Heron {Ardea cinercd). Heron of the French;
Beccapesce, Airone, and Garza of the Italians : Reyger and Rheier
of the Germans ; Cryr gl4s of the Welsh : Hern, Heronshaw, Hern-
seugh, English ; Hearonsevi^s (Herons), in Household- Book of the
fifth Earl of Northumberland. (See Fig. 1465.)
The Common Heron is spread over the greater part of the world,
inhabiting Asia and Africa, as well as Europe. In our island and in
temperate climes the Heron is stationary, but is migratory in coldeir
latitudes. Except during the breeding season, this fine Bird is
solitary, haunting rivers, sheets of water, and preserves of Fish,
where it often commits considerable damage. Recluse and sus-
picious, the Heron sits roosting during a great part of the day on
his accustomed branch in some remote and dense part of the wood ;
or, where marshes are extensive, he may be observed in the middle
of the morass, standing on one leg, immovable as a statue, and so
stationed as to command a wide prospect around. If roused by an
intruder from this spot of repose, he spreads his wings, mounts into
the air, and sails away for some distant and more secluded retreat.
Fig. 1462.— The Marabou.
To come upon him by surprise is very difficult. It is early in the
morning, with the grey of the dawn, after sunset in the evening, and
especially during moonlight, that the Heron takes his prey, except-
ing, indeed, when the calls of his nestlings demand his continual
exertions. He may then be seen in lonely and secluded nooks,
standing in the water, with glistening eye, and head drawn back
ready for the fatal stroke ; patiently does he maintain his fixed
attitude ; presently a Fish passes ; sudden as lightning, and with
unerring precision, arrow-like he launches his beak, and up he soars
bearing the captive to his nest. Occasionally the Heron will swim.
The Heron builds, like the Rook, in societies, choosing the highest
trees for the purpose ; and the breeding-places are termed Heronries.
In modern days these are much more limited in number than form-
erly, when the Heron was protected for the pleasure of the knight
and noble, who flew at it their best Falcons, and regarded it as a
choice delicacy in their banquet.
In Berkshire, in a low meadow traversed by a rapid brook
flowing into the Kennet, was a Heronry, which we have often visited,
and near it a Rookery; but neither the Herons nor Rooks seemed to
interfere with each other, or offer each other any injury or molesta-
tion. The nests were flat and built of sticks. It was amusing to
see the Herons sailing to and from their city, on wide-spread wings,
and wheeling and hovering around their brooding-mates or young ;
while a loud clanking clatter, uttered by numbers without inter-
mission, and heard at a considerable distance, resounded from the
crowded nests, half hidden amidst the foliage of the tall trees, which
for years they have colonised. On the Clyde in Scotland, and
many other rivers and inland lakes. Heronries are frequently met
with; also in marshy districts in that country and in England. The
eggs of the Heron are five in number, of a dull bluish-green. The
young remain five or six weeks in the nest, and the old Birds un-
ceasingly supply their voracious appetite with Fish, and defend
them with great resolution.
The colouring of the Heron in full plumage, which is not attained
till the third year, is as follows : — Long, loose, black feathers adorn the
back of the head, and similar plumes of a lustrous white depend from
the lower part of the neck ; the equally elongated and subulate
scapulars are of a silvery ash. Forehead, neck, middle of the belly,
border of the wings, and thighs pure white ; occiput, sides of the
breast, and flanks deep black. On the front of the neck are large
longitudinal black and ash spots. Back and wings very pure bluish-
ash ; bill deep yellow ; iris yellow ; naked skin of the eye bluish-
purple ; feet brown, but of a lively red towards the feathered part.
THE TRUE HERONS.
577
The Night-Heron {Nydicorax gardcni. or atropaiis). A rdea
vycticorax, Linn. ; Bihoreau and Roupcau of the French ; Scarza
Nitticora of the Italians; der Nacht-Raiher of the Germans. In
its young state, the Spotted and Gardenian Heron of Latham ;
Night-Raven.
This species is very widely spread over Asia, Africa, and Southern
Europe. In our islands the Night-Heron is a Bird of rare and acci-
dental occurrence; in Spain it is common, and in the adj.icent
countries. In many respects it resembles the Common Heron in its
manners, breeding like that Bird, in society, on the topmost branches
of trees, and roosting during the day in the recesses of woods ad-
jacent to wild swamps and rivers, which it visits on the approach of
twilight in quest of prey. During the flight of these Birds to their
fishing-stations, and throughout the night, they continually utter a
hoarse hollow croak, ominous of death in the ears of superstition, as
we believe is also the boom of the Bittern, at which dread roar the
credulous wayfarer of the night has stood aghast with terror.
Fig. I4C3. — Jabirus of Senegal.
Wilson, speaking of the American species, or Qua-Bird, which
visits Philadelphia in great numbers, breeding in the tall trees of the
vast cedar-swamps, says that " on entering the swamp the noise of
the old and of the young would almost induce one to suppose that
two or three hundred Indians were choking or throttling each
other. The instant an intruder is discovered, the whole rise into
the air in silence, and remove to the top of the trees in another part
of the woods, while parties from eight to ten make occasional circuits
over the spot to see what is going on." While flying from their
roost to the marshes, about the beginning of evening twilight,
he says, they utter, " in a hoarse and hollow tone, the word'(2«a,"'
whence the name Qua-Bird.
In the Night-Heron the legs are not so long in proportion, nor is
the space above the tarsal joint naked for so great an extent, as in
the Common Heron. The middle and outer toe are connected at
the base by a membrane, and the middle claw is pectinated.
The adult plumage is as follows : — Top of the head, back, and
scapulars black with bluish and greenish reflexions ; three white
very narrow feathers, six or seven inches in length, taking their
origin at the back of the head, just above the nape, and descending
backwards ; lower part of the back, wings, and tail clear ash-colour ;
forehead, space above the eyes, throat, front of the neck, and lowei
parts white ; bill black, yellowish at the base of the lower mandible ;
iris red ; feet yellowish-green. Length rather more than one foot
eight inches.
In the young of the year the three long feathers from the back of
the head are wanting, and the general plumage is of a brown tinge,
dashed and variegated with rufous : the lower parts being clouded
with brown, white, and ash-colour.
The Bitterns {Botaurus), of which three species have occurred in
England, also belong to this group. The Common Bittern, which is
one'of the largest of' the genus, is described as follows :—
The Bittern {Botaurus stellaris). Butor of the French ;
Uccello lepre and Trombutto of the
Italians ; Rohrdommcl of the Germans.
The Bittern is found in Europe, Asia,
and Africa, and was once common in
England, when, in the palmy days of
Falconry, it afforded one of the "great
flights," and was protected by severe
penalties, but is now comparatively
scarce, though a few arc said still to
breed in the fenny counties. Its flesh,
rank as we should deem it, was ac-
counted a great delicacy.
The Bittern frequents wild morasses
and the oozy banks of large rivers,
where extensive tracts, overgrown with
flags, reeds, and bulrushes, afford it an
asylum. In the midst of these it crouches
during the day, and is with difficulty
roused to take wing, when it flies slowly
away to a distant haunt, uttering from
time to time a resounding cry different
from the " boom," which is peculiar to
the breeding season, which has given
rise to some of its provincial names,
as Mire-drum and BuU-of-the-Bog. This
noise has been erroneously supposed to
be made by the Bird while plunging
his bill into the mud, and is first heard
in February or March.
During the early part of the spring the
Bittern " booms " from the midst of the
marsh at inter\'als throughout the day,
and then on the approach of dusk he
soars spirally to a vast height, uttering
his hollow boom, which sounds not un-
like the deep-toned roar of a Bull.
The nest of this Bird is a rude struc-
ture, and placed not on trees, but by
itself in the solitude of the morass, on
some slight elevation. The eggs, five in
number, are of a pale green. The
Bittern, when wounded, defends itself
with great determination, throwing it-
self on its back like a Bird of Prey, and
launching its formidable beak with great
force against its enemy, generally aim-
ing at the eye ; consequently it is not to
be approached without caution. In
olden days, when the Hawk had brought
the Bittern down, it was the Falconer's
first care to plunge the bill of the latter
into the ground, lest the Hawk should
be impaled.
In size the Bittern is rather less than
the Heron. The plumage is beautifully varied with spots, bars, and
dashes of black on a fine reddish-yellow ground. The feathers of
the head and neck are long and loose, and capable of being thrown
for^vard. Bill brown above, greenish below ; iris yellow ; legs pale
green; middle claw pectinated. Frogs, Field-Mice, Newts, and
Fish, with the buds of water-lily and other aquatic plants, constitute
the food of the Bittern. (See Fig. 1467.) . . , •,
Two other remarkable Exotic Birds belonging to this sub-family
deserve to be noticed here. One of these is the BoatbiU {Cancroma
coclilcaria, Fig. 1468), a Bird about the size of a Fowl, which is
pretty generally distributed in South America. It receives its name
from the peculiar form of the bill, which, by some observers, is com-
pared to a boat turned keel-upwards ; and by others to the bowls of
two spoons placed with their concave sides together. The upper
mandible is terminated by a strong hook. The legs of this Bird are
rather shorter than those of the other members of this group, and it
4E
S78
THE PLOVERS.
is said to perch upon the branches of trees overhang-ing the creeks
and rivers, so as to dash down upon the Fish as they pass beneath
it. It appears, however, that the French colonists in Guiana give it
the name of Crabier, behaving that it feeds on Crabs.
The other is a very singular Bird, from the White Nile, described
by Mr. Gould under the name of Baht/ticcps rex. It resembles
Cancroma in the form of the bill, which is excessively developed ;
Fig. 1464. — Head of the Night- Heron.
but the legs are much longer, and the Bird is very much larger,
measuring no less than fifty-two inches from the tip of the bill to the
extremity of the tail. This gigantic Bird appears in some respects
to be allied to Cancroma, and is placed by Mr. G. R. Gray witli
that genus in the s\3.\)-ia.mi\y ArdeincB ; in some of its characters,
Fig. 1465.— The Heron.
however, such as the reticulation of the tarsi, and the absence of
denticulations on the middle claw, it resembles the Storks ; whilst
Mr. Gould regards it as more nearly allied to the Pelicans.
The Plovers— Family CharadriidcB.
The next family is that of the Charadriidce, or Plovers, in which
the bill is generally about the length of the head, or rather shorter —
usually nearly straight, with the basal portion soft and weak, the
apical hard, somewhat arched, and more or less pointed at the tip
(Fig. 1469). The nasal aperture is posterior, and placed in a groove
which extends one-half or two-thirds of the length of the bill. The
legs are generally very long and slender, with the lower part of the
tibia; bare ; the tarsi reticulated, but often scutellatc in front ; and
the toes are rather small, united at the base by a small membrane,
the hinder one (Fig. 1470) being very small, and raised from the
ground, or entirely wanting. The mouth and oesophagus are
narrow, but the gizzard is large and muscular ; the coeca are rather
long.
The Plovers in general are Gregarious Birds, feeding in flocks.
They are less strictly aquatic in their habits than the other families ;
some of them, indeed, frequenting the margins of rivers, lakes, and
ponds, or the sea-shores ; whilst others are found upon moors and
pastures, and even in ploughed fields. Most of them perform
considerable migrations, visiting the high northern latitudes
during the summer for the purpose of breeding. They generally lay
their eggs in a mere cavity in the sand or gravel ; and the young
run about soon after they are hatched. Several species are found in
Britain.
In the sub-family of the HcBmatopoditlce, one of the most remark-
able is the following : —
Fig. 1466.— The Night-Heron.
The Oyster-Catcher {HcEmafopus ostralcgus). L'Huitcrier,
Pie de Mer, and Becasse de Mer of the French ; Beccacio di Mare
of the Italians ; Geschackte Austernfischer of the Germans ; Piogen
y Mor of the Welsh ; Sea Pie, Pianet, Olive, Sea Woodcock,
Chalder, &c., provincial English.
In the genus Haniafopus the bill is long, hard, compressed,
especially at the point, which is abrupt and chisel-like, but not
pointed; nostrils longitudinal (see Fig. 1471); legs strong; toes
three, all directed forwards, bordered by the rudiment of a mem-
brane ; and the external and middle toes united by a partial web at
the base.
Fig. 1467.— The BiUern.
The Oyster-Catcher is distributed over the whole of the European
continent and a great part of Asia and Africa, frequenting the sea-
shore, and is common on the low flat coasts of our island, where it
breeds, laying its eggs on the bare ground amidst the shingle, or
such herbage as grows above high-water-mark. The eggs, four in
number, are pale olive-green blotched with brownish-black. During
incubation the male is always on the watch, and on the approach of
an intruder utters a loud shrill whistle, as an alarm-call, upon which
THE PLOVERS.
579
the female silently quits her eggs, and runs to a considerable dis-
tance before taking wing. Limpets, which it easily detaches from
the rock, Mussels, Oysters, and other Molluscs constitute its food,
in quest of which it wades amongst the shallows, or swims, which it
does very easily, where the depth forbids wading. In the autumn,
after the young have acquired their full growth, these Birds assernble
in large flocks, which separate into pairs on the recurrence of spring.
The p'arcnts are bold in the defence of their young, which run about
as soon as hatched, under the care of the former. The Oyster-
Fig. 146S.— The Boat-bill.
catcher is a beautiful Bird. The general plumage is glossy velvet
black, with the exception of the lower part of the back, the base of
the tail, transverse bars on the wings, and the under parts, which
are white ; bill and circle round the eyes orange-red ; irides crimson ;
legs deep purplish-red. In winter there is a collar of white on the
throat, and the black is less brilliant. (See Fig. 1472.)
In the CiiiclincB the hind-toe is present, but very small ; and the
Fig. 1469, — Head of Grey Plover.
bill is shorter than the head, compressed, and obtusely pointed.
The legs are not very long, and the tarsi are scutellate in front.
The British species, Strepsilas iiiterpres, or Turnstone, receives its
name from the singular manner in which it obtains its food.
The Turnstone {Strepsilas intefpres). Triiiga intcrpres,
Linn. ; Morinella collaris, Meyer ; Strepsilas collar is. — In the
genus Strepsilas, the beak is of moderate length, strong, com-
pressed, acutely pointed, and slightly turned upwards ; nasal depres-
sion elongated ; w-ings acuminate ; hind-toe very small.
There is not a part of the globe, from Nova Zembla and the shores
of the Arctic to the Cape of Good Hope, from tlie shores of Hudson's
Bay to the Straits of Magellan, which is not visited by this species
—Japan, Sunda, the Moluccas, New Guinea, and Australia,
Europe, Asia, Africa, constitute its range. It breeds in the high
Fig. 1470. — Foot of the Crested Lapwir.g.
northern latitudes, in Norway and Sweden, and also, it is said, in
the Shetland Isles; in June and in August it begins its southern
progress, returning northwards in spring. Mr. Hewitson found its
nest on the coast of Norway placed against a ledge of rock, and
consisting of nothing more than the fallen leaves of the juniper-bush,
under a creeping branch of which the eggs, four in number, were
concealed. Their colour was of an olive-green spotted and streaked
with ash-blue, and two shades of reddish-brown. In our island the
Turnstone is found from August to March or April ; it frequents the
Fig. 1471. — Head of the Oystev-catclicr.
rocky and gravelly shore, feeding upon small Molluscous Animals,
Crustacea, &c., in quest of which it turns over the stones along the
water's edge, by means of its hard bill : it trips quickly along, and
flies with great power and rapidity. In its progress to maturity the
Turnstone undergoes several transitions of colour before acquiring
a permanent livery When in perfect plumage the upper parts arc
Fig. 1472.— The Oyster-catcher.
of mingled black and rufous ; a black gorget on the chest passes up
the sides of the neck and round the base ; lower part of the back
white, as is also the basal half and extreme tip of the tail, the inter-
mediate part being black ; a semilunar mark of dark feathers sepa-
rates the white of "^Lhc lower part of the back from the white tail-
coverts ; under surface white ; a white spot between the eye and base
of the beak is very conspicuous ; legs orange-yellow. Length nme
inches. (See Fig. 1473-)
58o
THE PLOVERS.
The sub-family Charadrmcs, including- the True Plovers and the
Lapwings, have the bill of variable length, and of the form already
described in the character of the family. The legs are very slender ;
the tarsi covered with hexagonal scales, or scutellate in front ; the
toes rather short and slender, the two outer connected by a basal
web, and the hinder one usually and entirely wanting, or, when
present, reduced to a very small size. These Birds are generally
lound in marshy places, and visit the sea-shores in flocks during
the winter. Their flesh is very good, and the eggs are regarded as
a great delicacy. Out of numerous species we select the following
for description.
Fig. i473.^The Turnstone.
The Golden Plover {Charadrius jiluvialis). — The Golden
Plover (Pluvier dore of the French) is a Bird of Passage, spread over
Europe, Western Asia, and portions of North Africa. In North
America its place is supplied by an allied fpecies (C//. virginiacus,
Borkh), and by the CA. W(7r;«orfif2'«j in the eastern parts of Asia.
Though the Golden Plover breeds in the British Isles, it is only to be
found in the southern districts during the winter, at which season
the numbers of our native Birds are increased by arrivals from more
northern latitudes — all, be it observed, clad in their wintery livery,
which differs remarkably from that of the summer.
Heathy swampy moors and wild hilly districts are the haunts of
this species, where it breeds ; its nest consists of a few fibres and
stems of grass, placed in some depression of the ground amidst the
heath. The eggs, four in number, are of a cream yellow, with a
tinge of green, blotched and streaked with amber brown. The
young, when first excluded from the egg, are covered with a beautiful
parti-coloured down of bright king's yellow and brown. They are
very active, and follow the parents, who sedulously attend them, and
not only display great anxiety in their protection, but put in practice
the most ingenious artifices in order to draw off Man or Dog from the
spot where they lie crouched ; they will flutter along as if lame and
unable to take wing, a few feet before the intruder, and, attracting
his attention, give him as it were hopes of soon being able to
effect a capture, till having effected its object, up it mounts, leaving
him to gaze "in silent wonder lost." In the same manner they
protect their eggs, the female always running to a considerable
distance from the nest, and even meeting the intruder, long before
he would approach the spot, before employing her parental strata-
gems. The young are able to fly in a month or five weeks, and
joining other broods, with their parents form large flocks, which quit
the hilly districts of the north, and make their way to the open downs
bordering our southern coasts. About the beginning of April the
flocks return northwards, gradually breaking up, and at last resolv-
ing into pairs, which soon fix upon a breeding-spot. The cry of the
Plover is a plaintive monotonous whistle, more varied in the breed-
ing season, by the imitation of which the Bird may be enticed within
a short distance. The flight of this species is rapid and vigorous, and
during the spring and summer generally at a great elevation ; while
it sails round and round performing most graceful evolutions. Night
is the feeding-time. When reposing during the day, the Plover rests
either crouched on the ground or standing on one leg, with the head
drawn down between the shoulders. Insects and their larva. Slugs,
Worms, &c., constitute their diet, for which they frequent fallow
lands in the autumn, becoming very fat, and are highly esteemed as
one of the luxuries of the table. In the southern countries of Europe
this species winters in countless multitudes. In autumn and winter
the London markets are abundantly supplied with Golden Plovers.
The summer plumage of this species, assumed in spring, is of a
deep black above, each feather having triangular marginal spots of
golden yellow ; forehead and space above the eyes pure white, as
are also the sides of the neck and chest, but spotted with black and
yellow ; throat, front of the neck, and under parts deep black. As
winter comes on the black of the neck and under parts is lost ; the
upper surface is sooty black, largely varied with fine golden yellow ;
the sides of the head, neck, and chest are varied with ashy brown
and yellowish spots ; throat and under parts white. Length ten
inches and a half. Fig. 1474, Summer plumage; Fig. 1475, Winter
plumage.
Fig. 1474. — The Golden Plover in Summer Plumage.
The Grey Plover {Squatarola chicrca). — In the genus Sqiiat-
arola we see the rudiment of of a hind-toe ; the tarsi are reticulated.
Nasal groove wide. Fig. 1476 represents the head and foot of
Sijiiaiaro/a. The Grey Plover is the Vanneau varie, Vanneau gris,
and Vanneau Pluvier of the French.
The plumage of this species undergoes a similar change to that
of the Golden Plover, and indeed so much do the two Birds resemble
Fig. 1475. — The Golden Plover in Winter Plumage.
each other, that were it not for the presence of a minute hind-toe in
the Grey Plover, and for the long black feathers which are found
underneath the wings near the body, one might be easily mistaken
for the other. The Grey Plover is spread over all the temperate
countries of Europe, and Asia during the winter, retiring in summer
to the regions of the Arctic Circle to' breed. It has been obser\'ed in
Japan. It is also common in North America, breeding in the far
countries of the north. According to Dr. Richardson it is the
Toolee-areeo, or Tooglie-aiah of the Esquimaux. Captain J. Ross
found it breeding near the borders of the marshes in considerable
numbers, immediately to the south-west of Fury Point. _ This species
visits our island, but not in great numbers, during its southward
migration in autumn, and upon its return northwards in spring, and
a few small flocks sometimes remain with us during the winter, fre-
quenting oozy bays and the mouths of rivers along the coast. Worms,
Insects, small Shell-fish, and Crustacea, with various berries in
summer, constitute its food. The flight is powerful and circling ;
it also runs with great celerity ; its cry is similar to, but not quite so
shrill as that of the Golden Plover. The flesh is e.xceUent, and in
high esteem. It is the Tritiga helvetica of Linnaeus ; Squatarola
helvetica of Gould ; and the Charadrins africarius of Wilson.
THE PLOVERS.
581
The young- is the Tringa varia of Linnjcus. Another species,
Squatarola cincta, was brought by Captain P. P. King, R. N.,
from the Straits of Magellan.
The Lapwing ( Vancllus crisfaftis). — Le Vanneau of the French ;
Paoncella of the Italians ; Gehaubte Kieboz of the Germans ; De
Kievet of the Netherlanders ; Wype, Peesweep, and Peewit, Provin-
cial Eno-lish ; Cornchwigel of the Welsh. Fig. 1479 represents the
head and foot. .'In the genus Vayiclhts the hind-toe is more deve-
loped than in Squatarola, and the head is ornamented cither
with a crest, or with fleshy wattles and protuberances about the
base of the beak, as in many foreign species ; many also have the
carpal joint of the wing armed with a sharp spur, often of consider-
Fig. 1476. — Head and Foot of the Grey Plover.
able length. " These birds," says Selby, "are the inhabitants of
open grounds and plains, particularly where the soil is of a moist
nature, feeding on worms, insects, larv;e, &c. They are subject to
the double moult, but their vernal change of plumage is not
attended with any remarkable difference of colour." The wings are
ample.
The geographical distribution of the Lapwing is very extensive; it
is spread over the whole of Europe and a great part of Asia ; it
occurs in collections from India, North Africa, and Japan. In our
island it is abundant wherever moorland tracts invite its abode.
Here it breeds, depositing four eggs in a loose nest made with a few
straws or stalks of grass, in a slight depression of the ground.
Fig. 147S. — The Lapwing.
Fig. 1477.— The Grey Plover.
The eggs are of a fine olive green-blotched and marked with a
brownish-black. Great numbers of these, known as " Plovers'
eggs," are annually brought into the London market, and, being
accounted delicacies, sell at a good price. They are collected in
Norfolk, Lincolnshire, and Cambridgeshire. When the female is
driven from her eggs she runs for a considerable distance, and then
flies low near the ground, uttering not a single cry ; in the meantime
the male flies round the intruder, and clamorously reiterating the
syllables pce-Tueet, endeavours by
various arts to draw off his atten-
tion from the female, and the spot
where the nest is placed. When
first hatched the young are
covered with a parti-coloured down
of yellow and brown, and follow
their parents, who not only de-
fend them with courage against
Birds of Prey, but employ every
stratagem to divert men or Dogs
from their retreat, feigning lame-
ness and fluttering and tumbling
in the path before them (see Fig.
1478). When the autumn com-
mences, the Lapwings assemble
in vast flocks, composed of old
Birds and the young of the year ;
and as the cold sets in, gradually
withdraw from the inland moor-
lands, visiting the districts near
the sea and the mouths of rivers ;
frequenting fallow lands, turnip-
fields, and low oozy grounds, where
in the more southern parts of our
island, they appear to remain all
the year, unless the mid-winter be
a season of more than usual
severity, when they pass still more
southward. In February, or the
beginning of March, these Birds
revisit the moorlands, and scatter
abroad in pairs. At this season
their flight is very singular ; they
perform a variety of fantastic evo-
lutions (especially the males),
sometimes darting upwards, then
suddenly sweeping downwards,
and describing an abrupt and
=- mazy course with many turnings :
during this flight of exultation
they incessantly utter a variety of
notes very different from their
monotonous melancholy pcc-'iSieet,
while the loud whizzing of their
long pinions is distinctly audible.
In the autumn the flesh of the
582
THE THICK-KNEES.
Peewit (or Wype, as it is called in the " Northumberland Household
Book ") is excellent, but, as might be expected, it is dry in the sum-
mer. Mr. Selby considers it to be the Bird called Egret (from its
crest or aigrette), of which i,ooo were served up at the famous feast
of Archbishop Nevil. Slugs, Worms, and Insects constitute the diet
of this Bird, for the destruction of which it is sometimes kept in
gardens, and becomes very tame. The Lapwing is very beautiful.
The head is black glossed with green, and an elegant crest of long
slender black feathers, turned slightly upwards, rises from the occi-
put ; the throat is black ; the upper parts are greenish-black with
purple and blue reflexions ; the chest and under parts are white ; the
tail is white at the base, then black, with white at the tip. Length
thirteen inches.
Fig. 1479. — Head and Foot of the Lapwing.
The Pratincoles sub-family {Glarcoh'}ia:\ a singular group of
Birds, arc also placed in this family by Mr. G. R. Gray, and by
several other authors. Linnaeus placed them amongst the Swallows,
which they resemble in their forked tails and mode of flight ; but he
appears to have entertained some doubt as to whether this was really
the proper place for the single species known to him, as he says that
it appears to be intermediate between the Swallows and the Grallcs.
It appears, however, that Linnaeus came to this conclusion without
seeing the Bird ; for, in a letter written after he had obtained speci-
mens, he refers it to the Grallcs ; and in this he has been followed
by many modern writers on Ornithology, although a few still retain
the original opinion of Linnaeus.
The Collared Pratincole {Glareola ^raiincola, or G. tor-
t/uafa).—The Collared Pratincole is the Perdrix de ]\Ier of Brisson ;
das Rothfussige Sandhuhn of Bechstein ; Sudliche Sandhuhn of
Brehm ; and Pcrnice di Mare of Savi.— Though a few instances are
on record of this Bird having been killed within the British Isles, it
can scarcely be admitted within the catalogue of our Fauna. It is a
native of the eastern provinces of Europe on the Asiatic borders, and
especially of Hungary, where extensive tracts of morass, and lakes,
both fresh and sahne, surrounded by low flat lands traversed by
numerous rivers, afford food and security. In Western Tartary it is
equally abundant. M. Temminck informs us that it breeds in Sar-
dinia, and is numerous in Dalmatia, on the borders of the Lake
Boccagnaro, on its spring passage ; and that in Hungary, among
the immense morasses of the lakes Neusidel and Balaton, he has
been in the midst of hundreds sweeping through the air in chase of
their Insect prey, and darting along with arrow-like rapidity. Nor
is it less remarkable for celerity on the ground, and often catches
Insects as it runs along. This graceful Bird incubates amidst
reeds, oziers, and the tall herbage of morasses. The eggs are four
in number, of a yellowish-white. In Germany, France, and Italy it is
a Bird of periodical occurrence. The general colour of the Collared
Pratmcole :s browmsh-grey above ; the throat is white with a tinge
of reddish, banded by a narrow crescentic line of black; the upper
tail-coverts are white ; the under surface dirty white ; the tail is
forked, and brownish-black ; the under wing-coverts arc chestnut.
Length nine inches and a-half. Naked circle round the eye rod.
(See Fig. 1480.)
The Black-bellied Swift-foot {Ciirsorius tcmminckii).—
In the genus Cursorius, sub-family Cursorince, the bill is mode-
rately long, arched, and- compressed, with the nostrils basal, oval.
and with an oblong lateral opening ; wings pointed ; legs long ;
toes three, all interior — the middle toe the longest, with a serrated
claw. The Birds of this genus are natives of Africa, inhabiting
inland tracts at a great distance from the sea, and running along
the ground with extraordinary rapidit)'. One species, the Cream-
coloured Swift-foot {Curs, isalelliiius, or C. euro^pccus'), has been
a few times seen in England, in France, and in Austria.
•^.v■.~.•Vi'-
Fig. 1480. — The Collared Pratincole.'
The Black-bellied Swift-foot is a native of Abyssinia. Its general
plumage is creamy brown ; the top of the head and the breast
ferruginous ; a double nuchal collar, the upper white, the lower
black ; sides of the body white ; the quills and centre of the under
surface black. Length eight inches. (See Fig. 1481.)
The last sub-family of the CharadriidcB is that of the CEdic7ic-
mincs, or Thick-knees, of which a single species visits this country
during the summer. In these Birds the basal portion of the bill is
depressed and weak, the apical strong and swollen. The nostrils
are placed in a deep longitudinal groove, on each side of the bill ;
the legs are elongated, with the bare portion of the tibias and the
tarsi reticulated, and the hind-toe either entirely deficient or very
small, and raised from the ground. (See Fig. 1482.) These Birds,
which appear in some respects to unite the Plovers with the Bustards,
Fig. 14S1.— The Black-bellied Swift-foot.
generally frequent dry pastures and waste places, They arc pecu-
liar to the Eastern Hemisphere, over the warm and temperate parts
of which they are pretty generally distributed. One species, the
Common Thick-knee {CEdiciiemus crepitans), which is found abun-
dantly in Asia, Africa, and the south of Europe, visits this country
in considerable quantities in the summer. The following is a de-
scription of this Bird :—
The Common Thick-knee {CEdicnemus crej>ita7is). Le grand
Pluvier ou Courlis de Terre of the French ; Gran Pivieri, Curlotte,
Ciurlui, and Ciurlovi of the Italians ; Grosser Brachvogel of the
THE BUSTARDS.
583
Germans; y glin-Braff of the Welsh ; Thick-knccd Bustard, Stone-
Curlew, and Norfolk Plover of English writers. (Sec Figs. 1482-83.)
Wide downs and commons, uplands, and sheep-walks are the
favourite resorts of this Bird, where it makes its appearance in
March or April, in small flocks, which are very shy. Hying round
in wide circles if disturbed from their repose. They run along very
nimbly, with the head poked forwards ; and squat amongst loose
stones and the irregularities of broken ground, where the colour of
the objects about favours their concealment. In Hampshire, Norfolk,
Suffolk, Sussex, &c., this Bird is tolerably common. In Germany,
as in England, it is migratory. It is found in Southern Europe,
generally in India, North Africa, Egypt, the Greek Archipelago,
and Turkey.
Though the Thick-knee is wary and watchful by day, and readily
takes alarm, this is in reality its resting-time, and it is at night that
it rouses up in pursuit of food. As the dusk of evening approaches,
it begins to utter its loud piping note, and trips over the dewy grass.
.\
Fig. 1482.— Head and Foot of the Tliick-knce.
pickin^^ up Worms, Insects, and young Frogs, which form Its chief
diet. The Thick-knee, like the Bustard, makes no nest, but deposits
its eggs, two in number, on the bare earth, in fallow land or spots of
ground where flint stones are scattered about, spotting as it were
the earth, and favouring the concealment of the female and her
progeny, whose plumage assimilates with the chequered and mottled
appearance of the surface which she has selected. The eggs are
of a light yellowish-brown, with darker streaks and blotches. The
young after exclusion immediately follow their parents, and are then
covered with a mottled-grey down, which gradually gives place to
the proper plumage, and in six weeks or two months they are capable
of flying and of providing for themselves.
In the autumn, after the breeding season, the flocks which had
scattered themselves in pairs over the downs, and the young they
have reared, assemble all together, forming larger or smaller flocks,
and prepare to take their departure, quitting our latitudes for a more
congenial climate ; and in October few, if any, are to be seen in the
localities previously tenanted, and where at night their loud call had
resounded " familiar to the shepherd's ear."
The general plumage of this Bird is of a reddish-ash above, each
feather having a central streak of umber brown ; neck and chest
yellowish-white, streaked with umber brown : throat and under parts
white ; quills black ; base of the bill bright-yellowish ; naked skin
round the eyes ; iris and legs fine yellow. Length sixteen inches.
The Bustards— Family Oiididcs.
In the family Oiidida:, or the Bustards, the bill is short and stout,
rather convex, broad at the base, and compressed towards the apex ;
the nostrils are placed in a large membranous groove, which is
clothed with feathers at the base ; the legs are elongated and
slender, the tarsi reticulated, and the toes short, with convex, obtuse
claws. The hind-toe is entirely wanting. The wings are ample, and
somewhat pointed. The Birds of this family have- frequently been
placed by authors in the order Cursorcs, with the Ostriches and their
allies, and in some respects they are allied to the Rasorial Birds ;
but their nearest allies appear to be the Coursers and Thick-kneed
Plovers, and we have accordingly placed them in juxta-position with
these amongst the Grallatarcs.
The Bustards are generally large Birds, which live upon heaths
and dry plains in various parts of the Eastern hemisphere. They run
very rapidly, and fly well, although they rise with difficulty. Their
food consists principally of Worms and Insects, with a few Reptiles
and even small Mainnialia, and Birds. Green vegetables, also,
appear to constitute a part of their diet.
Two species are found in Britain ; and of one of these, the Great
Bustard {Otis iarda), the following is a description : —
Fig. 14S3. — The Common Thick-knee.
The Great Bustard [Oh's tarda). Outarde of the French;
Starda of the Italians ; Der grosse Trappe, Trappgans, and Aken-
trap of the Germans ; Abutarda of the Spaniards ; yr Araf Ehedydd
of the Welsh. — This noble Bird, which was once common in our
island, is now rarely to be seen, except, we believe, in the western
part of Norfolk ; it is true that it occasionally makes its appearance
on the wide plains and commons, in various parts of the country, as
,„;-Sr^*^
Fig. 14S4.— Tlie Great Bustard— Male
584
THE BUSTARD— THE CRANES.
Salisbury plain, Newmarket heath, and North Stow heath in the
neighbourhood of Bury St. Edmunds ; but unfortunately its presence
attracts observation, and observation in such a case is generally fol-
lowed by active measures conducing to its destruction. In Spain
and the plains of Greece, in some parts of Russia, and on the wilds
of Tartary, it is common ; it is occasionally seen in some parts of
France, very rarely in Italy.
The male Bustard weighs from twenty-five to thirty pounds, and
measures about three feet three inches in length (See Fig. 1484).
The female seldom e.xceeds one-third of the size of the male. Grain,
various grasses, and tender leaves and sprouts of turnips, Insects,
Worms, Frogs, &c., constitute their food. In the adult male there
exists a membranous pouch beneath the skin on the fore-part of the
neck, having an entrance to it under the tongue ; it is of consider-
able capacity, being capable, according to Pennant, of containing
seven pints of water ; it has been, indeed, supposed by some that
the use of this sac is for carrj'ing a supply of water, either for
its own use or that of the female and her young ; but as the male
takes no care of the brood, and as no water has ever been found
in this pouch, this supposition is untenable. Its use, in fact, is not
known.
The Bustard runs very swiftly, and we have accounts of its having
been chased by Dogs, which we can readily credit, because a good
Greyhound would press so hard as not to allow the Bird the time of
preparation for taking wing, should he come upon it by surprise.
On the other hand, however, we agree with Mr. Selby, who says,
" Upon being disturbed, so far from running in preference to flight,
as has been often described, it rises upon wing with great faciHty,
and flies with much strength and swiftness, usually to another
haunt, which will sometimes be at the distance of six or seven miles.
It has also been said that in former days, when the species was of
common occurrence, it was a practice to run down the young Birds,
before they were able to fly, with greyhounds, as affording excellent
diversion. So far from this possibility existing with respect to the
present remnant of the bird, the young birds upon being alarmed
constantly squat close to the ground, in the same manner as the
young of the lapwing, golden plover, &c., and in this position are
frequently taken by the hand : indeed, this is even the habit of the
female at the time of incubation."
In the " Book of Falconrie " (i6ii)the Bustard is mentioned as
affording what was termed the "great flight," together with the
Crane, Wild Goose, Bittern, Heron, &:c., a proof in favour of Mr.
Selby's observation, that it gives preference to the wing when
alarmed. In the winter the Bustard associates in small flocks, which
traverse the country in search of food, and visit turnip-fields for the
sake of the leaves, to which they are very partial ; in severe weather
they seek sheltered situations, and often resort to the maritime dis-
tricts. The eggs of the Bustard are two in number, as is usual with
the Birds of this family ; the female forms no definite nest, but de-
posits them on the ground in a slight depression made to receive
Fig. 14S5.— The Great Bustard— Female.
them, generally in extensive corn-fields ; they exceed in size those of
the Turkey ; they are of a pale brownish olive, with darker blotches.
Incubation lasts four weeks, and the young as soon as excluded fol-
low their parents, but are unable to take wing for a considerable
period. _ As anarticle of food the flesh of the^Bustard is in high
estimation ; it is dark in colour, short in fibre, and of fine flavour.
Iri its wild state the Bustard is very shy, so as not to be approached,
within gun-shot, unless with great caution : it always selects for its
place of repose the centre of the largest inclosure, or if the country
be open, that part of the plain where it will be most secure from the
danger of a surprise. Those which have been kept in confinement,
though tolerably tame towards persons with whom they were fami-
liar, have exhibited both distrust and ferocity towards strangers. All
attempts to breed these Birds in captivity have failed.
In the male Bustard, from each side of the cheeks, near the lower
mandible, arises a tuft of long wiry feathers with loose barbs. The
fore-part of the neck over the pouch is destitute of feathers, the skin
being bluish-black. The head and back of the neck are bluish-grey ;
a longitudinal streak of black occupies the top of the head. The
upper surface is of a fine orange buff, barred with zigzag transverse
markings of black ; under parts w'hite, a tinge of yellow occupying
the chest. Tail white, at the base, passing into yellowish-brown,
with one or two black bars. The female is destitute of the moustache-
feathers, and the head and neck have a deeper tint of grey than in
the male. Gular pouch wanting. (See Fig. 148s.)
The second British species, the Little Bus'tard {Otis tefrax,
Fig. i486), is regarded as a straggler, or occasional visitor to our
shores ; its regular residence being the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean. Singularly enough, however, it has generally oc-
curred in this country in the winter. It is a much smaller Bird than
the preceding, measuring only about seventeen inches in length.
Fig. 14S6.— Head of the LiUle Bustard.
Stuffed specimens of various species of the Bustard may be seen
in the British Museum. In the Gardens of the Zoological Society,
Regent's Park, London, are living species, including the Great
Bustard, already described, the Australian Bustard {Eu^odiiis
australis), and Denham's Bustard {E. de?ihami), &c.
The Cranes — Family Gruidcc.
The last family of the Grallatorial Birds is that of the Gruidcc, or
Cranes, composed of large and handsome Birds, some of which
appear to be allied to the Bustards, and others to the A?-dcida;, in or
near w-hich latter family they are placed by some authors. They
have the bill strong and sharp-edged, w-ith the nostrils placed in
large concave sinuses (Fig. 1487) ; the legs long and slender,
with a considerable portion of the tibix bare, and the tarsi corn-
Fig. l4S7._nill of the Crane.
pressed and shielded in front ; the toes rather long, with a very
small membrane uniting the two outer ones, and the hind-toe short
and elevated. The wings are broad, and the tail short ; but the
tertiary feathers of the wings are often much elongated, and decom-
posed into separate filaments, forming tufts of beautiful plumes,
which hang down on each side of the tail, and were formerly much
THE CRANE TRIBE.
58s
worn as ornaments. The Birds in wliich this peculiar structure of
the tertiaries prevails, form the sub-family of the True Cranes
[Gi-uina) ; they are further characterised by havinjT the bill straight
and strong, with both the mandibles of equal length, and pointed at
the tip. The Cranes are large, stately, and elegant Birds, most of
which are exclusively inhabitants of warm climates, although some of
them undertake considerable migrations.
The Common Crane {Grus cincrca). — Gruc of the French ;
Grua of the Italians ; Kranich of the Germans ; Goran of the
Welsh. The Crane is spread over a great portion of Europe, Asia,
and Africa, and from the earliest times has been noticed as a Bird
of migratory habits. Associated in large flocks, they journey north-
wards in spring to their accustomed breeding-places, and return
southwards in autumn to India, Egypt, and other parts of Africa.
According to Latham the Crane visits Sweden, Russia, Siberia, and
the whole of Northern Asia. Dr. Von. Siebold noticed it in Japan.
Formerly it was a regular visitor to our island, where it bred before
cultivation had deprived the species of congenial localities by the
enclosing of waste tracts of land and the drainage of marshes. We
hear of statutes imposing a fine upon those who should presume to
take away the eggs of a Crane or Bustard. Willughby says,
" Cranes come often to us in England, and in the fen counties of
Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire there are great flocks of them."
It appears that no less than 204 were served up at the feast of
Archbishop Nevil in the reign of Edward IV. At present the
Crane is very rarely seen within our shores, and almost as rarely
in Holland.
The aerial voyages of the Crane are performed at a high elevation
in the air, and though the loud cries of the passing flock may reach
the ear, the Birds themselves are beyond the limits of our sight.
These flights often take place during the night-time. The Crane
makes its nest among rushes, reeds, and the long herbage of swampy
tracts, and sometimes on the walls of isolated ruins. The eggs are
two in number, of a pale dull bluish-green, blotched with brown.
Wide open lands newly sown are often visted by this Bird, for the
sake of the grain, to which it is very partial ; but it also haunts
morasses, feeding upon shelled Molluscs, Worms, Frogs, and other
Reptiles. The general colour of the Crane is dark grey, the top of
the head being red and naked ; on the back of the head and front of
Fig. 1488.— The Crane.
Ion J'lnn^l'"^^''''^- ■'^PP''?aches black ; many of the secondaries form
e"f black T°pTH^fP'"™r'.^,'," g'-eenish-black; iris red-brown ;
feht'lrtn }^^^. 'rSee*Ffg";i88°;''= ^"'^ °' ''"' *^"' '''''' ^^^
Th?DeSS^or'N^m[f "f"''*""^''''-^'')- ^''^'^ Virgo,Ur.r.^^s.
Africa, and, hke the Cranes in gcner.al, is migratory in its habits. It
c.xtends along the ModUerr.inean, and is abundant in the neighbour-
hood of Iripoli ; It visits Egypt during the inundation ; and appears
about Constantinople in October, on its return from the southern
coasts of the black and Caspian seas. It has been observed at Lake
Baikal and has been killed at Ncp:ll ; on the west of Africa it ex-
tends from Egypt to Guinea, and is found near the Cape of Good
Hope._ The food of this beautiful Bird consists in a great measure
of grains and seeds, to which it adds Insects, Worms &c The
Demoiselle stands about three feet six inches in height 'The top of
the head IS grey ; behind each eye springs a tuft of white feathers,
passing backwards to the occiput, where they form a drooping crest
of soft loose plumes, which undulate with every movement • the sides
of the head, the neck, and a long flowing plume depending from the
breast, blackish ; general tint delicate slate grey ; the secondary
quill-feathers, elongated into slender plumes, which fall over the
quills and tail ; bill yellowish. (See Fig. 1489.)
Fig. 1489.— The Demoiselle.
The Stanley Crane {Tetraptenix ^arad/sea, or A^ithropdides
stanleyamis; Ajithropdides paradisaus, Bechstein).— In beauty,
gracefulness, easy elegance of movement, this species equals the
Demoiselle, to which indeed it is closely allied. It runs and bounds
with singular velocity, and sweeps along with expanded wings in
search of Insects, which it takes as they flit by, and to which it is very
partial. In captivity it is gentle and familiar. It is a native of
India, perhaps also of Africa. The full soft feathers of the head
make it appear as if tumid. The general plumage is bluish-grey
passing into brownish-black on the points of the tail-feathers and the
long pendent flowing wing-plumes, which touch the ground. This
species somewhat e.xcels the Demoiselle in stature, and the hind-
toe is comparatively larger. (See Fig. 1489 )
The Crowned Crane i,Balearica pavotima). This species,
and one from South Africa, the Cape Crowned Crane (Ba/cartca
regulorum), said to be held sacred by the Kaffirs, are the only two
species at present known of the genus Balearka, which is now
separated from A tithropdides.
The Crowned Crane is a native of Northern and Western Africa
Ihe Romans are supposed to have received them from the Balearic
Islands, now Majorca and Minorca. In Guinea and at Cape Verd.
as well as in the adjacent countries, they are very common, frequent-
ing swampy places, and subsisting, like the Crane, partly on grains
and other vegetables, partly on Insects, Molluscs, small Fisli, &c.
At Cape Verd these Birds are said to be so familiar as to come into
the poultry-yards, and feed in company with the domestic inmates,
iheir gait is slow and stately; but expanding their wings, and
assisted by the wind, they scud along with great velocity. Their
night IS lofty, and capable of being long sustained. Their voice is
loud, trumpet-hkc, and hoarse. In captivity the Crowned Crane
becomes very tame and gentle ; like the rest of the family to which
It belongs, it generally reposes resting on one leg, with its neck
bent, and its body maintained almost horizontally. It often, how-
ever, assumes a very different attitude, standing perpendicularly
upright, with its long neck on the full stretch ; in this position it
remains for some short space of time, gazing stedfastly at the spec-
tator, and then breaking out into a hoarsa Hnd of chuckle.
4 F
586
THE CRANE TRIBE.
The CroNvned Crane stands about four feet in height ; the front of
thehead is covered with short black velvety feathers; from the
occiput there rises a remarkable crest of slender bristle-like fila-
ments, diverging from each other, ^Yith a spiral twist, and four or
five inches in length. Their colour is yellowish ; they are fringed
with minute black barbs. The cheeks are naked, the upper portion
of the denuded space being white, the more extensive space below
red ; there is a small wattle on the throat. The general plumage
is bluish slate-colour ; the feathers of the fore-part of the chest
are elongated ; primary quills and the tail arc black ; the secondary
quill-feathers, which are long and slender, arc of a rich brown, and
the wing-coverts pure white. (See Fig. 1490.)
Fig. 1490. — The Stanley Crane.
In the Cape Crowned Crane {B. reguloriini) the naked cheeks
are white, with a roseate upper margin, and the throat-wattle is
large. Both species, together with the preceding, are living in the
Gardens of the Zoological Society.
The following species may also be seen in the Gardens of the
Society, from whose " Guide" the descriptions have been quoted : —
fig. 1491. — The Crowned Crane,
"The Mantchurian Crane {Grus montignesta, Bp.)— The
descriptions of this magnificent Bird in the old authors presume it
to have been a native of Japan. There is at present no ground for
believing that to be the fact ; but we now know positively that its
true locality is the country north of Pekin.
"Sir John Bowring sent a pair of these Birds to her Majesty the
Queen, which, after living for some years in the Royal Collection,
were graciously presented to the Zoological Society in 1857.
Fig. 1492. — The Golden-breasted Trumpeter.
" The birds which were imported by M. de Montigny, on his return
from China in 1854, "o' '^"^Y flourished at Paris in the most perfect
health, but for three successive seasons made a nest and hatched
out their young. The pair in possession of the Society in i860 nested
Fig. 1493. — The Caiiama.
THE CRANE TRIBE.
587
twice, but did not succeed in hatching their eggs. The following
year, however, they were more successful, and a young bird was
hatched on the 24th of June, 1861, to which they devoted unceasing
care and attention for many months. The Mantchurian Crane is a
favourite bird amongst the Chinese ; and it has been stated that a
considerable number of them arc always in captivity at Pckin. Its
figure constantly occurs on the paper-hangings with which their
houses arc decorated, and which, although sometimes containing
animals which are apparently pure inventions, often present very
faithful transcripts of Nature.
"The Sarus Crane {Grits antig07ie) is another noble Asiatic
species, well known to all residents in India, where it is abundant
throughout the central and northern portions of the peninsula of
India, and in the Burmese provinces. It is, perhaps, less exclusively
a grain-feeder, Dr. Jerdon tells us, than some other species, and is
generally met with not far from water. Its fine trumpet-like call,
uttered when alarmed or when on the wing, can be heard a couple
of miles off. In most parts of the country it is so confiding and
Fig. 1494 The Kagu.
fearless in its habits, as to prevent the sportsman from shooting it ;
and in the territories of Holkar it is said to be, if not venerated,
esteemed so highly as to be held sacred from the Shikaries.
" In Australia the place of the Sarus is occupied by the Australian
Craxis {Gnts ausfralis). This Crane bears a close resemblance to
the great Sarus Crane of India, from which, however, there is no
doubt that it is entirely distinct. It may be readily recognised by
the bright red hood which envelops the back of the head, and the
black hairs which almost conceal the bright covering of the throat.
According to Mr. Gould it is only found in Northern Australia and
in New South Wales. It evinces great aptitude for domestication,
and is called there " the Native Companion," from the docility with
which it accommodates itself to the society of man.
"The Canadian Crane [Grus canadensis.) The White
American Crane {Grus americana).—The European Crane is
replaced in North America by the Canadian Crane ( Gn/s canadensis),
of which the Society have also living examples. The second North
American species {Grus anicricana) — the White Crane of America
— is likewise a very ornamental species-"
" The White-necked Crane {Grus lcucauch€n.y-0\ this
ornamental species, conspicuous from its white neck, a single pair,
received from Japan, may be seen in the (hardens."
The following Birds arc allied with the Cranes and Bittern, and
specimens may be seen in the Gardens of the Zoological Society,
whose description is here quoted : —
" The Kagu {Rhinochctus juhatus). — Examples of this curious
bird were first received from Dr. George Bennet, of Sydney, a Fellow
of the Society. The Kagu is an inhabitant of the little-known island
of New Caledonia, which has recently become a French colony. Its
alliances are with the Cranes (Gruida-), though it diverges from
the ordinary members of that group in several important particulars,
and is an isolated form, related to the next species. (See Fig.
1404.)
" The Sun-Bittern (Euryfyga
hclias). — This beautiful bird is
one of the most successful of re-
cent introductions to the Society's
Aviaries, and now breeds with us
regularly every year. Nothing can be
more striking than the varied hues
of the Sun-Biitern's wings, when
exhibited in its airy flight, which
calls to one's mind that of some of
the larger Tropical Butterflies,
rather than the fiight of a bird.
" The Sun-Bitterns first com-
menced to breed in this Aviary in the
month of May, 1865. The nest was
formed of wet mud and clay mixed
with bits of straw and grass, and
placed upon the top of a pole about
ten feet from the ground, on which an
old straw nest had been fixed. One
Gg'g was laid in June, and the young
one hatched after twenty-seven
days' incubation — both male and
female taking turns upon the nest.
The young bird remained in the
nest about three weeks, and was
regularly fed by both parents. It
grew quickly, and in two months
was indistinguishable from the old
birds. The old birds bred a second
time in August of the same year,
and succeeded in rearing a second
young one. Since that date the
Sun-Bitterns have bred regularly in
this Aviary." The Bitterns, genus
Botattrus^ have already been de-
scribed at page 577, ante.
In the Psohpina: or Trumpeters,
forming the second sub-family of
the Gruidce, the tertiaries are not
elongated and decomposed, and the
bill is considerably arched towards
the apex, with the upper mandible
overhanging the lower one at the tip.
The Birds belonging to this sub-
family, which are peculiar to South
America, are interesting to the
naturalist from the great similarity
which they present, in some respects,
to the Rasorial or Gallinaceous
Birds. One of them, the Trum-
peter, Psophia crepitans (see Fig.
1492), called the Aganii by the
natives of South America, being
about the size of a large Fowl, is common in Guiana, where it is
often kept with poultry, which it is said to protect from the attacks
of Birds of Prey. It is exceedingly docile, and attaches itself to
the person that feeds it, following him about like a Dog ; it is
said even to attack other Domestic Animals, to prevent them from
sharing in its master's caresses. Its name of Trumpeter alludes
to a deep, rough sound which it emits. Another species, which
it also common in South America, and, like the Trumpeter,
may be easily domesticated, is the Cariama {Cariama cr is fata,
see Fig. 1493), a Bird about the size of .a Heron, which is found
principally in the mountain plains of Brazil. It flies ill, but runs
with great swiftness. It is generally pursued on horseback, and
always leads its pursuers a long and tedious chate. This Bird
feeds upon Insects and small Reptiles, and, like the Trumpeter,
emits a loud, dull cry.
588
THE NATATORIAL, OR SWIMMING BIRDS.
CHAPTER XXXV.
CLASS II.— AVES, OR BIRDS : ORDER NATATORES, OR SWIMMING BIRDS.
HE most striking character of the
g.\ Naiatorcs, or Swimming Birds, is de-
rived from the structure of the feet,
which are always palmate, or furnished
with webs between the toes. There are
always three toes directed forwards, and
these are usually united by a membrane
to their extremities ; but, in some
cases, the membrane is deeply cleft,
and the toes are occasionally quite free,
and furnished with a distinct web on
each side. The fourth toe is generally
but little developed, and often entirely wanting ;
when present, it is usually directed backwards,
and the membrane is sometimes continued to it
along the side of the foot (Fig. 1495). These
webbed feet are the principal agents by which
such Birds propel themselves through the water,
upon the surface of which most of them pass a
great portion of their time : and, by the same
means, many species dive to a considerable
distance below the surface in search of their
food, which consists almost entirely of Fish,
Molliisca, and other small Aquatic Animals.
The feet are generally placed very far back, a
position which is exceedingly favourable to their
action in swimming and diving, rendering the
terrestrial progression of the Natatorial Birds anything but elegant.
In some instances, however, the feet are situated quite at the hmder
extremity of the body, which then assumes an upright position when
on land. j • ,
The body is generally stout and heavy, and covered with a very
thick, close, downy plumage, which the Bird keeps constantly
anointed with the greasy secretion of the caudal gland, so that it is
completely waterproof. The wings exhibit a very great variety in
their development. In the Penguins they are reduced to a rudi-
mentary condition, destitute of quills, and covered with a scaly skin,
forming flat, fin-like organs ; whilst, in some other species, the
wings are of vast size and power, and the Birds pass nearly their
whole lives in the air. Between these two extremities we meet with
every intermediate degree of development. Those species which
are endowed with the greatest power of flight, are usually incapable
of diving, although they frequently take their prey by plunging
suddenly into the water when on the wing.
Fig. 1495. — Feet of various Water-Eivds.
The form of the bill is also very variable : in some it is broad and
flat ; in others, deep and compressed ; and in others, long and
slender. The mandibles are sometimes sharp and smooth, occa-
sionally furnished with denticulations or lamella; at the margins.
The texture of the bill also varies; but these differences will be
referred to in characterising the families.
Most of these Birds live in societies, which are often excessively
numerous, inhabiting high northern and southern latitudes. Many
of them prefer rocky coasts, in the clefts and corners of which they
lay their eggs, often on the bare rock, but generally selecting the
most inaccessible situations. The nest is always of a very rude
description ; but some species have the instinct to attach their nests
to aquatic plants in such a manner that, although it is securely
anchored to one spot, it is capable of rising or falling, in accord-
ance with any change that may take place in the level of the water.
Sub-divisions. — The Natatorial Birds are divided into six
families. The ^/c/(/i57, or Auks, forming the first of these, have the
feet placed very far back, close to the hinder extremity of the body;
the toes always united by a membrane, and the hinder toe either
rudimentary or entirely wanting. The Alci'dcs do not support them-
selves when on land merely upon the toes, as is the case with most
other Birds, but upon the whole lower surface of the tarsus, which is
usually furnished with a sort of sole to adapt it for this purpose.
The wings are very small — sometimes rudimentary, and covered
only with a scaly skin ; occasionally covered with feathers, and
furnished with quills, so that the Birds are capable of rising into the
air, although their flight is by no means powerful. The beak is
compressed and short, sometimes hooked at the tip ; and the plum-
age is exceedingly thick and close.
In the species with rudimentary, fin-like wings, the scales with
which the skin of those organs is covered, are really rudimentary
feathers. These Birds, which are well known to voyagers under the
name of Penguins, form, with some authors, a distinct family, to
which the name of SphcniscidcB has been given. They are found
in vast quantities in the Antarctic seas, where they pass the greater
portion of their time in the water, and appear rarely to stay any
time on land, except during the breeding season. In the water they
are exceedingly active, swimming and diving with the greatest
facility ; and making use of their little naked wings as fins, when
engaged in the latter operation. There are numerous species of
which we have selected the following for description : —
The Jackass Penguin [Eudyftes, or S;pheniscus de»tersus). —
This species is very abundant at the Falkland Islands, and the Cape
of Good Hope. Captain Fitz-Roy observed it in great abundance
at Noir Island. "Multitudes of penguins," he observes, "were
swarming together in some parts of the island, among the bushes
and ' tussoc ' (thick rushy grass) near the shore, having gone there
for the purposes of moulting and rearing their young. They were
very valiant in self-defence, and ran open-mouthed, by dozens, at
any one who invaded their territory, little knowing how soon a stick
would scatter them on the ground. The young were good eating,
but the others proved to be black and tough when cooked. The
manner in which they feed their young is curious and rather amusing.
The old bird gets on a little eminence, and makes a great noise
(between quacking and braying), holding its head up in the air, as if
it were haranguing the penguinnery, while the young one stands
close to it, but a little lower. The old bird, having continued its
clatter for about a minute, puts its head down and opens its mouth
widely, into which the young one thrusts its head, and then appears
to suck from the throat of its mother for a minute or two, after which
the clatter is repeated, and the young one is again fed ; this con-
tinues for about ten minutes. I observed some which were moulting
make the same noise, and then apparently swallow what they thus
supplied themselves with ; so in this way, I suppose, they are fur-
nished with subsistence during the time they cannot seek it in the
water." — ("Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle," King).
Mr. Darwin, who found this Bird at the Falkland Islands, gives
the following interesting account of its courage and habits. " One
day," he says, "having placed myself between a penguin {A^teno-
dytes demersa) and the water, I was much amused by watching its
habits. It was a brave Bird ; and, till reaching the sea, it regularly
fought and drove me backwards. Nothing less than heavy blows
would have stopped him ; every inch gained he firmly kept standing
close before me, erect and determined. When thus opposed he con-
tinually rolled his head from side to side, in a very odd manner, as
if the power of vision only lay in the anterior and basal part of each
eye. This bird is commonly called the jackass penguin, from its
habit, while on shore, of throwing its head backwards, and making a
loud strange noise, very like the braying of that animal ; but while at
sea and undisturbed, its note is very deep and solemn, and is often
heard in the night time. In diving, its little plumeless wings are used
as fins ; but on the land, as front legs. When crawling (it may be
said on four legs) through the tussocks, or on the side of a grassy
cliff, it moved so very quickly that it might readily have been mis-
THE GREAT AUK.
589
taken for a quadruped. When at sea, and fishing, it comes to the
surface, for the purpose of breathing, with such a spring-, and dives
again so instantaneously, that I defy any one at first sight to be sure
that it is not a fish leaping for sport." — (" Voyages of the yl^/z/c/z/wre
and Beagle;'" Darwin, "Researches in Geology and Natural
History.")
Sir James Clark Ross, when taking possession of Victoria-land in
the name other Majesty, found that the Penguins, the only inhabi-
tants of that inhospitable region, were by no means disposed to sub-
mit quietly to their invaders, but attacked and pecked at them
vigorously as they were "wading" through their ranks. Their
numbers were so great in Possession Island, where the ceremony
of taking possession was gone through, that Sir James tells us that
the Penguins " completely and densely covered the whole surface of
the island, even to the summits of the hills." The females hatch
their eggs by holding them between their thighs ; and when
threatened with danger, move away, still retaining the eggs in this
position. During the period of incubation, the male fishes for the
female ; and after the young are hatched, both parents are engaged
for a time in procuring them food. The roosting-places of the
Penguins, like those of some other Marine Birds, arc covered with a
deep bed of excrementitious matter, mixed with the bones of dead
Birds and feathers, which has been gradually accumulated during
the long series of ages that these Birds have been in undisputed
possession of their rocky shores. This substance is a most valuable
manure, which, under the name of guano, is now largely imported
into this country for the use of agriculturists. The largest species of
Penguins is the Sphetiisciis 77iagellanicus, or Great Magellanic
Penguin, which measures about two feet in length, and sometimes
weighs between thirty and forty pounds. In 1878, a living specimen
of the Jackass Penguin was added to the collection of the Zoological
Society of London, in their Gardens at Regent's Park. (See Fig. 1496.)
Fig. 1496. — The Jackass Penguin.
Of the Alcidcs, in which the wings are constructed in the usual
manner, some have these organs so small, that they are as useless
for the purpose of flight as those of the Penguins. Of these, the
Great Auk (Alca impe7inisj, which has occasionally, although
rarely, been taken on the coasts of the British islands, is an example.
The following is a description of this Bird.
The Great Auk (Alca impennisJ.—The True Auks are strictly
oceanic Birds, never leaving the water, except for the purpose of
incubation. They breed, associated together in vast flocks, on the
ledges of precipices, in caverns, and deep fissures. They dive with
great ease, and using their wings, pursue their finny prey, deep
below the surface, with wonderful rapidity. The young are fed from
the crops of the parents, even some time after they leave their
"rocky lair," and swim fearlessly amidst the waves. Awkward as
the movements of these Birds are on shore, they shuffle along with
considerable dispatch. The bill is deep, compressed, and cultrated ;
the upper mandible arched and hooked; the nostrils are nearly
hidden by the feathers of the forehead : the wings short. (See Fig.
I407-)
In the Great Auk the wings are so reduced as to be incapable of
servmg the purpose of flight, but they are most cfBcicnt paddles,
aidmg Its progress beneath the water. This fine species is a native
of the Arctic Circle ; its visits to the northern islands of Scotland are
very rare ; Dr. Fleming gives the account of one which was taken
ahvo at St. Kilda in 1822; and one was ineffectually chased by
Bullock, during his tour to the northern isles, 1813, who followed in
a six-oared boat, and found himself, despite the exertions of the
men, completely distanced. It was ultimately shot, allowing the
boatmen, to whom it appeared indifferent, to approach within gun
range. This Bird is now in the collection of the British Museum.
The one described by Dr. Fleming swam under water with a long
Fig. 1497 The Great Auk.
and heavy cord tied to its leg, making way with extraordinary
rapidity. The Great Auk is frequent about the coasts of Norway
and Iceland, but still more so around the icy shores of Greenland
and Spitzbergen, where it breeds in the clefts and caverns of rocks,
above the highest tides. The female lays a single egg, as large as
that of a Swan, of a whitish-yellow, marked with numerous lines and
strokes of black.
Fish and various Crustacea constitute the food of this species ; its
favourite prey is said to be the Lump-Fish (Cycloptcriis lii/npusj.
The Great Auk measures nearly three feet in length. The upper
plumage is deep black, with the exception of a large patch of white
on the forehead and around the eyes, and a slight band of white on
the wing; under plumage white; bill and legs dull black. In
winter the cheeks, throat, fore-part and sides of the neck are white.
The Razor-bill {Utamania, ox Alca tarda) — In this species
the wings are capable of short but rapid flight ; they are also used
as oars in the water. The Razor-bill is common in the higher
latitudes of the northern, and plentiful on the rocky coasts of our
island, where it breeds with Guillemots and Puffins ; it tenants the
Needles and adjacent cliffs of the Isle of Wight, and the eggs, which
are esteemed a delicacy, are taken in great numbers. As the chalk-
cliffs there are 600 feet in elevation, the islanders reach them from
above, by descending the perpendicular cliffs, much in the same
perilous manner as is practised by the Norwegians and hardy natives
of the Feroe Islands.
They drive a large stake, or bar of iron, into the top of the cliff,
and to this they fasten a strong rope, with a stick put crosswise at
the end, for the support of the adventurer, who is lowered down the
front of the horrid precipice. If his object is to secure the eggs
only, he shouts to scare away the Birds, which rise in countless
numbers ; but if he wishes to secure the Birds, for the sake of the
feathers, he goes to work in silence, and either catches them in their
holes, or knocks them down with a stick as they fly out ; the soft
feathers are valuable, and find a ready market ; the flesh is worth-
less, but is used by the fishermen as baits for Crab-pots, (Src. The
same mode is practised in the Isle of Man. On the coast of
Labrador, thousands of these Birds are killed for the sake of the
breast-feathers, which are close, warm, and elastic ; and the eggs
are coflected in incredible multitudes. Each female, however, only
lays one egg, large in proportion, and pointed, of a yellowish-white
blotched with dark brown. The Razor-biU is fifteen inches long.
590
PUFFINS AND GUILLEMOTS.
The head, neck, and upper plumage are black, with a distinct white
line from the beak to the eye, and a narrow bar across the wings ;
under parts white ; bill black, with a white band down the sides of
each mandible ; legs black. In winter the throat and fore-part of
the neck are white. {See Fig. 1498.)
The Puffin or Covvi'e.k^v.w (Fraiercula arctica,OT Mormon
fratercida, Temm. ; Alca arctica, Linn. ; Mormon arcticus,
lUiger). — In this genus the bill is short, nearly as deep as long, and
very compressed, the edge of the upper mandible being thin and
sharp ; the nostrils are slits on the border of the upper mandible
near the base ; the sides are marked by oblique ridges and furrows,
and a loose puckered skin surrounds the corners of the mouth. Two
horny appendages are placed on the eyelids ; the smaller one above,
the larger beneath the eye.
Fig. 149S.— The Razor-bill.
Jn its general form and habits the Puffin resembles the Guillemot
and Razor-bill ; it has the same thick rounded contour, the same
address in the water, and the same rapid flight. The PufBn is ex-
tensively spread through the Arctic circle, whence it migrates south-
wards in winter. It is a native of our islands, visiting us from the
south about the middle of April, and departing for the coasts of
Spain and Italy, in August. It is common on various parts of our
shores ; is numerous at the Needles and cliffs of the Isle of Wight,
and upon Priestholm Island, off the coast of Anglesea ; many resort
to the Farn Islands. In the latter place, according to Mr. Selby,
there being no Rabbits, the burrows of which it can usurp, it selects
such spots as are covered with a stratum of vegetable mould, and
digs a burrow for itself in which to incubate. The Puffins " com-
mence this operation about the first week of May, and the hole is
generally excavated to the depth of three feet, often in a curving
direction, and occasionally with two entrances. When engaged in
digging, which is principally performed by the males, they are some-
times so intent upon their work as to admit of being taken by the
hand ; and the same may also be done during incubation. At this
period I have frequently obtained specimens by thrusting my arm
into the burrow, though at the risk of receiving a bite from the
powerful sharp-edged bill of the old bird. At the farther end of this
hole the single c^'g is deposited, which in size nearly equals that of
a pullet." On rocky coasts, as the cliffs of the Isle of Wight, the
Puffin selects the crevices and fissured recesses of the precipice for
its breeding retreat. The young are at first covered with blackish
down, and in about a month are sufficiently plumed to follow their
parents to sea. The Puffin is an admirable diver ; it may be often
seen perched on the ledge of a bold precipice, peering witfi its keen
eyes into the glassy water below, — suddenly, it throws itself headlong
into the abyss, cleaving the waves, which sparkle as they close over
it. Soon, however, it reappears, laden with a row of Sprats, its
favourite food, which hang from the bill, their heads being secured
between the mandibles; and now, taking a curved sweep upwards,
it bears them to its young.
In the PufBn, the crown of the head, the upper parts of the body,
and a collar round the neck are black ; the cheeks pearl-grey ; the
horny appendages to the eyelids leaden-grey ; the bill, deeply
furrowed, is bluish-grey at the base, the middle being rich orange-
red, which deepens into fine red at the tip ; legs, orange-red. Length,
thirteen inches. The young have the beak small and smooth, and of
a dull yellow ; and the general plumage more dusky. (See Fig.
I499-)
The Foolish Guillemot {Uria troUe).—ln the genus Uria
the bill is moderate, robust, straight, acute, and compressed ; nostrils
basal ; the limbs short, the tarsi alone appearing to emerge from
the body ; tail very short. Fig. 1500, represents the bill of the Guille-
mot ; Fig. 1501, the foot.
The Foolish Guillemot, so called from suffering itself to be taken
rather than quit the single egg over which it broods, is found in the
Arctic seas of the Old and New World ; in winter the immense
flocks which have left their breeding places, for they are migatory in
their habits, pass along the coasts of Norway, and England, Hol-
land, and France, and abound in the Baltic. According to Nuttall,
the great body of American Birds of this species take their course
Fig. 1499. — The Puffin.
along the whole coast of Hudson's Bay, Labrador, and Newfound-
land, and winter in the Bay of Fundy. In spring the flocks which
were scattered over the bays, gulfs, and seas of the temperate lati-
tudes, where food was abundant, return to their own breeding haunts.
In our island they make their appearance towards the end of March
or the beginning of April, and tenant in myriads the Orkneys, the
Bass Rock, the isolated pillars of Trap-rock, in the Farn Islands, the
cliffs of Scarborough, and the Needles and cliff's of the Isle of
Wight, as well as other places. Here, associated with Razor-bills,
Puffins, and other Sea-fowl, they cover the ledges of the precipitous
rocks, ranged in tiers ; the Guillemots in crowded rows, each female
Fig. 1500. — Bill of the Guillemot.
sitting in an upright position on her own egg, which she has de-
posited on the narrow naked ledge ; all living hi harmony together ;
the appearance made by the congregated multitude in a dense mass
is very curious. Incubation lasts a month ; the young, which are at
first clad in a thick down, of a blackish grey colour above, white
beneath, are plentifully supplied with young Herrings, Sprats, and
other Fish, till in the course of five or six weeks they acquire their
plumage, and, taking to the water, depend upon their own exertions.
The egg is of a pale green, stained with black and umber-brown.
In the autumn the Guillemots leave the rocks, and betake them-
selves entirely to the ocean, where the old Birds undergo a moult, in
which the black of the throat and sides of the neck is exchanged for
Fig. 1501.— Foot of the Guillemot,
THE DIVERS.
591
■white, the black being reassumed the following- spring. At this
time, from the loss of so many of the quill-feathers, they are often for
a short time unable to fly ; but as they are out at sea, and dive on
the approach of danger with astonishing quickness, this is of little
consequence. The flocks now gradually pass southwards, following
the shoals of Fishes which leave our coasts, and at length reach the
Mediterranean and the coast of Sicily, where they feast upon the
Anchovy and Sardine. On the other hand, a few stragglers from the
Polar Circle visit the friths of Scotland, which appear to be the
extent of their southern migration. The flight of the Guillemot is
sharp and rapid, at a low degree of elevation, but not of long duration.
In its summer dress the head and neck of this Bird are black,
and the feathers of a velvety texture ; the upper surface is sooty
black ; the under plumage white ; bill and legs black. Length fif-
teen inches. (See Fig. 1502.)
Fig. 1502. — The Foolish Guillemots.
In the young of the year the black of the upper parts is clouded
with ash colour ; ashy brown predominates on the lower part of the
neck ; and the white of the lower parts is not so pure.
The Black Guillemot ( Uria grylle).—T\\ft Black Guillemot in-
habits the same range of countries as the preceding species, and
migrates southwards in winter along the borders of the ocean. It is
rare on the English coast, but breeds abundantly in the Orkney and
Shetland Isles, on the ledges of the rocks, and, according to Selby,
Gould, and others, lays a single e.%% of a greyish-white, speckled
with black and dusky grey. Both Nuttall and Audubon, however,
affirm that in the northern districts of America this species lays
three eggs. " On several occasions," says the latter observer, " at
Labrador, some of my party and myself saw several black guillemots
sitting on eggs, in the same fissure of a rock, where every bird had
three eggs under it." For the reception of these eggs, according to
the same authority, the Birds raise a sort of nest or fabric of pebbles
to the height of two or three inches, in order that the water trickling
through the fissures and recesses of the rock may not reach the
eggs.
Dr. Richardson states that this species abounds in the Arctic seas
and straits, from Melville Island down to Hudson's Bay, and re-
mains, though in diminished numbers, during winter in the pools
of open water, which occur, even in high latitudes, among the floes
of ice. In summer the colour of this species is black, with a white
band across the wings. In winter the old Birds have the cheeks,
throat, and all the under plumage, pure white ; these parts acquiring
at the vernal moult the sooty black which remains during the summer.
(See Fig. 1503.)
The Little Auk {Mergidus alle; Mergulus ntelanoleucus,
Ray; Uria alle, Temm. ; Alca alle, Linn.). Rotch and Sea-Dove,
Provincial.
This active little Bird is intermediate between the Auks and
Guillemots ; the bill is not so long and pointed as in the latter, yet
not compressed and furrowed as in the former ; it is short, stout,
and broader than deep at the base. The Little Auk is a native of
the Arctic circle, and is recognised as a winter visitor to the coasts
of Scotland ; Mr. Sclby suggests that a few may perhaps breed upon
the extreme rocky islands of the north of that part of our country,
but of this we have no definite information ; on the coasts of England
it is rarely seen, and then only when driven by storms and adverse
winds from its northern home. It abounds on the bleak coasts of
Greenland, and Spitiibcrgen, and thousands have been seen at Mel-
ville Island. When the floes of ice arc broken up by the wind.
Fig. 1503. — Black Guillemots.
myriads of these Birds may be seen riding on the waves busily
engaged in searching for various Marine Animals, which are tossed
up by the agitated waters. The ocean is its home and resting-place,
except during the season of incubation, when it resorts in thousands
to the ledges of precipitous rocks, on which the female deposits her
single egg, of a pale bluish-green. Its flight is rapid, but low, and
never long sustained. This species is about nine inches long. The
head, back of the neck, and upper plumage, are black ; under-
plumage, white ; a narrow white bar across the wing ; the throat,
neck, and upper part of the breast pitch-black in summer, more or
less white in winter. (See Fig. 1504.)
Fig. 1504.— The Little Auk.
Fig. 1505 shows the Gizzard and Proventriculus of this Bird laid
open ; the latter is remarkable for its peculiar form.
The Divers— Family Colymbidce.
The Colymbidce have the wings rather short, but still distinctly
longer than in the Alcidce. The beak is rather long, conical, and
592
THE DIVERS.
pointed, with very small linear nostrils; the head is sonnctimes
crested, or adorned with tufts of feathers ; and the hinder-toe, al-
though small, is always distinct. The legs, as in the Alcidcc, are
placed far back, so that the Birds, when standing on the ground,
assume a more or less erect position. The tarsi are much com-
pressed, and the tibiffi almost entirely concealed beneath the skin of
the body. The Colyinbida inhabit the cold and temperate regions
of the northern hemisphere, some of them residing in the neighbour-
hood of fresh waters, and only visiting the
sea-coast, or the estuaries of rivers, when a
severe winter drives them from their ac-
customed haunts ; others are exclusively
marine. They feed upon Fish, Molhisca,
Insects, and Crustacea. In their habits
these Birds present a considerable resem-
blance to many of the AlcklcB ; their flight
is swift, but not long-continued, and they
swim and dive with the greatest facility.
This family may be divided into two
very distinct sections, in accordance with
the structure of the foot. In the Grebes
{PodiC!j)i>!a:), the toes are not united by a
membrane except close to the base, the
remainder of the membrane taking the form
of broad lobes surrounding each toe sepa-
rately (Fig. 1506). Further description will
be given in connection with the Eared
Grebe. These Birds, of which five species
occur in our country, are generally found
in the vicinity of fresh water, although they
occasionally visit the sea, and often frequent
the mouths of rivers.
The Eared Grebe {Podice^s aiiritiis).
— Le Grebe oreillard of Temminck. In
the form of their body, the position and structure of the feet,
and the nature of their plumage, the Grebes are expressly
fitted for the element on which they habitually reside, and in which
they chase their finny prey with arrow-like velocity. The head is
narrow; the beak long, pointed, and sharp, somewhat compressed
at the sides, and slightly inclined upwards towards the tip. The
neck is long; the body boat-shaped and flattened ; the wings are
short, concave, and pointed ; there is no tail ; the plumage is thick,
full, and soft ; a dense layer of fine down forms an under-dress,
being covered by feathers of a silky gloss and texture, and completely
rig. 1505. — Gizzard of
the Little Auk.
Fig. 1506. — Foot of the Grebe.
waterproof. The toes differ from those of every other aquatic race
of Birds, as already mentioned. Instead of being webbed, as in the
Duck tribe, and others of the Natorial order, the toes are separate
and flattened, having their edges furnished with a broad stiff mem-
brane, each toe being, in fact, a distinct and beautifully-formed
paddle. Of the three anterior toes, the outermost is the longest and
largest ; the next is nearly as large, and its outer edge lies tile-like
over the inner membrane of the outermost ; the innermost toe is less
than the middle one, on which its outer edge impinges. The hind
toe is short, placed high on the leg, and furnished with a lobated
membrane. The arrangement of the scales covering the toes gives
to them a leaf-like appearance ; for the lines dividing the scales run
in regular succession obliquely upwards from a central line or shaft,
formed by the bones advancing to the tips, which are covered with a
broad, flat nail. The leg, or tarsus, is short, and flattened laterally
so as to cut the water when drawn up after each stroke.
The situation of the legs in the Grebe is thrown as far backwards
as possible, and the thigh is short, and, as it were, retracted, so as
not to advance beyond the body ; the Grebe, however, cannot sit
upright like the Penguin, for it does not rest on its heel ; it is not
plantigrade. When resting on the land it lies prone on its whole
body, and in this situation shufiles along like a seal, pushing itself
onwards by striking the ground with its feet. Ill adapted for the
land, the Grebe, as we have seen, is admirably constructed for the
water. It swims low, owing to the flatness of its body, and when
diving in pursuit of its prey, uses its wings to add to its velocity.
The quickness with which the Grebes dive is very remarkable ; so
instantaneously do they plunge, that they are able to avoid the shot
from a fowling-piece, fired by a common flint lock, and they will
then make a stretch of two hundred yards before coming up to
breathe, which is done by merely raising the head for a second above
the water. Mr. Selby informs us that, when making a tour through
Holland, in company with Sir W. Jardine, he gave chase to a
Crested Grebe, upon one of the lakes in the neighbourhood of Rotter-
dam, and that though in a boat conducted by those accustomed to
the business, it cost upwards of an hour and a half's severe exertion
to get within range and secure it by a shot through the neck. The
food of this singular group of Birds consists of Fishes and Aquatic
Insects ; but it is observed that the stomach is always found to con-
tain a mass, greater or less, of the feathers of their own body. That
these are swallowed to assist digestion, as has been suggested, is
not clear ; most probably they are involuntarily swallowed during the
dressing and cleaning of the plumage, for we often find in the
stomach of Cows and other Ruminants, balls of hair ; the material
being collected into the mouth while licking their own, or each other's
coats, and then swallowed.
The places chosen by the Grebes for their nidification are among
the thick reeds and luxuriant aquatic herbage of marshes, or the
sedges which border fresh-water lakes and rivers, the nest being
composed of a mass of half-decayed roots, dried flags, and other
similar vegetable materials. It is large and compact, but roughly
put together, and rises or falls according to the rise or fall of the
water on which it floats ; the eggs are three or four in number,
and carefully covered up by the female every time she leaves the
nest.
It is only within the last few years that ornithologists have extri-
cated the species of the genus Podiceps from the confusion in which
they were left by the earliest writers, who, misled by the great dif-
ference existing between the plumage of Birds in an immature and
adult state, had set down the young as specifically distinct from their
parents ; nor is this error much to be wondered at, since the dif-
ferences are not only very considerable as it regards colour, but also
as respecting the absence or presence of long ear-tufts, occipital
crests, or throat-frills, with which the adults are more or less orna-
mented during the, breeding season. The Horned Grebe, the Eared
Grebe, and the Crested Grebe, take their names from the position of
these silky plumes, which produce a striking and elegant appearance.
We have eveiy reason, however, to believe that they are lost during
the winter, being the temporary ornaments of the breeding season.
Fig. 1507 represents the head of the Eared Grebe in full plumage.
Fig. 1507. — Head of the Grebe.
The genus Podiceps has a wide geographical range, being found
in every quarter of the globe. The following species are common t j
Northern Europe, Asia, and America :— The Red-neck Grebe
{^Podiceps rubricol/is), a winter visitor to our Island ; the Crested
Grebe {P. cris/atiis), which breed in some of the fens of the midland
THE DIVERS.
593
counties of England, and in Scotland ; the Horned Grebe (P. cor-
nutiis), a rare species, but occasionally breeding- in the fenny dis-
tricts of the eastern counties ; and the Eared Grebe {P. aiiritus),
also a very rare Bird in our island, but occasionally known to breed
in the same districts as the preceding
The Little Grebe or Dabchick, {Podice;ps minor), common in the
ponds and lakes of our country and spread over the greater part of
Europe and Asia, is represented in North America by the P. caroli-
Jioisis. Severals pecies are peculiar to Australia. Some Birds, nearly
allied to the Grebes, are found in Tropical Africa and South America
Mr. C. R. Gray has established a third sub-family (^Helwrnince) for
their reception. The plumage of the male Eared Grebe in full dress
is as follows : — Crown of the head and short ruff round the neck,
shining black ; from behind and below the eyes on each side is a tuft
of long, slender, shining, orange buff feathers, which cover the
ears, and nearly meet behind ; throat, neck, sides of breast, and
upper plumage deep shining greyish-black; secondaries, white;
under plumage white, with a silky lustre ; bill black ; iris Vermillion ;
legs brown. Fig. 1508 represents a male in full plumage, and a young
Bird of the year.
The Colymbina;, or Divers, which have the three anterior toes
completely united by a membrane, closely resemble the Grebes in
their general appearance ; but they are all inhabitants of the coast,
of the Cree Indians ; Talkijeh of the Chippewayans ; Trochydd mawr
of the ancient British.
This fine species inhabits the Arctic regions of the globe,
migrating southwards in winter, during which season numbers
frequent our northern coasts, and especially the Frith of Forth,
attracted by the shoals of Herrings, on which they principally feed.
It is occasionally seen about our southern coasts, and has been
killed in the Thames below Woolwich. It is remarkable that the
great mass of those Birds which visit our coast consists of the young
of the year, or of the previous year, adults in full plumage being
seldom seen, nor are these ever observed on the lakes of Germany,
France, or Switzerland. The Great Northern Diver breeds upon the
shores of the inland lakes of the north, and on the islets, which are
often studded over by their nests. The eggs, two in number, are
large, and of a deep oil green, spotted with purplish red. Dr.
Richardson, who had abundant opportunities of observing the
manners and habits of the Northern Diver, remarks that though it
" is generally described as an inhabitant of the ocean, we seldom ob-
served it either in the Arctic Sea or Hudson's Bay; but it abounds
in all the interior lakes, where it destroys vast quantities of fish. It
is rarely seen on land, its limbs being ill-fitted ior walking, though
admirably adapted for its aquatic habits. It can swim with great
swiftness, and to a very considerable distance, under the water ; and,
Fig. 1508.— Eared Grebes.
and seek their food in the salt water. They are much larger Birds
than the Grebes, measuring usually between two feet and a-half and
three feet in length, and are essentially inhabitants of the high
northern latitudes, visiting our shores in the autumn, remaining
through the winter, and quitting us in the spring to seek their nor-
thern breeding stations. .. A good many, however, remain to breed on
the coasts and lakes of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland,
forming a neat nest of vegetable materials on the beach, or amongst
the herbage of the shore ; they lay two or three eggs, and the young
take to the water soon after they are hatched. They fly rapidly,
although their wings are very small in comparison to the size of their
bodies, and exhibit the greatest activity in the water, swimming
swiftly either upon the surface, or with the whole of the body sub-
merged, and diving and progressing under water with great ease.
The Great Northern Diver [^Colymbus glacialis. Fig. 1509), which is
one of the finest species, is described as follows : —
The Great Northern Diver {Colymbus glacialis). — Greatest
speckled Diver or Loon of Williighby ; Immer Diver, Ember Goose
of Sibbald ; Imber, le grand Plongeon of Buffon ; Schwarzhalsiger
Seetaucher, Eis-taucher, Grosse Hab-ente, and Meer-nocring of the
Germans ; Inland Loon of the Hudson's Bay residents ; Turlik of
the Greenlanders : Kagloolek of the Esquimaux ; Eilhcnncw Moqua
when it comes to the surface, it seldom e.xpioses more than the neck.
It takes wing with difficulty, flies heavily, though swiftly, and
frequently in a circle round those who intrude on its haunts. Its
loud and very melancholy cry, like the howling of the wolf, and at
times like the distant scream of a man in distress, is said to portend
rain. Its flesh is dark, tough, and unpalatable. We caught several
of these birds in the fishing-nets, in which they had entangled
themselves in the pursuit offish."
Montagu informs us that one of these Birds, captured on our
shores, was kept in a pond for some months. " In a few days," he
says, " it became extremely docile, would come to the call from one
side of the pond to the other, and would take food from the hand. The
bird had received an injury in the head, which had deprived one eye
of its sight, and the other was a little impaired ; but, notwithstanding,
it could, by incessantly diving, discover all the fish that were thrown
into the pond. When it could not get fish it would eat flesh ; and
when it quitted the water, it shoved its body along upon the ground
like a seal, by jerks, rubbing the breast against the ground; and
returned again to the water in a similar manner. In swimming and
diving the legs only were used, and not the wings, and by their
situation so far behind, and their little deviation from the line of the
body, it is enabled to propel itself in the water with great velocity."
4 G
594
THE PELICANS.
The colours of the adult Great Northern Diver are admirably
arranged; head and neck jet black, with a broad colour of white
striated with black, nearly encircling the lower part of the neck, and
a similar, but narrow collar, the upper part. Upper plumage glossy
black, thickly dotted with square marks of white, disposed in regular
rows ; sides of the chest white, striated with black. Under surface
pure white ; tail, very short ; bill, black; legs, dull black; length,
thirty-five or thirty-six inches. In the young of the year, the
head and upper plumage are generally of a greyish brown;
and the under plumage white. After the second moult, a
dark band appears along the neck, and the upper plumage
begins to assume indications of the adult character, which is still
more developed at the third moult, and is perfected at the fourth.
(See Fig. 1509.)
Fig. 1509. — Northern Diver.
The Pelicans— Family Pelecanida.
The Divers are followed by the interesting family of the Pele-
canidce, of which the essential character consists in the peculiar
formation of the foot, the hinder toe being directed more or less
inwards, and united by a web with the innermost of the three
anterior toes. (See Fig. 1510.)
In their habits the Peleca7iida exhibit considerable diversity, but
they are all voracious Birds, feeding entirely upon Fishes, which
they capture in various ways. They form a rude nest, sometimes
on rocks close to the water, or on trees at a considerable distance
from It, and the young usually remain in the nest until they are
capable of flight.
This family includes several very interesting Birds, amongst which
the best known are the typical Pelicans, of which several species are
found in different in different parts of the world. The Pelicans are
large Birds, the common species measuring from five to si.x feet in
length \vith an expanse of wing from twelve to thirteen feet. They
live indifferently on the banks of rivers and lakes and on the sea
shores, generally in small flocks ; and, according to Lesson, do not
go to any very great distance from the shore. They swim and fly
well, and, like the other species of this family, and a few Ducks, are
able to perch upon trees. The skin, beneath the lower mandible, is
dilated into a large pouch, in which the Fish are stored when cap-
tured; from this the food passes gradually into the cesophagus, as
the process of digestion goes on. When fishing, the Pelicans fly
over the water at a height of from twenty to forty feet, until they see
a Fish near enough to the surface, when they immediately dart down
upon It with the most unerring certainty, store it away in the pouch
and proceed in search of more. '
The White Pelican fPckcamis onocrofa/usj. In the genus
Pelecaiius the bill is very long, broad, flattened, and straight with
a hooked projection at the extremity of the upper mandible • the
nostrils are basal slits ; the under mandible is formed of two long
slender flexible branches, uniting together at the tip, and enclosing
a widely dilatable membranous pouch, which extends to the throat •
tongue rudimentary; eyes surrounded by a naked space- body
large; legs short; wings moderately ample; air-cells of tlie body
extensively developed. Fig. 151 1 represents the head, Fig. 15 12
the foot, of the Pelican.
This magnificent Bird is a native of Africa, India, and Aus-
tralia, and the southern provinces of Eastern Europe. It is
also found in America. It is common on the Danube and Volga,
on the lakes of Hungary and Russia, on the Black Sea, and
along the coasts of Greece, and also in Egypt and the Cape of Good
Hope.
Fig. 1 5 10. — The Pelican.
Hasselquist, who saw this species at Damietta, observes that it
visits Egypt in the middle of September, arriving in flocks, which
form during flight an acute triangle at a great elevation. Dr. Von
Siebold saw it at Japan. The Pelican swims well, but, strictly
speaking, does not dive. We have often seen these Birds plunge
their long beaks and necks under water, and' net the Fish in their
capacious pouches : in their wild state they hover and wheel over
Fig. 1511. — Head of the Pelican.
the surface of the water, watching the shoals of Fish beneath, and
suddenly sweeping down, bury themselves in the foaming waves ;
rising immediately from the water by their own buoyancy, up they
soar, the pouch laden with the Fish scooped up during their momen-
tary submersion. The number of Fish the pouch of this species will
contain may be easily imagined when we state that it is so dilatable
as to be capable of containing two gallons of water ; yet the Bird has
the power of contracting this membranous expansion, by wrinkling
it up under the lower mandible, until it is scarcely to be seen. In
shallow inlets, which the Pelican often frequents, it nets its prey with
Fig. 1512. — Foot of the Pelican.
THE PELICANS.
595
great adroitness in the manner already described, and which may
be witnessed by observers of these Birds in the Zoolo,^ical Gardens.
The PeHcan chooses remote and solitary islands, isolated rocks
in the sea, the borders of lakes and rivers, as its breeding-place.
The nest, placed on the ground, is made of coarse grasses, and the
eggs, which are white, are two or three in number. While the
female is incubating, the male brings fish to her in his pouch, and
the young, when hatched, are assiduously attended by the parents,
who feed them by pressing the pouch against the breast, so as to
transfer the Fish from the former into the throats of the young. This
action has doubtless given origin to the old fable of the Pelican
feeding its young with blood drawn from its own breast. Occa-
sionally the Pelican perches on trees along the margin of the water,
but rocky shores are its favourite haunts. In certain localities they
congregate in great numbers, mi.\ed with other Water-fowl, all
harmoniously breeding together. Le Vaillant, upon visiting Dassen
Eyland, at the entrance of Saldanha Bay, after wading through
the surf and clambering up the rocks, beheld an astonishing
spectacle : — " All of a sudden there arose from the whole surface of
the island an impenetrable cloud, which formed at the distance of
rig. 1513 Pelicans in their haunts.
forty feet above our heads an immense canopy, or rather sky, com-
posed of birds of every species and of all colours ; cormorants, sea-
gulls, sea-swallows, pelicans, and I believe the whole winged race
of this part of Africa, assembled on this spot. All their voices
mixed together, and modified according to their different kinds,
formed such a horrid music that I was every moment obliged to
cover my head to gain a little relief to my ears. The alarm which
we spread was so much the more general among these innumerable
legions of birds, as we principally disturbed the females, which were
then sitting ; they had nests, eggs, and young to defend. They
were like furious harpies let loose against us, and their cries rendered
us almost deaf. They often flew so near us that they flapped their
wings in our faces, and, though we fired our pieces repeatedly, we
were not able to frighten them ; it seemed almost impossible to
disperse this cloud. We could not move one step without crushing
cither their eggs or young, the earth was entirely strewed with them."
The same enthusiastic traveller also narrates, that, on the Klein-
brak river, whilst waiting for the ebb-tide, he saw assembled
thousands of Pelicans and Flamingoes, the white of the former
strongly contrasting with the scarlet of the latter.
Besides the Common Pelican, another species {P. crisfus,
Feldegg) inhabits south-eastern Europe. In America there are two
species, the P. trachyrhynchus, Latham, and the P. fusciis. The
former is numerous in the fur countries, where it was found breeding
by Dr. Richardson, on small rocky islands, and the brink of
cascades.
The White Pelican, when adult, has the plumage generally of a
pure white, with a slight rose tinge ; the feathers of the chest are
long, firm, and silky, with a tinge of fine straw yellow ; the quill-
feathers are black, but nearly concealed beneath the wing-coverts,
which are long and pointed and very regularly and beautifully dis-
posed ; the bill is yellowish, passing into red at the tip ; the sides of
the lower mandible, and a line down the upper being lead-coloured ;
pouch yellow ; legs vivid ; space round the eyes flesh-colour.
Length nearly si.x feet ; expanse of wing twelve or thirteen feet.
(See Fig. 1513.)
The following kinds of Pelicans may be seen in the Zoological Gar-
dens, London ; we add further description, quoted from the " Guide."
The Common Pelican {Pelecanus oiwcrotalus). The Mitred
Pelican {P. niitratus). The Crested Pelican {P. cn'sfitis).
The Australian Pelican {P. conspicillatus). The West
African Pelican {P. ne/ascens).
" The Pelicans do well in captivity, and the Society's living series
of the species found in the Old
Worldis very nearly complete. But
we have at present no representa-
tives of the Pelicans of America.
"The Crested Pelican is sel-
dom seen in collections. Accord-
ing to Lord Lilford it is common
throughout the year on the coast of
Epirus, but the living specimens
which have been received by the
Society have been usually brought
from Upper Egypt. The orange
colour of the pouch becomes ex-
tremely vivid in the breeding
season ; and the bird is altogether
larger and more imposing than
the common species, P. onocro-
talus.
" The Pelicans have a very ex-
tensive distribution, being found
in all quarters of the world. One
of the finest of the whole genus is
the Australian Pelican, of which
the Society have two adult speci.
mens." There are numerous
specimens of the Pelican in the
British Museum.
Nearly allied to the Pelicans
are Cormorants belonging to the
genus Phalacrocorax of which
the following is a description.
The Cormorant (Phalacro-
corax carbd). — In the genus Pha-
lacrocorax the bill is long,
straight, compressed, with the
upper mandible boldly curved at
the point : the gullet is large and
dilatable ; sides efface and throat
naked ; nostrils basal and linear ;
tail ample and rigid.
In the " Zoological Journal, " vol.
iv., Mr. Yarrell has described an
additional bone affixed to the oc-
ciput of the Cormorant, and which
he calls a xiphoid bone, giving origin on each side to a long triangular
muscle, acting, in addition to the ordinary muscles upon the lower
jaw: he also notices the great length of the OS quadratum. Fig. 15 14
represents the skull, i, and the dissected head, 2. of the Cormorant.
The skull, i. : a, the occipital ridge ; b, the xiphoid bone ; c, the os
quadratum. Dissected head, 2. : a and b, muscles answering to the
temporal and massitor ; c, the triangular muscle arising from the
xiphoid bone and inserted into the lower jaw.
The range of the Cormorant is very extensive ; it is found on the
Ganges of India, over the greater part of Europe, and also in North
America. It is abundant in Holland at all seasons, and is common
in France and England ; numbers breed on the cliffs of the Isle of
Wight, and, according to Selby, on the Farn or Fern Islands ; and
flocks may often be seen on sand-banks near our southern coast, on
isolated rocks, or sailing up and down near the shore, and up the
mouths of the larger rivers. Voracious in the extreme, the Cormo-
rant is an unwearied and active fisher, pursuing its prey beneath the
water, like the Otter, occasionally rising to take breath, and renewing
the chase. Eels are said to be a favourite food. The dilatable
character of the gullet of this Bird permits it to swallow Fish of con-
siderable size without difficulty, head foremost ; but should the Fish
be seized transversely, the Bird jerks it into the air, and dexterously
catches it in the right position as it falls. The Cormorant swims so
596
THE CORMORANTS.
low in the water that nothing but the head, neck, and top of the back
appear above the surface ; its tail, composed of stiff elastic feathers,
is submerged and used as a rudder in its subaquatic evolutions, and
the wings as oars ; the address with which it dives, and the rapidity
of its movements, are wonderful, nor less so the pertinacity with which
it pursues its victims. This interesting Bird sometimes builds its
nest in trees, but generally on the summits of rocks : the nest consists
of dried seaweeds ; in the Fern Islands, according to Mr. Selby, the
nests so composed are frequently two feet in height. The eggs are
from three to five in number, of a bluish white. The young, when
first hatched, are naked, the skin being of a purplish black ; in si.N
Fig. 1514.— Skull and Head of the Cormorant.
or seven days they become covered with black down, but the feathered
plumage is not perfected till a lapse of six weeks. Yet when only
half-fledged, if thrown into the water they immediately dive and
pursue their submarine course to a great distance, using their imper-
fect wings in the same manner, and with almost as much effect, as
the old Birds. (See Fig. 1515.)
Fig. i5i5._The Cormorant.
In winter, fiocks of Cormorants often wander inland, and may
be seen on lakes and rivers at a considerable distance from the
sea.
When the old Birds are surprised on the nest, they have a strant^e
habit of stretching out the neck, raising up the head, opening the
bill, and vibrating the loose skin of the throat, while at the same
time they utter a cry expressive of alarm and anger.
Ravenous as the Cormorant is, it is easily tamed, and becomes
very attached and familiar. One of these Birds which was cau^-ht
by accident, was kept by Colonel Montagu, and soon became pljr-
fectly domesticated ; it would join him at the fireside, and dress its
feathers with perfect self-possession. It lived in perfect harmony with
Swans, Geese, Ducks, and other Birds, and was only excited by the
sight of a Fish. It never attempted to stray, and would walk in and
out of the house, regardless even of the Dog, and was, as the colonel
said," Troublesomely tame." This character, Mr. Selby states, that he
can confirm, having himself kept these Birds in a domesticated state.
As a further proof of the docile nature of this Bird, we may men-
tion that both in our country and in Holland it was trained to fish ;
Willoiighby, quoting Faber, says : " They are wont in England to
train cormorants to fishing : when they carry them out of the room
where they are kept to the fish-pools, they hoodwink them, that they
be not frightened by the way : when they come to the rivers they
take off the hoods, and having tied a leather thong round the lower
part of their necks that they may not swallow down the fish they
catch, throw them into the river. They presently dive under
water, and there for a long time with wonderful swiftness pursue
the fish, and when they have caught them they rise presently
to the top of the water, and pressing the fish lightly with their
bills they swallow them, till each bird hath after this manner
devoured five or six fishes. Then their keepers call them to the fist,
to which they readily fly, and little by little disgorge all their fish,
a little bruised by the nip they gave them with their bills. When
they have done fishing, setting the birds on some high place, they
loose the string from their necks, leaving the passage to the stomach
free and open, and for their reward they throw them part of the prey
they have caught to each, perchance, one or two fishes, which they
by the way, as they are falling in the air, will catch most dexterously
in their mouths. " Swammerdam states the circumstance of Trained
Cormorants being brought from Holland to England for sale. Latham
observes that " Whitelock says he had a cast of them, manned like
hawks, and which would come to hand ; and relates, that the best he
had were presented to him by Mr Wood, master of the cormorants to
King Charles the First."
The adult Cormorant is a handsome Bird. Top of the head, neck,
breast, lower part of the back, and under surface, of a glossy greenish
black ; a white band stretches across the throat, and white silky
hair-like feathers are scattered over the upper part of the neck ; top
of the back and wings fine bronze brown, each feather having a
marginal belt of rich velvet black ; quill and tail feathers black ; bill
dusky ; skin of the throat yellow ; iris bright green ; a white patch
upon the thighs ; legs dusky black. A semi-erect crest on the back
of the head. Length about three feet ; extent of wings nearly four feet.
The Fishing Corjiorant. — Of the exotic species, the most
remarkable is the Fishing Cormorant {Phalacrocorax sinejisis), an
inhabitant of China, where it is regularly trained and employed in
fishing. Mr. Fortune, who saw them frequently engaged in this
manner during his travels in the interior of China, says that their
docility is so remarkable, that had he not witnessed their proceed-
ings, he would have had great difficulty in believing the statements
of previous authors. They are taken out in small boats, each with
a string tied round his neck to prevent his swallowing the F~ish when
caught ; and on receiving the word of command from their masters,
immediately quit the boats and scatter themselves over the surface
of the water, looking out for prey. The moment they perceive a Fish
below them, they dive down upon it, and, on rising again with their
prey, they bring it to their masters with the docility of a Dog, allow
themselves to be dragged in, disgorge the Fish, and then return to
their occupation. " What is more wonderful still," adds Mr. Fortune,
" if one of the Cormorants gets hold of a fish of large size, so large
that he would have some difficulty in taking it to the boat, some of the
others, seeing his dilemma, hasten to his assistance, and, with their
efforts united, capture the animal, and haul him off to the boat."
Occasionally one of the Birds will swim about without attending to
its business ; the fishermen then strike the water near it with a long
bamboo used for propelling the boat, and call out to it in an angry
tone, when the Cormorant, "like the truant schoolboy who neglects
his lessons and is found out, gives up his play, and resumes his
labours." They fish for about seven hours daily, for seven or eight
months in the year — namely, from October to May ; they do not fish
during the summer months. At five o'clock in the afternoon, when
they cease fishing, and come on shore, each Bird receives about half
a pound of fish and some pulse jelly; but during the day they are,
of course, not fed. It appears that, in some parts of China, there
are large establishments for breeding and training these Birds. They
begin to lay when about three years old; the eggs are hatched by
hens, and the young, when excluded, are put upon cotton, and fed
with eels' blood for five days. At the end of this period they are fed
with finely chopped eels. It is interesting to see the instincts of a
Bird which, in a state of nature, is so exceeeding destructive, thus
rendered subservient to the convenience of mankind.
The Crested Cormorant or Shag {Phalacrocorax cn'sfufus.)
Cormoran Largup of Temminck : Shag or Green Cormorant of
Gould, Selby, and others. The Crested Cormorant, or Shag, is
widely spread over the north of Europe, but is not an American
species. It is common on various parts of our coast, breeding in the
cliffs, and on the ledges of perpendicular cliffs (not like the preced-
ing, on the top), and making a nest of seaweeds. Its habits,
manners, and food are precisely the same as those of the Cormorant,
and require no separate detailed account.
The crest of tnis species, which consists of an occipital tuft of long
THE FRIGATE BIRDS— THE G ANNE IS.
S97
green feathers, is lost after the breeding- season. The upper part of
the back and shoulders of a deep bronzed green, each feather being
martrined with velvet black; head, neck, and under surface lustrous
silky blackish green ; tail of twelve black feathers ; bill and legs
black ; guttural skin, and corners of the mouth gamboge-yellow, the
former with black specks ; iris green. Length two feet one or two
inches. (See Fig. 1516.)
The foreign species of the genus PJiahicrocorax are very numerous,
and generally distributed throughout the different quarters of the
globe; Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australia havmg their
respective examples. The collection of the British Museum is rich
in stuifed specimens obtained from India, Australia, New Zea-
land, various parts of North and South America, the Falkland
Isles, &c.
■^O^^-^.-
Fig. 1 5 16. — The Crested Cormorant.
Amongst the most remarkable Birds of this family are the Frigate
Birds {Tachypefes), which are distinguished by the immense length
and power of the wings. They are more particularly described as
follows : —
The Frigate, or Man-of-War Bird [Tachypetes aquilus).
— The genus Tachypetes is characterised by a strong elongated beak,
depressed in the centre, and abruptly hooked at the end ; the nostrils
are mere slits in a suture running along each side of the upper
mandible ; the tarsi are extremely short ; the webs of the toes
deeply notched ; the wings extremely long and narrow ; the tail
is forked ; an extensive naked gular pouch : one species only is
ascertained.
Noted for its raptorial habits, the Frigate Bird soars on rapid
pinions over the broad expanse of ocean principally in intertropical
latitudes, and tyrannizes over the Gulls and Boobies, from whom it
forces the prey they have captured. At immense distances from
shore it pursues its habits of rapine, but is never known to repose on
the water ; rapid as an arrow it plunges from its altitude upon the
shoals of flying-fish, which rise glittering above the surface, or upon
some unfortunate Sea-Bird which has made a capture, and which it
harasses till it obtains the booty. No Bird is more at home in air,
or sweeps along on more radid pinions. Supported, says Mr. Vigors,
" in its unlimited flights by the strength and expansion of its wings,
and aided by the singular mechanism of its tail, and the buoyant
nature of the inflated sac which distends its throat, it seems to be
an inhabitant of the air rather than of the land, to which it resorts
alone for the duties of its nest, or of the water, over which it only
hovers for its prey." It may here be added that the long wing-bones
are hollow, thin, and light, and that the air-cells of the whole body
are extremely developed, while, in proportion to the expanse of
wings, the total weight of the Bird is very trifling ; hence can it
repose in the upper regions of the atmosphere, suspended without
effort.
Sloane, who saw these and Tropic Birds when he came into lati-
tude 13° 10', says, "The man-of-war bird seems very large, bigger
than a kite, and black ; they fly like kites, very high, and often
appear immovable over the water, to wait for and catch small fish
appearing on the surfare : they are sharp winged, and their tail is
forked. When flying-fishes are persecuted under water by dolphins,
bonitos, &c., they rise and fly for some space in the air, and are
often devoured by these birds in that time. We saw them first when
we came near Barbadoes. The sailors guess themselves not many
days, or about two hundred leagues, off the islands, when they spy
them first ; and it is wondered how they can direct their course to
the land at nights, being so far distant ; but it seems no very strange
matter, because they are very high in the air, and can see land
much farther than those on the deck or topmast of a ship. The
reason of their flying so high may be to have a greater field before
them for prey, because they may go where they see the dolphins
follow or hunt the flying-fishes. They are commonly thought in the
West Indies to foretcl the coming in of ships, for when they see a
man-of-war bird come into their ports, they reckon ships will soon
follow ; and it is very often true, for they love to fish in not very
rough weather, so that when it blows hard at sea, they come into
the ports and bays to fisli, where the wind is broken off by the land,
and the same wind blowing them in, brings in the shipping after
them. There are more of these in the firm land of America than in
the isles. One of these birds at Panama coming to take sardinas
that were a-curing in the sun, a negro broke his wing with a stick he
had in his hand: the body, after it was cleared of feathers, was
little bigger than a pigeon. The wings being extended, no man,
though several tried, could reach, with his arms stretched out,
within four inches of the tip of them." The fat was considered by
the Indians and others a sovereign remedy in some diseases, such
as sciatica, &c.
These Birds are said to build their nest on precipitous rocks near
the sea. The eggs are stated to be of a carnation tinge dotted with
crimson, and one or two in number. The length of the male, in-
cluding the tail, is three feet ; expanse of wing eight feet ; gular
air-pouch red ; general plumage blackish umber-brown. In the
female the pouch is less and the plumage of a duller hue. (See Fig.
1517.) In the collection of the British Museum specimens may be
seen of the Ariel Frigate Bird of Australia, and other species.
rig. 1517.— The Frigate, or Man-of-War Bird.
The Gannets next follow. They resemble the Cormorants in their
general form, but vary in certain particulars.
The Gannet. Soland Goose, or Booby {Sula bassana).—
Fou de Bassan of the French ; Solend-Gans, or Schotten-Gans of
the Germans ; Gans of the ancient British ; Solan and Soland
Goose, English. The name Booby has been applied to them on
account of the ease with which they may be approached, and cap-
tured when sitting.
In the genus Sula, the bill is long, thick at the base, and taper-
ing to a sharp point ; the edges are denticulated with serrations
directed backwards ; beneath the under mandible the skin is naked
and dilatable; space round the eyes naked; tail graduated; claw
of the middle toe pectinated.
Gifted with unwearied powers of wing, the Gannet soars over the
ocean, surveying its surface with a piercing glance, and darting
down with more than arrow-like rapidity on the Fish winch has
unwarily approached the surface. This extraordinary Bird is dis-
tributed over the Arctic regions of the Old and New World : in
Europe, the shores of Norway and the Hebrides are their strongholds ;
the Bass Rock at the entrance of the Frith of Forth, the Isle of Ailsa
at the mouth of the Frith of Clyde, St. Kilda, the Skelig Isles on
the Irish coast, and others, are their annual breeding resorts. 1 liey
are numerous in Iceland, and are found on the coast of Newlound-
land, and on the north-west coast of America.
The Gannet is migratory, arriving at the Bass, and other places
of resort, about the end of March, in vast flocks, for the purpose ot
incubation. Thousands incubate in harmony together : the nes:
is composed of withered grasses and sun-dried seaweeds ana,
according to Mr. Selby, the female lays only a single c^?., not two as
is stated by Temmick. When first hatched, the young are quile des-
titute of down, and the skin is of a dark lead colour ; in a lew d,ays
however, the white down makes is appearance, and soon becomes
so thick and full, that the nestlings look like powder-pufl^ : in about
two months the young are fledged. 1 /- „»
The Bass Rock and St. Kilda may be regarded as regular Gannet
59S
THE DARTERS.
farms ; the young are taken in g^eat numbers, not only for the sake
of the down, but also of their flesh, which, though oily and rank, is
esteemed as a relish, when roasted, in some parts of Scotland. Mr.
Selby says, in respect to the Bass Rock, that " Great care is taken
to protect the old birds, which the tenant is enabled to do from the
privilege possessed by the proprietor of preventing any person from
shooting or otherwise destroying them, \\ithin a certain limited dis-
tance of the island. From the accounts I have received from the
resident there, it appears that the gannet is a very long-lived bird,
as he has recognised, from particular and well-known marks, certain
individuals, for upwards of forty years, that invariably returned to
the same spot to breed ; he also confirmed to me the time required
for this bird to attain maturity— viz., four years, and pointed out
several in the different garbs they assume during that period, stating
also, that until fully matured, they have never been known to breed."
During incubation, in consequence of being unmolested, they be-
come very tame : and where the nests are easily accessible, upon the
flat surface of the rock, on the south-west side of the island, will
allow themselves to be stroked by the hand without resistance, or
any show even of impatience, except the low guttural cry of ^ro^-,
grog. The surface of Bass Island is almost entirely covered in the
months of May and June with the nests, eggs, and young of the
Gannet, so that it is scarcely possible to walk without treading on
them. The flocks rise in clouds, and make such a stunning noise
that it is scarcely possible to hear your companion's voice. The sea
all round is covered with them, and the flocks in the distance can
only be compared to vast swarms of Bees. The food of the Gannet
consists almost exclusively of the different species of Herring, on
which it plunges from a great altitude, with tremendous force and
rapidity ; Gannets have, indeed, been taken by means of a Fish
fastened to a board sunk to the depth of two fathoms, against which,
so violent has been the shock of the Bird, that its neck has been
instantly dislocated, and the bill firmly fixed in the wood. Thus,
plunging from aloft beneath the waves, do the Birds pounce upon
its finny prey, and again rise into the regions of air with surprising
ease and address. Buchanan, in his " View of the Fishery of Great
Britain," calculated that the Gannets of St. Kilda alone destroy
annually 105,000,000 of Herrings; yet the shoals of this Fish,
though man draws his millions also, seem undiminished, notwith-
standing the annual havoc made amongst them. On the approach
of autumn, the great body of Gannets seek more southern latitudes,
and in winter are met with in great abundance in the Bay of Biscay
and in the Mediterranean, where the Anchovy and Sardine afford
them an ample supply.
The general colour of the adult Gannet is white ; the top of the
head and back of the neck being tinged with yellow, and the quill-
feathers black ; bill bluish-grey ; naked skin around the eyes dull
blue ; skin of throat black ; webs of the toes dusky ; a bluish streak
along the tarsus and upper part of the toes. Length, two feet eight
or ten inches. The general plumage of the young of the year is
dusky grey, which gradually passes into white. (See Fig. 1518.)
There are numerous specimens of the Gannet in the British
Museum.
Fig. 1518.— The Gannet.
The preceding species all belong to the typical sub-family of the
Pelecani7tCB, but there are two other groups, each containing a
single genus, which have also been regarded as forming sub-
families — viz., the Plotina, or Darters, and the Phaito7ii7ice, or
Tropic Birds.
Le Vaillant's Darter, or Snake-Bird {Plohts levaiUanth).
— The Darters, or Anhingas, as Buffon and the French naturalists
term them, are most extraordinary Birds, remarkable for the length
and slenderness of the neck, which bears no distant resemblance to
the slim form of a Snake, attached to the body of a Cormorant ; the
beak is long, straight, pointed, and obliquely dentilated along the
edges: the face and throat are naked, the wings rather short ; the
tail ample and composed of rigid feathers. The Darters perch upon
trees along the margin of rivers, lakes, and creeks ; they swim with
the body completely submerged, the long neck alone rising out of
the water. When thus seen, they might be mistaken at a casual
glance for Snakes, and Le Vaillant says, that when the Birds are
perching the neck is in a state of constant oscillation, and that any
one who saw its tortuous movements amidst the foliage of the
trees, the body being concealed, would take it for one of the Tree-
Serpents. During flight the neck is stretched out in a line with the
body.
Le Vaillant's Darter is a native of Senegal, the Cape of Good
Hope, some parts of India, and of the islands of Java and Sumatra.
It feeds on Fish, which it pursues, like the Cormorant, under water,
using its tail as a rudder in its subaquatic evolutions.
Small Fish are swallowed whole, but larger prey is carried to the
trunk of a tree or rock, where the Bird, fixing it securely beneath its
feet, picks it to pieces. Though the water is the favourite element
of the Darter, according to Le Vaillant, it is upon trees and rocks
that it establishes its nest and rears its young ; always choosing
situations favourable to the escape of the brood, when fledged, or
when alarmed, into the water. This species is extremely shy and
waty, and difficult of approach ; so instantaneous are its actions in
the water, that it dives before the shot reaches it, upon the drawing
of the trigger, and often doubles back, emerging far behind the
sportsman, and, taking wing, sails away to a distance. In full
plumage all the upper part of the head and back of the neck are
brick red, bordered with a riband of black which descends to the
shoulders ; forehead, cheeks and sides of neck, white ; throat and
anterior part of neck, ochre-yellow ; chest and under parts blaek,
with green reflexions ; base of the neck reddish, with spots of white ;
upper surface brown, the middle of each feather of a bright rust
colour ; quills and tail brown ; beak and feet yellow. (See Fig.
1519-)
Fig. 1519. — Le Valliant's Darter.
The American Darter {Plohts ankinga). — The American
Darter, or Snake-Bird, is a native of the Carolinas, Georgia, the
Floridas, and Louisiana ; it is common in Brazil and Cayenne. Like
the African species, it swims with the body submerged, and its long
neck vibrating in a peculiar manner. " The first individual," says
Mr. Ord, "tliat I saw in Florida, was sneaking away to avoid me
along the shore of a reedy marsh, which was lined with alligators ;
and the first impression on my mind was that I beheld a snake, but
the recollection of the habits of the bird soon undeceived me. To
pursue these birds at such a time is useless, as they cannot be
induced to rise, or even e.xpose their bodies." " Wherever," adds
THE TROPIC BIRDS.
599
the same naturalist, "the limbs of a tree project over and dip into
the waters there the darters are sure to be found, these situations
being convenient resting-places for the purpose of sunning and
preening themselves, and probably giving them a better opportunity
of obsen-ing their finny prey. They crawl from the water upon the
limbs and fix themselves in an upright position, which they main-
tain in the utmost silence. If there be foliage or long moss, they
secrete themselves in it in such a manner that they cannot be per-
ceived unless one be close to them. When approached, they drop
into the water with such surprising skill, that one is astonished how
so large a body can plunge with so little noise, the agitation of he
water being apparently not greater than that occasioned by the
gliding of an eel." . . r . t-, ^
Bartram, who states that he has seen paintings of the Darter on
Chinese screens, and other Indian pictures, was "«*. we suppose,
aware of the distinction between the American and Old .World
snecies which, till Teinminck extricated them from a labyrinth ot
error were confounded together under the title of Plotus mclatio-
gast'er According to Bartram, these Birds "delight to sit in little
Fig. 1520. — The American Darter — Male.
peaceable communities on the dry limbs of trees, hanging over the
still waters, with their wings and tails expanded, to cool and air
themselves, when at the same time they behold their images in the
watery mirror. At such times, when approached, they drop off the
limbs into the water as if dead, and for a minute or two are not to be
seen, when on a sudden, at a great distance, their long slender head
and neck appear, like a snake rising erect out of the water. In the
heat of the day they are seen in great numbers, sailing very high in
the air over lakes and rivers." These Birds build in the trees of
swamps and islands in the midst of lakes or sheets of water, and
occupy the same station for a series of years ; the nest is large, and
made of sticks, and the eggs are blue.
The plumage undergoes several changes before the perfect livery
is attained. In full plumage the general colour is glossy greenish-
black ; the scapular feathers are long and slender, ornamented with
a streak of white down the centre of each, forming a sort of plume
over the back and wings ; side of the neck, from the eye backwards,
marked throughout half its length with a stripe of brownish-white,
consisting of long hair-like feathers ; a few tufts on the crown ; wings
black, beautifully variegated with silvery white ; bill black above,
yellow below ; naked skin of face and throat yellow ; legs yellow ;
middle claw pectinated ; plumage stiff and elastic. In the female
and young the front of the neck is of a rusty grey colour, which
extends over the breast. Length about two feet eight or ten inches,
but the body does not much exceed in size that of a large Duck.
Fig. 1520 represents the male. Fig. 152 1 the female.
The Common Tropic Bird {P/iaeion cstherius). — The genus
Phaetoti, by some regarded as belonging to the Larida (Gulls), is
characterised by a strong, compressed, elongated, and pointed Ijill
with dentilated edges ; the nostrils are linear ; the cheeks are
feathered ; the legs are very small and short ; the wings long and
pointed ; the tail short ; with the exception of two long, slender, but
wiry feathers.
The navigator well knows these Birds as harbingers of the Tropics,
where, far from land, they may be seen soaring over the ocean, or
giving chase to the Flying-fishes, which rise in glittering shoals
above the surface of the waves. Their flight is extremely graceful :
they often glide along, without any apparent motion of the wings,
but sometimes dart onwards by a succession of rapid impulsive
movements, cleaving the air with great velocity. On the appearance
of a vessel, they generally make towards it, sail round and round it,
and then shoot away, to give chase to their finny prey.
It is seldom that these Birds are seen many degrees beyond the
Tropics, though occasionally they are driven out of the limits of their
ordinary range by storms. The Tropic Bird rarely, if ever, settles on
the water ; but usually returns to its roosting-place in the evening,
where it perches on trees or craggy rocks. In serene weather it is
sometimes observed to settle on the backs of drowsy Turtles, sunning
Fig. 1521. — The American Darter — Female.
themselves at the surface of the water. Though, as we have said
these Birds usually visit their rocky resting-places in the evening,
yet in latitudes remote from land they keep during the night, as well
as the day, upon the wing. Lesson heard them often overhead in
fine calm tropical nights, still pursuing, unwearied, their rapid
course. According to Catesby, they breed on the inaccessible cliffs
of the Bermudas, and in great numbers on some little islands at the
end of Porto Rico. They are abundant near the islands of Bourbon
and Mauritius. The natives of some of the islands within the
Tropics use the two long tail-feathers as ornaments of dress.
The general colour of the Tropic Bird is white, variegated with
Fig. 1522.— The Tropic Bird.
6oo
THE GULLS.
cun-ed lines of black on the back ; marks of black across some of
the quill-feathers, and a circle of the same round the eye, ending in
a point near the occiput ; bill fine red ; legs Vermillion. Total
length, including the long, slender tail-feathers, about eighteen
inches. The Red-tailed Tropic Bird {Pha'pfon ^hcEni'airus) is a
distinct species, and more common in the intertropics of the Great
Pacific, while the present species frequents more abundantly those of
the Atlantic Ocean. The White Tropic Bird [P. caiididus) is seen
in the South Seas, and frequents the Island of Ascension.
The Gulls — Family LaridcB.
The Lartdce, or Gulls, have the wings of large size, and pass the
greater part of their time in the air. The feet are usually rather
small, furnished with three anterior toes, united by a membrane and
a free hinder-toe. The beak is of variable form, generally com-
pressed, and the nostrils are linear or oblong. The La}'!dcs are
active, noisy Birds ; most of them feed upon small Fish, which they
capture whilst skimming over the surface of the water. They are
very buoyant on the water, but swim little, and are incapable of
diving. They also form three sub-families. The Terns {Stern!)?cs)
have the beak long, nearly straight, and pointed ; the tarsi short,
and the tail more or less forked ; the latter character, coupled with
their small size and constant activity on the wing, has obtained for
them the name of Sea Swallows. (See Fig. 1523). The species are
tolerably numerous, and live in all parts of the world. They gener-
Fig. 1523. — Head and Foot of the Tern.
ally collect in numerous bands, and feed principally upon small
Fishes, MoUusca and Crustacea ; but some species, such as the
Sterna anglica, capture Insects upon the wing, thus presenting as
close a resemblance in their habits, as in their form, to the Swallows.
The species which feed upon Insects appear to frequent fresh-water
lakes and marshes, and many of them are found on the vast marshes
of Hungary and other inland countries. They make no nests, but
the females lay their eggs, from two to four in number, upon the bare
ground, or on the ledges of rocks ; they exhibit great attachment to
their young, and defend them with such courage as often to baffle
Birds of Prey in their attempts to carry off any of the brood. About
a dozen species occur in Britain, but they are only summer visitors,
arriving on our coasts in the spring, and quitting them again in the
autumn for more genial climates. The following is a description of
some of the species : —
The Common Tern {Sterna hirundd). — Pierre Garin of the
French ; Fionco and Rondine di mare of the Italians ; Meerschwalbe
of the Germans ; y F6rwennol fwyaf, and Yscraen of the ancient
British ; Sea Swallow, English. The Common Tern is found in
abundance along our southern shores, and those of the adjacent
parts of the Continent, as well as of Asia and Africa ; according
both to M. Temminck and the Prince of Musignano, it e.xtends its
range to the coasts of North America. It flies in flocks, uttering a
harsh note, and often ascends creeks and rivers to a considerable
distance from the sea. Nothing can exceed the address and sudden-
ness with which this Bird darts upon such Fish as approach the sur-
face, precipitating upon its unwary victims with unerring certainty,
and rising again to pursue its course, as if unchecked by the effort.
This species breeds upon the sand or shingle above high-water
mark, the female depositing two or three eggs in a slight cavity,
upon which she seldom broods during the middle of the day, if the
weather be sultry, but sits on them at night. They young Birds are
at first clothed in mottled down, and are carefully guarded by the
parents, who are watchful and clamorous in their defence, and sweep
close round the head of the intruder. The bill of the species is red,
passincr into black at the tip. The top of the head is black, be-
coming mixed with white in winter ; back and wings delicate ashy
grey ■ rump and tail white ; chest pearl grey. The outer web of the
outer tail-feather, and first quill-feather, blackish; legs tile red.
Length fourteen inches. .
The Common Tern is migratory m its habits, passing southwards
in winter. In the northern seas of our island it is rare. (See
Fig. 1524-)
The Noddy {Anous stoHdus, Leach; Megalopterus stolidus,
Boie ; Sterna stotida, Linn.)— This species is only an accidental
visitor to the coasts of Europe, its principal range of habitat being
confined to the Gulf of Mexico, the coasts of Florida, the Bahamas,
the Tortugas, and the neighbourhood of St. Helena. Two specimens
were shot off Wexford in Ireland, in 1830. It is familiar to all
Fig. 1524. — The Common Tern.
mariners who navigate in the Equatorial regions, and is often seen
in flocks, hundreds of leagues from land ; assiduously pursuing its
finny prey, and uttering loud and discordant cries. Occasionally it
alights on vessels, and suffers itself to be captured, probably being
exhausted by fatigue by wandering so far away from a resting-place.
Mr. Gould remarks, that the Noddy, unlike the generality of Terns,
builds in bushes or on low trees, making a large nest of twigs and
dried grass ; and while hovering round it, the old Birds utter a low
querulous murmur. The eggs are three in number, of a reddish yel-
low, blotched with dull red and purple. It does not plunge down
upon its prey, like the other Terns, but as it skims along the water,
during its rapid progress.
The wings when closed extend beyond the tail, which is rounded,
not forked. Plumage sooty black ; forehead white, passing into grey
and gradually blending with the general tint. Bill and feet black.
(See Fig. 1525.)
Fig. 1525, — The Noddy.
A second sub-family (the Rhynchopina) is formed by the remark-
able genus Rhy/ictwJ>s, the species of which, are found principally
on the coast of both sides of the American continent. The beak in
these Birds is long, straight, and much compressed— in the form of
the blade of a knife, the upper mandible being much shorter than
the lower ; the legs are slender, the wings very long, and the tail
forked. The peculiar form of the beak, and the manner in which it
is employed, have obtained for these Birds the names of Shearwaters
and Skimmers, from the inhabitants of the United States ; they skim
along the surface of the ocean by means of their long and powerful
wings, every now and then dipping the end of the elongated lower
mandible into the water, in search of the small Fishes and Crus-
tacea, upon which they feed. The common Shearwater {RJiynchops
ni'^ra) will be presently described. Like the Terns, which they
resemble in their general habits, the Shearwaters make no nest, but
lay their eggs in a hollow of the sand ; and the young, when hatched,
are attended to with great care by the parents.
The Shearwater or Scissors-Bill {RynchoJ>s tiigra). Sea
Skimmer, Cut-water; Piscator of the Ch''.iani.
THE GULLS.
60 1
This extraordinary Bird, whose beak differs from that of all its
oceanic allies, is very extensively spread ; it ranges along the east
and west coast of America; is not uncommon on the coasts of Mala-
bar and Coromandel, and on those of Senegal, in Africa. Catesby
describes it as frequent near the sea-coasts of Carolina ; Lesson found
it in thousands off the coasts of Concepcion (Chili); and Mr. Dar-
win observes, that he saw it on the east and west coasts of South
America between latitudes thirty and forty-five degrees ; and adds,
that it is abundant far inland, along the course of the Rio Parana,
whore it is said to be stationary, breeding in the marshes. _
The Scissors-bill or Shearwater is about twenty inches in length,
the neck being elongated ; its stretch of wing, however, is very great,
giving a measurement of three feet six or eight inches ; the man-
dibles of the bill are very compressed, and the lower, which is much
the longest, bears no distant resemblance to a sharp and slender
paper-cutter; its length is about five inches ; the upper mandible is
more than an inch shorter, more pointed, and rather stouter, having
its inferior edge channelled with a groove for the reception of the lower
blade, which shuts somewhat like a razor into its handle. Both man-
dibles are orange-red at the base, but gradually become black. Fig.
1 S26 shows the bill and head of this bird in different positions. The tail
Fig. 1526. — Head of the Scissors-bill.
is forked. Everlastingly traversing the surface of the water, this extra-
ordinary Bird flies with the celerity of an arrow ; and with the tip of
the lower mandible cleaving the liquid surface, it seizes and swallows
its prey, namely. Fishes and various Crustacea. In this manner
flocks skim to and fro, busy in thus ploughing the waves, each Bird
leaving its narrow wake as it dashes on in a wild irregular course,
uttering loud harsh cries of exultation. Catesby says that it fre-
quents the oyster banks on the coasts of Carolina, for the purpose of
feeding on those Mollusca (see Fig. 1527) ; Linnffius states that be-
sides Fishes and Crustacea, Shell-fish form part of its diet ; and
Lesson observes, " we had proof that this bird knew how to use its
Fig. 1527.— The Scissors-bill.
beak with advantage and the greatest address. The sandy beaches
of Penco are covered with Mactrez (bivalve shells) which the ebbing
tide leaves nearly dry in small shallows. The Scissors-bill, well aware
of this, places itself near these Mollusca, waiting till the valves are a
little opened, when it immediately thrusts in "the lower trenchant
blade of its bill between them ; they immediately close, and the bird
then raises the shell and beats it against the beach, so as to cut the
contractor muscle of the Mollusca, which it then easily obtains and
swallows. Many times have we been witnesses of this highly-per-
fected instinct." >= ^ if
The Scissors-Bill breeds in small flocks in marshes, on sand-banks,
and low islands ; the eggs arc three in number, of a clear white,
spotted with different shades of ash. The general colour of this
species is dark umber-brown, approaching black over the wings and
upper surface ; forehead, checks, throat, chest, and under parts
white : a slight bar of white across the wings ; feet red-lead
colour.
The sub-family of the Gulls {Laritia], including the Birds com-
monly known as Gulls, Sea-mews, &c., is distinguished from the
Terns by the more robust and arched form of the beak (Fig. 1528),
which is always more or less convex above, and often strongly
hooked at the tip. These Birds are found in great abundance upon
almost all shores, feeding upon Fishes, Crustacea, and Mollusca,
which they capture alive, and not unfrequently condescending to
make a meal upon the carcasses of Whales and Seals which may be
floating in their neighbourhood ; in fact, one species, the Ivory Gull
fPa^opliila eburnca), which is abundant on the coasts of Green-
land, has received the name of the Whale Gull, from its habit of
feeding upon the dead bodies of Cctacca.
Fig. 1528.— Beak of the Gull.
They are exceedingly voracious Birds, skimming constantly over
the surface of the waves in search of their finny prey, and often fol-
lowing- the shoals of Fish to great distances. The species of the genus
Lestris, however, have the remarkable habit of accompanying the
other Gulls and Terns when fishing, attacking them, and com-
pelling them to disgorge a portion of their prey, which the robber
seizes before it reaches the water. These Birds are endowed with
a great power of flight, and their toes are armed with strong curved
claws, although it does not appear that they seize the Birds that
they attack as above described. Some of the species often wander
to a considerable distance inland, especially during stormy weather ;
and the smaller species not unfrequently visit ploughed fields, for
the purpose of picking up Worms and the larvas of Insects.
The Gulls usually congregate in vast numbers at their breeding-
places, which are generally rocky headlands or islands. They make
a rude nest, and lay from two to four eggs. The British species are
rather numerous, but several of them only appear to visit our coast
during the breeding season ; whilst others, which breed in the high
northern latitudes, are seen on the British coasts in the winter. A
few remain here all the year round.
The Great Black-backed Gull {Larus marhius). — Among
the various species of Gull which haunt our shores, this fine species
may be often noticed flying alone or in pairs, and known by its
superior size, its black mantle, and wings. (See Fig. 1529.) It is
common in the Orcades and Hebrides ; and migrating south in
winter, visits the coasts of Holland and France, both in spring and
Fig. 1529. — The Great Black-backed Gull.
on the approach of the cold season. In ver)' high latitudes it is
rare; and is seldom seen in Baffin's Bay, though it is by no
means unfrcqucnt along the coast of the States of North America.
Its cry is loud and hoarse. Among its breeding places in the
British Islands may be named the Steep-holme, and Sandy Islands,
in the Bristol Channel, Souliskerry, in the Orkneys, the Bass Island
4 U
602
in the Frith of Forth, and the marshes at the mouth of the Thames.
U builds a nest of rushes, grass, &c. ; the eggs are three or four in
number of an olive-green blotched with blaek. In its habi s i is
very wary! anS its appetite is voracious. Fig. 1530 represents the
r;,v/^ rhUbundtiS Lnn.)-The species of the genus Xema
aeach) a e d sS'isbed by a more slender bill, a slighter contour,
Indbv the head b^ing black in summer, which colour is lost on the
approach of winter, "and resumed in the spring. The Laughing
GuU is common during the winter on our coasts and those of
t^^mDerate Europe • but leaves the sea on the approach of spring,
anTvrsts tr^lakes and fenny districts of the interior of the
country for the purpose of breeding. Here it makes a nest of de-
couniry, lu u i 1 ^^ ^^^^ among the tufts of rushes, the
female laying three or four eggs of a pale
olive-brown, blotched with black and grey.
The young are covered with parti-coloured
down, but soon become fledged, and to-
wards the end of June begin, with their
parents, their course from the interior sea-
wards. Formerly the eggs and young were
held in estimation, and, according to Mr.
Selby, a Gullery has produced a revenue of
from fifty to eighty pounds a-year to the
i»Silli*^r^ti^ proprietor. He notices the large pond at
/a^W\MfflflV,-TO Pallinsbum, in Northumberland, and other
Hiayywlra'iitre 1 localities in the neighbourhood, as annually
Mfinwf I |||lfi visited by flocks of these Birds ; and Wil-
Illllfilr'lllB luf'-hby states that in his time they yearly
lliiMilHfcliJi built and bred "at Norbury in Stafford-
^^UMaMm^WS shire, on an island in the middle of a great
pool," arriving about the beginning of
March, and incubating towards the end of
April. The young were taken and fattened
for the table, to the number of 1,200
annually, and sold at a high price.
The head of this species is a dark blackish-brown, the bill deep
crimson: the general plumage pearl grey above, white beneath;
winc-s long and pointed; legs blood red. In winter the head is
white Earthworms, Slugs, Aquatic Insects, constitute its sunimer
diet and it often visits ploughed lands in quest of the larvae of the
cockchaffcr; in winter it feeds upon small I'lsh and Crustacea.
(See Fig. 1531.)
THE PETRELS.
Fig. 1530. — Gizzard of
° theSea-Mew.
Fig. 1531. — Laughing Gulls.
The Arctic Skua Gull [Lestris ^arasih'cus; Catarr hades
■parasificus, Fleming ; Lams parasiticus, Linn.) Unlike the
True Gulls, the Skua or Parasitic Gulls are Birds of rapacious
habits, and are bold and destructive, resembling, in many points,
Birds of prey. Fish is their usual food ; like the Sea-Eagle, how-
ever, as already noticed, they seldom obtain their livlihood by their
own honest exertions, but attacking the ordinary species, they force
them to give up their booty, or to disgorge it, if swallowed, and,
sweeping down with arrow-like velocity, catch it before it reaches
the water. They have the beak strong and thick with an extended
cere at the base, and hooked at the point; the claws are large and
sharp, the inner one the most robust and curved ; the wings are lono-
and pointed ; the tail rounded, with the two middle feathers pro^
longed and narrow. Their flight is astonishingly rapid, and per-
formed in successive curves, so that it bears no resemblance to the
flagging undulating and wheeling course of the Gulls (Larus). A
few species tenant the northern shores of our island and the higher
latitudes : namely, the common Skua, a large and fierce Bird, which
hesitates not to assault the Eagle, should the latter venture within
the limits of its breeding territory ; the Pomarine Skua, and the
Arctic Skua. , , , . , .,
The Arctic Skua is widely distributed over the high northern
latitudes, and is to be met with in the Polar seas both of Europe and
North America ; it breeds upon several of the Orkney and Shetland
Islands, congregating in small flocks ; and the young in autumn
repair to the northern coasts in England, as well as those of the
Scottish mainland, harassing the Gulls that follow the shoals of
Herring, which at that season approach the shore ; the adults, how-
ever, are rarely met with so far south, but after the breeding season
migrate, as it would appear, eastward, returning to the Orkneys in
May. It is common along the Baltic, and the coasts of Norway and
Sweden, as well as on the lakes of the interior. The young acci-
dentally visit Holland, Germany, France, and Switzerland. Ihe
flio-ht of this species is very swift, and its aerial evolutions while
persecuting the more peaceful Fishes of the sea, are extrcrnely
beautiful ; "but would interest the more, did we not know the injury
it is inflicting on the unfortunate objects of its attack. Its nest is
composed of dry grass ; the eggs are two in number, of a dark
olive-green, blotched with liver-brown. The Arctic Skua defends its
nest with great determination, and courageously darts at the intruder
within its territory, striking at the head both withbeak and wings ;
it also feigns lameness in the manner of the Lapwing.
In perfect plumage the forehead is whitish, the top of the head
blackish-brown ; all the under parts pure white ; upper parts ashy-
brown, passing into blackish on the quills and tail, of which latter
the two middle feathers exceed the rest by four or five inches. Bill
bluish ; legs black. Length fifteen inches. (See Fig. 1532.)
Fig. 1532.— The Arctic Skua Gull.
In the British Museum the collection of Terns, and other memters
of the Gull or Laridcc family is very extensive, and living specimens
of the following may be seen at the Gardens of the Zoological
Society, London : — viz., the Herring-Gull (Z. argejitatiis), the
Greater and Lesser Black-backed Gulls (Z. mariiius and L.fuscus'),
and the Glaucous (Z. glaucus). There are also examples of the
Yellow-legged Herring-Gull of the Mediterranean (Z. leiicophcsus'),
and of some other exotic species. These Birds generally do well in
captivity. Some of them pair and make their nests every spring,
and not unfrequently succeed in hatching and rearing their young
in spite of the persecutions to which they are subjected by their less
domestically inclined and ever hungry brethren.
The Petrels, &c., Family Procellaridcs.
In the fifth family of the Natatorial Birds, the Procellaridcc,
including the Petrels and their allies, the general form of the body
resembles that of the Gulls ; but the feet are destitute of the hinder
toe, and the structure of the beak is very different. The tip of the up-
per mandible is convex and strongly hooked, and the lower mandible
is truncated at the apex ; the apical portion of both mandibles being
distinctly separated from the basal portion. The structure of the
nostrils is also very peculiar ; they are produced into tubes, more or
less united together, and lying upon the dorsal surface of the upper
mandible.
In their habits the Procellaridce present a considerable resem-
blance to some of the Gulls ; but they are more strictly oceanic,
passing nearly their whole lives in skimming over the surface of the
waves, and often appearing to delight in very rough water, from
which circumstance they have long been regarded by sailors as har-
bingers of a storm. Many of the species, in fact, appear scarcely
ever to visit the chore, except for the purpose of laying their eggs and
hatching their young ; and when thus engaged, they generally select
rocky coasts, where they deposit their eggs upon the bare rock, with-
out constructing any nest.
The most remarkable species is the Albatross [Diomcdca cxulans),
THE PETRELS.
603
a large Bird which is found in considerable numbers in the vast
expanse of ocean which lies to the south of the Capo of Good
Hope. The following is a description of this Bird. : —
The Albatross {Diomcdea exularts). — Several species of Alba-
tross are well known and described, but none equal in size the great
wandering Albatross {Diomcdea cxulans), which often weighs
upwards of twenty pounds, and ordinarily measures from ten to
eleven feet, and sometimes even fourteen feet, in the expanse of its
wing. It is not until the voyager passes the line, and enters within
the latitudes of the Southern Seas, that he finds himself within the
range of the Albatross, which on outspread wings sails around the
vessel, or sweeps over the surface in chase of the Flying^lsh, which
the Bonito or Albacore are impetuously pursuing below. These
Birds are extremely voracious, they will swallow a Fish of four or
five pounds weight ; they feed also on Mollusca, blubber, and the
offal thrown overboard of vessels. The vast extent of wing which
the Albatross possesses renders it a matter of some difficulty for this
Bird to raise itself from the surface of the water on which it is reposing,
it has to skim half flying, half running, for a considerable distance
before it can fairly mount, but once on the wing it sweeps majesti-
cally through the air on expanded pinions, and wheels around in
large circles, watching the waters beneath ; suddenly it plunges
dow'n amidst the billows, covered with their dashing spray, and rises
again; and though "the stormy winds may blow," makes its way
as if unaffected by the tempest.
Though, as we have said, it is in the Southern hemisphere that
the Albatross abounds, yet it would appear that the European coasts
are occasionally visited by this Bird, and that in the northern lati-
tudes it is even abundant. Vast flocks of the Albatross are seen
towards the end of June about Behring's Straits, and Kamtschatka,
frequenting chiefly the inner sea, the Kurile Islands, and the bay of
Pentschinensi ; they are doubtless attracted thither by the enormous
shoals of Fish, the migratory movements of which they follow. The
natives of Kamtschatka catch these Birds by means of a hook
attached to a cord, and baited with a fish, which they greedily
swallow : the intestines are blown, and used as buoys for nets, and
the long, hollow wing-bones, as tobacco-pipes ; the flesh is tough
and dry.
Mr. G. Bennett, in his " Wanderings," gives an admirable account
of the habits of the Albatross, far too long for insertion : " It is
pleasing," he said, " to obser\'e this superb bird sailing in the air
in graceful and elegant movements, seemingly excited by some
invisible power, for there is rarely any movement of the wings seen,
after the first and frequent impulses given, when the creature ele-
vates itself in the air ; it rises and falls as if some concealed power
guided its various motions, without any muscular exertion of its own ;
and then descending, it sweeps close to the stern of the ship, as if it
were monarch of all it surveyed. It is from the very little muscular
exertion used by these brds, that they are capable of sustaining
such long flights without repose." Captain Grey, in his Journal
gives a nearly similar account of the " lordly and graceful albatross,"
that holds " its holiday in the stormy gale."
Captain Carmichael ("Linn. Trans," vol. xii.) found the Great
Albatross and three other species, breeding at Tristan d' Acunha ;
the Great Albatross raises no nest, but merely selects some slight
concavity for the reception of a single large white ^z?,- -f' nourishes
its young by disgorging the oily contents of its stomach, and when
approached, discharges through the nostrils, a deluge of fetid oily
fluid on the intruder, at the same time clattering with its beak ;
otherwise it makes no defence, and is so fearless as not even to
move out of the way for the passage of a party of men ; and when
pulled off the nest, will either remain quietly by, or instantly return
to its egg. Some of the other species raise a nest of mud.
The pkimage of the Great Albatross is subject to variation ; the
head, neck, back, and wings are generally more or less tinged v/ith
grey ; the rest of the plumage white ; the bill is pale horn colour
with a tinge of yellow ; feet deep flesh colour. (See Fig. 1533.)
Of the true Petrels Sub-family Procellariyicc, the largest is the
Giant Petrel {Ossifragus gigantciis), vih\ch inhabits the tempest-
uous seas to the south of Cape Horn, and, according to Lesson,
measures about twenty-eight inches in length, and fifty-six in expanse
of wing: at a distance it may readily be mistaken for the Albatross.
But the Birds commonly known as Petrels, the Storm Birds, and
Mother Carey's Chickens of the sailors, generally present a complete
contrast to tliese giants of the other order, some of them being the
smallest of Natatorial Birds ; the oldest known species, the Pro-
cellar hi ^elagica, measures only six inches in length. These Birds
are generally observed with abhorrence by sailors, who reg:ard their
appearance as a certain percursor of bad weather ; and it is said
that they always collect, and utter their peculiar note, on the
approach of a storm. The name oi petrel, applied to them, has a
somewhat singular derivation. They have been said to run upon
the surface of the waves with their wings closed ; and this supposed
faculty having been compared with St. Peter's miraculous walking
upon the Sea of Genesareth, a diminutive of the apostle's name
was applied to the Bird. The following is a description of the
Stormy Petrel : —
The Stormy Petrel {Proccllaria, or Thalassidroma pela^ica).
Petrel Tempetc, Temminck ; Kleinster Sturmvogel of Meyer;
Accello delle Tempeste of the Italians; Cas gan Longwr of the
ancient British; Mother Carey's Chicken, Stormfinch, Spency,
Mitty, Witch, &c., of the English.
The present species is found along the coasts of North America,
and is also common along the coasts of Scotland and England ; it is
rather abundant in the Orkneys and Hebrides. Mr. Sclby states
that it is to be seen upon the seas surrounding Great Britain at all sea-
Fig. 1533. — The Albatross.
sons of the year, but he doubts the very extensive range some writers
have assigned it, other closely allied species having been mistaken for
it ; and in this view he is confirmed by Mr. Gould, who, in a letter to
the Zool. Soc, dated Van Diemen's Land, May 10, 1839 (see " Pro-
ceeds." 1839), relating some details relative to several Oceanic
Birds met with during his voyage, saj-s, " Immediately off the Land's
End, Wilson's storm-petrel {Tli. IVilsoyiii) was seen in .-bundance,
and continued to accompany the ship throughout the day. The
little storm-petrel {Th. felagica) was also seen, but in far less
numbers ; both species disappeared on approaching the latitudes of
Madeira, their place there being occupied by other species, which I
took to be Thai. Bulweri. * * * * As I had every reason to
expect, I found the Australian seas inhabited by their own peculiar
storm-petrels, four distinct species of which I have already observed
since leaving the Cape."
The flight of the Petrel is very swift, and on wings even more
rapid than those of the Swallow, it wheels round the labouring ship,
descends into the tTOugh of the waves, and mounts over their curling
crests, secure amid the strife of waters ; often with wings expanded
it is seen to stand, as it were, on the summit of the billow and dip
its bill into the water, no doubt in order to pick up some small
Crustaceous Animal ; and again, on vigorous w'ings, it pursues its
way. Seldom does it settle on the waters to swim, and it is totally
incapable of diving, as many have erroneously supposed. During a
gale at sea the Petrel is all animation.
We agree with Mr. Selby, that the great motives which induce the
Petrel, and other Sea-birds, to follow a ship in its course, are the
refuse which is thrown from time to time overboard, and the abund-
ance of small Marine Insects, Mollusca, &c., which are brought
within its reach by the action of the vessel as it ploughs the briny
waves. The Stormy Petrel breeds in the northern and western isles
of Scotland, and on the rocky coast of Cornwall ; it incubates on a
single egg (perhaps two eggs) of a pure white, in the holes of rocks,
in the burrows of Rats or Rabbits, and under large stones. The
female utters a low, purring noise, while brooding over her egg
or young. The latter remains in its retreat for some weeks,- till fully
feathered and capable of flight, and during this time is fed by the
parents with oily matter ejected from their stomachs. Though the
Petrel is seen out at sea, particularly in gloomy weather, when the
lowering clouds threaten a storm, yet it is to a great degree noc-
turnal in its habits, especially during the time of incubation and ot
rearing its young. Till evening sets in, it remains quiet in its retreat,
and then sallies forth, making a shrill whistling, as well as^thc
purring noise before alluded to. So oily is the body of the Feael,
that the inhabitants of the Ferroe, and other islands, sometimes con-
vert it into a lamp by drawing a wick of cotton through the body,
which will continue to burn till the oil be exhausted.
The length of this species is about five-and-a-haU inches to six
6o4
THE DUCKS.
inches ; the .Cfcneral colour is sooty black ; tail and quills pure black ;
a patch behind the thighs, and a bar across the upper tail coverts,
white ; a few of the wing coverts and scapularies slightly edged
with white. Fig. 1535 displays the characters of the head and foot
of the Stormy Petrel.
The Fulmar Petrel {Fulmarhis, or ProceUa} 7a glacialis). —
Le Petrel fulmar, ou de I'lsle de St. Kilda, ofBuffon; Gwylan y
Graig, of the ancient British.
The character of the head and foot of the genus Procellaria, or
sub-genus Fiilmariiis , of Leach, are well depicted in Fig. 1536. The
nostrils are tubular, the tube being elevated and opening by a single
rounded orifice ; the tip is greatly hooked. A sharp claw exists in
the place of a hind-toe.
Fig. 1534.— The Stormy Petrel.
The Fulmar Petrel is a native of the Arctic regions, and abounds
at all times in Davis's Straits and BafSn's Bay. It is, however,
migratory, and Major Sabine states that, during the time of the de-
tention of the ships by ice in Jacob's Bay, lat. 71°, from the 24th of
June to the 3rd of July, Fulmars were passing in a continual stream
to the northward, in numbers inferior only to the flocks of the Pas-
Fig- 1535.— Head and Foot of the Stormy Petrel.
senger Pigeon in North America. In more southern latitudes the
Fulmar is only seen as a winter visitor, extending its journey along
the coast of Norway, and appearing occasionally on those of Holland
and France ; yet there are certain spots within the limits of the
British Islands, where it breeds in great abundance — namely, the
rocky and precipitous St. Kilda, and others of the western isles of
Scotland; and, according to Mr. Gould, it also resorts to the
Orkneys, &c., though St. Kilda is its favourite residence. Here the
Fulmars take up their abode in the holes and caverns of the rocks.
The female lays a single large white, and very brittle &gg ; and the
young, which are hatched in June, are fed with oil disgorged by the
parents. These Birds constitute a source of emolument to the in-
habitants. As soon as the young are fledged, the cragsmen, at the
risk of their lives, scale the precipitous cliffs, and capture them in
great numbers for the sake of the down, feathers, and oil. " No
bird," says Pennant, "is of such use to the islanders as this : the
fulmar supplies them with oil for their lamps, down for their beds, a
delicacy for their table, a balm for their wounds, and a medicine for
their distempers. The fulmar is also a certain prognostication of
the change of wind ; for if it comes to land no west wind is ex-
pected for some time, and the contrary when it returns and keeps
the sea."
The food of this species consists of the flesh and blubber of dead
Whales, Seals, and Fishes, Mollttsca, and Crustacea. According
to Sir James Ross, these Birds are of great importance to the Whale^
fishers, by guiding them to those places where the Whales are most
numerous ; and they give notice of the first appearance of these
Animals at the surface of the water, by crowding to the spot from
all quarters. They have been seen in multitudes on the floating
carcass of these giants of the ocean, tearing up the skin with their
hooked beaks, and gorging on the delicious blubber. Off New-
foundland the Fulmar is a constant attendant upon the fishing
vessels, in order to obtain the livers and offal of the Cod-fish.
The Fulmar measures si.xteen inches in length. The head, neck,
all the lower parts, rump, and tail, are pure white. Back and wings
Fig. 1536. — Head and Foot of the Fulmar.
bluish-ash ; quills bright blackish-grey. Bill yellow ; legs yellow,
tinged with grey. The young have the white tinged with ash colour,
and the upper plumage brownish. (See Fig. 1537.)
Fig. 1537.— The Fulmar Petrel.
The Ducks, &c.— Family A7iatidcs.
The great family of the Anatidcs, which closes the order Nafa-
toi'cs, is readily distinguishable from the preceding families by the
structure of the bill. This organ is usually of a flattened form,
covered with a soft skin, and furnished at the edges with a series of
lamella:, which serve to sift or strain the mud in which these Birds
generally seek for their food (Fig. 1538.) The feet are furnished with
four toes, of which three are directed forwards, and united by a web ;
whilst the fourth is directed backwards, and is usually of small size,
and quite free. The tongue is large and fleshy, the oesophagus
narrow, and the gizzard strong and muscular, adapted for the tritu-
ration of the food, which in these Birds is usually more or less of a
vegetable nature. The trachea, in the males, is variously enlarged
or twisted at its lower part, and the different modifications of this
organ are often of great importance in the determination of the
species. The wings are of moderate size, and the Birds generally
possess considerable power of flight, although, in this respect, they
by no means equal those of the three preceding families.
THE DUCK TRIBE.
60s
The Birds of this family, which, from its including the only domes-
ticated species of the Natatorial order, must be regarded as of the
greatest importance to Man, are generally inhabitants of the fresh
waters, and, for the most part, prefer ponds and shallow lakes, in
which they can investigate the bottom, with their peculiar bills,
without actually diving beneath the surface. Their food generally
consists of Worms, MoUusca, and Aquatic Insects, which they sepa-
rate from the mud by the agency of the lamelke at the margins of
the bill ; but most of them also feed upon seeds, fruits, and other
vegetable substances. The family contains a great number of
species, and has been divided into several sub-families, of which
the following are the principal : —
Fig 153S. — Head of the Wild Duck, showing the lamella; of the bill.
The Mergansers sub-family Mcrgitza;, have an attenuated and
nearly cylindrical bill, the upper mandible of which is terminated by
a strongly-hooked nail [ii/iguis) ; the lamellae are very strong and
tooth-like (Fig. 1539). These i5irds are exceedingly active and pre-
daceous, feeding upon Fishes and other Aquatic Animals, in pursuit
of which they not only dip under water in the ordinary manner of the
Ana t idee, but even dive with great facility. They generally fre-
quent lakes and rivers, but are occasionally seen on the sea-shore ;
Fig. 1539.— Head of the Goosander.
they are inhabitants of the cold northern latitudes, and the majority
of the British specimens are only winter visitors, although some
appear to remain with us all the year; and several localities are re-
corded in which these Birds breed regularly every summer. The nest
is composed of grass, roots, and other vegetable materials, lined
with down, which the female is said to pluck from her own breast;
it is placed near the edge of the water, concealed amongst the bushes
or herbage. The eggs vary in number from five to twelve in the
different species, and the young take to the water soon after they are
hatched. Four species of this group have been recorded as British ;
but one of these, the Hooded Merganser [Mergzts cucuUatus), is a
North American species, specimens of which have occasionally
strayed to this country.
The Goosander {Mergus merganser).— Le Harle of the
French ; Garsen-sager and Taucher-gans of the Germans ; Mergo,
Oca marina, and Mergo dominicano of the Italians. ■ It is also the
Sugherone of the Italians ; the Meer-rack and See-rack of the
Germans ; Hwyad ddanhedog of the ancient British ; Bieure of the
old French ; Dundiver, Savvbill, Jacksaw, &c., provincial Enn-Ush.
This fine species is a native of the high northern regions of
Europe, Asia, and America, where amidst morasses, along a dreary
coast it makes its nest and rears its brood. It has been seen in
Japan. Mr. Selby states that in the northern parts of Scotland, the
Orkneys, and other adjacent islands, it is a permanent resident,
finding subsistence throughout the year cither on the fresh-water
lakes of the interior, or, when these are frozen, in the deep indenta-
tions of the coast, formed by the saline lochs so numerous in that
part of the kingdom. In the south of England, excepting during
very severe winters, it is rarely seen, but then in small parties of
seven or eight ; in Holland and Germany, however, where extensive
inland fresh waters abound, it is tolerably common. It is much
more rare in Italy. Dr. Richardson observes that this species
merely winters in Pennsylvania, where it is not abundant, and re-
turns to the fur countries to breed. It is found in Iceland, Green-
land, Siberia, Kamtschatka, &c. The Goosander, excepting when
on the wing, is generally seen on the water, where it is completely
at home ; diving in pursuit of Fish, which, when seized, are securely
held in its serrated bill. It has the power of remaining submerged
for a long time ; and its sub-aquatic progress is surprisingly rapid.
The nest of this species is placed near the edge of the water, and
consists of grass, roots, and fibres, with a lining of down. It is
sometimes concealed among stones, sometimes in long tufted
herbage, and sometimes even in the hollow stumps of decayed trees.
The eggs, twelve or fourteen in number, are of a cream-yellow.
The old male Goosander in full plumage is a beautiful Bird, and
has the head thickly tufted, this and part of the neck being greenish
black, the reflection varying in different lights ; lower part of the
neck, breast, under parts, coverts of the wings and scapulars farthest
from the body, tinged of a yellowish rose-colour (which soon fades in
stuffed specimens to white) ; upper part of the back and scapulars
nearest to the body deep black ; quills blackish, great coverts
bordered with black ; rest of the back and tail ash-coloured ;
beauty-spot on the wing white, without transverse bands ; bill deep
red, black above and on the terminal nail ; iris reddish-brown, some-
times red : feet vermillion red. Length twenty-six to twenty-eight
inches.
The lower figure 1540 is the male, the upper the female. The
trachea of the male has two enlargements while running down the
neck, and a large bulla at the bifurcation in the chest.
Fig. 1540. — Goosanders.
The Smew {lilcrgus albellus). Le petit Harle huppe ou !a
Piette of Buffon ; Weisser-sager and Kreutz-ente of the Germans.
Merga oca, minoree, and cenerino, of the Italians ; Lleian-wen of
the ancient British ; White Nun, Vare Widgeon, and Smee, pro-
vincial English.
Like the preceding species, this Bird is a native of the Arctic
regions of both worlds, whence it migrates southwards in autumn,
and in severe winters is not uncommon on our eastern coasts, about
the mouths of our rivers, and in the fenny districts. It is remark-
able, however, that the majority of those which visit our island are
females or young males, adult males in their full garb being com-
paratively seldom met with. It is abundant during the winter in
Germany, France, and Holland, and is not uncommon in Italy.
With other Mergansers it frequents the river Wolga ; and has been
observed in Japan. In America, according to Wilson, it may
6o6
THE DUCK TRIBE.
frequently be seen on some of the lakes of New England, and of the
state of New York ; but it returns to the fur countries to breed.
Bonaparte states that at Philadelphia it is very rare, and adven-
titious.
The Smew has all the habits of its race, and is vigorous on the
wing, and quick and active as a diver, feeding on Fish, small
Critsfacct!, and Insects. It is extremely shy and wary. Its mode
of nidification resembles that of the Goosander, and the eggs are
yellowish-white.
The old male has a great spot of greenish-black on each side of
the bill, and a similar coloured but longitudinal one on the occiput ;
the tufted crest, neck, scapulars, small coverts of the wings and all
the lower parts very pure white ; upper part of the back, the two
crescents, which are directed under the sides of the breast, and the
edges of the scapulars, deep black ; tail ash-coloured ; sides and
thighs varied with ash-coloured zigzags ; bill, legs (tarsi), and toes
bluish-ash; webs black; iris brown. Length fifteen to sixteen
inches. Female : — Summit of the head, chocks, and occiput reddish-
brown ; throat, upper part of the neck, belly, and abdomen white ;
lower part of the neck, breast, sides, and rump bright ash ; upper
parts and tail deep ash; wings variegated with white, ash, and
black. Length fifteen inches. Young of the year, similar to the
female.
In the male the trachea has one gradual enlargement in its
course down the neck, and a considerable bulla at the bifurcation.
(See Fig. 1541.)
but not at a great elevation, or long protracted ; and its cry is loud
and almost incessant, and when uttered by congregated multitudes,
resounds to a considerable distance. The male of this species differs
considerably from the female in plumage, and the livery of summer
differs from that of winter. (See Figs. 1543 and 1544.)
Fig. 1541. — Smews.
In the FuligulhicB, or Pochards, the bill is nearly of the same
breadth and height at the base ; gradually depressed towards the
apex, where the upper mandible is terminated by a curved nail, and
the lamellae are transverse and thin. The legs are short, and
the hind-toe is furnished with a broad, membranous, inferior lobe
(Fig. 1542). The FuligulincB closely resemble the Common Ducks
in their form, but are generally marine
in their habits, and feed voraciously
upon Mollusca and Crustacea, which
they procure by diving, also eating
aquatic plants. They are clothed with
very thick dense plumage, and many of
them are adorned with elegant colours,
especially the males, the females being
usually of a more sober hue than their
partners. One of the most remarkable
species is the Long-tailed Duck {Fuli-
gula glacialis), of which the following
is a description. The male has the two
middle feathers very narrow : —
FUHGULA, OR THE LONG-TAILED
DtrcK [Harclda glacialis). Canard a
longue queue of the French ; Eisente
of the Germans ; Swallow-tailed Duck of the Hudson's Bay resi-
dents ; Hwyadgynffon gwennol of the ancient British.
This active Duck is a native of the dreary regions of the Arctic
circle, making along the grassy shores a nest of herbage, which it
lines with fine down from its breast. The eggs are five in number,
and of a pale greenish grey. After the season of incubation, these
Birds collect in vast flocks, and as the cold season advances, migrate
southwards, but not before the Polar seas are thorougly ice-bound.
It visits the shores and lakes of the United States, Norway, Sweden,
Russia, Germany, and the islands and lakes of Scotland, but is
seldom seen on our southern shores. Its flight is wonderfully rapid,
Fi"
1542. — Hinder Toe of a
Fuliguline Bird.
Fig. 1543.— The Long-tailed Duck— Male.
Of the true Pochards {Ayihya), one of the most celebrated is the
Canvas-backed Duck of North America {A . vallisneria), which is
described as follows : —
The Canvas-back Duck {Fuligula vallisneria). — The Canvas-
back Duck, in many points, both of form and colouring, closely
approaches our well-known Pochard, but is considerably superior
in size. It is a species peculiar to America, breeding from the .soth
parallel of N. latitude, to the most northern limits of the fur countries.
When the season of incubation is over, and the winter sets in, the
Canvas-back, in large flocks, migrates southwards, appearing on the
coasts of the United States about the middle of October. A few
Fig. 1544.— The Long-tailed Duck — Female.
descend to the Hudson and Delaware, but the great body of these
Birds resort, according to Wilson, to the numerous rivers belonging
to, and in the neighbourhood of, Chesapeake Bay, particularly the
Susquehannah, the Patapsco, Potomac, and James rivers. It is
probable that they extend their migration to the Gulf of Mexico ;
they are said to be common at the mouth of the river Neuse, near
Newbern. It is seldom that these Birds advance high up the rivers,
but resort to a particular part of tide water, where the long sub-
aquatic vallisneria grows in immense quantities, the white tender
root of which furnishes them with the most acceptable food. For
this they dive and tear up the plants, which become drifted into
matted rows by the wind ; the tender portions near the root of the
slender marine vegetables, called Eel-grasses {Zostera marina and
Ruppia maritima), are also eagerly devoured, as well as seeds and
grain, which are often scattered over the surface of the water near
the coast, from wrecks. Wherever their favourite vegetables abound,
these Birds assemble, and sometimes in such multitudes as to cover
acres of the river ; the noise of their wings, when they rise disturbed
by the gunner, resembling the roar of thunder. They are extremely
shy, and can only be approached by stratagem ; yet they are the
THE DUCK TRIBE.
607
object of the sportsman's unceasing persecution, for of all the Duck
tribe, if we may believe those who ought to know, none can at all
compare with them in the exquisite flavour of their tlesh. On their
first arrival along the shores of the United States they arc lean, but
in a short time they become very fat, and then is the flesh superla-
tive. The neck of the Canvas-back, in the male, is of a rich chest-
nut' deepening- into black on the upper part of the back and breast,
where it abrifptly terminates ; the rest of the back is white, beauti-
fully pencilled with fine transverse wavy lines of dusky black ; the
breast and under surface are white, pencilled in the same manner,
but more obscurely; quill-feathers pale slate, dusky towards the
tips ; tail short and greyish-brown. Bill black ; legs pale ash ;
len"-'th two feet. In the female, the general plumage is umber-
brown, varied with rufous ; the back being finely undulated with
greyish-white. (See Fig. 1545.)
Fig. 1545' — The Canvas-back Duck.
Another species, which is perhaps still better known is the Eider-
Duck {Soinateria mollissima), an inhabitant of the Arctic portions
of both Europe and America, where it occurs in the greatest abun-
dance. It is more particularly described as follows :—
The Eider-Duck {Soinateria 7>ioUissima). Oie a duvet, ou
Eider of the French ; Eiterente of the Germans ; Hwyad fwythblu of
the ancient British ; St. Cuthbert's Duck, Great black-and-white
Duck, Dunton Duck, &c. Fig. 1546 represents the male, and Fig.
1547 the female.
Fig. 1546.— The Male Eider-Duck.
It is from this Bird, and an allied species, the King-Eider
{S. spectabilis), that the down so celebrated for warmth and lightness
is procured. The Eider-Duck is oceanic in its habits, tenanting the
northern seas, and is very abundant on the shores of Iceland, Green-
land, Lapland, Spitzbergen, and those of Baffin's and Hudson's
Bays. It IS called Mittek by the Greenlanders. It is only an acci-
dental visitor to our southern coasts, but is common in the Hebrides,
where it annually breeds, as also on the Farn Islands, on the
Northumbrian coast. In Iceland and Norway, the districts to which
this Bird resorts arc regarded as valuable property, and strictly pre-
served ; but in Labrador, whore the Eider is abundant, the egg-
gatherers kill it in great numbers, from mere wantonness, but neglect
the down. The Greenlanders chase the Eider for the sake both of
the flesh and skin ; and also rob the nests of the down and the eggs,
the latter being esteemed excellent food. It is tlie down with which
the female lines her nest that is so valuable ; that taken from the
dead Bird being of very inferior quality. The mode in which the
down is collected in Iceland and Norway, where everyone is anxious
to have an Eider estate, is as follows : — The female is suffered to lay
her five or six eggs, which are placed in a nest constructed of marine
plants, with the warm elastic material in question as a lining ; these
eggs and the down are taken ; she then relincs her nest, and lays a
second time : the eggs and down are again abstracted. Unable to
supply more down, the male now strips his breast, and furnishes a
Fig. 1547. — The Female Eider-Duck.
supply, known by its pale colour ; on this the female lays two or
three eggs, which she is suffered to hatch unmolested, for were these
to be taken, the bereaved Bird would utterly forsake the inhospitable
place, and return no more. The quantity afforded by a single female
is, when cleaned, about half-a-pound.
The Eider-Duck is a Bird of reclmse habits, disliking interruption,
though not particularly timid. Hence it generally chooses for its
breeding-haunt low flat islands along the coast, and narrow slips of
land projecting into the sea ; here multitudes assemble during the
summer, in order to rear their broods, and are at that time very
tame.
Sir George Mackenzie, during his travels in Iceland, had an oppor-
tunity, on the 8th June, at Vidoe, of observing the Eider-Ducks, at
all other times of the year perfectly wild, assembled for the great
work of incubation. The boat, in its approach to the shore, passed
multitudes of these Birds, which hardly moved out of the way ; and,
between the landing-place and the Governor's house, it required
some caution to avoid treading on the nests, while the Drakes were
walking about, even more familiar than Common Ducks, and uttering
a sound which was like the cooing of Doves. The Ducks were
sitting on their nests all round the house, on the garden wall, on the
roofs, nay even in the inside of the houses and in the chapel. Those
which had not been long on the nest generally left it when they were
approached ; but those that had more than one or two eggs sat per-
fectly quiet and suffered the party to touch them, though they some-
times gently repelled the intrusive hand with their bills. But if a
Drake happen to be near his mate when thus visited, he becomes
extremely agitated. He passes to and fro between her and the sus-
picious object, raising his head and cooing.
The food of the Eider-Duck consists of small Crustacea, Mussels,
and other Shell-Fish, and various Marine Animals, in quest of which
it dives with great address. The male and female differ greatly in
colouring. In the male, on each side of the head and above the
eyes, is a large band of black feathers ; the sides of the throat and
back of the neck are of a delicate sea-green ; the neck is white, with
a tinge of yellow passing into buff on the breast ; back and shoulders
white ; quill feathers, tail, and under parts black. The female has
the plumage universally of a brownish-red, barred transversely with
black ; bill oil-green ; legs greenish-yellow.
The True Ducks— Sub-family, Anatina.
The Anatinw, or True Ducks, closely resemble the preceding
groups in their general conformation, and in the form of the bill ; but
the hinder toe is only furnished with a very small membranous lobe
(Fig. 1 548). The tibirc, as in the Fuii/tgulincs, arc naked at the
6o8
THE DUCK TRIBE.
extremity. These birds all frequent fresh water, where they feed
upon the Worms, Molluscs, and Lar\'a; which they pick out of the
mud. A considerable portion of their food, however, consists of
vegetable matters, such as grass, roots, seeds, &c. They are
gregarious in their habits, and generally migrate in large flocks.
The males are larger than the females, and often adorned with
beautiful colours ; whilst the females are usually of a more uniform
and sober tint.
They moult twice in the year, in June and November ; in June,
the males acquire the female plumage to a cer-
tain extent, but they regain their proper dress
at the second moult, and retain it during the
breeding season. The nest is usually placed
on the ground, amongst reeds and sedges near
the water ; sometimes in holes or in hollow
trees, but rarely amongst the branches. The
eggs vary from about eight to fourteen in
number, and the young are active from the
moment of their exclusion, and soon take to the
water, where they are as much at home as the
old Birds.
A well-known example of this group is the
Fig. 154S.— Ilind-toe common Mallard, or Wild Duck {Anas bos-
of a True Duck. chas), the original of all the ordinary domestic
varieties.
The Mall.\kd {A7ias boschas), Bill of. (See Fig. 1549.) Boshas
inajor, Brisson ; Canard sauvage of the French ; Capo Verde (male),
Anitra (female), Germano, and Paperone of the Italians ; Wild Ente
of the Germans ; Cors Hwyad Garan Hwyad, and Hwdnwy of the
ancient Britons. This species is the origin of our Domestic Duck, and
is spread over the northern and temperate portions of Europe, Asia,
and America. It is everywhere a Migratory Bird : and though it
breeds abundantly in our island and the adjacent parts of the Con-
tinent, yet the great rendezvous of the species is in the higher
latitudes, whence, on the approach of winter, vast flocks wing their
Fig. 1549.— Bill of the Mallard.
way southwards, visiting marshes, lakes, and rivers, and returning
northwards early in spring. Though the Domestic Duck is poly-
gamous, the Wild Birds pair, but do not mutually assist each other
in the work of incubation or care of the brood, for when the female
begins to sit, the male deserts her, and joins others of his sex, so that
it is not unusual after May to see the males (or Mallards) in small
companies by themselves.
As is the case with the Teal, Widgeon, Pintail-duck, &c., the
plumage of the male, towards the middle of summer, undergoes a
remarkable change, and approaches in colouring to that of the
female ; not, as it would seem, by a moult of the feathers, but by an
actual change of tint. With the autumn moult, the Drake regains
his beautiful dress. In the Tame Drake this alteration is not so
definite.
The female makes her nest in some dry spot in the marshes not
far from the water, and in the covert of dense, tall, herbage' and
bushes. It is composed of withered grass and other vegetables ; the
eggs are from ten to fourteen in number, of a bluish-white. When
the female quits the nest for food, she covers the eggs with down and
other substances. Though the female Wild Duck generally breeds
in the marshes as stated, she occasionally chooses very different
situations, and several instances have been recorded in which the
eggs have been deposited on the fork of a large tree, or in some
deserted nest. Mr. Selby informs us, that an instance of tliis kind
came under his personal observation near his own residence ; the
Bird having laid her eggs in the old nest of a Crow, at least thirty
feet from the ground, and hatched her young ; " and as none were
found dead under the tree, it is presumed that she carried them safely
to the ground in her bill, a mode of convej'ance known to be frequently
adopted by the eider-duck." Montagu says, " We have been assured
by a person of undoubted veracity, that a half-domesticated duck
made a nest in Rumford Tower, hatched her young, and brought
them down in safety to a piece of water at a considerable distance.
Others have been known to breed in trees; and we recollect the
nest of this bird being found in the head of an old pollard willow
impending the water, whence the young might readily drop unhurt
into their natural element. Mr. Etchington mentions one in Sussex,
which was found sitting upon nine eggs, on an oak-tree, twenty-five
feet from the ground ; and the author of the ' Rural Sports ' records
an instance of one taking possession of the nest of a hawk in a large
oak. To these we can add, upon the testimony of a gentleman of
the strictest veracity, that out of a large flock of half-domesticated
ducks, one deposited her eggs in the principal fork of a large tree
near his house."
In the Drake, or male, the trachea is furnished at its lower larynx
with an osseous bulla of considerable magnitude.
In all countries the Domestic Duck is valued for the sake of its flesh
of the excellency of which nothing need be said. In China, where
these Birds are kept in vast numbers, housed at night in boats on the
river, thousands are hatched by artificial means ; the eggs are
placed in tiers or boxes filled with sand, and subjected to the neces-
sary degree of heat upon a floor of bricks. " The ducklings are fed
at first with'a mess composed of boiled craw-fish or crabs, cut in small
pieces and mixed with rice. In about a fortnight they are able to
shift for themselves, when they are placed under the guidance of an
old stepmother, who leads them at stated times to feed, to and from
the boat in which they are kept, and which is moved about by the
owner to places likely to afford a plentiful supply of food."
It is curious to see how well a flock of three or four hundred Ducks
are trained to obey their master, for some thousands belonging to
different boats will feed at large on the same spot, and, on a signal
given, follow their leader to their respective boats without a stranger
being found amongst them.
Wild Ducks were formerly much more abundant in our island than
at present, in consequence of the drainage of our marshes. Pennant
records that during one season in the neighbourhood of Wainfleet, of
Ducks. Widgeons, and Teals, 31,200 were taken in only ten decoys,
of which more than two-tliirds were of the present species ; and that
at a single driving of the fens in Lincolnshire, before the young had
taken wing, and while the old Birds were in moult, one hundred and
fifty dozens have been captured.
The mode of capturing Wild Ducks varies in different countries ;
at the Lakes of Peronne, in Picardy, the fowlers, concealed in huts of
reeds, scatter destruction amidst the flocks by the gun. In China
the sportsman covers his head with a calabash, and wading up to his
neck, mixes with the flock, and seizing his victims by the feet, pulls
them under the water, kills them, and fastens them to his girdle
without exciting any alarm among the survivors.
As regards Lincolnshire, Suffolk, &c.. where Wild Ducks abound
the following method is adopted : — In the lake to which the Wild
Ducks resort, their most favourite haunts are observed. Then in the
most sequestered part of this haunt a ditch is cut, which is about
four yards across at the entrance, and decreases gradually in width
from the entrance to the farther end, which is not more than two
feet wide. The ditch is of a circular form, but does not bend much
for the first ten yards. The banks of the lake on each side of this
ditch (or " pipe " as it is called) are kept clear from reeds, coarse
herbage, &c., in order that the Fowl may get on them to sit and
dress themselves. Along the ditch, poles are driven into the ground
close to its edge, on each side, and the tops are bent over across the
ditch and tied together. These poles, thus bent, form at the entrance
of the ditch or pipe an arch, the top of which is ten feet distant from
the surface of the water. This arch is made to decrease in height as
the pipe decreases in width, so that the remote end is not more than
eighteen inches in height. The poles are placed about six feet from
each other, and connected by poles laid lengthwise across the arch
and tied together. Over the whole is thrown a net, which is made
fast to a reed fence at the entrance and nine or ten yards up the
ditch, and afterwards strongly pegged to the ground. At the end of
the pipe farthest from the entrance is fixed a "tunnel net," as it is
called, about four yards in length, of a round form, and kept open by
a number of hoops, about eighteen inches in diameter, placed at a
small distance from each other to keep it distended. Supposing the
circular bend of the pipe to be to the right when one stands with his
back to the lake, then on the left hand side a number of reed-fences
are constructed, called "shootings," for the purpose of screening
the " decoy man " from observation, and in such a manner that the
Fowl in the decoy may not be alarmed while he is driving those that
are in the pipe. These shootings, which are ten in number, are
about four yards in length, and about six feet high. From the end
of the last shooting a person cannot see the lake, owing to the bend
THE DUCK TRIBE.
609
of the pipes, and there is then no further occasion for shelter. Were
it not for these shootings, the Fowl that remain about the mouth of
the pipe would be alarmed, if the person driving the Fowl already
under the net should be exposed, and would become so shy as entirely
to forsake the place. The first thing that the decoy-man does
when he approaches the pipe, is to take a piece of lighted turf or peat
and hold it near his mouth, to prevent the Birds from smelling him.
He is attended by a dog trained for the purpose of rendering him
assistance. He walks very silently about half-way up the shootings,
where a small piece of wood is thrust through the reed-fence, which
makes an aperture just large enough to enable him to see if any
Fowl are in ; if not, he walks forward to see if any are about the
entrance of the pipe. If there are, he stops and makes a motion to
his Dog, and gives him a piece of cheese, or something else to eat ;
and, having received this, the animal goes directly to a hole through
the reed-fence, and the Birds immediately fly off the bank, into the
water. The Dog returns along the bank between the reed-fences,
and comes out to his master at another hole. The man then gives
him something to reward and encourage him, and the Animal re-
peats his rounds until the Birds are attracted by his motions, and
follows him into the mouth of the pipe. This operation is called
"working" them. The man now retreats farther back, working
the Dig at different holes until the Ducks are sufficiently under the
net. He then commands his Dog to lie down behind the fence, and
going himself forward to the end of the pipe ne.xt the lake, he takes
off his hat and gives it a wave between the shootings. All the
Birds that are under the net can then see him ; but none that are
in the lake can. The former fly forward, and the man then runs to
the next shooting and waves his hat, and so on, driving them along
until they come to the tunnel-net, into which they creep. When
they are all in, the man gives the net a twist, so as to prevent them
from getting back. He then takes the net off from the end of the
pipe, and taking out, one by one, the Ducks that are in it, dislocates
their necks. The net is afterwards hung on again for the repetition
of the process ; and in this manner five or six dozen have sometimes
been taken at one drift. When the wind blows directly in or out of
the pipes, the Fowl seldom work well, especially when it blows into
the pipe. The reason of this is, that the Ducks always prefer
swimming against the wind, otherwise the wind blowing from be-
hind catches and ruffles their feathers. If many pipes are made in
the same lake, they are so constructed as to suit different winds, and
are worked accordingly. The better to entice the Fowl into the
pipe, hemp-seed is occasionally strewn on the water. The season
allowed by Act of Parliament for taking Ducks in this way has been
the subject of recent legislation. Imitation Decoy Ducks made
of India-rubber and properly coloured are much employed for cap-
' turing the Mallard.
Willughby states, that formerly before the young Ducks took
flight, or while the old ones were in moult, and unable to fly, they
were driven by men in boats furnished with long poles, with which
they splashed the water, between long nets stretched vertically
across the pools in the shape of two sides of a triangle, into lesser
nets placed at the point, and in this way he says that four thousand
were taken at one drive into Deeping Fen ; and Latham has re-
corded an instance in which two thousand six hundred and forty-
six were taken in two days near Spalding, in Lincolnshire ; but
these practices, being considered injurious, were prohibited by
statute in the reign of George II.
Fig. 1550 is the copy of an interesting Egyptian painting, in the
British Museum, representing a fowler in a boat on the marshes or
flooded grounds, evidently engaged in the capture of Wild-fowl,
apparently by the decoy plan, in which he is assisted by Trained
Birds, and, strange to say, by a cat, which is delineated in the act
of seizing a Bird, while holding down another which she has al-
ready caught. As the picture is only a fragment, a complete de-
tailed explanation is not to be deduced from it.
The Common Teal {Qiierqtiedula crecca). Sarcelle, Petite
Sarcelle, Cercelle, Cercerelle of the French ; Cercedula, Cercevolo,
Scavolo, Sartella, and Anitrella of the Italians ; Spiegel Entlein and
Kriekente of the Germans ;,^Cor Hwyad and Brach Hvvyad of the
ancient British.
This beautiul little Duck, which is too well known to require a
detailed description, is widely spread over Europe and Asia. It is
found in India, China, and Japan : it visits North Africa ; and is
common in Germany, Holland, France, and Italy. It breeds in
Norway, Sweden, Lapland, and Iceland ; nor must the British
Islands be excluded, for although there are flocks of these Birds,
which arrive in our marshes from the north about the end of Sep-
tember, and return thither again in spring, still we have our own
indigenous Birds, which continue permanent, breedmg and rearing
their broods. Cumberland, Northumberland, Norfolk, the borders
of some of the lakes in Wales, are known to afford suitable localities
which they regularly tenant ; a few breed in Romney Marsh ; in
Ireland, some are also resident throughout the year. The nest of
this species is formed of decaying vegetable matters, with a lining
of down and feathers ; it is placed amidst the long rushy herbage,
about the edges of lakes, or in the boggy parts of the upland moors.
The eggs, from eight to ten or twelve in number, are of a cream
white.
The flight of the Teal is wonderfully rapid, and when the Bird is
flushed the sportsman must be on the alert, otherwise it will be
beyond range of shot ere he draws his trigger. Night is the feed-
mg-time of this species ; during the day it reposes upon the water,
or sits shrouded amidst the herbage of the bank, with the head
crouched between the shoulders, or with the bill under the scapulars :
immediately after sunset it wings its way to its usual feeding-"Tound ;
aquatic plants and their seeds, grain, Iresh-water Molluscs.^Insects
and their larva:, constitute its diet. For the sake of its beauty the
Fig. IS50.— Ancient Egj'ptians Bird-catching in the Marshes.
Teal is often kept on ornamental sheets of water, and becomes very
tame and familiar ; those in the Zoological Gardens have for several
years past bred annually. Of all our water-fowl this is the most
delicate for the table, and, as Willughby remarks, " doth deservedly
challenge the first place among those of its kind." Accordingly
we find it recorded among the abundance of good things, compos-
ing the lordly banquets of the olden time. (See Fig. 1551)-
The Pint.uled T)vcvL{DafiIa caudaciita). Anas Caudacuta,
Ray; Anas acuta, Linn.; Anas longicauda, Brisson ; Qucrguc-
dula acuta, Selby ; le Canard a longue queue ou Filet of the trench ;
Anitra codilanza and Anitra di coda lunga ot the Italians ; Speis-
sente and Fasanente of the Germans ; Hwyad gynfionfain of the
ancient British.
/I:
Fig. 1551. — Common Teals.
Fig. 1552 represents the bill of the Pintailcd Duck, in which the
lamina: are only moderately developed, while the elevation at the
base exceeds the breadth. The bulla of the windpipe is of the size
of a small hazel-nut. The Pintailed Duck is a native of the northern
parts of Europe, Asia, and America, breeding in the high latitudes,
whence on the approach of winter it wings its way soutliwards, to
4 I
6io
THE DUCK TRIBE.
return ag-ain in sprin?-. It visits Holland, France, and Germany m
jrreat numbers, as well as the British Islands, the fens of Lincoln-
ihire, Norfolk, &c., being its principal places of resort. It is a shy
and wary Bird, and one of the first to give the alarm on the approach
of a gunner. Contrary to the statement of Montague, Mr. Selby
asserts, from long personal observation, that it is of rare occurrence
in the north of England, and the south of Scotland, and that he has
reason to believe that in the north of Scotland, and the adjacent
islands, it is equally uncommon, the Long-tailed Duck already
described which in winter frequents the bays of the Orkneys and
other groups of islands in great abundance, having been mistaken
Fig. 1552. — Bill of the Pintailed Duck.
for it. This species is easily domesticated, but seldom breeds in
confinement ; yet hybrids between it and other Ducks, have occasion-
ally been produced.
the Pintailed Duck is a Bird of graceful proportions, with a
slender neck and elongated tail, and, as is the case with the Mallard
and several others, as'the Teal and Widgeon, the plumage of the
male after the breeding-season undergoes a remarkable change of
colour, and assimilates to that of the female.
In the male, in full plumage, the head and throat are dark hair
brown, the lower part of the neck, and two streaks running up to
the hind part of the head, the breast, and under parts, white. Back
of the neck deep brown. Flanks and thighs with fine transverse
black lines. Under tail-coverts velvet black. Back marked with
alternate wavy lines of black and greyish-white. Scapulars black;
tertials long, acuminate, and black, with yellowish-white margins.
Lesser wing-coverts deep smoke-grey. Speculum blackish-green,
with a bronzed reflection, bordered below by white. Quills brown.
Two middle tail-feathers elongated, acuminate, and black, the
rest brown margined with white. Bill black. Legs blackish-grey.
(See Fig. 1553).
F'.?. 1553. — The Pintailed Duck.
The Shieldrake {Tadorna vulpanser), head and foot. (See
Fig. 1554.) Aims tadorna, Linn. ; la Tadorna: Buffon ; Brandente,
Bechstein ; Volpoca of Savi ; Hwyad yr cithin and Hwyad fruith of
the ancient British.
The Shieldrake is a native of northern Europe, and Asia, and
occurs in Japan. We may enumerate it among the indigenous
Birds of our islands, as it breeds with us, and may be seen at all
seasons upon various parts of the coast, and on the mud-banks of
our tidal rivers, but rarely far inland ; their numbers, however, are
greatly increased in the winter by accessions from the north, which
return to their summer haunts in March.,, This species selects
Rabbit-warrens along the coast as its breeding-place, and taking up
a deserted burrow, there makes a nest of dried grass, lined with soft
down plucked from its own breast. The nest is sometimes ten or
twelve feet from the entrance ; but where there are no burrows ac-
cessible, it is placed in a fissure of the rock or bank : the eggs are
ten or twelve in number, and ot a pure white. The parents are very
solicitous respecting their young. During the period of incubation
Fig. 1554. — Head and Foot of the Shieldrake.
(thirty days) the male keeps watch, and takes the place of the
female when she leaves the nest for food. When the young are
hatched, they are conducted or carried in the bill of their parents to
the sea, where they swim about in some sheltered spot, seldom leav-
ing the water till fully fledged. Wlien the nest or young are in
danger, the old Birds show great address in decoying the intruder
to a distance, feigning lameness, and fluttering along the ground
before him ; hence the natives of the Orkneys call this Bird the Sly
Goose. The food of the present species consists of sea-weed,
shelled Mollusca, small Crustacea, the spawn and fry of Fishes, and
also grain. The flesh is rank and bad. From its great beauty the
Shieldrake is often kept tame as an ornamental appendage to lakes
and sheets of water in parks or gardens, and numbers of the young
are annually captured for sale. Selby states that in confinement
this species seldom breeds ; one instance came under his own ob-
servation, and another is recorded by Montagu.
The Shieldrake is distinguished from the Ducks of other genera by
the form of its bill, which is comparatively short, high at the base
depressed in the middle, with the tip flattened and turning upwards,
and the nail abruptly curved. The legs are long, and placed in the
centre of the body, whence the Birds run on shore with considerable
ease and quickness. There is a fleshy knot on the base of the upper
mandible in the male, which increases on the approach of the pairing-
season, and acquires a beautiful crimson hue. The trachea of the
male is furnished at the lower larynx with two thin bullae, of which
that on the right side is the largest. The head and neck are greenish-
black ; the lower part of the neck, wing-coverts, back, sides, rump,
and base of tail, pure white. Scapulars, a large band girding the
middle of the belly, quills and extremity of caudal feathers, deep
black ; a large bay-coloured gorget adorns the breast. Speculum,
or beauty-spot of the wings, purple-green. Feet flesh-coloured.
The female is less than the male, and her colours are more obscure.
The Wigeon, or Widgeon [Mareca Penelope). Canard
Siffleur of the French ; Anistra fischiarola, Anatra marigiana, and
Fischione of the Italians ; Pfeifente of the Germans ; Chwiw of the
ancient British.
The Widgeon is a native of the northern regions of Europe and
Asia, breeding in Lapland, Sweden, Norway, &c., whence on the
approach of winter vast flocks wing their way southwards, visiting-
Holland, Germany, France, Spain, and Italy. It occurs in the
neighbourhood of the Caucasus, in India, and Japan. In the
British Islands it arrives about the beginning of October, visiting
our inland marshes, bays, and the mouths of rivers, and great num-
bers are annually taken in decoys, for the sake of the flesh, which is
very excellent ; as a vegetable diet (aquatic plants, sea-weeds, and
ordinary grass) forms the chief support of this species. Dr.
Richardson, in a note, gives the following interesting particulars,
which he derived from Skelton, the intelligent keeper of a decoy in
Lincolnshire: — "With respect to food, the mallard, pintail, and
teal, frequent rich flooded IslviAs, switteri)2g\{\t\\ Xh&ir: nebs in the
soil, and sucking out all its strength, but the wigeon feeds quite
differently, Iwi'iig an amazing foivl to graze, and a strange cater
of grass. It is especially fond of flutter grass (G/j'C^r/a), which it
crops on the surface, but it likewise eats many other herbs." It is
partial to willow-weed seeds {Epilobiiim), as are also the Mallard,
Teal, and Pintail, preferring thera to oats ; and it feeds by day,
but is also nocturnal in its habits. The Widgeon has been known
DUCKS; COMMON AND CANADIAN GOOSE.
THE SWANS.
6ii
to breed in Sutherlandshire ; the nest is placed among low bushes,
reeds, or rushes near fresh water, and is composed of vegetable
materials in a state of decaj', lined with warm down plucked from
the parent's body. The eggs are cream-coloured. The flocks of
this species, while on the wing, utter during their flight a peculiar
whistling call-note, by which the fowler, during the night, easily
distinguishes them. From this call, the Bird in some places, has
received the name of Whew-duck. Early in March the flocks begin
their Polar migration, and by the month of April our morasses and
shores are deserted. (See Fig. i,S55-)
Fig. I5SS- — Widgeons.
Our limited space prevents us giving further illustration of the
Duck tribe, with the exception of the following remarks, for which
we are indebted to the last edition of the " Guide " to the Zoological
Society's Gardens, London : —
"The Shieldrake {Tadoma vu!Jianser.)— This brightly-
plumaged Duck", which has already been described, "is a great
favourite of those persons who possess collections of ornamental
Water- Fowl, the pure and clearly contrasted colours of its feathers
rendering it conspicuous from afar.
" The Australian Shieldrake {Tadorna iadornordes.)—Oi
this beautiful Shieldrake, specimens were first received in 1862, from
the Hon. J. C. Hawker, Speaker of the House of Assembly at Adel-
aide. These unfortunately turned out to be all females. Males,
however, have been received from the Acclimatisation Society of
Melbourne, and there is reason to hope that this fine species may
soon be induced to propagate in this country.
" The Ruddy Shieldrake [ladorna r«//7a,)— easily known by
its bright colour, is one of the rarest visitants to Britain, and only
becomes abundant in Eastern Europe. It occurs in Egypt, and is
said to be extremely numerous in Asia Minor. Indian specimens
differ slightly, but not sufficiently to merit specific distinction. A
pair of these birds bred in the Gardens for the first time in 1859, and
successfully reared four strong young birds. Since that time the
species has bred with us nearly every year.
" The Paradise Shieldrake, of New Zealand {Tadorna varie-
gata), which is remarkable for the striking diversity of colouring of
the sexes — the head in the male being black, and in the female of a
pure white. The Society are indebted to J. D. Tetley, Esq., for
their first pair of this valuable bird, which now breeds regularly in
the Gardens."
Among others of the Duck tribe in these Gardens are the Spotted-
Dilled Duck of India {Anas ■pacilorhyiicha), the Rosy-billed Duck
of S. America [Aleiopiana ^eposaca), and the Chilian Pintail
{Dafila spinica2ida), all recent additions to the living series of this
group, beside the Shoveller-duck, &c.
" The Bahama Duck {Dafila ba7iamensis.)—1\i\% extremely
beautiful Duck, the Ilathera Duck of Catesby, nearly allied to the
Red-billed Duck of South Africa, breeds very freely in confinement,
and has now been distributed by the Society to several of the
amateurs who have collections, both in this country and on the
Continent.
" The Summer Duck {Aix jr/o?zj-(Z.)— This elegant Duck is now
well known in Europe, many hundred pairs of it having been im-
ported from the United States, and constantly breeds on the orna-
mental waters of this country. Like its congener, the Mandarin
Duck (see above) it is arboreal in its habits, and not only builds its
nest, but lives for a considerable part of its time, in trees, when in a
state of nature. Wilson gives an interesting account of his visit to
a breeding-place of the Summer Duck on the Tuckahoc river, New
Jersey, Am. Orn., vol., iii. 121. >
" The Mand.\rin Duck, [Aix galericula(a,)—3i species which is
so highly prized in China, that Sir John Bowring had the greatest
difficulty in obtaining a few pairs for the purpose of transmission
to this country, in 1850. Two pairs had previously reached a skilful
amateur at Rotterdam, and from these individuals the whole of the
birds of this species now in Europe have descended. The Mandarin
Duck appears to be indigenous to the country north of Pekin,
whence the Mandarins at Canton, and in the south generally, obtain
a supply for their aviaries. It has also been found in a wild state on
the Southern Amur."
The Garganey Ducks [Querqucdula circia) are represented in
the Zoological Society's Gardens.
The Swans— Sub-family Cygnince.
In the Swans {CygmncB) the bill is nearly of the same form as in
the Ducks, as are also the feet ; which, however, are much stouter
in proportion. The bill is rather long, and of nearly equal breadth
throughout ; and the neck is greatly elongated. These large and
elegant Birds, of which several species are found in this country,
are amongst the most graceful of the Aquatic Birds ; and few
objects in nature, perhaps, are more pleasing than a large Swan
moving in its usual majestic manner over the smooth surface of the
water. Their wings are very long and powerful, and many of them
perform long migrations, during which they always fly in single
lines. Their dietis principally of a vegetable nature, consisting of
grass, roots, and seeds ; but they are said also to feed upon Worms
and Aquatic Insects. Swans are gregarious at all seasons. The
nest, which is very bulky, is composed of grass, rushes, and coarse
herbage, and placed on the ground, generally amongst the sedges
of the brink. Several observers have stated that the Swan, when
sitting, has been known to add considerably to the materials of her
nest, so as to raise it sometimes as much as two feet, or two feet and
a-half, in anticipation of heavy rains, which swelled the waters to
such an extent, that the nest, if left in its original condition, would
have been completely submerged. The male remains in company
with the female during the period of incubation, and assists in the
care of the young after their exclusion. An interesting instance of
the courage and determination of the male Swan in defending his
young, is related by Mr. Yarrell. A pair of the Whooping or
Hooping Swans {Cygnus ferns) had bred in the gardens of the
Zoological Society, in the summer of 1839. "The Cygnets," says
Mr. Yarrell, " when only a few days old, were sunning themselves
on the margin of one of the islands, close to the deep water The
parent birds were swimming near. A Carrion Crow made a descent
and struck at one of the Cygnets ; the old male Hooper came to the
rescue in an instant, seized the Crow with his beak, pulled him into
the water, and, in spite of all its buffetings and resistance, held
him there till he was dead." The name of the Hooper or Whooping
Swan given to this Bird, which is the common Wild Swan of
Europe, is an allusion to the peculiar note emitted by the male,
which is said by Mr. Yarrell to be exactly similar to the word "hoop,"
repeated several times in succession. The intensity of this sound is
greatly increased by the convolution of the trachea, which pene-
trates the keel of the sternum, almost to its posterior extremity, and
is then bent back upon itself so as to return to the front of the
sternum before reaching the lungs.
An arrangement, in some degree similar to this, occurs also in
another British species, Bewick's Swan [Cygnus bezfic^ii), which
also produces a considerable noise, especially when flying on its
migrations ; but the trachea of the Common Tame Swan [C. olur) is
quite simple, and the Bird has only a soft, plaintive voice, very
different from the strong note of the Hooper. Another species, the
C. immutabilis, so called from the cygnets being white instead of
grey or brownish, as is the case with the other Swans, occasionally
makes its appearance in this country during severe winters ; it is
sometimes brought by dealers from the Baltic, under the name of
the Polish Swan, but its summer residence is not accurately known.
The following is a more particular account of various species of
the Swan Tribe : —
The Tame Swan [Cygnus olor). Cygne of the French ; Cigno
and Cigno reale of the Italians ; Schwan and Hocker Schwan of the
Germans ; Tam Svane of the Danes; Alarch of the Welsh; Swan
and Mute Swan, English. The Tamo or Mute Swan, so well known
in a state of semi-domestication on our ornamental sheets of water,
our lakes, meres, and large rivers, of which it is so conspicuous an
ornament, is not an aboriginal of our islands, but is found in the
eastern portions of Europe, and the adjacent parts of Asia, where
inland seas, vast lakes, and extensive morasses afford it a congenial
home. In Siberia, and some parts of Russia, it is common, and
abounds on the shores of the Caspian Sea. It is migratory la us
habits.
6t2
THE SWANS.
When this graceful Bird was introduced into England we cannot
ascertain ; we find, however, that at an early period it was regarded
as royal property, and under the protection of authorised Swan-
herds, or masters of the King's Swans, while the stealing of one of
these Birds, or of the eggs of Swans out of their nests, was punished
with great severity.
The following observations relative to the ancient right of keeping
Swans, will be of interest : — " In England the swan is said to be a
bird royal, in which no subject can have property, when at large in
public river or creek, except by grant from the crown. In creating
this privilege, the crown grants a swan-mark (cygninota), for a game
of swans, called in law Latin deductus (a pastime, un deduit) cyg-
norum, sometimes volatus cygnorum. (7, Coke's Rep., 17.) In
Scotland the swan is said not to be a royal bird (Erskines's Insti'i.,
b. ii., tit. 6) ; but whilst all proprietors in that country have the
right of fowling within their own grounds, swans, unless specially
granted, appear to be reserved to the crown. (Stair's Insii'i., b. ii.,
t. 3, s. 60 : and see Ducange Cygnos habe?idijus.) In the reign of
Elizabeth upwards of 900 corporations and individuals had their
distinct swan-marks, some of which may be seen in Yarrell's
"British Birds," vol. iii., 121, &c.
" Sometimes, though rarely, the crown, instead of granting a
swan-mark, confers the still greater privilege of enjoying the pre-
rogative right (within a certain district) of seizing white swans, not
marked. Thus the Abbot of Abbotsbury, in Dorsetshire, had a
game of wild swans in the sstuary formed by the Isle of Portland
and the Chesil Bank. The swannery at Abbotsbury is the largest
in the kingdom, which, though formerly considerably more extensive,
still numbers many hundreds of these birds, forming an object of
considerable attraction and interest to those who visit this part of
the south coast : it is now vested in the Earl of Ilchester, to whose
ancestor it was granted on the dissolution of the monasteries. (7
Co. Rep. 17 ; Hutchins, Dorset, i. 538.)
"The privilege of having a swan-mark, or game of swans, is a
freehold of inheritance, and may be granted over. But by 22 Edw.
IV., c. 6, no person, other than the king's sons, shall have a swan-
mark, or game of swans, unless he has freehold lands or tenements
of the clear yearly value of five marks (^3 6s. 8d.), on pain of
forfeiture of the swans, one moiety to the king and the other to any
qualified person who makes the seizure. In the first year of Richard
III. the inhabitants of Crowland, in Lincolnshire, were exempted
from the operation of this act upon their petition setting forth that
their town stood 'all in marsh and fen,' and that they had great
games of swans, ' by which the greatest part of their relief and
living had been sustained.' (6 Rot. Pari., 260.)
" The city of Oxford has a game of swans by prescription, though
none are now kept. In the si.'iteenth century (when a state dinner
■was not complete unless a swan was included in the bill of fare) this
game of swans was rented upon an engagement to deliver yearly
four fat swans, and to leave six old swans at the end of the term.
By the corporation books it also appears that in 1557, barley was
provided for the young birds at i4d, a bushel, and that tithes were
then paid of swans.
'' Two of the London Companies have games of swans, the Dyers'
and the Vintners' Company, and are, with the crown, the principal
owners of swans in the Thames. In August, 1841, the Queen had
232, the Dyers 105, and the Vintners 100 swans in the river. For-
merley the Vintners alone had 500. The swan-mark of the Dyers'
Company is a notch, called a ' nick,' on one side of the beak. The
swans of the Vintners' Company, being notched or nicked on each
side of the beak, are jocularly called ' swans with two necks,' a term
which had long been used as a sign by what was formerly one of
the large inns in the City of London, whence many of the mail and
stage coaches used to start.
" On the first Monday in August in every year the swan-markers
of the crown and the two Companies of the City of London go up
the river for the purpose of inspecting and taking an account of the
swans belonging to their respective employers, and marking the
young birds. In antient documents this annual expedition is called
swan-upping, and the persons employed are denominated swan-
uppers. These are still the designations used amongst the initiated,
though popularly corrrupted into swan-hopping and swan-hoppers.
"The swan-markers proceed to
the different parts of the river
frequented by the swans for breed-
ing, and other places where the
birds are kept. They pay half-a-
crown for each young bird to the
fishermen who have made nests
Fig. 1566.— Royal Swan Mark. for the old birds, and two shillings
per week to any person who during
the winter has taken care of the swans by sheltering them in
ponds or otherwise protecting them from the severity of the weather. "
Fig. 1556 is a representation of the Royal Swan-mark, given by
Mr. Yarrell, in whose valuable work on British Birds will be found
a mass of curious informarion on this subject, together with delinea-
tions of sixteen different swan-marks.
Wm)
Fig. 1557 represents the Head of the Tame Swan {Cygnus olor),
remarkable for the development of the black naked cere, at the
base which extends to the eye, rising on the anterior part of the
forehead in the form of a large prominence, more conspicuous in the
male than the female. The beak generally is of an orange red, with
the exception of the nail at the tip of the upper mandible, the edges
of both, and of the nostrils, which are black.
Fig. 1557. — Head of the Tame Swan.
In a natural state the female Swan, sedulously attended by her
mate, forms her nest, which is a thick mass of sticks, reeds, flags,
and rushes, in the midst of reeds or oziers near the water. The
eggs are six or eight in number. The young Birds are termed
Cygnets, and are covered with a greyish brown plumage which is
not entirely lost till the beginning of the third year. Though the
Swan is in general very gentle and inoffensive, the male will defend
the nest with great courage, and advance to the onset with ruffled
pinions and every demonstration of anger, nor is it, from its mus-
cular powers, an antagonist to be despised, as already mentioned.
The Swan is very long-lived, attaining to the age of even more
than thirty years.
The Hooper, or Whistling Sw.^^n, {Cygnus ferns ; Cygnus
7!iusiciiS, Bechstein) ; Cygne sauvage of the French ; Cigno salvatico
of the Italians ; Singschwan of the Germans ; Vild Svane of the
Danes ; Alarch gwylt of the ancient British.
This species, which differs in many important anatomical details .
from the preceding, is a native of nearly the whole of the northern
hemisphere, as far at least as Europe and Asia extend ; for it ap-
pears, according to the Prince of Canino, that in the high latitudes
of America it is represented by a distinct, though closely allied
species, the Cygnus americanus, Sharpless.
The Hooper is a Migratory Bird, residing during the summer
within the regions of the Arctic circle, where it breeds in great
numbers. It has been known, however, to incubate and rear its
young in the Shetland and Orkney Islands. On the approach of
winter, this Bird leaves the dreary regions of the north for more
southern latitudes, visiting the British Islands, Holland, Germany,
France, and Italy, extending its journey even to Northern Africa
and Egypt. It performs its periodical flight in flocks of greater or
less extent, arranged in the figure of a wedge, travelling with vast
rapidity, and at a great elevation. The note which it utters while on
the wing is harsh, and resembles the word hoop, repeated several
times successively ; yet this cry, when heard from a flock high
overhead and softened by distance, is not unmusical. The trachea,
or windpipe, of this species is very remarkable. After passing
down the long neck of the Swan, it descends between the two
branches of the merrythought, and instead of then passing into
the chest, it enters into the keel of the breast-bone, which is
hollowed for its reception ; here it extends backwards between
the two plates of the keel, nearly throughout its whole extent,
then suddenly turning upon itself, it passes torwards, and emerging
sweeps round the apical portion of the merrythought, and so again
turning back enters the chest, and there gives off two long branchial
tubes, one to each lobe of the lungs. In females and young males
the extent to which the wmdpipe enters the keel of the breast-bone
is not so considerable. Fig. 1558 and 1559 represent the windpipe
and breast-bone, with a portion of the keel removed, so as to expose
the former : a, a, the trachea ; b, the bony ring, or lower larynx,
whence are given off c, c, the two branchial tubes. Fig. 1560 shows
the anterior portion of the keel, with the opening for the reception
and exit of the trachea.
Wide morasses, lakes, or the mouths of rivers, and inundated
grounds are the abode of this wary Bird. On the first dawn of
spring, the flocks which have spread themselves in small parties
over our latitudes, collect, and wing their way back to their nor'hern
breeding-haunts, scattering themselves over Norway, Iceland, Lap-
land, Spitzbergen, and Siberia.
The down of this species is '^sry valuable, and is procured in great
THE SWANS.
613
quantity by the Icelanders, together with the feathers, not only for
domestic comfort, but for the purpose of barter. The season for
Swan-hunting in Iceland is during the month of August, when the
old Birds, having cast their quill-feathers, are unable to fly ; the
natives assemble in bodies in the places where these Birds collect,
attended by Dogs, and mounted upon small but active Horses, well
Fig. 1558. — Breast-bone of the Wild Swan.
trained to pass over bogs and through mashy soil, and many are
ridden down, but the greater number are caught by the Dogs, which
always seize by the neck, a mode of attack that causes the Bird to
loose its balance and become an easy prey.
The Hooper is smaller and much less graceful than the Tame
Swan ; in swimming it is never seen to thow up the plumes of its
rig. 1559. — Brest-bone of the Wild Swan.
wings, nor assume any striking attitude, and it carries its neck erect
and straight, instead of curved ; but while walking, the head is
lowered, and the neck reclines over the back to assist in preserving
the equipoise of the body. In captivity it soon becomes tame, and
has bred in the Zoological Gardens, but it does not associate with
the Tame Swan.
This species has no basal protuberance on the beak ; the base of
the upper mandible and cere, as far as the
eye, are yellow, as is also the back part of the
lower mandible ; the point, as far as the
nostrils, black^these two colours meet each
other obliquely, the latter running obliquely,
backwards, the yellow advancing forwards
along the sides, of the beak ; iris brown ; feet
black. E.xpanse of wings about eight feet.
Fig. 1 561, represents the head of the Hooper.
Bewick's Swan (Cyg)iusbe%vickii. ) This
species is about one-third less than the
Hooper. Its beak rises high at the base,
which is yellow ; the anterior portion, in-
cluding more than the nostrils, black (see
Fig. it;62); the tail-feathers are eighteen, in the Hooper twenty;
the legs are of a deeper black than in the Hooper, and the neck
is more slender. The arrangement of the trachea, besides is
very different.' " The tube of the windpipe, says Mr. Yarrell, " is of
equal diameter throughout, and, descending in front of the neck,
enters the keel of the sternum, which is hollow as in the hooper,
traversing the whole length. Having arrived at the end of the keel,
the tube, then gradually inclining upwards and outwards, passes
into a cavity in the sternum destined to receive it, caused by a sepa-
ration of the parallel horizontal plates of bone, forming the posterior
flattened portion of the breast-bone, and producing a convex pro-
tuberance on the inner surface. The tube, also changing its direc-
tion from vertical to horizontal, and reaching within half an inch of
the posterior edge, is reflected back, after making a considerable
curve, till it once more reaches the keel ; again traversing which, in
a line immediately over the first portion of the tube, it passes out
under the arch of the merrythought; where turning upwards and
Fig. 1560. — P^.int of
Keel of the Breast-bone.
afterwards backwards, it enters the body of the bird, to be attached
to the lungs in the usual manner. This is the state of development
in the oldest bird I have yet met with. The degree next in order, or
younger, differs in having the horizontal loop of the trachea confined
to one side only of the cavity in the sternum, both sides of which
cavity are at this time formed, but the loop of the tube is not yet
Fig. 1561.— Head of the Hooper.
sufficiently elongated to occupy the whole space ; and the third in
order, from a still younger bird, possesses only the vertical insertion
of the fold of the trachea." Mr. Yarrell adds, however, that in this
last case the cavity in the posterior part of the sternum already
exists to a considerable extent. (See Fig. 1563.)
Bewick's Swan is a native of the northern regions of Europe and
Asia, as well as of America; though in his " Comparative List of
the Birds of Europe and America," the Prince of Canino does not
Fig. 1562. — Head of Bewick's Swan.
give it as an American species, but parallels it with the Cygnus
buccinatur, or Trumpeter Swan. According to Temminck, it breeds
in Iceland, and within the Arctic circle, migrating southwards in
spring; but it appears to be much scarcer than the Hooper.
Captain Lyon describes the nest as
constructed of peat moss, nearly six feet
long, four and three quarters wide, and
two feet in height, with a cavity for the
eggs, a foot and a half in diameter. Mr.
Blackwall describes the cry of this
species as loud, and states that a flock
of twenty-nine were very clamorous.
Mr. Sinclaire says the note of these Birds
in captivity is a low-toned whistle ; and
Mr. Selby, " its voice is much weaker
than that of the preceding species, the
Hooper."
The Polish Swan {Cygiius immu-
tablis). This species has been con-
founded with the [Cygiius olor), or Tame
Swan, to which, of all the European Swans,
it is the most nearly related. There are,
however many important anatomical
differences, especially in the osteology of
the head. (See Fig. 1564.) The Cygnets are white, a point in
which it differs from every other species of white swan. In the adult
Bird the beak is reddish-orange ; the lateral margins, the nail, the
nostrils, and base of the upper mandible are black. There is a small
tubercle, which never acquires the size of that ornamenting the head
of the Cygnus olor. Legs, toes, and inten,-enmg membranes slate
grey. The windpipe is simple. The Bird, a native or the high
Fig. 1563.- Winflpipe of
Bewick's Swan.
6 14
THE GEESE.
northern regions and the Baltic, is called by dealers the Polish
Swan, and occasionally visits our island. It is easily reconciled to
captivity, breeding as freely as the Common Tame Swan. The female
of a pair of these Swans, at Lord Derby's seat, Knowsley, having
died, the male paired with a female of the ordinary tame species, and
a brood was the result, but the hybrids, though old enough, neither
paired among themselves nor with any of the Tame Swans on the
same water.
1564. — Head of the Polish Swan.
The Black Swan {Cygnus atratus, Bennet ; A)ias ■pluionia,
Shaw; Chenopis atratus, Wagler.) (See Fig. 1565.) The Black
Swan, b}' no means " rara avis in terris," is a native of Australia,
where it abounds on the rivers and lakes, and on various islands
along the coast, and is usually seen in flocks, which are shy and
wary. Of late years this beautiful Bird has been introduced into our
island, where it thrives and breeds, and is perfectly acclimatised.
It is irrascible in temper, and disposed to tyrannise over the weaker
or more timid captives resident on the same piece of water.
Fig. 1565. — Head of the Black Swan.
The Black Swan is inferior to the Hooper in size ; its plumage is
black, with the exception of the primary and a few of the secondary
quill-feathers, which are white ; but these are obscured by the curled
secondaries, which hang plume-hke over them. The bill is of a
bright red colour, crossed near the nail by a whitish band ; its base,
in the male, is surmounted by a slight protuberance, which is wanting
in the female ; under-part of the bill grej'ish-white ; legs and feet of
a dull ash-colour ; iris, red ; trachea perfectly simple, not unlike that
of the Cygnus oto?-. Fig. 1566 represents the trachea and breast-
bone of the Black Swan. The note of this species is harsh.
Fig. 1566. — Breast-bone of the Black Swan.
Various portions of the coast of South America (Chili, the Falkland
Islands, Rio de la Plata, &c.) present us with a very beautiful
species of the Black-necked Swan (Cy^«?^j«z^;>-/'«//;j-), distinguished
by a jet black head and neck, contrasting admirably with the snowy
whiteness of the rest of the plumage. The bill is red ; the legs
and feet flesh-colour. It equals the Hooper in size. This Bird
breeds regularly in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, London.
Among the Birds of the Swan Tribe in the Zoological Society's
Gardens, London, is the following, beside the species already
described : —
The Trumpeter Swan ( Cygnus buccinator). This fine American
Sw^an, of which the first pair were received from Ohio in 1866, com-
menced to breed in 1S70, and has reproduced in the Gardens every
year since then six or seven cygnets from the brood, and are hatched
in Alay or June.
There is also a specimen of the Chilian Swan. The collection of
the British Museum contains numerous stuffed specimens of the
tribe.
The Geese — Zuh-iamWy Atiscn'ttcs.
The Anserincs, or Geese, have a large heavy body, with a toler-
ably long neck, a small head, and a conical bill (Fig. 1567.) Their
feet are rather long, and the hind toes very small ; the wings are
long and powerful. These Birds, many of which are only inferior in
size to the Swans, resemble them in most of their habits ; they live
together in flocks, inhabit the Polar regions during the summer, and
migrate in autumn in search of a more genial climate in which to
pass the winter. During their migrations, they fly in long lines, at
a great height in the air, continually emitting loud cries. They
feed on vegetables, such as grass, herbaceous plants, and seeds,
and generally take up their abode in marshy places. In these
Fig. 1567. — Head of the Gray Goose.
situations they build their nests, which are of large sige, and com-
posed of coarse grass and other herbage. They lay several eggs ;
and, according to Professor Nilsson, the males quit their partners
during the period of incubation, and collect in flocks close to the
sea.
Of the True Wild Geese (Anser) several species are found in this
country, principally as winter visitors, although some species occa-
sionally remain, and breed here during the summer. The Grey
Lag Goose {A nser ferus) which is said to have been very abundant
formerly in the fenny districts, is now rarely found in Britain ; but
Mr. Yarrell appears to consider this as the original of our domestic
breed, perhaps with a cross of the White-fronted Goose {Anser
atbt/rons), which still visits our shores in considerable numbers
during the winter. The commonest of the British species is the
Bean Goose {Anser segetum). The Bernicle Geese (Bcrnicla) are
marine in their habits, and feed almost entirely upon Algse and upon
the Grass-wrack [Zostcra }tiarina). The following is a more
particular account of some of the species of the Goose Tribe : —
The Canada Goose {Anser canade?isis). This species, of
which, as we have said, there is a tame breed both in Europe and
America, is a native of the Arctic regions of North America,
whence, in the autumn, vast flocks wing their way southwards,
spreading over Canada and the United States. The autumnal
flight, says Wilson, lasts from the middle of August to the middle
of October, when the frosts begin. No sooner do they arrive in
Canada and the States, than the work of slaughter commences.
They run the gauntlet, so to speak, for many hundreds of miles,
through such destructive fires, that by the time they have reached
the shores of the Middle States, their numbers are not only greatly
reduced, but the survivors have become exceedingly shy and watch-
ful. The English residents at Hudson's Bay depend greatly on the
supply of Canada Geese for their winter provision ; and it is stated
that in favourable years, as many as three or four thousand have
been killed and barrelled up ; a single native, from the ambush of
his bough hut, will sometimes kill two hundred in a day. Those
which are taken when the frost begins to set in, are preserved in
a frozen state, with the feathers on, and not salted, as the rest ; the
feathers constitute an article of commerce, and are sent to Eng-
land. The flesh of this species, though juicy and excellent, is not
THE GEESE.
equal to that of the Snow Goose {Ajiser hypcrboreus), which,
according' to Dr. Richardson, is of first-rate quality; consequently
thousands of this latter species are killed during- their southern pro-
gress, and kept in a frozen state, in holes dug- in the ground, and
covered up with earth. The same mode of preserving them is
practised also in Siberia.
About the middle of April the Canada Geese return northwards,
their flight lasting till the middle of May. They have been found
breeding on the coasts of Labrador. On the arrival of the flocks in
the fur countries the work of slaughter again commences, the natives
attracting the Birds within gun-shot range by imitating their call
note. " One goose," says Dr. Richardson, " when fat weighs about
nine pounds, and is the daily ration for one of the company's servants
during this season ; it is reckoned equal to two snow geese, or three
ducks, or eight pounds of buffalo or moose meat, two pounds of
pcnimican, or a pint of maize and four ounces of suet. About three
weeks after their first (vernal) appearance, the Canada geese dis-
perse, in pairs, throughout the country between the 50th and 67th
parallels to breed, retiring at the same time from the shores of
Hudson's Bay. They are seldom or ever seen on the coasts of the
Arctic Sea. In July, after the young are hatched, the parents
moult, and vast numbers are killed in the rivers and small lakes,
when they are unable to fly. When chased by a canoe and obliged
to dive frequently, they soon become fatigued, and make for the
shore with the intention of hiding themselves, but as they are not
fleet they fall an easy prey to their pursuers. In the autumn they
again assemble in flocks on the shores of Hudson's Bay for three
weeks or a inonth previous to their departure southwards."
The food of the present species consists of tender Aquatic herbage
and roots, and also marine plants, together with grain and berries.
The Canada Goose has the head, nearly all the neck, the greater
quills, rump, and tail black. Back and wings brown, with a pale
edge to each feather. Base of the neck and under plumage white,
a few feathers before the edge, and a large throat-mark white. Bill
and feet black. (See Fig. 1568.)
6>S
Fig. 156S. — The Canada Goose.
The Bean Goose {Anser segetum, Steph.)— The Bean Goose
or Small Grey Goose must not be confounded with the Greylag, the
origin of our domestic stock, and from which it may be distinguished
by its inferior size, and by the form of the bill, which is compara-
tively shorter, smaller, and more compressed towards the end. Its
wings reach even beyond the tail. Moreover, in the Bean Goose the
base of the upper mandible, as far as the nostrils, and of the lower,
together with the nails of both, are black, the rest of a reddish flesh-
colour inclining to orange, whereas the bill of the Greylag is of an
orange-red, with the nail of a greyish-white.
The Bean Goose is a native of the high northern regions, and the
range of country within the Arctic circle ; whence in the autumn it
migrates southwards, and is well known as a regular winter visitant
to our islands, arriving about the beginning of October. The flocks
have their respective feeding districts or haunts, to which, as Mr.
Selby has satisfactorily determined, they invariably return ; their
flight, except during stormy weather, is generally at a great eleva-
tion, and extremely rapid. The Birds fly either in a diagonal line,
or form two sides of an acute triangle, and during their aerial pro-
gress, maintain an incessant cackle, the voices of the two sexes
being easily distinguished. During the day, the flocks resort to the
upland grounds and open lands, feeding on the tender wheat, and
also upon clover and other herbage. In the early part of the spring
they visit the fields newly sown with beans and peas, and greedily
devour as much as they find scattered about, or can dislodge ; on
the approach of evening they retire to the water, or to some bar of
sand, at a little distance from the shore, where they have a free range
of vision all around, and no enemy can steal unobserved upon them.
They are extremely watchful and vigilant, and it is only by stratagem
that the sportsman can come upon them within gunshot. The best
plan is to lie in wait for them, when they make their early morning
visit to the feeding grounds which they habitually frequent. The
Bean Goose is said to breed on some of the outermost Western
islands in considerable numbers, making in the marshy grounds a
nest of dried grasses and other vegetables ; the eggs are ten or twelve
in number.
This Bird is much more common in our island than the Greylag,
at least in the present day : for formerly the Greylag was not only
numerous, but a permanent resident, breeding in the fenny counties,
from which the process of draining, and an increase of population)
have almost entirely banished it. (Sec Fig. 1569.)
Fig. 1569. — The Bean Goose.
The Bernicle Goose {Anser bcrnicla). The Bernicle, together
with a closely allied species, the Brent Goose (^;w^;- brentu), are
both natives of the high northern latitudes, both of Europe and
America, and in autumn migrate southwards ; they visit our islands
during the winter ; the Bernicle Goose resorts to the western shores
of Britain, and the north of Ireland, and is abundant on the coast of
Lancashire, and in the Sohvay Frith ; while the Brent Goose chiefly
haunts the eastern and southern shores of Britain, and abounds on
the Northumberland coast. Both species are very shy and wary,
and can only be approached by means of the most cautious ma-
noeuvres. They frequent marshy ground covered with spring-tides,
feeding upon sea-shore grasses, and fronds of various algae, and
particularly of the laver. The Bernicle breeds in Iceland, Spitz-
bergen, Greenland, Lapland, the north of Russia, and of Asia, and
the neighbourhood of Hudson's Bay. It is of handsome form, and,
from the length of the tarsi, stands high on the hmbs ; its flesh is
very excellent. (See Fig. 1570.)
As the Bernicle or Bernacle Goose and the Brent Goose have till
recently been confounded together, the fabulous origin attributed to
the one, involves that of the other also. It is strange that in matters
concerning the marvellous, even men of education will take pains to
deceive themselves, and, instead of investigating nature with a
" learned spirit," give a licence to ill-directed imagination, and
credit absurdities. When such men are so credulous, how can we
wonder at the superstitions of the illiterate ?
The flrst phase of the story in question is, that certam trees,
resembling willows, more particularly in one of the Orkneys,
Pomona, produced at the ends of their branches small swelled balls,
containing the embryo of a Duck suspended by the bill, which, when
ripe, fell off into the sea and took wing. Munster, Saxo, Gram-
maticus, Scaliger, Fulgosus, Bishop Leslie, and Olaus Magnus, all
attested to the truth of this monstrous absurdity. Gesner, Johnston,
and Aldrovand, may be also cited. . , „ x
A second phase or modification of the story is that given byBogce
the oldest Scottish historian ; he denies that the Geese (Scottice
Claiks) grow on trees by their bills,as some belicve.but that, as his own
researches and personal experience prove, they are first produced in
the form of Worms, in the substance of old trees or timber floating
in the sea ; for such a tree, cast on shore in 1480, was brought to the
laiid who ordered it to bo sawn asunder, when there appeared a
6i6
THE GEESE.
multitude of Worms, " throwing themselves out of sundry holes and
bores of the tree ; some of them were rude, as they were new shapen ;
some had both head, feet, and wings, but they had no feathers;
some of them were perfect shapen Fowls. At last the people,
having this tree each day in more admiration, brought it to the kirk
of St. Andrew's, beside the town of Tyre, where it yet remains to our
days." Other instances he adduces by way of proof, and at length
he comes to tlie conclusion, that the production of these Geese from
fruits is the erroneous opinion of the ignorant ; it being ascertained
that " they are produced only by the nature of the ocean sea, which
is the cause and production of many wonderful things." In this
view he was supported by Turner and others : " When," says
Fig. 1570.— The Bernicle Goose.
Turner, " at a certain time an old ship, or a plank, or a pine-mast
rots in the sea, something like a little fungus at first makes its
appearance, which at length puts on the manifest form of birds ;
afterwards, these are clothed with feathers, and at last become living
and flying fowl." ("Avium Prsecip. Hist.," art " Anser.")
Turner, however, does not give up the Goose-tree, but informs
Gesner that it is a different Bird from the Brent or Bernicle Goose,
which takes its origin from it. (Gesner " De Avibus," iii-, p. 107,
&c.) Passing a host of other autliorities, with their accumulated
proofs, and the depositions of unimpeachable witnesses, we may
come to Gerard, who, in 1636, published in his "Herbalist" a
detailed account as follows : —
" But what our eyes have seen and hands have touched we shall
declare. There is a small island in Lancashire, called the Pile of
Foulders, wherein are found the broken pieces of old and bruised
ships, some whereof have been cast thither by shipwracke, and also
the trunks and bodies with the branches of old and rotten trees, cast
up there likewise; wherein is found a certain spume, or froth' that
in time breedeth into certaine shels, in shape like those of the
muskle, but sharper pointed, and of a whitish colour ; wherein is
contained a thing in form like a lace of silke finely woven, as it
were, together, of a whitish colour ; one end whereof is fastened into
the inside of the shell, even as the fish of oysters and muskles are ;
the other end is made fast unto the belly of a rude masse or lumpe!
which in time cometh to the shape and form of a bird ; when it is
perfectly formed the shell gapeth open, and the first' thino- that
appeareth is the foresaid lace or string ; ne.xt come the legs^of the
bird hanging out, and as it groweth greater it openeth the shell by
degrees, till at length it is all come forth and hangeth only by the
bill ; in short space after it cometh to full maturitic, and falleth into
the sea, where it gathereth feathers, and groweth to a fowle bigger
than a mallard and lesser than a goose, having blacke legs and bill
or beake, and feathers blacke and white, spotted in such manner as
is our magpie, called in some places pie-annet, which the people of
Lancashire call by no other name than a tree-goose : which place
aforesaid, and all those parts adjoining, do so much abound there-
with, that one of the best is bought for threepence. For the truth
hereof, if any doubt, may it please them to repaire unto me, and I
shall satisfie them by the testimonie of good witnesses."
Fig- 1571 represents the illustration given by Gerard of this acconnt.
It is apparently intended for a log of wood rising out of the sea,
crowned with these Goose-bearing shells.
We must not suppose that there were none who doubted this marvel.
Belon, who wrote in 1551, and others, treated it with ridicule ; and in
Ray's " Wilhighby," published in 1678, we find a refutation of it, only
with an admission of spontaneous generation among certain Animals
of the lower orders.
What, it may be asked, were the Marine Anirfials supposed to be
the origin of this Goose ? Simply those singular shell-covered Cirrhi-
pedous creatures supported on, or rather attached, often in thousands,
to floating timber by means of long flexible worm-like stalks or pe-
duncles. They are known by the name of Bernacles, or Bernicles
{Pentelasmis atiatifera, Leach ; Lepas anafifera, Linn.). The body
of these curious creatures is enclosed in a shell not unlike that of a
muscle, but composed of five portions, one a dorsal stripe : along the
Fig. I57I- — Bernicles Transforming into Geese, (From Gerard. )
interior margin the valves are but partially connected by a membrane
leaving a large fissure, through which emerge the ciliated arms or
cirrhi, plumose and jointed. The colour of the shell is pale purplish
blue. Of these Animals we shall hereafter have occasion to speak
more particularly. How it came to pass that the absurd tradition
we have briefly detailed arose, is beyond our conjecture.
To return to the Bernicle Goose (for so it is still called), its weight
is about five pounds ; the bill is black with a reddish streak on each
side ; the cheeks and throat, with the e.xception of a black line from
the eye to the beak, white ; head, neck, and shoulders, black ; upper
plumage marbled with blue, grey, black, and white. Tail black ;
under parts white ; legs dusky.
The Egyptian Goose {Chenalopex cBgyptiacus). — The Egyptian
Goose is abundant along the banks of the Nile, and is distributed
over the continent of Africa generally. It also visits the southern
shores of Europe, and is not uncommonly seen in Sicily. According
to Temminck, it was this species which was held in veneration by the
ancient Egyptians, and of which figures are frequently observed
among the monumental remains of that extraordinary nation. The
author of " Egyptian Antiquities," vol. ii. p. 311 (" Library of
Entertaining Knowledge"), also observes that the Chenalopex of
Herodotus, still very common in Egypt, is of frequent occurrence on
the sculptures, though, as he says, it was not a Sacred Bird, unless
it may have some claims to that honour from having been a favourite
article of food for the priests. " A place in upper Egypt had its
name Chenoboscium or Chenoboscia (goose-pens) from these animals
being fed there, probably for sale." There is good reason, however,
to believe that the ordinary Common Goose was kept, as well as the
Chenalopex. The ancients regarded the eggs of this species as
second in flavour only to those of the Pea-fowl. .(Elian mentions the
Bird, and notices its cunnmg and wariness. Hence the word
Xr\vaKbsTrr\^, from x'i", a Goose, and dXwn-ijI, a Fox. The Egyptian
Goose is often kept, because of its beauty, in a semi-domesticated
state on ornamental sheets of water, both in our country and on the
continent, and in that condition it breeds freely ; hence it happens
that the young, when fledged, often take wing, and wandering about
on rivers or lakes, are shot : a circumstance, as Mr. Gould observes,
which occurs yearly. The habits ot this Goose closely resemble
those of the tftst of the tribe. The bill is long, sleuder, and nearly
THE GEESE.
617
straight, rounded at the tip ; the upper mandible is sli.i^lifly curved,
and the nail hooked. The tarsi are elongated ; the neck is long and
slender; the general contour compact.
Fig. 1572. — The Egyptian Goose.
The Cereopsis Goose {Cereo^sis 7iovcb hollandics). — This beau-
tiful Bird decidedly forms the type of a distinct genus, of which,
however, it is the only known species. According to some naturalists
it evinces a certain degree of approximation towards the .<4rd'e/af(?
(Herons), a point on which we are by no means satisfied, for though
less completely organised for swimming and diving than many of the
Anatidce, still, neither in food nor in habits, nor in the essential points
of its anatomy, does it resemble the Herons. The fact is, that the
theory of circles or given groups inosculating by means of inter-
mediate forms stands on a frail basis. The Cereopsis exhibits the
leading characters which distinguish the Geese from the Ducks,
carried out still more decidedly. The beak is shorter, the legs
longer, and the feet less webbed than in most Geese ; we may add to
this that the bill is elevated, obtuse, and covered, except at the
tip, with a cere, or membrane, on .which are the nostrils. The legs
are bare of feathers a little way above the tarsal joint ; the nails
are strong, and the wings ample. Refer to bill of Cereopsis,
Fig- 1573-
^'g- 1573- —Bill of the Cereopsis Goose.
The Cereopsis is a native of Australia ; and though most vovaP-ers,
who have visited the distant shores on which it abounds, have alluded
to It as a species of Swan, or as a Goose, it is only within the last
few years that naturahsts at home have gained an accurate know-
ledge of its true characters and its natural afTinitics. The first intro-
duction of the Coreopsis into the records of science was by Dr.
Latham in the year 1802. He published at that time a figure and
description of the Bird in question in the second supplement to his
" General Synopsis,' regarding it as the type of a new genus among
the Waders, and to this genus he gave the title of Cereopsis, the
specific designation of the Bird, of which, indeed, he had seen only
one example, being Cereopsis novcs hollamlia;. The term Cereopsis
contains an allusion to the largo cere covering the base of the bill,
but which Dr. Latham, misled by an apparently imperfect specimen,
supposed to be extended on the forehead and face ; as it is, however,
the cere is so extensive as to justify the title. , Subsequently to the
publication above alluded to. Dr. Latham had the opportunity of
examining another specimen, from which he took the description
published in his " General History," vol. ix. p. 432, where he corrects
his former views with regard to the extent of the cere, but with an
assurance, in a foot-note, that in the specimen first seen, the cere ex-
tended far beyond the eyes. Still, strange to say, he retained the
Cereopsis among the Wading Birds, observing, " Mrs. Lewin informs
me that it is in sufficient plenty in some parts of New Holland, and,
from its being so about Cape Barren, has obtained the name of Capo
Barren Goose. It certainly at first sight appears not unlike that
Bird, but in the bill it entirely differs from any of the genus, and the
legs are bare a great way above the joint, although it must be owned
that the feet, having a considerable membrane between the toes,
would otherwise bring it to class with the web-lboted." Mrs. Lewin
adds, " that it becomes very tame and familiar, so as to be domesti-
cated with our common goose, and that the flesh is well flavoured."
On the Continent, where, until Temminck figured it in his Planches
Coloriees as appertaining to the Swimming I5irds, it did not appear
to be known, it was regarded, on the authority of Latham, as a
Wader. After Temminck, it was also figured by Vieillot as a
Swimming Bird ; but the figure although sufficiently characteristic,
is in one point erroneous, inasmuch as it gives the cere extending
over the top of the head. In 1831 Mr. Bennett described and
figured the Cereopsis in the "Gardens and Managerie, &c.,
delineated ; " his figure, which is very accurate and characteristic,
being taken from a specimen in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society, the Society having, at that time, eight living individuals.
These, as he observed, then exceeded " in number all the stuffed
specimens that exist in public collections in Europe, the latter so far
as we are aware, being limited to one in the British, one in the
Paris, and one in the Berlin Museums."
Though Vieillot figured the Cereopsis, he appears not to have sus-
pected its identity with a Bird previously described by him in the
" Nouveau Dictionaire d'Histoire Naturelle " as the Cygne andrS,
from the characters detailed by M. Labillardiere (see his account of
the voyage of D'Entrecasteaux in 1792), "who mentions the occur-
rence, in Esperance Bay, on the south coast of New Holland, of a
new species of swan, rather smaller than the wild swan, of an ashy-
grey colour, somewhat lighter beneath, with a blackish bill, covered
at the base by a tumid brimstone-coloured cere, and legs slightly
tinged with red." By way, however, of confusing the species still
further, M. Vieillot described a specimen brought home by M.
Labillardiere from Van Diemen's Land, and deposited it in the
Paris Museum, as a species of Goose, under the title of Anser
griseus. D'Entrecasteaux informs us that Riche, one of the
naturalists attached to his expedition, had described the Bird under
the title oi Anas Terra Leeuwi?iii.
The habits of the Cereopsis, in a state of nature, have been suc-
cintly detailed by various voyagers. Most probably it is migratory,
at least to a certain extent; for Captain Flinders found it more
abundant on Goose Island in some seasons than in others. It fre-
quents grassy districts, and the shore, but rarely takes to the water,
its food being exclusively grass. Both at Lucky Bay and Goose
Island these Birds were very abundant, and so tame that the crew of
Captain Flinders had no difficulty in knocking them down with
sticks, or even in taking them alive. M. Bailly reports to the same
effect respecting those seen by him at Preservation Island; and
Labillardiere says, that at first they were so little alarmed by the
presence of man, as to suffer themselves to be taken by the hand ;
but in a short time they became aware of their danger, and took to
flight on the approach of any one. It breeds freely in our climate,
and feeds like the Common Goose, but is even more familiar, and
requires only ordinary attention. Its voice is deep, hoarse, and
clanging. In size, this species equals the Common Goose. The top
of the head is pale-grey ; the rest of the plumage slate-grey, each
feather on the back and shoulders being margined with a paler tint,
while the greater coverts and the secondary quill-feathers have a
round dusky spot near the extremity; the quills and tail-feathers
dusky-black ; tip of the bill black ; cere yellow ; tarsi orange-
yellow ; toes and webs black. Fig. 1577 represents a pair of these
Birds with their young. When in charge of their young the adults
are very pugnacious, driving other Birds to a distance with great
spirit ; and even at other times this jealousy of their companions in
captivity is but little abated. The Black Swan from Australia, al-
ready described, displays a similar spirit, and will not endure the
4 K
6i8
THE GEESE— THE FLAMINGOES.
approach of its snow-white relative ; indeed, we know of instances
in which White Swans have not only been seriously injured, but even
killed by their dusky rivals.
In the collection of the British Museum are numerous specimens
of the Goose Tribe. We are indebted to the "Guide" of the
Zoological Society of London for the following description of living
Birds in their gardens, besides which are some other species, includ-
ing most of those already described: —
" The Maned Goose fBerm'clajubata.J— Pairs of the beautiful
little Goose, known as the Maned Goose, or Hawkesbury Goose, of
Australia, have been obtained through the liberality of the Society's
correspondents in that country. This Bird was formerly very
common on the rivers near Sydney. In South Australia, Mr. Gould
tells us, it is still one of the commonest Water-birds, frequenting the
brooks of the interior, and breeding in the hollow holes of the larger
trees.
"The Black-backed Goose f^Sara'd/offn's me/anofaj, a hand-
some species inhabiting the peninsula of India, and well-known to
the sportsmen of Bombay and Madras as the " Comb-duck," from
the peculiar fleshy caruncles on its head, and its near ally the
American Black-backed goose.
and even later. The whole organisation of these Birds, however
shows that they must be referred to the Nafatores, and, indeed, to
the family ^l/^a^/if^«7, with which they agree in all essential points,
Fig. 1575. — Skull of the Flamingo.
although, at the same time, they undoubtedly present several extra-
ordinary characters.
Fig. 1574- — Cereopsis Geese and Young.
"The Upland GooSE{Ber}ik!amagenaj!ka.) — This Goose pre-
sents a very remarkable e.xception to the species most closely asso-
ciated with it, in the great contrast in colour between the male and
female. In most of the Geese, such as the Bernicle and the Brent,
the sexes so nearly resemble each other that it is almost impossible
to distinguish them ; but in the Upland Goose the female has a
sober hue of chestnut and greyish -brown, barred with black, and the
male is conspicuously white, except on the back, and even there the
ground colour is clear and brilliant, instead of being grey. The legs
also differ in colour in the most marked manner, those of the male
being black, and of the female yellow. The Upland Goose is a
native of the Falkland Islands."
The Flamingoes — Sub-family Phcenicoipterincv.
A close approach to the Grallatorial Birds is made by the Flamin-
goes {Phce7iicoj>tcrinai), which were, in fact, placed amongst the
Waders by most of the older naturalists, down to the time of Cuvier,
We cannot describe the beak of the Flamingo better than by say-
ing it is that of a Swan bent down abruptly in the middle, with the
sides of the lower mandible raised boat-like, so that its margin may
follow the abrupt arch presented by the edge of the upper, which is
channelled on each side on the
'//.■Uii:, upper aspect of the margin,
'^" "■■''' from the nostrils to the hard
nail-like apex. To enter into
detail, we may observe that
the head is small, surmounting
a slender neck of extraordinary
length, while the beak is
so modified as to be used
in the contrary position to
which it is in general ; that
is, the upper mandible is
and ooze while the Bird is
searching for food. The upper mandible proceeds for about half its
Fig. 1576. — Tongue of the Flamingo,
applied lowermost to the mud
THE FLAMINGOES.
6ifl
length from the head straight, with an obtuse upper ridge, and in
the part below the ridge is an extensive membranous nasal fossa, on
which are seated the nostrils in the form of longitudinal slits ; the
mandible then becomes flat, and bends down abruptly, terminating
in a blunt and somewhat incurved apex. The lower mandible,
extending forwards and describing on its lower margin a gentle
curve, throws up its sides, which describe a bold arch, the edge
fitting the edge of the upper mandible. The edges of both man-
dibles are furnished with fine, close, transverse tooth-like lamina;,
which form a sort of filter, and, as Professor Owen says, like the
plates of Whalebone on the Whale, allow the superfluous moisture
to drain away, while the small Mollusca and other Littoral Anim-
alcula are detained and swallowed. "The tongue," says the same
writer, " is remarkable for its texture, magnitude, and peculiar
armature. It is almost cylindrical, but slightly flattened above, so
as to correspond with the form of the inferior mandible. The lower
part of the truncated surface is produced in a pointed form, and is
supported beneath by a small horny plate. The whole length of the
tongue is three inches, its circumference two inches and a half.
Along the middle of the superior flattened surface there is a mode-
rately deep and wide longitudinal furrow, on either side of which
there are from twenty to twenty-iive recurved spines, but of a soft
and yielding horny texture, measuring from one to three lines in
length. These spines are ranged in an irregular alternate series,
the outer ones being the smallest, and these, indeed, may be con-
sidered a distinct row. At the posterior part of the tongue there are
two groups of smaller recumbent spines, directed towards the glottis.
The substance of the tongue is not muscular, but is chiefly composed
of an abundant yielding cellular substance, with fat of an almost
oily consistence. It is supported by a long and thin concave carti-
lage articulated to the body of the os hyoides." Fig. 1575 repre-
sents the Skull and Beak of the Flamingo ; Fig. 1576, the Tongue ;
Fig. 1577, the Head and Tongue of the same. In the Flamingo the
legs are of excessive length ; the three anterior toes are fully
webbed ; the hind toe is short, and articulated high on the tarsus ;
nails short and flat ; wings moderate. These Birds are waders in
their habits, but occasionally swim when out of their depth. They
frequent low muddy coasts, the mouths of large rivers, saline
morasses, creeks, lagoons, inland seas, and large lakes.
F'g- IS77-— Head and Tongue of the Flamingo.
The Flamingo {Phatikoperus ruber, Linn. ; Pha:nko-bfcrus
anfiqjwrton, Temminck) ; le Flammant of the French. The Euro-
pean Flammgo, a Bird well known to the ancients, has been occa-
sionally observed on the coast of France washed by the Mediterra-
nean, of those of Spain and Italy. It is noted by the Prince of
t^anmo as a rare and accidental visitor near Rome. It arrives at
uncertain times, but mostly in October and November, on the Persian
^\^,°} '^'^ Caspian Sea, and thence along the west coast as far as
the Wolga, appearing in considerable flocks, which have migrated
trom more northern latitudes. It is found in India, and Colonel
bykes enumerates it among the Birds of the Dukhun, stating that it
is called Rajah Huns by the Hindoos. It breeds in the Cape de
Verde Islands. It is seen everywhere on the African coast, and is
abundant in South Africa ; Le Vaillant saw thousands of Flamingoes
and Pelicans on the river Klein-brak, where the water is brackish
owing to the tidal flow from the ocean. Kolben also speaks of their
numbers at the Cape, where by day they resorted to the borders of
lakes and rivers, and lodged at night among the long grass on the
,.^he Flamingo is extremely shy, wary, and distrustful, so that it is
ditbcult to approach within gun-shot of a flock, as on the slightest
alarrn they abruptly leave the spot. Dampier, however, by conceal-
mg himself, managed to kill fourteen at once. Whilst feeding.
those Birds keep together, drawn up in lines, with sentinels by way
of security. These notify the approach of danger by a loud trumpet-
like noise, which may be heard to a great distance, upon which the
whole flock take wing. When flying, they form a triangle. The
Flamingo rests standing on one leg, the other being drawn up close
to the body and the head placed under the wing. [See Fig. i s70 5
'^e 'a Marmora, in his " Voyage to Sardinia,' gives the following
accoun of the habits of this remarkable Bird :-'■ It quits Sardinil
about the end of March, to return about the middle of August • then
It IS that from the bastion which forms the promenade of the inhabi-
tants of Caghari, flights of these magnificent birds may be seen to
arrive from Africa. Disposed in a triangular band, they appear at
first in the heavens like a line of fire ; they advance in the most
regular order, but at the sight of the neighbouring Irke there is a
pause in their progression, and they appear for a moment immovable
in the air ; then tracing by a slow and circular movement a reversed
conical spiral figure, they attain the end of their migration. Bril-
liant in all the splendour of their plumage, and ranged in a line
these birds offer a new spectacle and represent a small' army ranged
in order of battle, the uniformity and symmetry of which leaves no-
thing to be desired ; but the spectator should content himself with
observing this peaceful colony from afar. Woe to him if he dare
approach the lake at this deadly season." The exemption of various
Animals, the Flamingo and Buff'alo for example, from the poison of
the malaria, so fatal to man is very remarkable.
The Flamingo makes a singular nest, constructing it of earth in
the shape of a hillock, with a cavity at the top ; the eggs are two or
three in number white, and as large as those of a Goose, but of a
longer figure. These hillocks they form in the marshes, the female
resting upon them during incubation in a standing attitude, with the
eet on the marshy ground, or even in the water. Some state that
the flesh of the Hamingo is excellent, that of the young being equal
to Partridge. The inhabitants of Provence, however, aflirm' that it
IS fishy, and reject it, preserving only the feathers. The Romans
whose taste in culinary matters seems to have been singular, regarded
this Bird as a luxury, and Apicius has left receipts for dressing it
with all the precision of a "chef de cuisine." The brains Ind
tongues were especial favourites, particularly the latter, which formed
one of the celebrated dishes of Heliogabalus. Dampier confirms the
opinion of the Roman epicures, observing that a dish of these tongues
IS worthy of a place at a prince's table. The height of the Flamingo
Fig. 157S.— The Little Flamingo.
standing erect, is between five and six feet. \Vhcn in full plumage
the general colour is deep scarlet, excepting the quill-feathers, which
are black. Basal part of the bill, reddish yellow ; the greater part
of the extremity black ; cere at the base of the bill, extending to the
eye, flesh-coloured. Legs red. An allied species, regarded by
Linnffius and Wilson as identical with the present, is an inhabitant
of the warmer parts of North America, Peru, Chili, Cayenne, the
West India Islands, and especially the Bahamas, where numbers
620
THE FLAMINGOES.
breed. It scarcely differs from the Old World Rird, but is not so
intensely coloured ; its manners are precisely the same. It is the
Phcsnicoptenis chilensis, of Molina.
The Little Flajungo {PhcBnicopterns parznts). — This species
is a native of Africa, tenanting morasses and the borders of lakes.
Specimens have been brought from Senegal and the Cape of Good
Hope. The lower mandible is remarkable for its great depth, and
the boldness of the arch formed by the upper edges, which completely
receive within them those of the upper mandible. The plumage of
the adult is of a pure rose, without a spot or streak, the centre of the
wing-coverts deepening into scarlet ; tail-feathers black ; base of
the bill, cere, and region of the eye deep purple ; middle of the lower
mandible orange-red, point black ; tarsus livid ; toes and space
above the tarsi joint, red. Total length nearly three feet. The young
are white or whitish, marked with streaks of brown on the head, neck,
chest, and wing-coverts. The rose tint first begins to appear on
the wings. Bill black. Legs reddish livid. (See Fig. 1578.) _
In the collection of the British Museum are numerous specimens
of the Flamingo Tribe ; and in the Gardens of the Zoological Society
may be seen the European, and Ruddy Flamingoes already described,
with occasionally others out of the si.K species already known, from
North America, Buenos Ayres, Egypt, the Cape, &c.
Fig. 1579. — Flamingoes.
THE REPTILES.
621
CHAPTEK XXXVI.
CLASS III.— REPTILIA OR REPTILES, INCLUDING SERPENTS, LIZARDS, CROCODILES, ETC.
Y many writers on Natural History the
Class of Reptiles, ox Reptilia, included the
Frog- Tribe, or Batrachia. But, for various
reasons, which will be more apparent as we
proceed in their description, it will be evident
that the RcJ>tilia will be better treated under
\{ a separate head. As a rule, they are re-
■\ garded with aversion by mankind, but they
present many points of interest, not only in a
scientific point of view, but also as involving
some questions of social, commercial, and
other matters.
The True Reptiles, constitute the first class
of the higher Vertchrata, or of those in
which a mechanism for Aquatic respiration
is never found. They thus differ from the
Bafrachia, which, as we have already stated, are very
commonly included in the Class of Reptiles, and with
which they agree in the so-called coldness of their blood,
and, to a certain extent, in the character of their circu-
latory apparatus, not only in the important physiological
point above mentioned, but also in several particulars of
their anatomical structure, and especially in the mode of
development of the embryo, in which they closely resemble
the Birds. They thus become a kind of link between the
two classes.
The Reptiles in general, almost with the sole exception
of the Tortoises, are of an elongated form, often nearly
cylindrical, and they usually terminate posteriorly in a
very long tail. The feet are developed in many waj'S,
but rarely suffice to support the Animal in the manner of an ordinary
Quadruped ; the belly, as a general rule, trailing along the ground
when the Animal is in motion. In a considerable number no traces
of the limbs are to be found ; and when they first make their appear-
ance, it is in such a rudimentary form, that they can be of little or no
use to their owner.
In all these animals the ossification of the skeleton is very com-
plete, and in none of them does it present the cartilaginous state of
that of many Fishes, and some Batrachia. The true skull is always
of comparatively small size, and the great bulk of the head is made
up of the bones of the jaws. The occipital bone always exhibits the
vertebral form with great distinctness ; it is furnished with a single
articulating process, which, however, is sometimes divided into two
parts by a narrow furrow ; this fits into the cavity of the first cervical
vertebras. The floor of the cranium is formed by the sphenoid bone,
and its upper surface principally by the parietals, which are usually
amalgamated so as to form a single bony plate. The front of the
cranial cavity is closed by the frontal bones, which are also fre-
quently coalescent, and by the nasal bones.
The bones of the upper jaw and palate are always greatly deve-
loped ; in some instances they are firmly fixed to the cranial bones,
whilst in others they are movable, and only attached to the skull by
articulations. This shows a great distinction between them and
Birds. The lower jaw is of very complex structure, each half being
composed of a variable number of pieces ; in the Snakes this number
is four or five ; whilst in the Lizards and Crocodiles, each branch of
the jaw consists of no less than six pieces. In the Snakes, the two
branches of the lower jaw are united only by ligaments and muscles,
so that they are capable of being separated to a considerable distance
at the pleasure of the Animal ; but in the Lizards and Crocodiles the
union is much closer, the bones being united by fibro-cartilage in the
one case, and in the other by a suture ; whilst in the Tortoises, the
whole of the lower jaw is amalgamated into a single piece. The
mode of articulation of the lower jaw varies greatly in the different
orders, and will be referred to in the proper places.
The mouth, in almost all Reptiles, is armed with sharp hooked
teeth, which are sometimes placed only on the jaws, but in some
instances are distributed over the palatine bones and vomer. They
are generally inserted into a furrow of the bone, to which they are
attached only by flesh and sinews ; but in the Crocodiles they are
sunk separately into regular sockets in the jaws. In the Tortoises,
again, no teeth exist, the edges of the jaws being simply armed
with a horny covering, bearing no distant resemblance to the beak
of a Bird.
That great authority on Osteology, Professor Owen, makes the
following remarks in regard to the dentition of of the Reptilia : —
In the class Reptilia an entire order {Chelonia), including the
Tortoises, Terrapenes, and Turtles, are devoid of teeth ; but the jaws
in these Edentulous Reptiles are covered by a sheath of horn, which,
in some species, is of considerable thickness and density ; its work-
ing surface is trenchant in the Carnivorous species, but is variously
sculptured and adapted for both cutting and bruising in the vegetable
feeders. No species of Toad possesses teeth ; neither have the jaws
the compensatory covering above described in the Chelonians.
Frogs have teeth in the upper, but not in the lower jaw. Newts and
Salamanders have teeth in both jaws, and also upon the palate ; and
teeth are found in the latter situation as well as on the jaws in most
Serpents and in the Iguana Lizard. In most other Lizards and in
Crocodiles, the teeth are confined to the jaws ; in the former they
are cemented, or anchylosed to the jaw; in the latter they are im-
planted in sockets.
The Existing Lizards exhibit many modifications in the form of
the teeth, according to the nature of their food. They are pointed
with sharp cutting edges in the great Carnivorous Monitor ( Varanits),
and are obtuse and rounded like paving-stones in the herbivorus or
mixed feeding Scinks, called, on account of the shape of the teeth,
Cyclodus. The Gigantic Extinct Lizards showed similar modifica-
tions of their teeth. The Megalosaurus had teeth which combined
the properties of the knife, the sabre, and the saw (Fig. 1580.) When
first protruded above the guin, the apex
of the tooth presented a double cutting
edge of serrated enamel ; its position
and line of action were nearly vertical,
and its form, like that of the two-edged
sword, cutting equally on each side.
As the tooth advanced in growth, it be-
came curved backwards in the form of a
pruning-knife, and the edge of serrated
enamel was continued downwards to the
base of the concave and cutting side
of the tooth ; whilst on the other side a
a similar edge descended but a short
distance from the point, and the convex
part of the tooth became blunt and
thick, as the back of a knife is made
thick for the purpose of producing
strength. In a tooth thus formed, the
jaw combined the power of the knife and
saw. The backward curvature of the
full-grown teeth enabled them to re-
tain the prey which they had pene-
trated.
In the Iguanodon, the gigantic contem-
poraryof the Megalosaurus — the crown of
Fig. 15S0.— Tooth of the Me- the te'eth (Fig. 1581) was so shaped, that
galosaurus. after the apex became worn down, it pre-
sented a broad and nearly horizontal
surface, exposing dental substances of four different degrees
of density — viz., a ridge of enamel along the outer border of the
crown ; a layer of hard or unvascular dentine next to this ; a layer
of softer vascular dentine forming the inner half of the crown ; and
a portion of firm ostco-dentine in the middle of the grinding surface,
formed by the ossified remnant of the tooth-pulp. The series of
complex teeth, so constructed, seems to have been admirably adap-
ted to the cropping and comminution of such tough vegetable food
as the clathraria, and similar extinct plants, the fossil remains of
which are found buried with those of the Iguanodon. No existing
Reptile now presents so complicated a structure of the tooth in rela-
tion to vegetable food. The still more complex, and, indeed, mar-
vellous structure of the teeth, was that of the extinct gigantic Lizard-
like Toad, called the Labyrinthodon. But, perhaps, the most
singular dental structure yet found in the ancient members of the
Class Reptilia, is that presented by certain species of fossil found in
South Africa, and probably from a geological formation nearly as old
as our coal strata. Professor Owen has called them " Dicynodonts,"
from their dentition being reduced to one long and large canine tooth
on each side of the upper jaw. As these teeth give, at first sight, a
character to the jaws like that which the long poison-fangs give,
when erected, to the jaws of the Rattlesnake, we shall brielly notice
their characters before entering upon the description of the more
normal saurian dentition.
Fig. 1582 gives a reduced side view of the skull and teeth of the
Dicy?wdo7i lacerticeps.
The maxillary bone, 21, is excavated by a wide and deep alveolus,
with a circular area of half an inch, and lodges a long and strong,
slightly curved, and sharp-pointed canine tooth or tusk, which pro-
jects about two-thirds of its length from the open extremity of the
socket. The direction of the tusks is forwards, downwards, and
f22
TEETH OF REPTILES.
very sHs;htly inwards ; the two converg-ing in the descent along the
outer side of the compressed symphysis of the lower jaw, c c. The
tusli is principally composed of a body of compact unvascular den-
tine. The base is excavated by a wide conical pulp-cavity, -p, with
the apex extending to about one-half of the implanted part of the
tusk, and a linear continuation extending along the centre of the
solid part of the tusk.
Until the discovery of the Rhynchosaurus, this edentulous and
horn-sheathed condition of the jaws
■was supposed to be peculiar to the
Chelonian order among Reptiles ; and
it is not one of the least interesting fea-
tures of the Dicynodonts of the African
sandstones, that they should repeat a
Chelonian character hitherto peculiar
amongst Lacertians, to the above-cited
remarkable extinct Edentulous genus of
the new red sandstone of Shropshire.
But our interest rises almost to astonish-
ment, when in a Saurian skull we find,
super-added to the horn-clad mandibles
of the Tortoise, a pair of tusks, bor-
rowed, as it were, from the INIammalian
class, or rather fore-shadowing a struc-
ture which, in the existing creation, is
peculiar to certain members of the
highest organised warm-blooded ani-
mals. In the other Repfilia, recent or
Fig. 1581.— New-formed and extinct, which most nearly approach
worn teeth of the Iguanodon. the Mammalia in the structure of
their teeth, the difference characteristic
of the inferior and cold-blooded class is manifested in the
shape, and in the system of shedding and succession of the teeth.
The base of the implanted teeth seldom becomes consolidated, never
contracted to a point, as in the fangs of the simple teeth of Mam-
malia, and at all periods of growth, one or more genus of teeth are
formed within or near the base of the tooth in use, prepared to succeed
it, and progressing towards its displacement. The dental armature
Fig. 15S2. — Skull and Tusks oi Dicynodon lacerticeps.
of the jaws is kept in serviceable order by uninterrupted change and
succession ; but the forming organ of the individual tooth is soon
exhausted, and the life of the tooth itself may be said to be com-
paratively short.
If one of the conical, sharp-pointed, and two-edged teeth of the
Gangetic Crocodile, called " garrhial " by the Hindoos, be extracted,
its base will be found hollow, and partly absorbed or
eaten away, as at ff, Fig. 1583) ; and within the cavity
will be seen the half-formed succeeding tooth, b; at
the base of which may probably be found the begin
ning, or germ, c, of the successor of that tooth ; all
the teeth in the Crocodile tribe being pushed out and
replaced in the vertical direction by new teeth, as
long as they live. (See Fig. 1583.) The individual
teeth increase in size as the animal grows ; but the
number of teeth remains the same from the period
when the Crocodile quits the (t'g^ to the attain-
ment of its full size and age. No sooner has the
Fig. ISS3. — Tooth, with Germs of Successors, of the Garrhial
( Cavialis gan^elicHs).
young tooth penetrated the interior of the old one, than another
germ begins to be developed from the angle between the base
of the young tooth and the inner alveolar process, or in the
same relative position as that in which its immediate predecessor
began to rise ; and the processes of succession and displacement are
carried on, uninterruptedly, throughout the long life of these cold-
Fig. rsSj.-
Poison-fang
of Rattle-
snake (mag-
nified).
blooded Carnivorous Reptiles. The fossil jaws of the extinct Croco-
diles demonstrate that the same law regulated the succession of the
teeth at the ancient epochs, when they prevailed in greatest numbers,
and under the most varied specific modifications, as at the present
day, when they arc reduced to a single family.
The most complex condition of the dental system in the Reptile
class, is that which is presented by the Poisonous Serpents, in which
certain teeth are associated with the tube or duct of a poison-bag and
gland.
These teeth, called "poison-fangs," are confined to those bones
of the upper jaw called " maxillary," and are usually single, or,
when more, one only is connected with the poison-apparatus, and
the others are either simple teeth, or preparing to take the place of
the poison-fang.
To give an idea of the structure of this tooth, we may suppose a
simple slender tooth, like that of a Boa-constrictor, to be flattened,
and its edges then bent towards each other and soldered together,
so as to form a tube, open at both ends, and inclosing
the end of the poison-duct. Such a tooth is represented
at Fig. 1584, where A is the oblique opening pene-
trated by the duct, and v the narrower fissure by
which the venom escapes.
The duct which conveys the poison, although it runs
through the centre of the tooth, is really on the outside
of the tooth. The bending of the dentine about it
begins a little beyond the base of the tooth, where the
poison-duct rests in a slight groove or longitudinal in-
dentation on the convex side of the fang ; as it proceeds
it sinks deeper into the substance of the tooth, and the
sides of the groove meet and seem to coalesce, to that
the trace of the inflected fold ceases, in some species,
to be perceptible to the naked eye ; and the fang ap-
pears, as it is commonly described, to be perforated by
the duct of the poison-gland.
In the Viper, the line of union may be seen ^s marked
at V, Fig. 1584 ; and when such a tooth is carefully
divided lengthwise, as in Fig. 1585, the true pulp-cavity
in the substance of the tooth is seen, as at p -p, to
terminate in a point ; and the poison-canal, as at v v,
to run along the; fore part of the singularly modified tooth. This
tooth is soldered to the maxillary bone (Fig. 1586), which rotates so
as to keep the tooth laid flat in the mouth at ordinary times, and to
erect it when the deadly blow is about to be struck. The head of
the Snake is raised, drawn back, and the fangs, erect, and exposed
by the widely open mouth, are struck, by the force
of the powerful muscles of the head and neck, into
the surface aimed at ; the poison-bags at the same
moment are squeezed, and their contents driven
through the canal in the tooth into the wound. And
here may be noticed the advantage of having the
solid point of the tooth prolonged beyond the outlet
of the poison-canal, and not weakened by its con-
tinuation to the apex.
Having thus noticed the general and dentological
characters of the Reptilia, we proceed to the osseous
and other systems of these Animals, The vertebral
column is rather variable in its structure. In a very
few instances the bodies of the vertebrae, already
described in the first chapter of this book, exhibit a
conical cavity at each end, like that existing in the
vertebrae of Fishes ; but in most cases one of the end-
surfaces is more or less convex, and fits into a cor-
responding cavity in the body of the next vertebra.
This structure is most developed in the Snakes, inFig. 1585.-860-
which the bodies of the vertebra; articulate by a tionofa iioison-
regular ball-and-socket joint. In the Tortoises, the fang — Rattle-
two extremities of the vertebras are flat, and united by snake.
a disc of fibro-cartilage. A striking osteological
distinction between these Animals and the Batrachia consists in
the constant presence of ribs in the former ; these appendages to
the vertebral column being always wanting m the latter class.
In the Reptiles the ribs generally extend backwards to the pelvis ;
they are always well developed, and, in
most cases, a greater or less proportion
of them are attached to a well-devel-
oped sternum or breast-bone, which, in
the Crocodiles, also runs back to the
pelvis. In the Snakes the ribs are per-
fectly free at the extremity, and, from
-Skull of a Rattle- their great mobility, are important aids
snake. in the movements of these footless crea-
tures ; whilst in the Tortoises, on the
contrary, these bones are immovably fixed, and constitute a great por-
tion of the bony case in which those Animals are enclosed. The neck is
generally short, and the cervical vertebr;e are sometimes furnished
with ribs ; in the Tortoises, however, this portion of the vertebral
column is of considerable length, and possesses great flexibility.
g. 1586.
ANA TOM V OF THE REPTILES.
623
The caudal portion is usually very long, and tapers gradually to a
point ; it many cases it more than equals the rest of the body in
length. . . .
In the development of the extremities these Animals exhibit as
great a diversity as the Bafrachia. In the greater part of the
Lizards, and in the Crocodiles, all the limbs are well developed.
The feet are formed of freely movable toes, which are usually termi-
nated by strong claws ; and the bony arches, supporting these
members, are always of considerable size and firmness, so that the
Animal waU-s with facility, and is often able to perform considerable
leaps. Another distinction between them and Birds. In some mem-
bers of the group of Lizards, however, the extremities gradually
diminish in size, still retaining their perfect form, but aiding little or
nothing in the movement of the creature. In others the anterior
pair disappear, and the posterior take the form of large scale-like
organs, in which there is no external indication of any complexity of
structure, although, except in want of toes, the bones contained in
them are identical with those of the more perfectly formed Reptiles ;
whilst in others, again, even these rudimentary limbs are absent.
The latter structure prevails throughout the great group of Snakes,
in which the only trace of the existence of the limbs consists in a pair
of small bones suspended in the muscles near the vent in some
species. These must be regarded as the analogues of the pelvic
bones, the presence of which is sometimes indicated externally by a
pair of horny spines projecting on each side of the anal opening.
Of the perfectly developed feet several modifications occur. In
general, the whole of the toes, which are usually five in number, are
extended forwards from the extremity of the leg ; but in the Chame-
leons the toes are divided into two sets, one including two, the other
three toes, forming a sort of grasping hand, that must be of the
greatest service to these creatures in their arboreal residence. In
the Crocodiles and some Tortoises the toes are distinctly recognis-
able externally, but united to a greater or less extent by membranes,
Fig. 15S7.— Anatomy of Snake,
~Uortar.. carodd a^Uri. ^f ^JlJa'^ca^ ^^ ^f^^^^i 2a
iia^SrSi!^^^
cylindrical form, adaoted for t^rrl^rin^ thickened and more or less
it is much compreL^ed and mod fill P^^g-^^ssion. , In the Turtles
powerful fin-like'or"an ™°'i'fied, so as to form a broad and
la the clothing of the skin we find almost an equal diversity. la
a small group of Lizards the skin is covered with free scales, lying;
over one .-mother like tiles, in the same way as those of Fishes, and
mclosed like these in peculiar dermal sacs ; but, in the m.ajority, the
scaly covering has a very din'erent arrangement. The scales are
generally appendages of the true skin or corium, and are covered by
the epidermis, a delicate horny pellicle, which is cast off periodically.
In the Crocodiles and Tortoises they become converted into bony
plates, which, in the former, are immersed in the corium ; whilst in
the latter they became united with the bones of the internal skeleton,
to form the well-known body cases that serve as such an admirable
protection for those sluggish creatures. In these, also, the epidermis
becomes permanent, and forms thick, horny plates gf regular forms,
covering the bony skeleton.
With the exception of a few Tortoises, all Reptiles are Carni-
vorous Animals, feeding entirely upon living prey. Their teeth,
however, are never constructed for the division of the flesh of their
victims, and they are consequently compelled to swallow them
whole. For this purpose the oesophagus is usually very wide, and
capable of great dilatation, many of the Snakes actually being
capable of swallowing Animals of considerably greater bulk than
themselves. The tongue is sometimes closely attached to the bottom
of the mouth ; but, in most Reptiles, it is free, elongated, and bifid,
terminating, in many, in a pair of nearly horny filaments, which are
inclosed in a sheath, and can be protruded and retracted at the
pleasure of the animal. The intestine is usually of great width, but
comparatively short ; it terminates in a wide cloaca, into which the
ducts of the urinary and generative organs are generally open. The
liver, pancreas, and spleen are always present.
The anus opens in two very different directions in the Reptiles, and
this^ character has been employed to divide the class into two great
sections. In the Snakes and Lizards, the anal aperture is transverse
and usually closed by a sort of valve ; whilst in the Crocodiles and
Tortoises, it opens in a longitudinal direction. These peculiarities
in the anal aperture are accompanied by remarkable differences in
external generative organs of the male. In the former section there
are two of these organs, which are contained in a cavity of the base
of the tad behind the anus ; whilst in the second, the male organ is
single, and lies within the cloaca. In the Lizards, there is generally
a transverse series of glandular organs placed immediately in front
of the anal valve ; and these are frequently continued upon the
under side of the thighs. These glands open by a corresponding
number of pores ; and the presence or absence, and number of these
especially of the femoral pores, often furnish valuable characters for
the distinction of genera and species.
In the organs of circulation and respiration, the Reptiles exhibit a
marked advance upon the BatraclUa, although these organs are still
far from exhibiting the same degree of
"" ' " perfection that they attain in the Birds
and Mammalia. The heart consists
essentially of four chambers, although
in by far the majority of these animals
the partition between the two ventricles
is imperfect, so that, for all practical
purposes, we may regard the ventricle
as single. The consequence of this ar-
rangement is, that the blood returning
to the lungs, after exposure to the influ°
ence of the air, mingles with that brought
back from the general system, and this
mixed fluid is driven at once from the
Fi<T Tcss HI . ,1 yentricle into the pulmonary, as well as
tig. I588.-Heart and large mto the systemic arteries, so that only a
- c.p
— tl
vessels of the Crocodile.
:', vena cava, conveying
venous blood from the sys-
tem to the right auricle, ao';
v/, the ventricles, separated
by an internal partition ;
a/>, pulmonaiy arteries con-
veying venous blood from
the right ventricle to the
lungs ; 2'/, pulmonary veins,
running to tiie left auricle,
t>£ ; no, aorta rising fro
portion of the venus blood passes
through the lungs before being returned
into the general circulation. In the Cro-
codiles, the partition between the two
ventricles is complete ; but in these, as
well as in other Reptiles, a communica-
tion between the great pulmonary and
systemic arteries is effected by the
agency of the remains of the branchial
arches of the embryo. Fig. is88.) The
aorta forms one, two, or three arches
-^ , ...-, UW.I.A iiaiiiy jrum "~. — ""' v^...-, L.Yuf, ui tjiicc arcncs
left ventricle, and conveying (F'g- 1589), from the foremost of which
blood to tho cifcfo.iA . ^ tho r^rntirl orfa,.i'.^o o .-^ .-^.*,^.*; _..•__
blood to the system; „,
trunk rising from right ven-
tricle, and canying venous
blood to the descending
aorta ; c, carotid arteries
running to the head.
the carotid arteries are sometimes given
off. The aortae afterwards unite in the
middle of the body below the spinal
column, forming a single great trunk,
which runs down the body, and is
called the abdominal aorta. The blood
, returning to the heart, is collected in
the vena cav.ns, of which the inferior forms a great trunk running
up the body, and gives off a portal system of veins to the liver
and kidneys (Fig. 1589.) The lymphatic system attains an ex-
traordinary degree of development in this class, and possesses
some regularly pulsating organs, or lymphatic hearts, which serve
for tlie propulsioa of the peculiar fluid contained in these vessels
624
THE REPTILES.
The respiration of these Animals being always atrial, their respira-
tory organs, of course, take the form of lungs, and these are often of
extraordinary size, in some instances extending through the whole
length of the ventral cavity, which is not divided by a diaphragm
or transverse partition. In the more elongated forms, only one
active lung is present, the other being reduced to a rudimentary con-
dition, or altogether wanting.
The processes of respiration and circulation go on with far less
activity in these animals than in the Birds and Mammalia, and their
blood, like that of the lower Vcrtcbrata, is cold ; that is to say, its
temperature is but little higher than that of the surrounding medium.
The performance of all their functions partakes of this inactivity ;
their digestion goes on very slowly ; and although they are capable
of violent muscular exertion, and are often very agile in their move-
ments, their general habits are sluggish.
Fig. 15S9. — Circulation in a Lizard.
tf, arches of aorta ; b, left auricle ; c, right auricle ; d, ventricle ; e, carotid
artery ; f, superior vena cava ; g, abdominal aorta ; //. pulmonary vein ; i,
brachial artery ; j, pulmonary artery ; k, inferior vena cava ; /, lungs ; m,
liver and vena portn; ; n, stomach; o, kidneys;/, vena portoe; r, in-
testines ; s, artery of generative organs ; t, anus.
In the general arrangement of the nervous system, the Reptiles
present a considerable resemblance to \X\c Batrachia ; but the brain,
and especially the cerebral hemispheres, attains a much greater
development in the higher species of the class. The cerebellum
also exhibits a_ gradual development, from the lowest to the highest
forms.
The organs of the senses are generally possessed in a state of
considerable perfection. The nasal cavities are of large size, and
always open into the mouth ; in the Crocodiles, this opening is
placed very far back, and the palate is furnished with a velum, by
which the aperture can be closed ; the nostrils in these animals are
also provided with valvular organs, which prevent the ingress of
■water. The eyes are usually small — sometimes, though rarely, con-
cealed under the skin, and generally furnished with eyelids. These
protections to the visual organs are wanting in the Snakes, which
have the front of the movable eye-ball covered with a transparent
capsule, that is inserted under a fold of skin, like the glass of a watch
in its frame. Between this capsule and the eye there is a space
■which is filled by the secretion of the lachrymal glands ; the excess
of this passes off through a duct into the nasal cavity. The eyes of
most other Reptiles are furnished with a pair of eyelids, of which the
upper one is usually very small and stit¥, and the lower one alone
is capable of being drawn up to cover the eye, which it does com-
pletely. In some cases, this lower eyelid has a transparent space in
the part corresponding with the pupil ; in others, it is furnished
with a peculiar bony plate. The most remarkable structure in this
respect is presented by the Chameleons, -which have large, prominent,
globular eyes, capable of very great and independent motion, but
completely covered by a circular lid, having only a small central
hole, corresponding with the pupil. All the Reptiles with eyelids
also possess a nictitating membrane, which can often be drawn com-
pletely over the eye. The structure of the auditory organs is almost
as complex as in any of the higher Vertebrata, but some of their
component parts are often in a low state of development. The
tympanum is sometimes exposed ; occasionally covered by a fold of
skin, or completely concealed under the skin : in the Crocodiles,
there is a movable valve, by which the tympanum can be concealed
at pleasure.
All the Reptiles are truly Oviparous Animals, and by far the
majority come under this denomination in its strictest sense ; but
the ova are generally retained within the body of the parent until
the development of the embryo has proceeded a certain distance,
and, in a few cases, until the complete development of the young
Animal, which then breaks out of the e.g% whilst this is still inclosed
in the oviduct. The species in which this phenomenon occurs are
often called Ovo-viviparous. The eggs of Reptiles are generally of
large comparative size, and are furnished with a very large yelk ;
they are usually covered with a parchment-like shell, which occa-
sionally contains a small portion of calcareous matter. The True
Oviparous Reptiles generally deposit their eggs in warm, sandy
places, where they leave them to be hatched by the heat of the sun ;
but the common opinion, that they take no further care of the pro-
geny, although correct in many instances, is certainly contradicted
in others ; for the Crocodiles and some Lizards are said to watch in
the neighbourhood of the place where they have laid their eggs, so
as to protect them from any threatened danger ; and the gigantic
Pythons have been seen, in the Tower and other menageries, to coil
themselves round their mass of eggs in a conical form, closing the
top with their heads. In the species which bring forth living young,
the connection between these and the parent appears to be still
closer ; and, according to the testimony of many observers, the
young of some of the Poisonous Snakes take refuge from impending
danger by creeping down the throat of their mother.
In the development of the embryo, the Reptiles differ from the
Fishes and Bairachia, and approach the higher classes of Verte-
brated Animals, especially in the formation of a peculiar mem-
branous sac, the avitiios, which completely envelops the embyro ;
this structure does not occur in any of the lower Vertebrata. After
the embryo has attained a considerable degree of development, a
second membranous coat makes its appearance, of which we meet
with no trace in the embryonic states of the lower Vertebrata.
This is the allanfois, which forms a membranous sac, richly supplied
with vessels, enveloping both the embryo and the amnios.
The Reptiles are essentially inhabitants of the warmer regions of
the earth. In our northern countries but few species exist, and
these pass a great portion of the year in a state of torpidity, and
only come abroad in the warm days of spring and summer. But in
Tropical regions the number of these creatures is surprising ;
Snakes and Lizards are to be encountered at every turn, and Croco-
diles often swarm in the rivers and tanks. The size attained by
these creatures in hot climates is also enormous ; the Boas and
Pythons of Tropical America and Asia, and the Crocodiles and
Alligators of the warmer parts of both continents, often acquire
dimensions which render them formidable even to Man himself; and
the virulence of the Poisonous Snakes of hot countries is so great,
that their bite is frequently attended by fatal consequences.
Sub-divisions. — The characters already given serve to divide
the Reptiles into two great sections, each of which contains two
orders. Of the two orders with a transverse anal aperture, which
are also characterised by the absence of bony matter in the dermal
system, the Ophidia, or Snakes, are distinguished by the constant
■want of limbs and eyelids ; by their dilatable mouths, movable facial
bones, and by the total want of a sternum. In the Lizards, or
Sauria, the limbs are sometimes entirely absent, or present only in a
rudimentary condition ; but they are generally pretty well developed,
four in number, and adapted for terrestrial or arboreal progression.
Their mouths are not dilatable, and the bones of the upper jaw and
face are iirmly attached to the skull ; the eyes are almost always
provided with eyelids, and a portion of the ribs is always attached to
a sternum.
In the second section, the anal aperture is either rounded or
placed in a longitudinal direction, and the dermal skeleton acquires
a bony consistence. Of the two orders of which it is composed, the
Loricata, or Crocodiles, are distinguished by their Lizard-like
forms, their toothed jaws, and their skin covered with square bono
plates imbedded in the corium ; whilst in the Tortoises, or Chelonia,
the bony plates of the dermal skeleton unite with the ribs and
THE SERPENT TRIBE.
625
sternum, to form a case for the protection of the soft parts of the
Animal, and the jaws are toothless, and armed simply with a horny
plate.
Order I. Ophidia, Serpents, &c.
General Characters. — Few Animals appear to have been, in
all ages, the objects of more general aversion than the creatures
forming this order. Not to enter upon the question of possible theo-
logical grounds for this general disgust, we may take the statement
in the book of Genesis, that " the serpent was more subtle than any
other beast of the field," as a proof that, at verj' early periods, the
stealthy creeping movements of these creatures had obtained for
them the same reputation for cunning that they enjoy in the present
day amongst the uninformed — a reputation which has caused them
to become one of the most common emblems of deceit. The poison-
ous properties possessed by some of them have been extended in the
popular mind to the whole group, and cause them to be viewed by all
with feelings of distrust and dread.
In the works of all the older naturalists, the popular notion of a
Snake as a Reptile destitute of feet is adopted ; and even in the
.^eg"// (7 .(4;/ /wa/ of Cuvier, the distinction between the Serpents and
Lizards, reposes entirely upon the presence or absence of organs of
locomotion. We have already seen, however, how very gradual is
the series of steps in the development of the limbs of these Animals ;
and this appears even to have been observed by Linnaeus, who in-
cludes, in his genus Aiiguis, all the species of Snake-like Lizards,
whether furnished with rudimentary feet, or totally destitute of those
organs. The justice of this approximation cannot be doubted: but
modern naturalists, instead of placing these Animals, with Linnxus,
amongst the Serpents, have removed them to the Lizards, with which
they agree in most points of their organisation. This has necessi-
tated the establishment of new characters for the distinction of these
two groups, the old division founded on the presence or absence of
the limbs, being evidently untenable under any circumstances ; and,
fortunately, there is no difficulty in finding excellent characters for
this purpose.
One of the principal distinctive characters of the Snakes consists
in the peculiar structure of the jaws. The mouth, in these Animals,
is exceedingly dilatable ; all the bones of the upper jaw and palate
are freely movable, with the exception of the intermaxillaries, which
are firmly attached to the nasal bones ; and the two branches of the
lower jaw, each of which is composed of several pieces, are united in
front by ligaments and muscles, which permit of their being
separated to a considerable distance, at the pleasure of the Animal.
But the principal cause of the immense extent to which the mouth ot
these creatures is capable of being dilated, consists in the mode in
which the lower jaw is articulated to the head (Fig. 1590.) The
mastoid bone, which in most Vertebrata forms a part of the skull,
is here movable, and only attached to the skull by ligaments and
muscles. It bears, at its extremity, a long, somewhat cylindrical
bone, called the tympanic bone, to the opposite extremity of which
the lower jaw is articulated ; and as the tympanic bone usually takes
an oblique direction, downwards and backwards, it often extends
considerably behind the back of the skull, and thus enables the
mouth to open beyond the head.
The jaws are always armed with hooked conical teeth, which serve
only to hold the prey and assist in its progress down the throat ; but
the arrangement of these varies considerably in the different groups.
In the Innocuous Snakes, the teeth all form solid cones, and are
arranged in continuous rows round the whole of the upper and lower
jaws, the palatine bones also bearing another double row of teeth.
In many of the venomous species, the maxillary bones are reduced
to a rudimentary condition, and bear only a pair of long, acute, per-
forated teeth, which can be raised or depressed at will by the action
of peculiar muscles. These, in fact, form a pair of tubes, communi-
cating by ducts with the poison glands, and through which the veno-
mous secretion of these glands is injected into the wounds made by
the Animal. The teeth of the palate and lower jaw are arranged in
these Snakes, more or less, after the same fashion as in the harmless
species, but those of the true upper jaw are, of course, wanting ; and
this has given rise to an opinion, that Venomous Snakes might be
known by the want of maxillary teeth. This, however, is a mistake,
as some of the most deadly species are furnished with a few teeth
behind the poison fangs ; and in some, which are suspected of
poisonous properties, the upper jaw bears one or more largo /ur?-OK'ed
fangs towards its hinder part, its anterior portion being furnished
with small solid teeth of the ordinary kind.
Snakes, like almost all other Reptiles, live entirely by the capture
of living prey ; and as their teeth are not adapted for the division of
their food, they are, of course, compelled to swallow them whole.
As their victims are often of considerable size, this operation is not
unfrequently attended with difSculty ; but the form and arrangement
of the teeth and jaws are most admirably adapted for the peculiar
exigences of their mode of life. Dilating its mouth to the utmost,
the Snake seizes upon one end of the dead body of its victim, and by
the continual action of the jaws and teeth, gradually draws it into
its throat — a process which, perhaps, might rather be described as
the gradual extension of the Snake over the body of its prey. The
consumption of this mass of food takes place very slowly ; and many
Snakes, after a full meal, pass a month or six weeks in a state of
torpidity, whilst the operation of digestion is going on.
The general form of these Reptiles is too well known to need des-
cription. They are totally destitute of limbs ; the scapular arch and
Fig. 1590.— Skull of the Python.
a, a palatal view ; /', in profile ; c, as seen from above.
sternum arc entirely wanting, and the only trace of the posterior ex-
tremities consists in a a pair of small bones, representing the pelvis ;
and sometimes a second pair, corresponding with the hii;d limbs,
which are found suspended in the muscles on each side of the vent
in a few species. These bones occasionally bear a sort of homy
claw, which projects slightly from the skin, on each side of the anus ;
but these organs are usually so small, that they can be of but little
use to the Animal. Their movements are entirely effected by the
agency of the very flexible vertebral column, and the exceedingly
movable ribs. The latter are excessively numerous, extending from
the neck to the extremity of the belly, or even beyond this into the
tail ; and the Animal when gliding along the ground, may be con-
sidered to be walking upon the free extremities of the ribs, much m
the same way that the Millepedes progress by the action of their
innumerable httle legs. (See Fig. 1591.)
The skin appears to be covered with scales and plates, from the
existence of numerous scaly appendages of the corium ; these, how-
ever, are completely covered by the epidermis, which embraces them
closely, aud follows all the irregularities of surface ; so that when the
epidermis is cast, it presents, as it were, an exact mould of all the
elevations and depressions which existed upon the Animal. On the
upper surface of the body these dermal appendages have the form o£
4 l»
626
THE VENOMOUS SNAKES.
scales ; on the head and belly they are usually converted into plates,
or shields, of larger or smaller size, and either of a hexagonal or
quadrangular figure. The peculiarities of these organs furnish valu-
able characters for the classification of these Animals.
The eye, as already stated, is destitute of lids, and covered with a
glassy capsule, in which the organ is capable of moving freely. The
ears are not visible externally ; the nostrils are placed on the snout,
and often quite at its extremity, and the tongue is very long, thin,
bifid, and protrusible. There is usually only a single large lung,
situated on the left side of the body ; that of the right side is gener-
ally quite rudimentary. The trachea is very long, and often cellular,
so that the distinction between the trachea and the lung is some-
times difficult of recognition. The hinder part of the long lung is
frequently destitute of cells, forming a simple sac, which probably
serves as a reservoir of air. The other internal organs are also much
elongated, in accordance with the general form of the body, and
the gall-bladder is often separated from the liver by a considerable
interval.
Sub-divisions. — The classification of these Reptiles presents
considerable difficulties, and scarcely any two authors are agreed as
to the limits of the subordinate groups, or the order in which they
Fig. 1591 — Skeleton of Ihe Boa Constrictor.
should be arranged. The general arrangement here adopted is much
he same as that given by Dr. Gray, in his Catalogue of the Snakes
m the British Museum. He divides the order Ophidia into two sub!
orders-the Uperme, or essentially Venomous Serpents? with°veak
jaws, of which the upper is entirely destitute of teeth, excep the two
Urge poison fangs; and the Colubrine Snakes, which are iox the
most part, harmless although the upper jaw, in many species benrs
fangs, beside the ordinary solid, maxillary teeth. ^P^"^^' ^^ears
Sub-order I.— Viperina.
General Characters.— The Viperina, or Venomous Snakes
Par excellence are distinguished from all others byX pecuUar
arrangement of the teeth in the upper jaw. The trae mLilUary
bones are reduced to a very small size, capable of a great amount of
motion and bear a single pair of long curved fangs! which can be
aid flat m the mouth dunng repose, or erected, when in action, by
the agency of peculiar muscles. These are the only teeth supported
X^y n^;^.^'"ary bones ; they are perforated throughout by a slender
canal which communicates with a large gland situated in the head
n^^^P h"** under the eyes. This secrltef the venomous fluid whrch
passes through a duct to the base of the tooth, and thence t irouc^
the canal in its interior, until it is injected into the wound made by
the bite of the Serpent. Its propulsion is effected partly by the con-
traction of the proper walls of the gland, and partly by the pressure
of the muscles of the jaws which act upon it during their contraction
(Fig. 1592.) The poison, which is thus injected into the wound
mixes with the blood, and is then carried into the circulation, when
it speedily produces an injurious effect, giving rise to an altered con-
dition of the fluid, which, if the poison be present in sufficient
quantity, quickly renders it incapable of supporting life; In fact a
bite from one of the large Poisonous Snakes of Tropical climates is
generally fatal, even to Man, if the animal be in a vigorous condition,
and provided with a good supply of poison ; but a bite from a similar
Snake, after it has nearly exhausted its venom by previous attacks
may give rise to little or no inconvenience. It is remarkable, also,
that the effect of the poison of these creatures is very different with
different Animals ; the Cold-blooded species in general appear to be
almost indifi'erent to its effects, whilst most Warm-blooded Animals
soon expire when a sufficient quantity is injected into their veins.
Various means of preventing the injurious effects of the bite of these
Reptiles have been proposed, and the natives of most countries in
which they abound have their favourite antidotes for the wounds
inflicted by them. The only
means, however, upon which it
appears that much reliance can
be placed, are those directed to
preventing the poison from get-
ting into the circulation ; and
of these, the principal consist
in sucking the wound — either
with a cupping-glass or with
the mouth, which may be done
without the least danger, the
poison being quite inocuous
when taken internally — cutting
out^the wounded part, or burn-
ing it with a hot iron, or with
caustic applications. The use
of caustic liquid ammonia as
an external application has
been frequently efi^ectual. All
these remedies must, however,
be adopted immediately after
the wound has been received ;
if any time be allowed to elapse
the most distressing symptoms
make their appearance ; and if
these can be relieved by the
administration of medicines
{which, however, appears some-
what doubtful), the patient
generally suffers for a long
period from the effects of the
bite.
The remainder of the teeth
of the Viperina, consisting of
two rows in the palate and a
row in each side of the lower
jaw, are generally of small
size, and weak. The head is
broad, and more or less trian-
gular ; broadest behind, so that
the boundary between the head
and the neck is very distinct ;
and the surface of the head is
c , . also generally scaly. All these
bnakes, as tar as we are aware, are Ovo-viviparous ; and, accordin?
tn r„v,nr fl,» f.™ yj^^j.^ applied to the best-known species, il
derived from this circumstance ;
to Cuvier, the term
a corruption
he regards it as
of " vivipare."
_ Sub-Divisions.— The Vipe-
rine Snakes form two families,
the Crotalidcz or Rattlesnakes,
and the Viperida or Vipers.
The former family, which in-
cludes not only the True Rattle-
snakes, so abundant in all parts
of America, but also a consider-
able number of species distri-
buted in other warm regions,
is particularly distinguished by
the presence of a deep pit on
each side of the nose, situated
K u- J .T. ., ™ . beneath, and usually a little
behind, the nostril. This pit, the purpose of which is^sdll un^
kno^^^, ,s lined with small plates. The head is broad and
nat, scaly on the crown, and furnished with small shields only on
Fig. 1S92-— Head of the Rattlesnake,
with the skin removed.
V, nostral ; v, poison-gland ; c, fang ;
m, muscles of the jaws ; ,r, saliva'ry
glands.
THE RATTLESNAKE.
627
the sides and nose. The teeth are very small, but the poison-
fang's are exceedingly large and powerful ; but these Snakes must be
regarded as the most dangerous of the order. The belly is covered
with broad shields.
The best known examples of this family are the Rattlesnakes,
which positively swarm in the forests of America, extending even as
far north as Canada. The following is a description of them : —
The Rattlesnake {Crotaltis dun'ssus ; Crotalus horridus,
Cuv.) Several species of Rattlesnake are known to naturalists, as
the Boiquira or Diamond Rattlesnake of Mexico, Guiana, and
Brazil {Crotalus horridus) ; the Common or Banded Rattlesnake of
tlie United States {Crotalus dun'ssus ; and the Small Rattlesnake
{Caudisona miliaris, Fitzin.). We may here observe that the terms
horridus and dun'ssus have been very loosely applied to the two
former species by naturalists. Cuvier assigns the term horridus to
the species found in the United States, and dt/rissus to that of
Guiana. In his "North American Reptiles," Dr. Harlan reverses
the titles.
The Rattlesnakes are chiefly natives of America ; the head is
covered with scales, similar to those of the upper surface, excepting
in the genus Caudisona where it is protected by plates ; there is a
small depression behind each nostril ; the tail is furnished with an
appendage commonly termed its rattle : it consists of a number of thin
homy cells, of a pyramidal figure, with a protuberant marginal ring ;
they are fitted into one another as far as this ring ; that is the pyra-
midal portion of one is received into the hollow of that succeeding,
its apex reaching as far as the ring of the third, and so on, — hence,
when all together, only the protuberant margin of each is seen. The
articulation of these distinct portions being very loose, they rustle
against each other when smartly vibrated, and produce a distinct
whirring noise that may be heard at some distance. The structure
of the rattle is well expressed at Fig. 1593 ; a shows a rattle of
twenty-four joints ; b, the section of a rattle, showing the form of the
distinct portions, and the mode in which they are fitted into each
l^'ik'- 1593.— Tail of the Rattlesnake.
other. The number of the joints composing the rattle increases, to
a certam period at least, with each moult of slough, and the basal
bell is the last formed. When irritated or alarmed, the Rattlesnake
vibrates this appendage, and gives timely warning, for it is slow to
strike, and never voluntarily attacks Man, unless trodden upon or
molested. It is, indeed, mostly glad to escape, retiring with tail
erect, and rapidly vibrating. These Reptiles, when irritated, exhale
Fig. i594._The Rattlesnake.
a disgusting odour; it is said, however, that the Peccary will
fftpn /v"" 'devour them ; though not, as we should suppose, without
often experiencing the effects of their venomous fangs. Horses and
Dogs, however avoid them. *■ ""'=>=" ''""
" I have often," says M. Bosc, " amused myself by trying to force
my horse and dog to approach one of these animals, but they would
sooner have allowed themselves to be knocked down on the spot than
come near them." It would seem from Kalm that Horses and Oxen
perish from the bite of a Rattlesnake sooner than Dogs or Men, yet
Dogs seldom survive. Captain Hall exposed some of these Animals
to the bite of a Rattlesnake measuring four feet in length ; the
first struck with its deadly fangs e.xpired in fifteen minutes, the second
lingered in great agony for two hours before death ended its suffer-
ings, and the third only began to feel the effects of the poison after
an interval of three hours ; four days afterwards the same Snake bit
a Dog which died in thirty seconds, and another Dog which died in
four minutes.
Well is it then that such terrible Reptiles are slow in their move.
ments, indolent in their habits, and ready to give warning by their
rattle of their presence ! They are fond of lying coiled up in sunny
spots, with the rattle elevated in the centre, and ready to be vibrated,
when the Animal sees an intruder, without moving any other part of
the body. When exasperated, the Rattlesnake continuously vibrates
the tail ; the head is flattened, the throat and cheeks are distended,
the jaws open, the venom-fangs are displayed, the tongue quivers,
and the body alternately swells and sinks with rage, like a pair of
bellows ; should its enemy now approach, the blow will be
instantaneously struck ; if, however, he retire, the Reptile will unfold
its coils, and creep away into the brushwood, as if unwilling to con-
tinue the strife.
Occasionally these Snakes attain to very great dimensions.
Catesby says, " The largest I ever saw was one about eight feet in
length, weighing between eight and nine pounds. This monster was
gliding into the house of Colonel Blake, of Carolina, and had cer-
tainly taken his abode there undiscovered, had not the domestic
animals alarmed the family with their repeated outcries ; the hogs,
dogs, and poultry united in their hatred to him, showing the
greatest consternation by erecting their bristles and feathers ; and,
expressing their wrath and indignation, surrounded him, but care-
fully kept their distance, while he, regardless of their threats, glided
slowly along." The same writer, speaking of the herbs used as
antidotes to the bite, by the Indians, adds, " Having, by travelling
much with Indians, had frequent opportunities of seeing the direful
effects of the bite of those Snakes, it always seemed and was appa-
rent to me that the good effects usually attributed to these, their
remedies, are owing more to the force of nature or the bite of a small
snake in a muscular part. The person thus bit I have known to
survive for many hours without any assistance, but where a rattle-
snake with full force penetrates with his deadly fangs, and pricks a
vein or artery, inevitable death ensues, and that, as I have often
seen, in less than two minutes. The Indians know their destiny the
moment they are bit, and when they perceive it mortal apply no
remedy, concluding all efforts are vain ; but if the bite happen in a
fleshy part, they immediately cut it out to stop the current of the
poison. I could heartily wish that oil of olives applied to the wound
might have as good success against the venom of these snakes as it
hath been found in England to have had against the poison of the
adder."
It is in the hottest part of the year only, according to Mr. Pence
of Philadelphia, that the poison of this Reptile is the most dangerous.
" Its bite," he says, " from the moment it emerges from its retreat
till August, does not necessarily produce fatal effects. It has been
remarked, and the obser\'ation has not escaped the Indians, that
from the month of August to the time when about to retire to its
winter quarters, the period in which it takes the most food, it be-
comes terrible, and its bite is mortal."
" We know that serpents in general retire on the approach of
winter, according to the nature of the ground, and the temperature
of the places they tenant, either under large stones, or into holes
which other animales have burrowed. The Boigeura gives prefer-
ence to places in the vicinity of water. We have dug up many of
their holes on the borders of the river Maurice. They were all tor-
tuous, and led to a sort of chamber distant from the entrance six or
eight feet, and there we have found them in balls, and twined
together. Our guide led us, on one occasion, into a marshy place,
covered with a prodigious quantity of the Sphagnum pa lustre, a
kind of moss, of which the stems are from six to twelve inches high.
Having removed some of this moss, of which the top was frozen (the
frost being so severe that it penetrated the naked ground to the
depth of twelve or fourteen inches), we perceived many rattle-
snakes slowly creeping among the roots of the trees, immediately
beneath the moss, and on an oozy ground over which flowed running
water not affected by the frost. Numerous experiments prove that
the rattlesnake eats indifferently all kinds of dead Birds he meets
with, and that he employs no supernatural means to seize his victims.
He does not, however, eat frogs. We may add that the Rattlesnake
never climbs trees, but waits on the ground for its prey, on which it
darts when within the proper distance.
Mr. Pence says that the Rattlesnake employs no supernatural
means to seize his victims — and he speaks sensibly. Who, however,
has not heard of the fascinating powers of this snake .' The process
is thus detailed by Catesby : — " The charming, as it is commonly
628
THE VIPER TRIBE.
called, or attractive power which this snake is said to have of drawing
to it animals, and devouring them, is generally believed in America ;
as for my own part, I never saw the action, but a great many from
■whom I have had it related all agree in the manner of the process ;
which is, that the animals, particularly birds and squirrels (which
principally are their prey), no sooner spy the snake than they skip
from spray to spray, hovering and approaching gradually nearer
their enemy, regardless of any other danger, but with distracted
gestures and outcries descend from the top of the loftiest trees to the
mouth of the snake, who openeth his jaws, takes them in, and in an
instant swallows them."
In all this there is nothing beyond what arises from the desire of
the Animals to drive away a savage foe, against which they have an
instinctive hatred, from the precincts of their nests, and in their
eagerness and anxiety often advance so close as to bring themselves
within the Reptile's power. In other instances they are startled by
the dreaded Snake's sudden appearance, and become bewildered or
paralysed with terror.
After all, it is very doubtful whether living Birds are the common
prey of the Rattlesnake. Some experiments by Mr. Pence on a
Rattlesnake, and also on a Black Snake (not venomous), seem to
prove this. A living Bird (an Oriole) w-as introduced into the cage
of the Rattlesnake, and remained there for two days without betray-
ing the least fear, or experiencing the slightest molestation from ttie
Reptile, which, however, devoured a dead Bird, while the Oriole
hopped about untouched. A Cardinal Grosbeak was then introduced,
and this, so far from avoiding- the Snake, pecked at ease about the
cage, picked up seeds, and even hopped on the Snake's back, but
retreated on hearing the sound of the rattle. Frogs, both living and
dead, were presented, but it would not touch them. The Black
Snake, on the contrary, instantly seized them. At last a common
Rat was put into the Rattlesnake's cage. Scarcely was it fairly in
when the Reptile appeared animated ; the Rat fled in alarm to the
opposite side of the cage, to escape the Snake, which now gave
chase, following the Rat very deliberately. Strenuous were the
efforts of the terrified victim to avoid its pursuer, but in vain ; the
Snake, seizing a favour.able moment, struck its prey and then
remained motionless ; the Rat ran about for a little time as if be-
wildered, and at the end of a minute became swollen and died in
convulsions ; it was then swallowed.
Those of the Crotalidce in which the tail is destitute of a rattle,
have that part of the body furnished with a sort of spine. These
Reptiles often equal the Rattlesnakes in size and in the power of
their venom, but many are, perhaps, still more dangerous, as they
are exceedingly active animals, and are always ready to make use
of the terrible weapons with which they are armed. The most
dreaded serpent of the West Indian Islands, the Craspedocej)haliis
lanceolatiis, belongs to this group ; it attains a length of six or seven
feet, and inhabits the cane-fields, where it lives principally on the
Rats which abound in such situations, and when in pursuit of prey,
or of any object of irritation, it frequently performs considerable
springs. The Crotalidm of the Eastern hemisphere are confined to
the Asiatic continent and islands.
The Vipers— Family Vi^eridcs.
The second family of this sub-order, the Viperidts, is composed of
the Vipers of the Old World, which are distinguished from the
CrofalidcB by the absence of the pits in the sides of the face. The
species of this family are entirely confined to the Old World in the
hot climates of which they are exceedingly abundant.
The Common European Viper {Pelias benis) is a well-known
example ; it is described as follows : —
The Viper [Pelias berus ; Adder ; Vipera vulgaris, Latr. •
Vipcra communis. Leach.) ' ' '
The Common Viper is spread over Europe, and is tolerably fre-
quent in many parts of England, giving preference to dry woods
sandy heaths, peat lands and sunny banks, and similar places. In
Scotland it is more numerous than the Common Snake. In some
parts of Yorkshire, Vipers are abundant, and they are so in all chalk
counties. Vipers vary considerably in colour ; hence we have the
Black Viper, the Blue-bellied Viper, the Red Viper, the Common
Viper, &c., which some naturalists have ventured to reo-ard as
distinct species — whereas the truth is they are mere varieties, as is
now satisfactorily demonstrated. Fig. 1595 represents the head of
the Viper, and Fig. 1596 the Animal itself.
Happily for us, this is our only Venomous Reptile ; and, dreaded
as it is, it is by no means so dangerous as reported. It never com-
mences an attack, and turns to bite only when driven to self-defence
or suddenly molested ; nor is its bite necessarily fatal. We have
ourselves known persons bit by Vipers — one a relative ; he was
punctured on the thumb; the part swelled and inflamed,' and the
inflammation (with considerable pain and constitutional irritation)
ascended the absorbents to the axillary glands ; with a little care
however, in a few days, every bad symptom was removed. We have'
indeed, heard of cases in which death has resulted from a Viper's
bite, but we have never been able positively to authenticate an
instance, though we are willing to admit that, as the effects are
rnuch more severe in some instances than in others, persons of a
highly excitable or feeble temperament may have sunk under the
action of the poison, especially if the Animal was in full vigour and
activity when it inflicted the wound. It is stated that ammonia or
its carbonate is an excellent antidote to the bite of a Viper.
Small Animals, as Mice, Rats, Birds, &c., are immediately
affected by the poison, and soon perish. The Viper often attempts
to swallow prey too large to pass down the oesophagus. Mr. Bell
Fig. 1595. — Head of the Viper.
had in his possession a small Viper, from Poole Heath, in Dorsetshire,
which was taken in a dying state, having forced down a Mouse,
which had caused the skin of the neck to burst in several places.
Mr. J. C. Cox found a Viper in the neighbourhood of Lausanne,
which had swallowed a Common Lizard nearly as long as itself, and
which had forced a hole through the side of the Viper, one of its
fore-legs protruding. ("Mag. Nat. Hist.," 1838, p. 238.)
The Viper is Ovoviviparous, the young being excluded from the
egg previously to parturition. So requisite is the heat of the sun for
Fig. 1596.— The Viper.
this development of the young, that the female Viper may be often
seen extended in the genial rays, basking with flattened body, and
unwilling to remove from the spot on the approach of danger. The
young vary in number from ten to twenty, and are alert and active
from their birth.
We have often heard it asserted, though we have never been able
to verify the statement, that the young Vipers, when alarmed, hastily
retire within the mouth of their parent, and lodge in the stomach or
oesophagus till the danger is passed. To this circumstance Mr. Bell,
in his work on British Reptiles, makes no allusion. Mr. Blyth (Sec
Loudon's " ]\Iag. Nat. Hist.," 1837, p. 441) observes respecting it,
" I have been informed of this by so many credible eye-witnesses,
that I cannot hesitate in yielding implicit credence to the fact. One
man particularly, on whose word I fully rely, tells me that he has
himself seen as many as thirteen young vipers thus enter the mouth
of their parent, which he afterwards killed, and opened for the
purpose of counting them. The following extract shows that the
habit IS common to other venomous serpents, all of which are, I
believe, without exception, ovoviviparous:' It is stated of the rattle-
snake, in Hunter's ' Memoirs of a Captivity among the North
American Indians,' that, 'when alarmed, the young ones, which are
eight or ten inj number, retreat into the mouth of the parent, and
reappear on its giving a contractile muscular token that the danger
is passed.' " Gilbert White says, " Several intelligent folks assure
me that they have seen the viper open her mouth to admit her help-
less young down the throat on sudden surprises, just as a female
opossum does her brood into the pouch upon the like emergencies ;
and yet the London viper-catchers insist on it to Mr. Barrington that
THE COLUBRINE SNAKES.
629
no such thingf ever happens." When evidence is thus contradictory,
is is difficult to know what to believe. We have seen Vipers oft, but
we never saw the occurrence in question, nor do we know any
naturalist who has himself seen it. Mr. Blyth, who devoted much
time to the out-door study of our Native Animals, never witnessed it
himself, though he believes it upon report. It has been well
observed that much related concerning- the habits of Reptiles seems
to be as confused as it is inexact. " Country-people, besides being
inexact in their accounts (although their occupations afford them
good and frequent opportunities for making observations), are seldom
to be depended upon ; they are not nice observers of that which does
not immediately affect their concerns ; and disgust, or fear, or
indifference incapacitates them from taking accurate notice ; and
these feelings induce contradiction, confusion, and exaggeration.
Viper-catchers may be better authorities, as from use they overcome
the not unnatural repugnance to these animals ; but, in their case,
accuracy depends entirely upon individual intelligence, and, except
the reporters be unexceptionable, their statements ought to be
cautiously received."
The Viper hybemates, several entwining together in a deep hole,
or other secure lurking-place, and passing the winter in a state of
torpidity.
In many parts of England the Viper is better known by the name
of Adder, anciently, says Mr. Bell, written ncdre, and afterwards
eddre ; it is from the Anglo-Saxon ncedre, nether, lower — a far-
fetched derivation, and we agree with Mr. J. Bladon that there is
one much nearer at hand, viz. neidr, the ancient British and modern
Welsh name for the Reptile in question. In the plural form it is
much more apparent, nadroedd, applied both to the Viper and
Common Snake.
We shall conclude our observations on the Viper by alluding to
two singular superstitions connected with this Reptile — perhaps not
yet altogether passed away. From the earliest times the flesh of
the Viper was celebrated (like that of the Skink, a kind of Lizard)
in the cure cf various diseases, and is praised by Pliny and Galen.
The ancients generally served the animal, boiled, like Fish ; but in
our country Viper-broth was the preparation in request. In Fugland
these Reptiles were caught by means of a stick with a fork or cleft
at one end, for pinning the animal down, just behind the head ; the
man then seized the struggling Reptile by the tail, and put it into
a bag : and in this way the shops of the apothecaries were supplied.
Many persons have heard of the ovum anguinum of Pliny — the
glein neidr of the ancient British — the Adder-gem or Adder-stone.
(See Fig. 1597.) These celebrated charms for curing various dis-
eases are nothing more than antique blue, green, or striped glass
beads of various sizes, and perforated. Pliny attributed their pro-
copied from Jackson, represents this species, which is probably the
Vipera agyptiaca of Latrcillc.
Of the Exotic species the most celebrated is the Cerastes or
Horned Snake {Ccrasfcs hassclqithfii), which is found abundantly
in Egypt, and has acquired an historical celebrity from its having
afforded Cleopatra the means of escaping the disgrace of forming
an appendage to the triumph of her Roman conqueror. The Cerastes
IS a small Snake, generally measuring from a foot to fifteen inches
m length ; although some specimens are more than two feet long
Above each eye, m the male, there is a sort of horn-like process
with the pomt directed a little forwards, which, although it cannot
be regarded as a weapon of any kind, yet adds greatly to the
malignity of the creature's aspect. The Cerastes is found in "reat
rig- 1597.— Adder Stones.
duction to Snakes convoluted together in summer, and notices the
statement of the Druids with regard to their mystic production ;
and Mason, in his " Caractacus," gives a Druid's song on the
subject.
Pennant says, " Our modern Druidesses give much the same
account of the ovum anguinum (Glein Neidr, as the Welsh call it ;
or the adder-gem) as the Roman philosopher does ; -but seem not
to have so exalted an opinion of its powers, using it only to assist
children in cutting their teeth, or to cure the hooping-cough, or
drive away an- ague. ' '
A species of viper, called El EfTah (apparently identical with the
Hebrew word "Ephah," translated viper), is described and figured
in Jackson's " Marocco," as one of the most common and venomous
Serpents in North Africa and South-Western Asia. " It is about
two feet long and as thick as a man's arm, beautifully spotted with
yellow and brown, and sprinkled over with blackish specks. They
have a wide mouth, by which they inhale a great quantity of air,
and when inflated they eject it with such force, as to be heard to a
considerable distance." He adds, that they abound' in the desert
of Susc, where their holes are extremely numerous. Capt. Riley, in
his "Authentic Narrative" (1817), described their colours as beauti-
ful, and says that Jackson's engraving is very correct. Fig. 1598,
Fig. 159S.— " El Eflah : " Viper.
plenty in the dry sandy deserts of Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, and
probably in other parts of Asia and the north of Africa. It is said to
be exceedingly active in its movements, springing to a distance of
three feet or more when making its attack. According to Bruce,
who has given a long account of its habits, many of the inhabitants
of the countries infested by the Cerastes, handle these creatures with
impunity, and even without their making the least attempt to bite ;
and in some cases, at any rate, this immunity is procured by con-
stantly chewing certain roots, and washing the body with a parti-
cular vegetable decoction. Bruce adds that the drugs were '■-iven
to him, and that he several times "armed himself" to make the
experiment, " but his heart always failed him when he came to the
trial." The following cut Fig. 1599 represents one of these Snakes.
Sub-order II.— Colubrina.
General Characters.— The Colubrine Snakes are distin.guished
from those of the preceding sub-order by the greater strength of
their jaws, and by having the maxillary bones much longer, and
armed with solid conical teeth, sometimes intermixed w-ith fangs.
The latter are, however, somewhat different in construction from
those of the Vipeyina : they are simply grooved or slit down one
side ; and although the sides of this slit are often in close contact,
so as to form a canal in the interior of the tooth, they are never
amalgamated as in the Viperine;Snakes. The fangs of the Colubrine
Snakes, moreover, are always immovably fixed in the mouth, the
different arrangement of the maxillary bones necessarily preventing
those movements by which the Viperina are enabled to raise and
depress their fangs at pleasure. The head generally tapers off
gradually into the neck, and does not present the triangular form
which prevails in the preceding sub-order, and the crown is frequently
covered with shield-like plates.
Sub-divisions. — The Colubrine Snakes may be divided into
two great sections, according as the maxillary bones are armed
only with solid teeth, or with these mixed with long, grooved fangs.
The Snakes of the former group, which constitute the great nia-
jority of the sub-order, are perfectly innocuous ; but the second
section includes a considerable number of venomous species. The
latter may be again divided into two groups ; the Vencmosa, inr
eluding the undoubtedly venomous species which have the fangs
placed at the anterior portion of the maxillary bones, with the solid
teeth behind them ; and the Suspecta, in which the fangs arc
situated at the back of the jaw, behind the common teeth. The
venomous species form two families, the Elapidcc and the Hydro-
^hida.
The ElapidcR have a short, rounded head, covered with shields,
and the nostrils are placed on the side of the snout, close to its apex,
The body is rounded, and the tail round and tapering; the lower
63°
THE COBRAS.
surface is covered with shields, which
are usually single and transverse on
the belly, but arranged in a double
row under the tail. The poison-fangs
in these Animals are much smaller
than in the Viperine Snakes ; but
such is the virulence of their poison,
that their bite is perhaps quite as
dangerous as that of any other Snake.
The skin of the neck is very loose,
and the ribs of that part of the body
are capable of being extended and
raised so as to dilate the skin into a
sort of disc, which, from its resem-
blance to a hood, has obtained for
these creatures the English name of
Hooded Snakes, synonomous with the
Portuguese Cobra di Capello, by
which they are perhaps better known ,
The Indian species, Naia fripii-
diatis, to which the name of Cobra
di Cajiello properly applies, is also
known as the Spectacle Snake, from
the existence of a curious mark upon
the back of the neck, exactly resem-
bling a pair of spectacles in form.
Formidable as it is, however, a
small mammiferous animal, the
Mungoos [Herpestcs griseiis), does
not fear to attack it, and usually with
success— the Snake, on being brought
into the presence of its seemmgly con-
temptible enemy, sometimes endea-
vouring to make its escape. The
Mungoos, of course, often gets bitten
in these encounters ; but it is said
to be acquainted with some particular
herb, which serves as an antidote to
the poison of the Snake. The Hin-
doos assert that the root of the
Ophiorhha mungos prevents the
ill effects of the Cobra' s bite. A very
similar species, the Haje {Nam
haje. Fig. 1600), is common m
Egypt. The following is a descrip-
tion of these species : —
The Common Indian Naja
{Naja triJ>udiatts).—Gohr3. di Ca-
pello of the Asiatic Portuguese;
Serpent A lunettes of the French;
Spectacle Snake of the English ;
Nag and Chinta Nagoo of the natives.
This formidable Snake attains to five,
or even six feet in length ; Captain
Percival, indeed, says that specimens
occur in Ceylon as long as fifteen
feet ; but these specimens, we be-
lieve, will be found to belong to the
genus Hamadryas.
We have already spoken of the
manner in which the Naja expands
its hood. Fig. 1603 represents the
head of Naja ; a, the side view ; b, as
seen from above : Fig. 1601 view of
the upper side of the hood expanded,
with the head on the same line
with the body ; Fig. 1602 , a view
of the under side of the same; this
shows the head, seen from behind,
when the anterior portion of the ex-
cited Serpent is in an erect posture.
In the Naja trij>udians, or Cobra,
the hood is impressed behind with a
mark somewhat resembling the cen-
tral portion of a pair of spectacles
reversed ; it usually consists of a
double reversed horse-shoe line of
black or brown, with the tv^-o ends dilated, so as to enclose an
oval space, in the centre of which is a ring or spot of black,
as already stated. Captain Percival says—" Before a combat he
gives the signal, and his motions afterwards are too rapid to be
avoided ■ " and he adds, " I have, more than once, been an eye-
witness to instances where the fatal bite of this snake was escaped
merely by the object of his vengeance timely observing his prepara-
tions. One remarkable quality of these dangerous serpents is their
fondness for music ; even when newly caught they seem to listen
with pleasure to the notes, and even to writhe themselves into atti-
l |lilllll||ll[ll'll | llj|| | il')illi[llllllllill!^ill"li^ll'llwlil'''^"''ii"'''''i''''''"'''"''"^ ^ '■>"
tudes. The Indian jugglers improve greatly on this instinct, and
after taming them by degrees, instruct them to keep time to their
flageolet." ... ■ ^- j •
The colour of these Snakes is subject to some variation, and m
Ceylon, according to Dr. Davy, those of a light colour are called
hio-h-caste Snakes, those of a dark colour low-caste. " The natives,"
he%ays, " in general rather venerate this snake than dread it. They
conceive that it belongs to another world, and that when it appears
in this it is merely as a visitor ; they imagine that it possesses great
power, that it is somewhat akin to the gods, and greatly superior to
THE COBRAS.
«3i
man. In consequence, they supcrstitiously refrain from killing it,
and always avoid it, if possible. Even when they find one in their
house, they will not kill it, but, putting it into a bag, throw it into
water. They believe that this snake has a good and generous dis-
position, and that it will do no harm to man unless provoked." Dr.
Davy gives a pleasing picture of the irritations and soothings with
which The Snake-charmers e.xcite and allay the temper of this Ser-
pent, and records several instances of the operation of the poison.
In one case a young Cock was bitten in the thigh, and gradually
sank, and perished in convulsions in about seventeen minutes. The
first 'symptoms consisted in the respiration becoming hurried and
laborious, to which succeeded a
comatose state ; the breathing
then became scarcely perceptible,
when four or five convulsive fits
came on, each weaker than the
other, the last proving fatal.
A distinct species, found in Cal-
cutta, Bombay, and Assam, and
termed by Dr. Cantor, the Masked
Naja (Naja larvata), is described
in the " Zool. Proceeds." 1839,
p. 32. It is of a brownish colour,
with numerous faint transverse
stripes ; the hood is marked with
a white ring, not unlike the form
of a mask, behind which there are
from three to five white rings ; the
anterior part of the lower surface
is marked with alternate white and
bluish-back rings ; the posterior
Fig. 1600.— Egyptian Hooded Snake part is iridescent glaucous.
(Naja Haje). A young specimen of this Snake
was living in 1829, in the Society's
Gardens, Regent's Park. The artificial temperature, 62° Fahr., in
which it was kept, appeared to agree with it very well. Dr. Cantor
observes that, in one respect, it offered in its habits a striking differ-
ence from those of the Najas generally in captivity, for, as he was
informed by the keeper, it fed occasionally upon living Frogs and
Earth-worms, and that it took milk; while those in Dr. Russel's
possession, and also in his own, in India, when deprived of liberty,
invariably refused to take any kind of food. This must be taken
Fig. 1601. — Upper side of the Hood of the Naja.
with some exceptions, for Col. Briggs states that those kept by the
priests in the temples are pampered with milk and sugar, and will
feed out of the hand as tamely as any domestic Animal. Specimens
of this, and the following species, may be seen in the Zoological
Society's Gardens, Regent's Park, London.
The Egyptian Cobra {Naja haje). El Haje, or Haje Nascher
of the modern Arabs. This formidable Snake was well known to the
ancients, and Cuvicr observes that " its habit of elevating itself when
approached, led the ancient Egyptians to believe that it was the
guardian of the plains which it inhabited, and they adopted it as the
protecting deity of the world ; it is this snake which they sculptured
on all the portals of their temples, on two sides of a globe."
Pliny gives the following account of this as an allied species. " The
neck of the asp," he says, " is capable of distention, and the only
remedy against its bite is amputation of the wounded part. This
animal, otherwise so much to be dreaded, has a sentiment, or kind
of affection truly wonderful; it never lives alone, the male and
female being constantly found together, and if one happens to be
Fig. 1602. — Lower Side of the Hood of the Naja.
killed, the other seeks with the utmost fury to avenge its death. It
knows and selects the destroyer from among crowds, and can only
be deprived of its revenge by the most speedy flight, or the inter\'en-
tion of some rapid river." He adds that the lateral position of its
eyes prevents it from seeing straight before it, and that, consequently,
it is often trodden under foot before it is aware of its danger. This
latter circumstance by no means proves its incapacity for seeing
before it ; in fact its sight is as quick as its actions are prompt and
rapid. Old walls, ruins amidst woods, and similar places, are its
usual haunts.
Fig. 1605 represents the Haje in its young state, and 1C06 the
mature Animal.
Fig. 1603. — Head of the Naja.
With respect to a variety called Spuugh-slang (Spitting Snake),
which is of a livid blackish-brown, and which is more rare than the
others, Dr. Smith observes that it has acquired its name from its
supposed power of ejecting its poison to a distance. All the Cobra
di Capellos, he remarks, distil poison from the the points of their
fangs when they are much irritated, and are able to eject a portion
of it beyond the mouth by a forcible expiration, but he is not disposed
to admit that any greater power is possessed by the Spuugh-slang.
The contrary, however, is asserted both by the colonists and
natives : — " Both of these affirm that the snake in question is able to
cast its poison to a distance of several feet, especially if the wind be
632
S£:rpent charming.
blowing so as to favour its object ; and that it often projects it into
the eyes of unwelcome intruders, and thereby occasions a degree of
inflammation which not uncommonly terminates in loss of sight. In
the Cape Colony the varieties of the Cobra di Capello are all
regarded as highly dangerous, and many severe, if not fatal conse-
quences are the results of their bite. They are all savage and bold,
and when assailed they generally resist rather than Ry, and they not
unfrequently act upon the offensive. They climb trees with great
facility, and often take to the water out of choice. In the liquid
element their progress is rather slow, and during their residence in
it the head is always kept raised above the surface. Whenever
they are e.xcited or irritated, they, like the common species of India,
inflate the loose skin of the neck, and e.xtend it laterally so as to
Fig. 1604. — The Indian Naja.
exhibit an appearance as if the neck was edged on each side with a
thin semicircular appendage. They feed upon small quadrupeds,
birds, and eggs, and ascend trees to rob nests."
We may here allude to the fascination of Snakes by music, and
the intluence exerted upon them by a race or caste of professed
Snake-charmers, who appear from time immemorial in the East to
have exercised their art upon them, and exhibited various perform-
ances.
We find allusions to Serpent-charming in the Scriptures. Jere-
miah writes : " For behold, I will send serpents, cockatrices, among
you, which will not be charmed," ch. viii. 17. Again in the Psalms :
" Their poison is like the poison of a serpent ; they are like the deaf
adder that stoppeth her ear ; which will not hearken to the voice of
charmers, charming never so wisely." Ps. Iviii. 4, 5.
The charming or incantation of serpents is so strange, that many
have utterly denied the fact, while others have asserted it to be a
deception. Our own conviction is that Serpents are extremely
susceptible of impressions from music notes, or modulations, under
the influence of which they wreathe their bodies, from feelings of
pleasure, while to these graceful contortions and undulating move-
ments, the charmer, who plays on a pipe, or some simple instrument,
skilfully adapts the time. That Snakes are influenced by musical
sounds we might quote various authorities to prove ; it was, in fact,
known to the ancients. "Cerberus Orpheo lenivit sibila cantu."
Pliny and Seneca both afSrm that serpents can be allured from their
retreats by music ; and among the moderns, who contend for the
same, may be mentioned Chardin, Greaves, Dr. Shaw, Bruce, Sir
W. Jones, Chateaubriand, &c. The last, indeed, in his " Beauties
of Christianity," gives an interesting account of the effects upon a
Fig. 1605.— The Naja Haje. Young.
1 .g. !^ - £g)'ptian Cobra.
Rattlesnake of modulations played on the flute by a Canadian, who,
at last, like Orpheus, led the fascinated Reptile out of the camp,
following him as he moved onwards ; to the astonishment both of
the Europeans and natives, who unammiously agreed that the
creature's life should be spared; though, in evident anger, it had
intruded into their encampment. " A learned native of this country
[India]," says Sir W. Jones, " told me he had frequently seen the
most venomous and malignant snakes leave their holes, upon
hearing notes from a flute, which, as he supposed, gave them
peculiar delight." " Asiat. Res.," vol. iii., p. 315. IMr. Gogerly, a
missionary, confirms this statement. He observes that some persons
who were incredulous on the subject, after taking the most careful
precautions against any trick of artifice being played, sent a charmer
into the garden to prove his powers : " The man began to play upon
his pipe, and, proceeding from one part of the garden to another,
for some minutes stopped at a part of the wall much injured by age,
and intimated that a serpent was within. He then played quicker,
and his notes were louder, when, almost immediately, a large Cobra
di Capello put forth its hooded head, and the man ran fearlessly to
the spot, seized it by the throat and drew it forth. He then showed
the poison fangs, and beat them out ; afterwards it was taken to the
room where his baskets were left, and deposited amongst the rest."
THE SNAKES.
6J3
Abundance of similar instances are on record ; and we may here add
that M. Schomberg-, speaking of a pretty little Lizard in the West
Indies {Anolius bttllaris), states, that " they are often caught by
boys, who take advantage of their fondness for musical sounds,
arresting their attention, and then throwing a little noose over their
head," as they perch in a listening attitude on the branches of trees :
"Linn. Trans.," vol. xvii., p. 560. We have then here the key to
the whole mystery. The exhibition of Serpents is itself attended
with deception, for the poison fangs are always carefully extracted ;
and hence are the wounds which the charmers subject themselves to,
of comparatively little consequence. It should be observed, however,
that long practice has given these men an intimate knowledge of
the habits of these Reptiles ; hence it need not surprise us that they
easily discover where they lurk, a point which has been often put to
the rigid test. Mr. Lane imagines that it is by the smell that they
discover the presence of these Reptiles ; but we are inclined to
suppose that it is by the ear. As the man plays his pipe he regards
attentively the most likely spots, and intently listens ; his practised
ear catches the slightest rustle of the Serpent, as excited it turns or
moves in its hole, its subdued hiss, or its quickened breathing ; but
the spectators, engaged in attending to the man, hear and see
nothing but him, and are too much interested to endeavour to find
the Snake by the exercise of their own faculties. No doubt these
men, in order to magnify themselves, arrogate more power than they
are really entitled to, and throw an air of professional mystery over
their operations, and hence many believe that all is assumed, and
the whole a trick. Mr. Johnson, in his " Indian Field-Sports,"
leans to this opinion ; he says, " The professed snake-catchers in
India are a low caste of Hindoos, wonderfully clever in catching
snakes, and in practising the art of legerdemain : they pretend to
draw them from their holes by a song, and by an instrument some-
what like the Irish bagpipe, on which they play a plaintive tune.
The truth is, all this is done to deceive. If ever a snake comes out
of a hole at the sound of their music, you may be certain that it is a
tame one, trained to it, deprived of its venomous teeth, and put there
for the purpose ; and this you may prove, as I have often done, by
killing the snake and examining it, by which you will exasperate the
man exceedingly." No doubt they often act thus; but this does
rot prove that they cannot draw Wild Snakes from their retreats ;
indeed, the contrary is notorious. But beside, Seals, Rats and Mice
are attracted by music, as we can testify, and Deer and Sheep.
Music affects also Dogs and Cats, sometimes, as it would seem,
distressingly ; and if our memory serve us, we have somewhere read
a detailed account of the influence of certain notes or modulations
upon the Ferocious Animals of the menagerie. The subject requires
a series of detailed observations, when, perhaps, some singular facts
would be elicited. Of the modern Snake charmers, the Psylli were
the ancient prototypes. They were a people of Cyrenaica, a country
in Africa abounding in Reptiles ; supposed to] be endowed with the
natural power of charming Serpents, from whose bite they were
exempt. Pliny supposed that some odour of their persons, which the
Serpents abhorred, protected them, and Lucan says the same.
The latter, in his poem of" Pharsalia," describes the method they
adopted to drive away these Reptiles from the environs of the Roman
camp, marching around it, chanting mystic songs ; and, what was
more effectual, keeping up fires of different kinds of wood around
the encampment during the whole of the night. If a soldier
happened to be bitten, they raised " the magic lay," and rubbed
the parts around with saliva, to prevent, as they said, the poison
from spreading, while they used their arts to extract it ; and when
suspicious symptoms arose, they sucked the venom from the wound.
The Hydrophidce, or Sea-snakes, are distinguished from the
Snakes of the preceding family, with which they agree in the general
arrangement of their teeth, by the compressed form of the short tail,
which is converted into a vertical oar. The body is also compressed,
and usually entirely covered with scales. The head is not distinctly
separated from the neck, and is usually covered with shields ; the
nostrils are placed close together upon the upper part of the snout,
and provided with valves to close them when the head is immersed
in the water.
The HydrophidcB are found exclusively in the seas of the warmer
parts of the Eastern hemisphere, on the coasts of India, and off the
islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Some of them occur as
far south as the coasts of New Zealand and Australia. A few are
found occasionally in salt water tanks and canals ; but they usually
confine themselves to the ocean, and rarely ascend beyond the mouths
of rivers ; in fact, they are said to be unable to live in fresh water.
This is probably a mistake, as they are strictly air-breathing
Animals, and often visit the shore, where, in fact, they deposit their
eggs. They are exceedingly venomous, and are regarded with great
dread by the Fishermen, in whose nets they are not unfrequently
caught. They are, however, eaten by the inhabitants of some of the
countries on whose shores they occur. They rarely exceed four feet
in length.
The second group of Colubrine Snakes, with both fangs and teeth
in the maxillary bones (the Suspecta), includes a considerable
number of species which are known to be harmless ; whilst others
are reputed venomous by the natives of the countries in which they
occur, although, m most cases, it appears very doubtful whether they
are really deservmg of this reputation. In these Serpents the solid
teeth are placed m front of the fangs, of which there arc usually
more than one on each side, which latter are grooved or split alone
the convex surface, although it does not appear that they communi-
'^?-'^,^'^','^ '"'ernal poison-glands. The head is usually covered with
shield-hke plates.
Of these Snakes there are three families. In the first, the
HomalopszdcB, the nostrils are placed close together, and furnished
with valves, as in the Hydropkidce, which these Serpents also
resemble in their Aquatic habits, although they reside entirely in
fresh water. They differ from the HydrophidiB in the form of the
tail, which is elongated, round, and tapering. These Animals are
especially abundant in the rivers and ponds of India, and the islands
of the Eastern Archipelago, where some of them are reputed veno-
mous, but apparently without reason. They sometimes attain a con-
siderable size.
The Dipsadidce have a long, compressed, slender body, usually
considerably narrower than the head, which is covered with shields ;
and the scales, or rather plates, which run along the back, are con-
siderably larger than the rest. Both jaws are sometimes furnished
with fangs. The Dendrophidm resemble the preceding in the form
of their bodies, and in the possession of a row of large scales along
the dorsal region ; but the head is not wider than the body.
The perfectly harmless Colubrine Snakes, or those in which the
large fangs are entirely wanting, may be divided into three families.
In the first of these, the ColubridcB, or Snakes, of which the Common
Snake or Ringed Snake {Coluber tzatn'x. Fig. 1607) of this country
is a familiar example, the head is small, and somewhat triangular,
but little thicker than the neck, and covered with shield-like plates ;
the nostrils are placed on the sides of the snout, and the eyes are
small, and furnished with round pupils. The following is a more
particular description of this species : —
The Common or Ringed Snake {Natrix torquata, Ray;
Tropidonotus nain'x, Kiihl ; Coluber ttafrix, Linn.) As an example
of the ColubridcB we may adduce the Common Ringed Snake of our
island and Europe generally. The head in this genus is distinct,
oblong-ovate, depressed, and covered above with scuta ; the gape is
wide; the body long and slender; the squamae are imbricate, lan-
ceolate, and generally carinated ; the abdominal scuta are simple ;
those under the tail double or biserial. Fig. 1607 represents the
head and tail of the Common Snake.
Fig. 1607. — Head and Tail of the Common Snake.
Fig. 1608 exhibits— <?, the Common Adder ; b, the Ringed Snake,
by way of comparison ; they are our only two Ophidian Reptiles.
The Ringed Snake is very harmless, and may be readily tamed ;
it is abundant in low moist woods, damp meadows, and hedge-rows,
especially in the vicinity of water, to which it delights to resort, and
in and around which its favourite food, the Frog, is always to be
procured. It often frequents gardens, attracted by the warmth of
hotbeds and heaps of manure, in which the females deposit their
eggs ; for the same reason, as we can personally testily. Snakes
often frequent the sides and bases of lime-kilns composed of large
rough masses of stone and turf, forming a thick mound, between the
crevices of which they habitually conceal themselves and lajf their
eggs. White, in his " History of Selborne," complains that Snakes
lay chains of eggs every summer in his melon-beds, in spite of all
that can be done to prevent them ; the eggs, he adds, do not hatch
till the spring following; hence it follows that where they are not
laid in such places as manure-heaps, or in the crevices of lime-kilns,
as above noticed, and so subjected to what may be termed artificial
heat regularly kept up, they have to undergo the natural cold of our
winter. In all cases, most probably, they are so secured as to be
defended against severe frost. The eggs are invested with a mem-
brane, and are eighteen or twenty in number, connected together, by
a glutinous matter, in a long string or chain. , , . j
The Snake swims well and very gracefully, with the head arched
4 M
^34
THE SNARES.
above the surface, and, as we have witnessed, it can remain a con-
considcrable time below. It is probable that Snakes pursue Frogs
and Water-shrews in this element ; but they also delight in it, for we
have watched them swimming about without any apparent object
beyond the pleasure of the bath ; we have also known them take to
the water in order to escape when chased. In this fondness for
water the Snake differs from the Blindworm, which avoids it, and
from the Viper, which prefers dry localities, seldom, if ever, volun-
tarily attempting to swim.
The Snake is very voracious, and pursues its prey with great de-
termination. It feeds on Mice, nestling Birds, Frogs, especially the
latter, of which it is a great destroyer. (See Fig. 1609.) We have
several times seen Snakes in the act of swallowing a Frog, their jaws
forced asunder, their neck swollen, and so absorbed in their laborious
efforts to engulf their prey, all the while alive, that they have made
no attempt to escape. In taking the Frog, the Snake generally
seizes one of the hind-legs, and first draws it in, then the whole body,
portion after portion, till the whole disappears. This m-drawmg of
Fig. 1608.— (7, The Common Adder; b, the Ringed Snake.
the prey is not an act of simple suction, but is connected with the
mechanism of the jaws, of which the bones are distinct, being united
together, and to the cranium, only by elastic ligaments. This plan
ensures the necessary dilation of the mouth, for the prey swallowed
generally exceeds the circumference of the Snake ; and next, allows
the opposite side of each jaw, above and below, the power of inde-
pendent motion ; the upper jaw on each side has two rows of sharp
teeth • the lower jaw has one row. The process is as follows :—
The Frog being seized, the Snake advances as far as possible the
corresponding branches of the upper and lower jaw of one side,
fixinr- the teeth into the skin of the victim ; this done, and a secure
holdlaken it advances the branches of the opposite side, and so on
■ alternately'tiU the whole is gradually forced into the gullet, stretched
almost to bursting. The poor Frog is swallowed alive, and has
been distinctly heard to utter its peculiar cry of distress some
minutes after having been swallowed ; this piteous cry it utters when
chased by the Snake, of which it has an instinctive terror ; when
fairly seized, however, it gives itself up to its fate, and seldom
attempts to struggle. Mr. Bell relates a curious circumstance of
two Snakes seizing one the hind-leg, the other the fore-leg of the
same Frog, and continuing their inroads upon the victim till their
upper jaws met, and they bit each other in turn. After one or two
such accidents, the most powerful of the Snakes commenced shaking
the other, which still had hold of the Frog, with great violence from
side to side. In a short time the other returned the attack, and this
was repeated till the one which had the slightest hold was regularly
shaken off, when the victor swallowed his prey in quiet. The con-
test being over, a Frog given to the unsuccessful combatant was
immediately seized and swallowed. In taking Birds, Lizards, &c.,
the Snake swallows them head foremost. After gorging its food it
becomes lethargic, and continues in a state of inaction till the whole
is digested, when it seeks a fresh supply.
A celebrated naturalist, M. Schlegcl, has ventured an opinion that
Snakes never drink : this is far from being correct. Dr. Cantor ob-
serves that the greater number of Indian serpents are partial to the
water, and with the exception of the Tree-snakes, not only drink, but
moisten the tongue, which, as this organ is not
situated immediately in the cavity of the mouth,
becomes two different acts. The same has been
observed respecting African Serpents, and the
same applies to our Common Snake. Not only
does it drink, but it is extremely partial to
milk. Mr. Bell states that a tame one in his
possession was accustomed to come to his hand
every morning for a draught of milk, which it
did of its own accord, and both in England and
on the Continent it is accused of invading the
precincts of the dairy in order to obtain its
favourite beverage. Latreille says, " It is as-
serted that it is very fond of milk, and that it
even makes its way into dairies for the purpose
of drinking what is kept there, and further, that
it sucks the teats of cows and sheep." The
latter part of the story is decidedly the offspring
of ignorance, but we believe the former part.
We have heard it frequently affirmed by persons
in the country, that Snakes invade dairies for
the sake of the milk, and that they have them-
selves witnessed them in the act of drinking it.
Latreille states that this species sometimes sur-
prises young Birds ; " for it climbs very easily ;
sometimes it suspends itself from the branches
of trees, twisting its tail around them ; some-
times it hooks on by means of its head placed
between the forks of a twig." We have seen,
on more occasions than one, the Snake entwined
in the midst of the close-locked branches of an
old hedge, but we do not believe that it ever
climbs trees, nor does its long, slender, fine-
drawn tail appear, as far as our experience
goes, to possess that grasping power so re-
markable in the short tail of the Boa or Python ;
neither does it kill its prey by entwining them
in its coils. When irritated, the Snake hisses,
vibrates its "double tongue," and elevates its
head ; its eyes sparkle, its body swells, and it
emits a disgusting odour. It is however, a
timid Animal, and is disposed rather to escape
than oppose an enemy. That it can be tamed
numerous experiments prove, and further, that
it acquires feelings of attachment to its pro-
tector. This was the case with one in Mr.
Bell's possession, which when let out of its box,
would come to him and crawl under the sleeve
of his coat, for the sake of the warmth. In the
Museum of the Zoological Society is the pre-
served skin of a Snake which lived eleven years
tame, in the possession of a Mr. Christman, to whom it showed
great attachment. " It is brought up," says Latreille, ''in houses,
and appears to be not insensible of the kind attentions of those who
caress it, sipping saliva from their lips, and delighting to conceal
itself under their dress, twining, without doing any mjuiy, round their
arms or neck. In Sardinia, the young women, according to L,ace-
pede, tame the ringed snake, feed it themselves putting into its
mouth the food they have prepared ; and the inhabitants of the
country regard these snakes as animals of good omen, suifer them
freely to Inter their houses, and would think that they had driven
fortune away if they had put to flight these innocent little creatures,
f" Hist. Nat. des Reptiles.")
Like all the rest, the Ringed Snake sheds its cuticle, assuming a
more vivid colouring. The frequency of this change depends on the
state of health and feeding of the Animal. Mr. Bell states that he
has known it cast its slough four or five times during ^e year ; it is
always thrown off by reversing it, the rent taking place at the neck
before this change the Snake is inactive and blind, the cuticle cover-
THE SNAKES.
£35
ing- the surface of the eyes, and which is shed with the rest, be-
cominjj opaque ; the whole slough is perfect, the Animal slipping
out, and assisting itself by creeping through thick brushwood.
The Snake passes the winter in a state of torpidity, choosing for a
place of hybernation some sheltered retreat, either under decayed
masses of wood, in the hollow roots of an aged tree, or beneath dense
brushwood and dried herbage ; here numbers often collect, coiling
themselves together for the sake of preserving a duo degree of tem-
perature.
Of the foreign species, we may refer to the Tropidotioti of North
America, already mentioned, some of which live almost entirely in
the water where they swim with great rapidity in pursuit of Frogs
and Fishes. None of them appear to exceed three feet in length,
and they are all of a gentle disposition, suffering themselves to be
handled without attempting to bite.
The Aquatic species of this genus, Tropidonotus , frequently rest
upon the branches of trees overhanging the water, doubtless looking
out for prey. The Hcterodo7is, which also inhabit the United States
Fig. 1609. — Snake seizing a Frog.
The Ringed Snake seldom e.xceeds three feet in length, though we
have seen continental specimens approaching four feet.
Several other species belonging to this family are found in the
southern countries of Europe, The largest of these is the Coluber
elaphis, which sometimes attains a length of upwards of six feet.
It is found in Italy and the south of France ; and Cuvier states that
it is most probably the Boa of Pliny. Another remarkable species is
the .iEsculapian Snake (C cBscuIapii), which is found in great abund-
ance in the neighbourhood of Rome, and is commonly represented
by the ancients in thtit statues of .^sculapius.
of America, have the snout pointed, and slightly turned up at the
apex, and possess the singular power of dilating tlie back of the head
and the neck when disturbed or irritated. Under these circumstances
they usually coil themselves up, raise the head in a threatening atti-
tude, and hiss in the manner of Poisonous Snakes when about to
strike ; and they will even project the head at any object that may
be extended towards them ; but Dr. Holbrook states that he never
could get them to open their mouths, or bite, by any amount 01 irrita-
tion. The older writers, however, attributed venomous properties to
these harmless creatures.
636
THE BOA FAMILY.
One of the most abundant of the North American Snakes is the
Black Snake {Coluber constrictor), which is often six feet in length,
and is entirely of a shining black colour. It is an exceedingly active
Animal, climbing trees with great facility, in search of the nests ot
Birds, and, according to Catesby, pursuing Rats into every crevice
of the houses.
This Snake has a singular habit, which often produces ludicrous
results. The inhabitants of the districts in which Rattlesnakes
abound, usually take to flight the moment they catch sight of a Ser-
pent, without waiting to ascertain whether it is really one of these
dreaded Venomous Reptiles. The Black Snake, in such cases,
prompted perhaps by a spirit of fun, immediately starts in pursuit of
the fugitive, whom it generally soon overtakes, and, twining round
his legs, brings him to the ground, but without doing him any other
injury. The Black Snake often robs Hen-roosts, and is said also to
be in the habit of skimming the cream off the milk in dames.
The Pythons, Boas &c. Family Boidce.
The second family of the fangless Colubrine Snakes is that of the
Boidcs, including those large Serpents of Tropical countries, which,
from their enormous size and strength, are almost as much to be
dreaded as the venomous species. These Snakes are distinguished
from the true Cohtbridce by the presence of rudimentary hind limbs,
consisting of a few small bones suspended in the muscles on each
side of the vent, and terminated by a sort of horny claw, which is
visible externally. The head in these Snakes is somewhat trian-
gular, and slightly exceeds the neck in thickness, so that'_the dis-
tinction between these two regions is rather more preceptible that in
the Cobibridm. The mouth is very wide, extending far beyond the
eyes ; both the jaws and the palatine bones are armed with teeth ;
as are also the intermaxillaries occasionally. The head is usually
covered with shields, sometimes with scales ; the throat_ is scaly,
and the belly covered with transverse plates. The tail is usually
rather short and prehensile; its lower surface is covered with a
double series of shields.
The Snakes belonging to this family are frequently of gigantic
size; they are distributed pretty generally over the Tropical parts
of both continents. They may be divided into three groups, of
which the first, the Pythons, including the largest species of the
family, is distinguished by the possession of teeth in the intermax-
illary bones. They possess a strong prehensile tail, with two rows
of plates beneath, and the labial plates are deeply pitted. (See Fig.
1610.) The Pythons are entirely confined to the Old World; and
the largest species, forming the genus Pyt/wn, are found only in
India and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. These Snakes
certainly attain a length of thirty feet ; and an instance is on record
of one of them measuring upwards of sixty feet in length, having
been destroyed in the act of coiling itself round a man who was
lying asleep in a boat. They frequently ascend trees, and lie upon
the branches in a position which enables them readily to drop upon
any unfortunate animals that may pass their station ; and both
these and the Boas are said often to cling by the tail to some tree
growing in the water, when they float upon the surface at full length,
lying in wait for animals that may come to the water to drink. They
prey upon animals of such bulk as would seem to render their
swallowing them a matter of impossibility. According to some
writers, they can destroy and gorge a Buffalo ; but specinens
capable of such feats of voracity appear to be rarely met with, al-
though there is no doubt that a good-sized Python will make away
with a Goat or Calf. The victim is destroyed by powerful compres-
sion, effected by the Snake coiling its body round it, and then
gradually tightening the folds. In this manner the body of the
animal is reduced to a state fit for being swallowed ; and this opera-
tion, which is effected in the way already described, usually takes a
considerable time. Could we believe the scattered notices of ancient
authors, we may suppose that, in earlier periods, when the human
population of the earth was less numerous, these Snakes attained
still greater dimentions than at the present day. One instance of
the occurence of a gigantic Snake on the northern coast of Africa,
must be familiar to most of our readers ; we allude to the serpent
which is said to have thrown the army of Regulus into confusion,
killing and devouring several of his soldiers, and destroying others
by squeezing them in its folds. The historian tells us that, this
formidable Snake was only destroyed at last by assailing it with the
military engines usually employed in the siege of fortified places.
This Serpent is said to have measured upwards of one hundred and
twenty feet ; its skin was sent to Rome, where it was suspended in
a temple, and remained for many years. It is, however, very
doubtful whether implicit faith can be placed in this account, as the
ancients generally appear to have had very exaggerated ideas of
the size of the large Serpents of Africa. Lucan is not content with
attributing to them the power of destroying oxen, but also subjects
even the elephant to their dominion !
The species of the restricted genus Boa are all natives of the
Tropical regions of America, and are characterized by the plates on
the under surface of the tail being single.
Among the principal species are the following :— The ANACONDA,
the Aboma, &c. We select the following for description as typical of
the rest : — .„ ^ ■ j \
The Emperor Boa, or Boa Constrictor {Boa constrictor.)
Le Devin, Daudin ; Constrictor formosissimus ; Constrictor rex
ser Pentium: Constrictor auspex ; Constrictor diviniloquus. The
latter names plainly indicate the superstitious feelings with which it
was regarded by the Mexicans. In the Boa Constrictor the head is
covered to the end of the muzzle with small scales like those of the
body ; there are no pits in the plates along the jaws. In the Anaconda
the head has scaly plates from the eyes to the end of the muzzle ; no
pits on the jaw-plates. In the Aboma there are scaly plates on the
muzzle, and pits or dimples upon the plates of the jaws.
Endowed with powers which in a semi-civilized state of society
must operate powerfully on the mind ; at ease and freedom alike on
the land, in the water, or among the trees ; at once wily, daring, and
irresistible in their attack, graceful in their movements, and splendid
in their colouring,— that such creatures, to be both dreaded and
admired, should become the objects of superstitious reverence, is
scarcely to be wondered at. The ancient Mexicans regarded the
Boa as sacred ; they viewed its actions with religious horror ; they
crouched beneath the fiery glance of its eyes ; they trembled as they
listened to its long-drawn hiss, and from various signs and movements
predicted the fate of tribes or individuals, or drew conclusions of
guilt of innocence. The supreme idol was represented encircled and
guarded by sculptured Serpents, before which were offered human
sacrifices.
Often, however, the divinity was represented in the form of a huge
Serpent, with a human victim in his coils, or half ingulfed in his
horrid jaws ; and the priests had Tame Boas of great size, with v/hich
they were familiar, and which they suflered to wreath round them,
and thereby inspiring the people with wonder, fear, and servile
obedience.
It is probably of the Boa Constrictor, the Emperor, the Devin, that
Hernandez writes, under the name of Temacuilcahuilia, so called
from its powers, the word meaning a fighter with five men. It at-
tacks, he says, those it meets, and overpowers them with such
force, that if it once coils itself around their necks it strangles and
kills them, unless it bursts itself by the violence of its own efforts;
and he states that the only way of avoiding the attack is for the Man
to manage in such a way as to oppose a tree to the Animal's con-
striction, so that while the Serpent supposes itself to be crushing the
Man, it may be torn asunder by its own act, and so die. We do not
ask our readers for their implicit faith in this. He adds that he has
himself seen Serpents as thick as a Man's thigh, which have been
taken young by the Indians and tamed ; they were provided with a
cask strewn with litter in the place of a cavern, where they lived, and
were for the most part quiescent except at meal-times, when they
came forth, and amicably climbed about the couch or shoulders of
their master, who placidly bore the Serpent's embrace. They often
coiled up in folds, equalling a large cart-wheel in size, and harm-
lessly received their food. In most accounts current respecting the
mode in which Boas and Pythons take their food, the Snake, after
crushing its prey, is described as licking the body with its tongue
and lubricating it with saliva, in order to facilitate the act of deglu-
tition. It has been observed with justice, that few worse instruments
for such a purpose than the slender dark forked tongue of these
Snakes could have been contrived ; and that, in fact, the saliva
does not begin to be poured out abundantly till required to lubri-
cate the jaws and throat of the Animal straining to ingulf the
carcass. We have seen these Snakes take their food, but they
did not lubricate it, though the vibratory tongue often touched
it ; we must therefore, withhold our credence from the common
assertion.
The size attained by the Boa, is often very great, and larger indi-
viduals than any now seen occurred formerly, before their ancient
haunts had been invaded by human colonisation. One killed in
Surinam by Captain Steadman, though asserted by the natives to be
young, measured upwards of twenty-two feet in length, and yielded
four gallons of fine oil, exclusive of as much or more wasted.
A specimen apparently of the Boa scytale, or Anaconda, called in
Venezuela " La Culebra de Agua," or Water-Serpent, and also " El
Traga Venado," or Deer-swallower, which measures nineteen feet and
a-half in length, was presented by Sir Robert Ker Porter to the
United Service Museum. He states that " The flesh of this serpent
is white and abundant in fat. The people of the plains never eat it,
but make use of the fat as a remedy for rheumatic pains, ruptures,
strains, &c."
" This serpent," says R. K. Porter, " is not venomous nor known
to injure man (at least, not in this part of the New World) ; however,
the natives stand in great fear of it, never bathing in waters where it
is known to exist. Its common haunt, or rather domicile, is invari-
ably near lakes, swamps, and rivers ; likewise close wet ravines pro-
duced by inundations of the periodical rains ; hence, from its aquatic
habits, its first appellation. Fish, and those animals which repaii
there to drink, are the objects of its prey. The creature lurk.': watch-
fully under cover of the water, and, whilst the unsuspecting animal i."!
THE PYTHONS.
back l"e?'linin'^'H"'-\T-''''" ^ ^^^^ ^' *^^ "O^^' ^"d ^'ith a s^rip of its
beast bevonS'^hp"''-' "T °^ ''"'.•? ""^" ^^"^ '° ^«"« 'he terrified
Deast Dejond the power of escape. '
den' floods an?l'^' "'''' ^°^' ^'"^ ^P' *° ^'^ ^^--"^d °""o sea by sud-
Rev Lansdnw^ are sometimes drifted alive on distant coasts. The
Rev. Lansdown Guildmg writing in the Island of St. Vincent) savs
a noble specimen of the boa constrictor was lately conveyed to ^us
,J h 1, ^■""'1' '■"'■^'^'^ '■""''"' *'^e trunk of a larec sound cedar free
which had probably been washed out of the bank, by the (loods of
some great South American river, while its huge folds hung on the
branches as it waited for its prey. The monster was fortunate y
destroyed after killing a few sheep, and his skeleton now hanc^s be^
W^ T '^" ™y/t"dy, putting me in mind how much reason I'^might
have had to fear in my future rambles through St. Vincent had
638
THE BOAS.
this formidable reptile been a pregnant female and escaped to a safe
rf^trG3.t
Diod'orus Siculus relates the account of the capture of a Serpent,
not without loss of life, in Egypt, which measured thirty cubits long ;
it was taken to Alexandria. Suetonius speaks of a Serpent exhibited
at Rome in front of the Comitum, fifty cubits in length.
Though we do not refuse credit to these narratives, it must be
added, that in modem days we have not seen Serpents of such mag-
nitude ; yet they may exist. Bonitus observes that some of the Indian
Pythons exceed thirty-six feet in length, and says that they swallow
wild Boars, adding, " there are those alive who partook, with General
Peter Both, of a recently swallowed hog cut out of the belly of a
serpent of this kind." These Snakes, he obser\'es, are not poisonous,
but strangle a Man or other Animal by powerful compression. (See
Fig. 1612.) The Ular-Sawa, or Great Python of the Sunda_ Isles, is
said to exceed, when full-grown, thirty feet in length ; and it is nar-
rated that a " Malsy prow being anchored for the night under the
y- "^
Fig. 161 1. — The Anaconda,
Island of Celebes, one of the crew went ashore, in search of betel
nut, and, as was supposed, fell asleep on the beach, on his return. In
the dead of the night his companions on board were roused by dreadful
screams ; they immediately went ashore, but they came too late, the
cries had ceased — the man had breathed his last in the folds of an
enormous Serpent, which they killed. They cut off the head of the
Snake and carried it, together with the lifeless body of their comrade,
to the vessel ; the right wrist of the corpse bore the marks of the
Serpent's teeth, and the disfigured body showed that the man had
been crushed by the constriction of the reptile round the head, neck,
breast, and thigh."
Mr. McLeod, in his " Voyage of H. M.S. Akesie," after describing
the mode in which a Python on board, sixteen feet in length, crushed
and gorged a Goat, the distressing cries of which, on being intro-
duced into the Serpent's cage, could not but excite compassion, goes
on to say, that during a captivity of some months at Whidah, in the
kingdom of Dahomey, on the coast of Africa, he had opportunities of
observing Pythons of more than double that size, and which were
capable of swallowing Animals much larger than Goats or Sheep.
" Governor Abson," he adds, "who had, for thirty-seven years, re-
sided at Fort William (one of the African Company's settlements
there), describes some desperate struggles which he has seen, or
which had come to his knowledge, between the snakes and wild
beasts, as well as the smaller cattle, in which the former were alwaj's
victorious. A negro-herdsman belonging to Mr. Abson (and who
afterwards limped for many years about the fort) had been seized by
one of these monsters by the thigh ; but from his situation in a wood,
the serpent, in attempting to throw himself round him, got entangled
with a tree ; and the man being thus preserved from a state of com-
pression, which would instantly have rendered him quite powerless,
had presence of mind enough to cut, with a large knife which he
carried about with him, deep gashes in the neck and throat of his
antagonist, thereby killing him, and disengaging himself from his
frightful situation. He never afterwards, however, recovered the use
of that limb, which had sustained considerable injury from the fangs
and mere force of his jaws."
Fig. 1612. — The Boa Constrictor.
Ludolph states that enormous Snakes exist in Ethiopia ; and
Bosman informs us that entire men have been found in the gullet of
Serpents on the Gold Coast. In the "Oriental Annual" is the
following narrative, explanatory of a well-known picture by Mr. W.
Daniell: — "A few years before our visit to Calcutta," says the
writer, " the captain of a country ship, while passing the Sunder-
bunds, sent a boat into one of the creeks to obtain some fresh fruits,
which are cultivated by the few miserable inhabitants of this inhos-
pitable region. Having reached the shore, the crew moored the
boat under a bank, and left one of their party to take care of her.
During their absence, the lascar who remained in charge of the boat,
overcome by heat, lay down under the seats and fell asleep. Whilst
he was in this happy state of unsciousness, an enormous boa (python)
emerged from the jungle, reached the boat, had already coiled its
huge body round the sleeper, and was in the very act of crushing
him to death, when his companions fortunately returned at this
auspicious moment, and attacking the monster, severed a portion of
its tail, which so disabled it, that it no longer retained the power of
doing mischief. The snake was then easily despatched, and was
found to measure, as stated, sixty-two feet and some inches in
length." It is hardly probable that the Snake had fairly entwined
round the man, for the sudden compression of the chest, had the
Snake exerted its strength, would have been almost instantly fatal.
We need not enter into the painful and revolting details of the
mode in which the Goat was crushed and gorged on board the
Alceste, the account of which is given by Mr. McLeod, and has been
often transcribed ; sufBce it to say, that with astonishing velocity,
hke a flash which dazzles and is gone, the Goat was rigidly encircled
in the monster's knotted folds, and afterwards gradually swallowed ;
the appearance of the Snake, with the throat swelled out as if about
to burst, and the jaws dripping with saliva, being hideous and dis-
gusting.
In March, 1841, a singular circumstance occurred at the gardens
of the Zoological Society, which at the same time caused no little
surprise. A Python eleven or twelve feet long, and one about nine
feet long, were kept together in a well-secured cage ; both had been
THE LIZARDS.
639
fed one eveninsr, the larger one with three Guinea-pigs and a Rabbit ;
but, as it would appear, his appetite was unsatiated. The next
morning, when the keeper came to look into the cage, the smaller
Python was missing— its escape was impossible — and the question
was, what had become of it? The truth was evident— its larger
companion had swallowed it. There it lay torpid, and bloated to
double its ordinary dimensions. How it accomplished the act is not
known, but we may imagine a fearful struggle to have taken place,
as wreathing round each other they battled for the mastery ;
unless, indeed, the victim was torpid, and incapable of resistance.
A third group is formed by the genus Eryx, and one or two allied
genera, in which the head is rounded and not distinctly separated
from the neck ; the intermaxillary teeth are wanting, and the tail is
short, obtuse, and not prehensile. These Snakes, which are compara-
tively of small size, are found principally in India and some of the east-
ern islands. One or two species inhabit Turkey, Greece, and Egypt.
The Bengal Eryx {Eryx bengalensis).—T\iz genus Eryx was
first separated from Boa by Daudin ; it differs m havmg a very short
obtuse tail, and in wanting the hooks at the base ; the ventral scuta
are narrow ; the head is short, and scarcely exceeds the neck, and is
covered above with small scales. Of the habits of this species little
is known. Fig. 1613 includes a delineation of the abdominal and
subcaudal plates.
Fig. 1613. — The Beng.il Eryx.
The OJj/i/'Jia are concluded by the Torlriciihc, a small family of
Serpents, which are often included amongst the Boida, as, like them,
they are furnished with spurs at the sides of the vent. They differ
from these, however, in the small size of the mouth, which only ex-
tends backwards as far as the eyes; the bones of the upper jaw,
also, are firmly attached to the head, and the branches of the lower
jaw, although quite separate, are less extensible than in the other
Snakes, These are small Snakes, which live upon the ground in the
Tropical regions of both hemispheres. They are slow in their move-
ments, and prey upon Insects and other small Animals. The Tor-
tricidcB, in the structure of the head and mouth, appear to lead
towards the next order, with the Serpentiform species of which they
were formerly confounded.
In concluding our remarks on the Reptiles, or Ophidia, we quote
the following observations from the last edition of tlie " Guide to the
Zoological Society's Gardens, London." Referring to the Reptile
House, the following remarks are made : —
" This important addition to the Vivarium was effected in the
spring of 1849, up to which period no attempt had been made in this
country to exhibit the class of Reptiles under conditions which might
make it possible to understand anything of their habits.
" The success which attended the experiment was, in every respect,
gratifying, and excited considerable attention among the correspon-
dents of the Society abroad, and very instructive collections were
forwarded alrrtost immediately from various parts of the world.
"The characteristic constricting organisation of the Boas is so
uniform, that the name of Boa co7istrictor has been popularly
applied to all of them, and particularly by the English in India to
the Python, or Rock Snake. The visitor will have an opportunity of
observing how much more delicate is the species to which Linna;us
applied that name — the beautifully coloured inhabitant of the Tropics
of the New World, to which the True Boas are confined — than the
Pythons of Africa and India. It is to be remarked that the True
Boa is also the most thoroughly arboreal of the group, and preserves
its natural habits very constantly, even in confinement.
The West African Python {Python sebcB).—1nY. Royal Py-
thon {P. regius).— l\\v. Anaconda {Euncctes muriniis).—1\\v.
Boa Constrictor {Boa constrictor).— 'Xwe. Yellow Boa {Chilo-
botkrus inor}!at!is).—'X\\v. Diamond Snake {Morclia spilotcs).
" The Boas, Pythons, and their allies, constitute one of the three
principal groups into which the order of Serpents may be best
divided, the others being the Vencmous Snakes, or the Colubrine, or
Harmless Snakes. The organisation of the Boas is directed to the
slaughter of their prey by compression ; and to this end are given to
them the enormous dimensions and power of muscle which, even in
these comparatively undeveloped specimens, excite our admiration.
" When a Boa dashes at his prey, he generally preserves his
hold of the tree by a coil or two towards the tail. He seizes with
wide-spread jaws, and from that point of attachment throws, with
the rapidity of thought, the folds of his vast body round and round
his victim. Tightening as they fall, and crushing rib and limb
within their embrace, these folds relax not until life is pressed out ;
and then slowly and carefully withdrawing from the motionless
carcass, the Serpent pauses for a few moments, either to recover
from the writhings of his struggle, or to assure himself that death is
real. Soon, however, he begins to touch the carcass gently with
his muzzle, not, as popular belief will have it, to lubricate in pre-
paration for the gorge, but to find the head, at which he likes best
to begin. This preUminary settled, the jaws again and again dilate
until the rami separate, and the skin is strained so tight that every
scale is isolated. Then grasp following upon grasp, like wave after
wave, gradually and irresistibly engulfs the body, which, in its pas-
sage through the folds, has been compressed and attenuated into
the most convenient possible form for this final operation. Death
inflicted by such overwhelming action is almost instantaneous, in
small animals especially, and far less cruel than any method which
can be practised by the hand of man.
Among the Snakes the following may be seen in, the Gardens of
the Society. '^^
"The Snake-eater {Ophinphagiis b)ingarus).—1nv. Ameri-
can Rattlesnake {Crotalus durzssiis). — The Indian Cobra
{■^^aja tripiidians). — The African Cobra {Naja liaje). — The
Water Viper {Ccttchn's Jn'sctvonts).
" The Venomous Snakes next claim our attention. The power of
defence and of securing prey, which in the Pythons is overwhelming
force, has for its equivalent in this group a far more certain and
effective organisation. Of colours which assimilate so closely with
foliage, herbage, sand, or stones, that in their peculiar haunts none
but the most acute and practised eye can discover them, the Ven-
omous Serpents are alike fearless of attack, and, unless disturbed,
equally unwilling to exert their deadly power. Amongst the spe-
cimens of Venomous Serpents in the collection, the largest and most
remarkable is the OpJiiophagus or Snake-eater of British India,
of w-hich formidable species an example was first procured in 1875.
He feeds only upon other snakes, and has devoured an enormous
number of his smaller brethren.
"The Mocassin-Snake {Trof>tdonoiusfasciatu^).—1\\v. Gar-
ter-Snake {T. ordinattis). — The Viperine-Snake {T.viperinus).
"The Colubrine Snakes are harmless and indeed most useful
animals. The quantity of rats and mice and other injurious small
animals destroyed by them is enormous. The Chickcn-Snake in
North America and Rat-Snake in Bengal are both much esteemed
and protected on account of these qualities.
Order II. — The Lizards, &c., or Sauria.
This order is of especial interest. It embraces numerous extinct
forms of Animals whose fossils, especially in the Lias formation, arc
as connecting links in Geology. We here refer to the Plcsio-
sauridcB, t\ii Icthyosazcridcc, &c., descriptions ofwhichwill begiven.
General Characters. — As a general rule, the Animals of this
order are furnished with four well-developed legs, and may come
under the popular denomination of Lizards, but in a considerable
number these organs are wanting, and in some cases it is even
doubtful whether these footless species should be referred to this or
the preceding group. The only characters to which we can appeal
in these cases, are those furnished by the structure of the head and
jaw. In the Sauria, the bones of the upper jaw and face are firmly
attached to the skull, so that they are quite incapable of any inde-
pendent motion ; and the mastoid and tympanic bones, which give
support to the lower jaw, and which in the Serpents are movably
articulated to the skull, and thus enable the mouth to be dilated to a
vast extent, are here united with the other bones of the head, so that
the lower jaw, instead of a loose triple articulation, moves only from
a single point. The branches of the lower jaw are firmly united in
front by a suture, so that the lateral dilatation, so remarkable in the
Snakes, is rendered impossible.
Both jaws are always armed with teeth ; but these organs are
generally confined to the bones of the jaws, and rarely occur upon the
palate. Like those of the Snakes, the teeth of the Saurian Reptfies
are usually acutely conical and slightly hooked ; but in some cases
they are compressed, and occasionally dentated on the edges. The
640
THE LIZARDS.
teeth are never inserted into separate sockets, but simply attached to
the surface of the jaw. In some forms, however, the jaw is furnished
with a furrow for the reception of the base of the teeth, and is
bounded externally by a ridge ; each tooth not only stands upon a
slightly bony eminence, but is also attached, by the external portion
of its base, to the inside of the ridge of the jaw.
The tongue exhibits two very distinct forms in these Reptiles. In
several the organ resembles that of the Ophidia, being long, slender,
horny, bifid, and inclosed in a sheath, from which it can be pro-
truded at pleasure, the front of the mouth being furnished with a
notch for the passage of the tongue when the jaws are closed ;
whilst in others, this organ is thick and fleshy, attached to the back
of the mouth, destitute of a sheath, and only protrusible when the
mouth is opened. This difference in the structure of the tongue has
given rise to a division of the order into two great groups, the Fissi-
iinguia, or Leptoglossa, which exhibit the first modification, and the
Brevilinguia, or Pachyglossa, in which the second form prevails.
The eyes in the Lizards are almost always furnished with distinct
eyelids, and the ear is generally visible externally. The structure of
the skin and scales is usually the same as in the Snakes, and the
the head is generally covered with shield-like plates.
The development of the extremities is very variable in this order,
some species being as completely destitute of external limbs as any
of the Snakes; whilst in others the members are well developed.
They are generally four in number, and when present are always
terminated by distinct toes, furnished with claws. An essential
character, by which the Saurian skeleton is distinguished from that
of the Ophidian Reptiles, consists in the presence of a sternum, to
which some of the ribs are always attached ; this bone increases in
size in proportion to the development of the legs.
Professor Owen, whose researches in respect to Saurian Fossils,
has added so much to our knowledge of extinct species of Lizards, &c.,
makes the following remarks :—
Osteology of Lizards.— The transition from the Ophidian, or
Snake-like, to the Lacertian, or Lizard-like Reptiles, is very gradual
and easy, if we pass from the Serpents with fixed jaws and a
scapular arch — as, e.g., the Slow-worms {augiiis) — to the serpenti-
form Lizards with mere rudiments of limbs — as, e.g., the pseudopus.
The distinction is effected through the establishment of a costal
arch in the trunk, completed by the addition of a haemal spine
(sternum) and haemapophyses (sternal ribs) to the pleurapophyses or
vertebral ribs, which are alone ossified in Ophidia.
The vertebrje of the trunk have the same proccelian character — i.e.,
with the cup anterior, and the ball behind ; the latter being usually
less prominent, more oblique, and more transversely oval than in
Serpents. The vertebrae also are commonly larger, and always fewer
in number than in the Typical Ophidia. The ribs do not begin to be
developed so near the head in Lizards. Not only the atlas and den-
tata, but sometimes, as in the Monitor ( Varanus), the four following
vertebrae are devoid of pleurapophses ; and when these first appear
they are short, and sometimes (as in Cyclodus) expanded at their
extremities. They rapidly elongate in succeeding vertebrae, and
usually at the ninth from the head {Cyclodus, iguana), or tenth
(Far««z«), they are joined through the medium of ossified hjema-
pophyses to the sternum ; two ( Varamts), three {Ckavwieo, iguana),
or four {Cyclodus), following vertebras are similarly completed ; and
then the haemapophyses are either united below without intervening
sternum {Chameleo), or two or three of them are joined by a common
cartilage to the cartilaginous end of the sternum. The hsmapophyses
afterwards project freely, and are reduced to short appendages to the
pleurapophyses. These also shorten, and sometimes suddenly, as
e.g., after the eighteenth -vertebra, in the Monitors ( Varanus), in
which they end at the twenty-eighth vertebra, as they began, viz., in
the form of short straight appendages to the diapophyses.
The Flying Lizard {Draco volans) is so called on account of the
wing-like expansions from the sides of its body, supported, like the
hood of the Cobra, by slender elongated ribs. In this little Lizard
there are twenty vertebra supporting movable ribs, which commence
apparently at the fifth. Those of the eighth vertebra first join the
sternum, as do those of the ninth and tenth ; the pleurapophyses of
the eleventh vertabra suddenly acquire extreme length ; those of the
five following vertebrae are also long and slender ; they extend out-
wards and backwards, and support the parachute formed by the
broad lateral fold of the abdominal integuments. The pleura-
pophyses of the seventeenth vertebra become suddenly shorter, and
these elements progressively diminish to the sacrum ; this consists
of two vertebrae, modified as in other Lizards. There are about
fifty caudal vertebrae.
The semi-ossified sternum in the Iguana has a median groove and
fissure, and readily separates into two lateral moieties. The long
stem of the epistemum covers the outer part of the groove, where it
represents the keel of the sternum in Birds.
In the skull of the Lizard order we first meet with a second bony
bar, diverging from the maxillary arch backwards, and abutting
against the mastoid, and sometimes also against the tympanic and
post-frontal. This bar is called the " zygomatic arch;" it usually
consists of two bones — the one next the ma.xillary is the ''malar,"
26 ; the one next the mastoid is the " squamosal," 27 ; it assumes a
form meriting that name in the Tortoise, and first received it, as
"pars squamosa," in man, where it is not only like a great scale,
but becomes confluent with both the mastoid and tympanic. But, as
has been before remarked, we must use the terms invented by an-
thropotomists as arbitrary signs of the corresponding bones in
the lower creation.
The scapula in the Monitor ( Varanus) is a triangular plate with a
convex base, a concave hind border, and a nearly straight front
border; the apex is thick and truncate, with an oval surface divided
into two facets. The hind border forms a part of the glenoid cavity ;
the front one is a rough epiphysial surface continuous, with a similar
but narrower tract, extending upon the anterior border, and by which
the scapula articulates with the coracoid. In the Iguanians and
Scincoids, this synchondrosis is obliterated, and the two bones are
confluent. The hind border of the scapula is nearly straight— the
front one sends forwards a process dividing it into two deep margina-
tions.
The coracoid, in both the Varanus and Iguana, is short and
broad ; its main body, which articulates with the sternum, is shaped
like an axe-blade, and two strong, straight, compressed processes, ex-
tend forwards from its neck, which is perforated between the origins
of these processes and the part forming the glenoid articulations.
The clavicles are simple sigmoid styles in the Varanus and Iguana ;
are bent upon themselves, like the Australian boomerang, in the
Cyclodus ; and having the median part of the bend expanded and
perforated in the Lacerta and Scincus. They are absent in the
Chameleon.
The sacral vertebrae retain, in some Lacertians, the cup-and-ball
joints; and in these — e.g., the Scincoids — in which the centrums
coalesce, the hind end of the second presents a ball to the first cau-
dal—not a cup, as in the Crocodile. In the Cyclodus, the thick,
short, straight, pleurapophyses are distinct at their origins from the
two coalesced centrums, but coalesce at their ends, that of the first
sacral being the thickest. In Varanus and Iguana the pleurapophy-
ses, as well as the centrums, retain their distinctness, but the hinder
ribs incline forwards and touch the expanded ends of the fore pair.
These ends are very thick, and are scooped out obliquely behind, so
as to present a curved border to the ilium, which Cuvier compares to
a Horse-shoe.
In the Varanus and Iguana the pleuropophyses of the first caudal
incline backwards as much as those of the second sacral do forwards.
In the Cyclodus they extend outwards, parallel with those of the
sacral vertebras, and are longitudinally grooved beneath. Haema-
pophyses are wanting in the first caudal, are developed in the second
and are displaced as far as the interval between this and the third ;
they are confluent at their distal end, and produced into a long spine.
At the twelfth tail-vertebra the line is obvious that indicates the
extent of the anterior detached piece, or epiphysis, of the centrum,
immediately in front of the origin of the diapophyses ; it continues
marking off the anterior third of the centrum in all the other caudals.
At this line the tail snaps off, when a Lizard escapes by the common
ruse of leaving the part of the tail by which it has been seized in the
hands of the baffled pursuer. It is a very curious character, and
quite peculiar to the Lacertians — this ossification of the centrum
from two points, and their incomplete coalescence ; it adds nothing
to the power of bending, or to any other action of the tail, but indi-
cates a prevision of the liability to their being caught by their long
tail, and may be interpreted as a provision for their escape. The
neural arch has coalesced with the centrum throughout the tail : the
epiphysial line does not extend through that arch ; but its thin and
brittle walls soon break, when the two parts of the centrum are
forcibly separated.
Lizards, as is well known, have the power of reproducing the
tail, but the vertebral axis is never ossified in the new-formed part.
Sub- Divisions. — The immense number and great diversity of
these Animals render their arrangement a matter of considerable
difficulty, and authors are by no means agreed as to the limits of
the families, which are very numerous.
The nearest approach to the preceding order is made by the
TyphlopidcB, which, in fact, stand opon a sort of debateable ground,
some writers claiming them for the Ophidia, whilst others refer them
to the Lizards. They are small. Worm-like creatures, of a nearly
cylindrical form, quite destitute of limbs ; the head is covered with
shields, and the tail is very short, and rounded off at the end. The
eyes are very small, and destitute of eyelids, sometimes rudimentary
and concealed under the skin ; and there is no external ear. The
bones of the upper jaw are firmly attached to the skull, and the snout
projects considerably in front of the lower jaw, so that the opening
of the mouth is situated in the under surface of the head. The sur-
face of the skin is divided by a series of transverse and longitudinal
furrows into numerous square plates, each of which is furnished
with a small horny scale. The dentition of these Animals is remark-
able, teeth existing only in one of the jaws ; in some cases it is the
upper, in others the lower jaw that is thus armed. These singular
Reptiles are found in considerable numbers in the warmer region of
both hemispheres. A single species only is found in Europe. They
THE LIZARDS.
641
live in holes in the ground, and under stones, burying themselves
sometimes to the depth of three or four feet during the rainy season.
They feed principally upon Insects and Worms, and are said to move
with considerable swiftness.
Nearly allied to these are the Amphisbtstiida, which are also
cylindrical, Vermiform Reptiles, with the skin annulatedand divided
into square shields, by transverse and longitudinal furrows. The
head is of the same thickness as the neck ; the tail rounded off and
ex-ceedingly short, so that the anus is almost at the extremity of the
body: and the mouth is very small, and placed on the lower surface
of the head. The tongue is thick, short, not sheathed, slightly
notched at the end, and terminated by two smooth threads ; the
teeth are placed in a single row in both jaws, which are generally
furnished with furrows for their reception ; although, in one genus
{Tropidophis), the teeth grow upon the margin of the jaws. The
eyes are very small, destitute of eyelids, and sometimes hidden under
the skin. The majority are quite destitute of limbs ; but in the
genus Chirotes there are very small anterior legs, terminated by five
toes. The only known species of the genus is the C. lumbricoides,
a native of Mexico, which grows to a length of about eight inches.
Like the Typhlopida:,\.\\QAt>iphisbcz'>2!dcB are found principally in
Tropical climates, and most of them are inhabitants of America.
The following afford a fuller description of two of the above genera : —
The Channelled Chirotes [Chirotes canalkulatus ; C. lutn-
brkoides. Lacerta htmbricoides, Shaw ; Chanicesaura propus,
Schneider; Bi!?ianuspropus,0'ppe\ ; Bipes ca7ialiculatiiSy Bonnat.)
These singular Animals, says M. Bibron, would be Amphisbsnas,
were they not provided with a sternum and two fore limbs — the only
differences, in fact, by which the genera are distinguished : the body
is nearly cylindrical, being somewhat flattened on its under surface ;
the head is of the same circumference, the former having the muzzle
and borders of the mouth covered with plates, the only portions of
the Animal where the skin is not marked by depressions, dividing it
into little quadrilateral compartments disposed in rings. The fore
limbs, which alone exist are placed at a short distance behind
the head, and spring from the under surface of the neck ; they are
short, moderately robust, and terminated by five toes, of which four
are well developed, and armed with robust, curved, and pointed
claw-s ; the fifth is a simple scaly tubercle, destitute of a nail. Along
the body, on each side, is a sort of suture, descending from the
shoulder to the origin of the tail ; at the lower part of the abdomen
is a row of small pores. The teeth are strong, conical, simple, and
slightly curved backwards ; the nostrils are lateral ; the eye is very
small ; the muzzle arched ; the tongue horny at the tip, and but
little extensile.
This singular Reptile is a native of Mexico, and measures eight or
ten inches in length. The colour of the upper surface is yellow, each
little square compartment having a mark of chestnut ; the under
parts are white. It was first described by Lacepede, under the title
" Le Cannele. " With respect to its habits, they are most probably
subterranean, like those oi Vwe. AmphisbcBiia ; but on these points
nothing appears to be definitely known. Fig. 1614 is accompanied
by a delineation in outline of the head and one of the paws. There
are no eyelids.
Fig. 1614.— The Channelled Chirotes with Paw and Head.
The Dusky Amphisb.^na {Ampkisba-na fiiligi)wsd). — The
genus AmphisbcEua differs from Cliirotes principally in the absence
of limbs, as already stated ; the head and body are of uniform thick-
ness, and the tail terminates bluntly ; so that at a first glance it is
not very easy to distinguish between the head and tail, more espe-
cially as the minute eyes are buried, and only to be detected through
the horny plate that covers them, as little black dots, in which neither
iris nor pupil is perceptible. In some species, where the plates are
more thick, they are scarcely to be observed. It is from this simi-
larity of the head and tail that the natives of South America con-
sidered this Reptile to have two heads, one at each extremity, and
that if it was cut in two, so far from being killed, each distinct por-
tion would continue to live, and that the two heads .would mutually
seek each other, and the bodies become reunited as if nothing had
happened. Stedman, in his " History of Surinam," says, " Another
snake which I observed here is about three feet long, and annulated
with different colours. It is called Amphisbxna, from the supposi-
tion of Its having two heads ; and the truth is, from its cylindrical
form the head and tail so much resemble each other that the error
is almost pardonable ; besides which, the eyes are ncariy impercep-
tible. This is the snake which, supposed blind, and vulgarly said
to be fed by the large ants (termites), is in this country honoured
with the name of King of the Emmets. The flesh of the Amphis-
ba;na, dried and reduced to a fine powder, is confidently adminis-
tered as a sovereign and infallible remedy in all cases of dislocation
and broken bones; it being very naturally inferred that an animal
which has the power of healing an entire amputation in its own case
should at least be able to cure a simple fracture in the case of
another." We inay here observe that the term Amphisba;na (o;i0i'f,
utrinque ; (Saivoi, incedo), though the Animal has not two heads, is
correct, as it is capable of crawling with the head or tail foremost
with equal facility.
The head of the Amphisbsna is blunt and short, and the muz; le
resembles a small arched beak ; sometimes it is rounded ; it is
covered with plates ; the skin generally is divided into quadrilateral
compartments disposed in circles round the body ; and in some
species a furrow runs down the middle of the back, and also along
each side. At the lower part of the abdomen is a range of pores.
The specimens of Amphisba^na which we have seen alive were dull
and inanimate, with nq grace or activity in their movements ; they
crawled slowly about, and, when handled, languidly twisted their
bodies and opened their mouths, but made no attempt to bite ; their
appearance was far from being attractive. One of these Animals,
kept alive some time since in the Gardens of the Zoological Society,
took milk very freely, and subsisted on it for six months.
The Dusky Amphisba?na is a native of Brazil and Cayenne, where
it bores in the soft earth like a worm, working its way with consider-
able despatch ; it is harmless and inoffensive, living principally on
Fig. 1615. — The Dusky Aniphisbaena.
ants and their larvae and Termites, and is often found in the mounds
raised by these Insects, or in their subterranean habitations. It
measures nearly two feet in length, and the eyes are apparent as
black dots. Its general colour is dusky brown. (See Fig. 1615.)
The Lizards, Family Laccrtida:.
We now come to the True Lizards, in which the limbs are almost
always developed. These may be divided into two great sections,
the Leptoglossa and the Pachyglossa, in accordance with the struc-
ture of the tongue.
Of the Leptoglossa, distinguished by the bifid, sheathed, and pro-
trusible tongue, several species still retain a considerable resemblance
to the Ophidian Reptiles. This is particularly evident in the first
family, the Gymnophthalmidce in which the body is exceedingly elon-
gated and Snake-like ; the limbs are either rudimentary or altogether
wanting ; and the eyes are destitute of eyelids, and either covered
by a transparent capsule, as in the Snakes, or completely concealed
under the skin. The skin is covered with regular scales, imbedded
in small sacs, and lying over each other like those of Fishes. These
imbricated scales are composed of a mixture of bony and horny
matter, and they occur only in the Reptiles of this and the following
family. The Gyinnophthalmidcs are further distinguished from the
two preceding families by the great width of the mouth, which
extends considerably behind the eyes, and by the free exposure of
the ear.
4N
642
THE SKINKS
The Reptiles of this family exhibit a great diversity in the devel-
opement of the legs. In the Gyimtopkthahni there are four weak
legs, terminated by a variable number of toes ; the Pygopi (Fig.
1616.) and Liaiides have the hinder limbs developed in the form of
undivided scale-like organs, placed one on each side of the anus ;
whilst in the Aprasice the e.xtremities are entirely deficient. The
majority of the species are inhabitants of Australia, but one or two
are found in the east of Europe, and a single species occurs in the
West Indies.
The Scinks or Skinks, Family Scincides.
To the general character of the Satiria the family Scina'dcB adds
many peculiarities. The head is covered with large plates, of an
angular figure, with the edges fitting together ; the body, generally,
is clad in scales of variable size and form, resembling a coat of mail,
and arranged in quincuncial order, and overlapping each other like
the pointed or rounded tiles of a roof ; or like those of a carp ; or of
other osseous fishes. The tongue is free, fleshy, rather flat, notched
at the tip, and covered by scaly papillre : the abdomen is cylindrical,
without lateral folds, and clad with scales usually arranged in the
same manner as those of the back.
There is little or no distinction
between the neck and body. We
may here observe, with respect to
the large angular plates of the
head, that they do not occur in the
Chameleons, tlie Geckos, Iguanas,
or Varans, but are met with in the
TeidcE, the True Lizards, and the
Chalcida: ; but, then, in the Teidce
and True Lizards, the scales of the
under parts are arranged differ-
ently to those of the back ; and in
the Chalcida, the scales are not
only disposed so as to form circles
or transverse bands, but a lateral
fold is carried from the head to the
origin of the tail. The limbs in
the Scincidcs, when present, are
short, and generally the whole sur-
face of the scaling is smooth and
polished. This group is found in
the most arid districts of the hot
and temperate regions of every
portion of the globe : Europe,
indeed, possesses but a limited
number of species, which, be it
observed, are not restricted in
their geographical range to that
quarter of the globe, but are
far more widely distributed. The
greatest number belong to Aus-
Fig. 1616. — The Pygopus lepido-
pocUis.
r, Vent and rudimentary legs.
tralia and the Polynesian Islands.
The Officinal Scihk {Scincus offichialis). El Adda of Bruce ;
Skink, Shaw's Barbary. SKiyyosorSnyicoc of the Greeks. In the genus
Scincus the tongue is notched and scaly ; the teeth are conical, sim-
ple, and blunt ; there are teeth on the palate, which is longitudinally
grooved ; auditory orifices operculated ; muzzle wedge-shaped ;
hmbs four; with five toes on each ; tail conical and pointed; general
scahng smooth, glossy, and fish-like. Fig. 1617 represents the Ani-
mal and the forefoot, a,
The Officinal Scink, of which there are three or four varieties is a
native of Arabia, Northern Africa, Egypt, Syria, and Abyssinia. It
occurs also in Senegal. In the i6th century this Lizard was generally
believed to be endowed with wonderful medicinal virtues, and conse-
quently was an object of commerce, it was one of the most approved
remedies m cases of debility, and was regarded as an infallible reno-
vator of a shattered constitution. The supposition is of very ancient
date ; for Pliny states that these Scinci were imported into Rome in
a salted state (as Belon says that they were in his time, issO and
that their heads and feet were taken in white wine. He also cites
Apelles as an authority for their efficacy in the case of wounds inflicted
by poisoned arrows. We need not say that this Lizard no lont-er
maintains a place among the articles of the materia medica. Indeed
m Egypt and Arabia its reputation is gone. M. Alexandre Lefebvre'
who collected, says M. Bibron, a number of individuals of this species
during an excursion in 1828 into the oasis of Bahrieh, informs us that
this Lizard " is met with on the hillocks of fine light sand which the
south wind accumulates at the foot of the hedges which border the
cultivated lands, and of the tamarisks which strive to vegetate on the
confines of the desert. There it may be seen tranquilly baskin.o- in
the rays of a burning sun, or chasing from time to time the Graihy-
ptert, or other coleopterous Insects which pass within its rano-e. It
runs with considerable quickness, and when menaced buries itself in
the sand with singularrapidity, excavating in a few instants a burrow
ol many teet in depth. When taken it endeavours to escape but
beyond this neither attempts to bite, nor to defend itself with its
claws." t
In all specimens of this Reptile the lower and lateral parts of the
head, body, and tail are silvery white, more or less pure. The upper
surface varies in markings. M. Bibron enumerates the following :—
Var. «.— General colour of the neck, back, and tail, yellow, or
clear silvery grey, mixed with brown or blackish, which forms great
spots dilated transversely, most frequently putting on the shape of
transverse bands, the number of which is commonly seven or eight.
Fig. 161S.— The Slow-Worm.
Fig. 161 7.— The Officinal Scink.
Var. b. — A yellow tint spread over the surface of the cranium.
Neck, back, and a great part of the tail chestnut-brown, sprinkled
with very small obscure whitish spots, two or three on each scale.
Across the back five or six large white bands, with an irregularly-
dilated black spot at each of their extremities. These spots are not
situated on the back, but on the most elevated part of the lateral re-
gions of the trunk.
Var. c. — All the scales of the neck, back, and first half of the
upper surface o^ the tail silvery grey, widely radiated with white,
with one or two brown spots on the posterior border of the radia-
tions.
The Slowtvorm, or Blindworm {Angia's fragilis). — The
Slowworm, as a type of the genus Angicis, may be thus charac-
terised : — Body and tail cylindrical and obtuse ; all the scales smooth,
glossy, imbricate, nearly equal on the upper and under parts ; head
covered with nine larger plates (see Fig. 1618) ; limbs reduced to
mere rudiments beneath the skin ; the mouth is small ; the teeth
minute, none on the palate ; the eyes are small but brilliant.
The Slowworm is found over the
greater part of Europe and the adjacent
parts of Asia ; and it is common in
many parts of England, frequenting
copses, orchards, old mouldering walls,
and banks, where it delights to bask
in the sun ; it is a sluggish, timid crea-
ture, and when handled, even roughly,
seldom attempts to bite ; if it does,
its jaW'S are too small and feeble, and its teeth too minute to inflict a
wound ; scarcely indeed does it make any impression, and the
opinion that it is venemous is as absurd as it is erroneous. Let those
who believe it put it themselves to the test, examine the creature's
teeth, try their effect on any small Animal, and not give up their
common sense to the assertions of the ignorant.
According to Latreille, the food of the Slowworm consists- of
Worms and Beetles, to which it adds Frogs, small Rats, and even
Toads; but this is a mistake; the undilatable mouth of the Slow-
worm is incapable of taking in such a prey ; it could no more engulf
a Frog or Rat than could the little Viviparous Lizard ; it feeds to
some extent, perhaps, on Insects, but more particularly on Worms
and Slugs, especially the latter ; as was witnessed by Mr. George
Daniel, whose account of the habits of the Blindworm, in Mr.
Bennet's edition of White's "Selborne," is very interesting. "A
blindworm," he writes, "that I kept alive for nine weeks, would,
when touched, turn and bite, although not very sharply ; its bite was
not sufficient to draw blood, but it always retained its hold, until
released. It drank sparingly of milk, raising the head when drink-
ing. It fed upon the little white slug so common in fields and
gardens, eating six or seven of them one after the other. It invari-
ably took them in one position. Elevating its head slowly above its
victim, it would suddenly seize the slug by the middle, in the same
way that a dog will generally seize a rat by the loins. It would then
hold it thus sometimes for more than a minute, when it would pass
its prey through its jaws, and swallow the slug head foremost. It
refused the larger slugs, ana would not touch either young frogs or
THE GLASS-SNAKE.
643
mice. The blindworm avoided the water ; snakes kept in the
same cage took both frogs and mice. The snakes, on the con-
trary, coiled themselves in a pan containing water, which was put
into the cage, and appeared to delight in it. The blindworm was a
remarkably fine one, measuring fifteen inches in length ; it cast its
slough while in my possession ; the skin came off in separate pieces,
the peeling of the head being completed the last." In a state of
nature, however, the cuticle, as in the Snake, is shed in one entire
everted piece. We have alluded to the brittleness of the tail of the
Viviparous Lizard ; the same brittleness characterises the whole
body of the Slowworm. When alarmed, or irritated, it forcibly con-
tracts all its muscles, and breaks asunder upon the slightest attempt
to bend it, or a trifling blow. It was from this circum-
stance that Linnffius gave it the name oifragih's. Like
the other Reptiles of our island, the Blindworm hybernates,
making a burrow under decayed masses of vegetation, in
the soft earth, working its way to a considerable depth, the
glossy smoothness of the scales facilitating its passage. In
such burrows, Latreille assures us, it usually lives, coming
up for the purpose of breathing, when it raises its head out
of its hole, ready to retreat on the appearance of danger.
Even in the winter it sometimes does this, though snow
may be on the ground, if the sun be shining with a warm
though transient gleam. We have often, in summer, seen
it basking in old hedge-rows, and about crumbling old
walls ; it is easily captured.
As is the case with the Viviparous Lizard and the
Viper, the Slowworm produces living young, the eggs being
hatched just previously to the birth of the offspring they en-
closed. This takes place in June or July. The young vary
from six to twelve in number, and when first born, are not
two inches long ; they soon, however, become active, and
creep about in search of minute Slugs and Worms.
It is from the smallness of its eyes that this Reptile has received
the name of Blindworm ; they are, however, bright and quick, and
defended by movable eyelids; the minute teeth are slightly hooked :
the tongue is rather broad, not very free, nor bifid, as in the Snake,
but merely notched at the tip. The general colour is lustrous silvery
grey, with a tinge of brown ; a dark line runs along the spine, and
obscure lines, or rows of spots, are carried down the sides ; there is,
however, considerable variety. The under parts are of a bluish-
black, with white reticulations. The young are of a pale yellowish-
grey above, black beneath ; there is a little black dot on the top of
the head, and another at the back of the head, whence a narrow
black line is continued down the spine.
The adults measure from twelve to fifteen inches, but the propor-
tionate length of the tail part varies, sometimes being not half the
length of the body, sometimes nearly equalling it. This dift'erence
may, in a great measure, depend on sex, for in the Lizards the body
of the female is proportionally longer than that of the male.
The West Indian Galliwasp {Cclestus occidiius), a perfectly harm-
less Reptile, which is, for some reason, an object of the most intense
dread v.ith the inhabitants of the West Indies, also belongs to this
family. A North American species, the Plesfwdon laticeps, lives
in holes of trees, often at a height of thirty or forty feet from the
ground, where it frequently takes possession of the deserted nest of
a Woodpecker. When disturbed, the Lizard puts out his head —
■which is very large, and of a bright-red colour — in a most threaten-
ing manner ; and when captured, his powerful jaws and strong
teeth enable him to inflict a severe wound, although it is not veno-
mous, as commonly supposed by the inhabitants of the United
States.
The same variety in the development of the feet, prevails m the
next family, the ChalcidcB, which, however, are at once distinguish-
able from both the preceding groups by the nature of the dermal
covering. Instead of the imbricated bony scales of the Skinks, the
Chalcid/z are covered with scales of the ordinary Reptilian character,
arranged in regular transverse rows ; the dojrsal scales are usually
strongly keeled, and the keels frequently produced behind so as to
form spines ; the sides are, in most cases, furnished with a fold of
skin, covered with granular scales. The eyelids are always present,
the ears generally exposed, and the tongue is short, fleshy, and
notched at the tip. The species of this family occur for the most
part in Africa and America ; a few are found in the warmer parts of
the Asiatic continent ; and a single species, the Scheltopusic
(Pseudopus ;paUasi), inhabits the south-eastern portion of Europe.
The last-mentioned Lizard bears a considerable resemblance, in the
form of the feet, to the Pygopus lepidopodus already described.
The Glass Snake of North America {Ophisaiirus ventralis), which
is common in the United States, is remarkable for the great facility
with which it breaks. The following affords a further description of
the two last named species : —
The Scheltopusic (Pseudnpits pal/asij.—lhe. transition from
Reptiles, with limbs imperfect and scarcely developed,' to the present
genus, in w^hich there are no fore-limbs, and the hind-limbs are
mere minute scaly appendages, is very easy. See Fig. 1619). We
have here a completely Snake-like body, which is serpentine in all
Its movements ; there are indeed the rudiments of pelvic bones, as seen
at Fig. 1620; a a. showing the rudiments of the hinder extremities.
In this genus the tongue is thin and like an arrow-head, bifid at
the point, and covered both with villous and also with large notched
papillaj. The teeth arc strong, and the palate is furnished with
them also, but they arc there of small size. A deep furrow runs
down each side of the body. The eye-lids arc perfect.
The Scheltopusic, which was first described by Pallas under the
i'Mc oi Laccrta a/of/a, measures about eighteen inches in length,
and is of a reddish chestnut colour dotted with black. The iris is
golden green, the pupil black. The young are greyish above with
cross-marks of brown, wliitish-grey below.
Fig.
1620. — telvis of the
Scheltopusic.
Fig. 1619. — The Scheltopusic.
This Serpent-like Lizard is a native of northern Africa bordering
the Mediterranean, of the Morea, Dalmatia, and Southern Siberia.
Scheltopusic is the name given to it by the natives of the deserts of
Naryn, near the Volga. Its favourite haunts are wooded valleys,
and places covered with brushwood and thick vegetation, affording
it secure concealment. It feeds on Insects, small Lizards, nestling
Birds, and chases its prey like a Snake,
darting along in a series of sinuous flexures.
When alarmed it instantly plunges be-
neath the dense brushwood and is lost.
This species was found to be common in the
Peloponnesus by the party conducting the
"Voyage Scientifique en Moree." The
first discovered was observed basking in
the rays of the vernal sun, and had evi-
dently but lately emerged from its winter
retreat. It was instantly attacked and
killed, but great was the surprise of its
destroyers, who supposed it to be venomous,
when they found it destitute of poison-fangs.
Subsequently many individuals were caught alive, and kept in
rooms, where they soon became reconciled to the captivity, evincing
a quiet inoffensive disposition. They were fed upon hard-boiled
eggs ; but on one occasion a captive Scheltopusic got access to a
nest of young Birds, which it quickly demolished, doubtless with
considerable relish.
The Glass-Snake [Ophisaiirus venirah's). — In this Reptile we
have not even the rudiment of limbs, but from the points already
referred to, namely, the presence of eye-lids, the consolidation of the
lower jaw, the auditory orifice, and the unsheathed tongue. Snake-
like as it is, it does not belong to the Ophidia. There are several
rows of palatal teeth. The maxillary teeth are simple. (Sec Fig.
1621.)
The name of Glassy Snake (Glassy Fragile, Pennant) has been
given to this Reptile from its extreme brittleness. the slightest touch
causing it to snap asunder. It is a native of Carolina and the
southern provinces of North America, and its manners closely
resemble those of the Scheltopusic, just described. It frequents spots
abounding in vegetation, and feeds on Insects, small Reptiles, Frogs,
<S:c. According to Catesby, it appears earlier in the spring than any
of the Snake-tribe, and is numerous in sandy woods.
Fig. 1621 represents two heads of this Reptile, a and /;, of which
the latter is depicted with the singularly-formed tongue exposed.
The Glass-Snake is subject to considerable variations of colour;
M. Bibron enumerates four varieties ; the first is marked above with
alternate longitudinal lines of black and yellowish, the under parts
being white. The second has the scales of the sides and neck black ;
those of the upper surface and tail brown, with a spot of black, and
a streak of greenish yellow. The head is marbled with yellow on a
black ground. Under parts white. '1 he third is chestnut with white
spots,' almost entirely encircled by black, generally arranged in
transverse bands ; the sides are mostly black, the edges of each
scale being more or less spotted with whitish or reddish. Under
parts pale orange. The fourth is of a yellowish grey above, with a
644
broad black median line from the back of the head to t^e ^nd of the
tail • while on the sides five more slender black lines ..^Iternate with
white. Sides of the head and neck are mottled with white and
^'catesby describes the colouring as yellowish green, spotted with
black above. The tail is longer than the body, and the head is very
small. " A small blow with a stick," he observes, - will cause the
body to separate not only at the place struck but at two or three
other places also; the muscles bcin- articulated in a singular
manner quite through the vertebrcc.
THE COMMON LIZARD.
Fig. 1621.— The Glass Snake.
!j" 'u^ "^^^ Lizards {Laceriida) the body is clothed with scales,
and the head with large regular plates ; the head is distinctly
separated from the neck, which is never furnished with a pouch under
the throat, or with any other appendages ; the eyes are provided
with a pair of movable eyelids, and also, usually, with a nictitating
membrane. The body is elongated, and generally of a somewhat
cylindrical form, terminated posteriorly with a very long, tapering
tail, which is often very much longer than the body. The feet are
well developed, and generally furnished with five distinct toes of
Fig. 1622.— Head of the Glass Snake.
unequal length. The teeth are slightly curved, and inserted in a
slight furrow of the jaw ; they are hollow at the base, and are not
very firmly attached to the bone.
These Lizards, which must be regarded as the types of the Sauria,
are confined to the countries of the Eastern hemisphere, over the
whole of which they are pretty generally distributed. One species,
the Common Scaly Lizard [Zootoca 7)iv!;para), is found abundantly
in this country. The following affords further particulars in respect
to this animal : —
The Viviparous Lizard {Zootoca viv!j>ara). Lacerta agilis
of some authors ; Nimble Lizard ; Common Lizard. In the genus
Zootoca there are no palatal teeth, and the females produce their
young alive.
Thickets, heaths, sunny banks, and sheltered orchards are the
favourite localities of this little Lizard, which, in all its actions, is
graceful, prompt, and rapid. In certain spots they seem to abound.
We have often, while walking, in the heat of a summer's day, along
a sunny bank covered with furze, counted more than a dozen within
the space of a few yards, basking in the rays, and probably watching
for their Insect food. We have caught them, by cautiously surprising
and rapidly seizing them, but several, notwithstanding all our
address, have we missed, and one has occasionally left its tail
wriggling in our hand, though we used not the slightest violence,
nor ever attempted to retain our hold ; it snapped, in fact, like glass,
at the slightest touch. It is astonishing to see how rapidly, when
alarmed, these agile little creatures gain their burrows, or disappear
from view, diving beneath the intertangled vegetation ; they seem
gone in the twinkling of an eye. No less prompt and rapid are they
in catching their prey ; the moment an Insect comes near them, or
settles on a leaf within due distance, their bright eyes mark it ; the
ne.xt instant it is seized and swallowed ; the act is wonderfully quick
and instantaneous. The sight of these Animals is, indeed, very
acute ; and their hearing appears also to be by no means deficient ;
we have seen them on the slightest noise, on the snapping of a
branch, or a rustle made among the leaves, dart off to their burrows,
and, after a little time, cautiously make their reappearance, and on
the least alarm again seek refuge in their retreats. (See a, Fig.
1623, of a Group of Lizards.)
Unlike most Lizards, which produce eggs covered by membrane,
and which they deposit in the sand or in other places, to be hatched
by the warmth of the sun, the present species brings forth living
young, the eggs being hatched while yet within the body of the
parent. This species is, therefore, Ovoviviparous. The membrane
covering the eggs is very thin, and the female, in the month of June,
passes a great portion of the day basking in the sun, for the sake of
the vivifying heat, as necessary for the exclusion of the young from
the eggs as if they had been previously deposited in the sand. It is
very remarkable that one out of our two True Lizards should be thus
Ovoviviparous, and one out of our two True Snakes, viz., the Viper,
which brings forth living young, and basks in the sun that the same
object may be accomplished.
The number of young which the Viviparous Lizard produces is four
or five, and they are occasionally seen in company with their parent,
but whether they are united together by an instinctive attachment is
doubtful ; the probability is that they keep about the spot where they
were born, and where the parent has her burrow, and remove by
degrees as they increase in size and strength, for, from their birth,
they are capable of running about, and soon begin to exercise their
powers in the capture of prey.
During the winter, this, as well as the other British Lizard, hyber-
nates, but whether its torpidity is very profound is not ascertained ;
it appears early in the spring, and continues active till autumn has
far advanced, when it betakes itself to its burrow.
This species, and also the Sand-Lizard, to be presently described,
are found in Ireland ; with respect to the former, Mr. Bell remarks
that on the Continent its range does not appear to be extensive :
" It is not," he adds, " found in Italy, nor, I believe, in France, and
is very probably confined, in a great measure, to our own latitude."
M. Bibron, however, assures us that it exists both in France and
Italy, and that it inhabits Germany, Switzerland, and Russia, as well
as the British Islands, preferring mountain districts ; and he adds,
'• M. Tschudi informs us that in Switzerland it frequents, in prefer-
ence, the forests of dry pines, making its runs under the fallen
leaves, and to these it retreats on the appearance of danger. Some-
times, however, it is met with in damp and humid forests. In
France it is not so common as the Sand-lizard, while in England it is
the contrary.
The average length of the Viviparous Lizard is six inches ; its
colour and markings are subject to variation ; in general, the upper
parts are of an olive-brown, with a dark brown and often interrupted
line down the middle of the back, and a broad longitudinal band
down each side, between which and the middle line are black dashes
or spots. In the male the under parts are of a fine orange spotted
with black ; in the female pale olive-grey.
The Sand-Lizard {Lacerta agilis, Linn ; Lacerta stirjiium,
Daudin.) — This species, an example of the restricted genus Zaccr/a,
is much larger than the Viviparous Lizard, sometimes measuring a
foot in length ; we have seen specimens upwards of seven inches
long, and in the "Linnaan Transactions" an instance is adduced
by the Rev. R. Sheppard, in which the measurement exceeded twelve
inches (vol. xvi., 1802). It is to the labours of several modern
naturalists that we owe the extrication of this Lizard from much
confusion, for the term agtlis, applied by Linnaeus to the present
species, has been given in England to the Viviparous Lizard, and in
France and Italy to the Wall-Lizard, the Common Lizard of those
countries.
The Sand-Lizard is subject to much variation of colour; indeed.
VARIOUS LIZARDS.
645
two varieties appear to exist : one, and that the most common, of a
sandy-brown colour, more or less rich, with obscure longitudinal
stripes of a darker tint, and a lateral series of black occllated spots,
each with a white or yellowish dot in the centre ; the other variety
has the upper parts of a brownish-green, the g-reen being more or
less decided, with the same general markings. (See b, Fig. 1623 of a
Group of Lizards. )
The ordinary residence of this species is sandy heaths, and,
though less rapid in its actions than the Viviparous, it is quick and
active, and runs with considerable alertness ; occasionally it may be
seen basking on sunny banks and in verdant spots, and has been
observed also near marshes. According to Mr. Bell, it occurs in the
neighbourhood of Poole, both on sandy heaths and in moist situa-
tions, and that able naturalist adds, " It has been stated by a gentle-
man of my acquaintance, that the brown varieties are confined to the
sandy heaths, the colours of which are closely imitated by the surface
Fig. 1623. — Group of Lizards.
a. The Viviparous, or Common Lizard ; l>, the Sand-Lizard ; c, the Blind, or Slow-Worm
ofthebody, and that the green variety frequents the more verdant
localities. Be this as it may, and it is a statement which at present
1 can neither confirm not dispute, it is certain that these varieties
mentioned by Linnaus, and seen by Miiller, do exist in the place I
have named, and within a comparatively short distance." The
band-Lizard is common in France, but rare in Italy ; it is abundant
in the middle districts of Europe, and extends as far north as Sweden
and Denmark. It is found in Ireland. According to M. Bibron it
inhabits the plains and hills, but never the mountains, of the Con-
tinent, and gives preference to the margin of woods, copses, large
gardens, and vineyards. Its retreat is a burrow varying in depth,
worked out under a matted collection of herbage, or between the
roots of a tree; in this burrow it hybernates, having closed the
entrance with earth and dried leaves, and does not reappear till the
warm weather has returned. It feeds on Insects. On a transient
glance of this species running along, it might be easily mistaken for
the Viper, as Mr. Sheppard says it was by himself, its length and the
arrangement of the colours favouring the deception ;'its movements,
indeed, are serpentine ; if seized whilst thus endeavouring to escape
It will turn and bite, and when captured is impatient of confinement,
avoids observation, and ultimately dies. It is indeed extremely
timid, and, unlike the beautiful Green Lizard {Laccrla viridis) of
southern Europe, never can be rendered familiar.
The Sand-Lizard deposits its eggs, to the number of fourteen or
fifteen, m hollows in the sand, which it excavates for their reception,
and then carefully covers them up, leaving them to be hatched by
the rays of the sun. The young, on exclusion from the egg, are
active, and lead at once an independent existence.
Fig. 1623 exhibits— (7, the Viviparous Lizard ; b, the Sand-Lizard ;
C-, the Bhndworm {,Aiiguis fragais),\'i\i\c\i. wc have described at
Page 642 a7itc.
We have alluded to the beautiful Green Lizard, which is often
brought over to England by Italians for show or sale, and kept in
cages. This species is a native of France, Italy, Spain, Greece, and
the Mediterranean borders of Africa. It is said also to occur in the
island of Guernsey, but it exists neither in England nor Ireland.
Orchards, large gardens, shrubberies, brakes,
and thickets are the haunts of this Lizard;
and, though it cannot be called arboreal, it
climbs the stems of bushes with great facility
in quest of Insect food. It is quick and active
in its movements, and darts rapidly on its prey.
In captivity it soon becomes very tame, and will
take flies from those with whom it is familiar,
and permit itself to be handled without attempt-
ing to bite. It is usually kept in a cage,
having an inner compartment filled with moss
or dried bran, in which it buries itself, and will
remain in a state of hybernation during the
winter. This Lizard should be protected from
sudden changes of weather, for it is very sensi-
tive, and does not well endure cold ; it delights
to bask in the genial rays of the sun, while
its burnished skin glitters with metallic bril-
liancy. From beauty and utility in the destruc-
tion of Insects, it might be kept with advantage
in vineries or green-houses. The general colour
of this elegant little species is a rich metallic
green, fading into a paler or yellowish tint on
the under parts ; the back and head are some-
times minutely freckled with black, occasionally
with yellow, and a blue tinge not unfrequently
pervades the head.
A larger species, attaining to sixteen inches
or more in length, also remarkable for the
beauty of its colouring, is a native of the
southern provinces of Europe, and the north
of Africa. It is the Eyed Lizard {Laccrta
occllata), so called from being ornamented with
round spots of gold and blue, and with rings
and irregular markings of black on a bright
green ground. In its actions it is extremely
prompt and rapid, and as it darts along its
colour glistens with metallic lustre in the sun.
When driven to act upon the defensive, it
manifests great spirit, attacking its assailant
with determined resolution ; and when it fastens
on the muzzle of a Dog, it will suffer itself to
be killed before it will let go its hold. It
makes deep burrows at the roots of trees, under
hedges, and in; vineyards sloping to the sun,
always preferring a south or south-east aspect.
Frequently it excavates a deep retreat in layers
of sand or other material easily worked, separ-
ating two beds of hard calcareous rock. Like
all the True Lizards, this species is quick-eyed
and wary, and disappears within its burrow with
wonderful celerity.
In the collection of the Zoological Society of London, at their
Gardens in Regent's Park, the following are some of the more
remarkable kinds of Lizards :—TiiE Stump-tail Lizard (7>ac/<y-
dosaurus rugosus). — The Great Cyclodus {Cyclodus gigas). —
The Ocellated Lizard {Lacerfa ocellata).—1'a.-E Australian
Monitor {^Monitor goztldii.J
The LacertidcB are represented in America by the Ameivid<z,
which resemble them in their general characters, but differ in having-
solid teeth firmly attached to the jaws, which are furnished with a
deep furrow for their reception. The species of this family resemble
their old-world relatives in habits. They live on the ground in woods
and hedges, and feed principally upon Insects, although they not
unfrequently also capture small Vertebrate Animals.
Some of the Ameivas attain a large size, the Teguexin {Teius
teguexiii), which inhabits Brazil and Guiana measuring sometimes
as much as six feet in length. It is a voracious Animal, preying
upon Mice, Frogs, and other small Animals, and it is said occa-
sionally to visit the poultry yards, to feed on the chickens or eggs.
Its flesh is highly esteemed in Brazil ; it is said to be white, and not
646
THE THICK-TONGUED LIZARDS.
unlike that of a fowl in flavour. When pursued, the Teguexin does
not allow itself to be taken without a strug^gle ; it runs with great
swiftness, and strikes such violent blows at the Dogs with its tail
that they do not readily venture to attack it. When brought to bay,
it fights boldly, and inflicts severe bites upon anything that comes
within its reach. The species of the genus Ameiva are elegant and
inoffensive Lizards, which abound especially in the West Indies.
(See Fig. 1624.)
Fig. 1624. — The Teguexin.
The ViTranid(S, which form the last family of the Slender-tongued
Lizards, resemble the preceding families in the form of their bodies,
and in the constant development of the limbs, but differ from them in
having the head and belly covered with scales, resembling those of
the rest of the body, instead of the shield-like plates which form the
clothing of those parts in the Lacertida and Ameivida:. The head
is elongated, and the tongue, which is very long and distinctly bifid,
like that of a Snake, is received at the base in a membranous sheath,
the tail is very long, usually compressed and keeled ; and the feet
large, and furnished with long toes, terminated by strong claws.
The species of this family are confined to the Old World, with the
exception of a single species, the Heloda-ma hori-idum, or Calte-
tepon (See Fig. 1625), which is an inhabitant of Mexico, and is dis-
tinguished by the possession of furrowed fangs at the anterior por-
tion of the jaws — a structure which gives some support to the belief
in its venomous properties entertained by the inhabitants of its
native country. It differs so much from the other species of the
family, that Dr. Gray has founded a separate family (the Heloder-
mida:) for its reception.
Fig. 1625. — Rough-scaled Heloderma.
The best known species of the family are the Monitors, which
inhabit the neighbourhood of rivers, where they are said to give
notice of the presence of Crocodiles by a sort of whistling noise ;
and this is probably the origin of the name Monitor, applied to the
Reptiles. A species of this genus, the Ilonitor niloticus, is common
in Egypt, where it attains a length of five or six feet. This Animal
is said to devour the eggs of Crocodiles ; and it is probable some
such opinion was entertained by the ancient Egyytians, as the
Monitor is frequently represented upon their monuments. Similar
species inhabit the neighbourhood of water in various parts of the
Old World. The Hydrosaurus Bellii (Fig. 1626), occurs in Aus-
tralia.
The other species of the family frequent dry sandy places. One
species, the Psaininosaurus sciiicus, is common in the Egyptian
deserts ; it is supposed by some to be the True Skink of the ancients.
The Thick-tongued Isvzksji^—Pachyglossa.
The Geckos.— Of the Pachyglossa, or Thick-tongued Lizards, the
first family is that of the Geckos {GeckotidcB), a group including a
great number of species distributed in all parts of the world. These
Lizards are of a depressed form with a distinct neck, and the whole
upper surface of the body is covered with granular scales. The eyes
are large and prominent, but furnished with no true eyelids ; the
pupil forms a perpendicular cleft. The cars are exposed, but small.
The legs are short, and terminated by five nearly equal toes, which
are usually destitute of claws, but are furnished beneath with a pecu-
Fig. 1626. — Hydrosauras Bellii.
liar apparatus for clinging, very similar in its action to that by
which many Insects are enabled to walk upon polished perpendicular
surfaces. The lower part of each toe is dilated, forming a sort of
disc, the inferior surface of which is composed of numerous trans-
verse, notched laminffi, between which a sticky fluid exudes. By
means of this apparatus the Geckos are enabled to run up a perpen-
dicular wall with great facility, and even to cross a ceiling with their
backs downwards, a power which no doubt assists them greatly in the
capture of the Flies and other Insects which constitute their principal
food. They are nocturnal Animals, and very active, moving about
with great rapidity, but without the least sound.
The Geckos occur in great abundance in warm climates. They
are generally of a repulsive appearance, and this is no doubt the
reason why many of the species are considered venomous by the in-
habitants of the countries where they occur. Three species are
found in the south of Europe, of which the best known is the Taren-
tola, or Wall Gecko {Plafydacfyliis mui-alis), which inhabits all the
countries bordering the Mediterranean. It receives its name from
its habit of living in the holes of old walls (Fig. 1627.)
Fig. 1627.— Tlie Wall Gecko.
The name Gecko, applied to these Lizards, is said to be an imita-
tion of the sound produced by one of the species, the Gecko verus,
or True Gecko, an inhabitant of India and the neighbouring coun-
tries. They do not all emit a ismilar sound, however; for the
common species in the West Indies, Thecadacfyhts laz'is, has re-
ceived the name of the Croaking Lizard, from the singular noise it
makes. Mr. Gosse states that this Animal is to be seen and heard
in every boiling-house in Jamaica, where it reposes during the day
upon the rafters. It is universally regarded as venomous in the
West Indies ; but this, as Mr. Gosse hints, is undoubtedly due to its
repulsive appearance.
The Iguanas. — The Iguanidce constitute another exceedingly
numerous family. They are frequently of considerable size ; the head
is usually broad and flattened, and frequently furnished with comb-
like ridges, or membranous lobes, and similar appendages are usually
continued along the back. The throat, also, is almost always furnished
with membranous expansions of some kind ; these sometimes take the
form of large, loose, inflatable sacs, which are often brilliantly
THE IGUANAS.
647
coloured, and sometimes constitute large frills on the sides of the
neck (Fig-. 1628). The eyes are always furnished with lids, which
can be completely closed ; the ears arc freely exposed, and the
tonijuc is short and thick, and free only at the tip.
Fig. 162S. — Head of tlie Chlamydosaurus Kingii.
The Iguanidce are divisible into two great sections, upon
characters derived from the teeth, and these also correspond with
the geographical distribution of the species. Thus the American
species, or the true Igttanidcs, have a deep furrow in all the jaws ; and
the teeth, which are often curiously flattened and toothed at the free
edge are attached to the inner surface of the jaw-bone. In the
species inhabiting the Old World, on the contrary — composing the
sub-family AgamidcB — the teeth always grow upon the edge of the
jaw.
The Common Iguana {Iguana iuberculata). — This species is a
native of Brazil, Cayenne, the Antilles, and the Bahamas, &c., and
attains to a considerable size, measuring in total length sometimes
si.^ feet. We have seen many specimens upwards of four, but it
must be remembered that the tail surpasses the body. Its flesh is
accounted a great luxury, being white and delicate, but it does not
agree with some constitutions. In some of the Bahama islands
these Iguanas or Guanas are still common, but much more so
formerly, the race having been greatly thinned. Catesby, in his
" Natural History of Carolina" (1743), informs us that it is an article
of traffic in the Bahamas, being carried alive from place to place,
till required for the tables of the wealthy. These Reptiles, he says,
" nestle in hollow trees ; their eggs have not a hard shell like
those of alligators, but a skin only like those of a turtle, and are
esteemed good food. They lay a great number of eggs at a time
in the earth, which are hatched by the sun's heat. The guanas
furnish a great part of the subsistence of the inhabitants of the
Bahama islands ; for which purpose they visit many of the remote
kayes and islands in their sloops, to catch them, which they do by
dogs trained up for that purpose, and which are so dexterous as not
often to kill them. If they do so however the guanas serve only for
present use ; if otherwise, they sew up their mouths to prevent their
biting, and put them into the hold of their sloop, until they have
obtained a sufficient number, which they either carry alive for sale
to Carolina, or salt and barrel up, for the use of their families at
home. These guanas feed wholly on vegetables and fruit, especially
on a particular kind of fungus growing at the roots of trees, and on
the fruits of the different kinds of Ananas ; their flesh is easy of
digestion, delicate, and well tasted : they are sometimes roasted,
but the more common mode is to boil them, taking out the fat,
■which is melted and clarified and put into a dish, into which they
dip the flesh of the guana as they eat it. Though not amphibious
they (the guanas) are said to keep underwater above an hour. They
cannot run fast, and their holes are a greater security to them than
their heels. They are so impatient of cold that they rarely appear
out of their holes but when the sun shines."
In Jamaica this Lizard is now nearly if not quite extinct ; formerly
it was tolerably common. Brown, in his History of that island (1756),
says that the Guana lives for a considerable time without food (as
indeed do most Reptiles), and changes its colour with the weather,
or the natural moisture of its place of residence. " I have kept,"
he adds, " a grown guana about the house for more than two months :
it was very fierce and ill-natured at the beginning, but after some
few days it grew more tame, and would at length pass the greatest
part of the day upon the bed or couch, but always went out at night.
The flesh of this creature is liked by many people, and frequently
served up in fricassees at their tables, in which state it is often pre-
ferred to the best fowls. When taken young the guana is easily
tamed, and is both a harmless and beautiful creature in that state."
The general colour of this species is dark green, more or less
tinged with olive, sometimes with blue; generally a few brown bands
are observable on the sides ; the tail is alternately ringed with
brown and greenish, or yellowish-green ; the sides of the neck are
covered with tubercles ; a large circular scale is conspicuous on the
lower jaw below the tympanic membrane of the auditory orifice
(See Fig. 1629.)
Fig. 1629. — The Common Iguana.
The Hooded Basilisk {Basiliscus 7nitratus).—T\io\x%\\ the
Basilisk of the ancients was a fabulous animal, the name is still
retained as the title of an American genus of Iguanian Reptiles, dis-
tinguished by an elevated fin-like crest on the back and basal portion
of the tail, supported by the elongated spinous processes of the dorsal
and caudal vertebaj : the skin of the throat, contrary to the general
rule, in the present Reptile is not dilatable ; but, to counterbalance
this, there is a large membranous sac on the occiput, capable of being
distended with air at pleasure. The head is thick and short ; the
general contour stout ; the limbs long and powerful ; the tail elong-
ated, tapering, and compressed at the sides ; the toes long and
armed with small claws ; the skin is covered with small scales of a
rhomboidal form, and generally speaking, slightly carinated. Palatal
as well as maxillary teeth. No femoral pores. (See Fig. 1630.)
Fig. 1630. — The Hooded Basilisk,
In their habits these Animals, like the Iguanas, are arboreal,
climbing with great ease and celerity ; but they are also aquatic,
swimming with great address, while they lash the water from side to
side with their finny tail. They are said to live on grain and fruits.
The flesh is held in estimation.
The Hooded Basilisk is a native of Guiana, Martinique, and the
Tropical countries of South America generally, and attains to a con-
siderable size, the tail being nearly twice as long as the head and
body. It is very harmless, though of a formidable aspect, and when
alarmed drops off the branch into the water and swims rapidly away.
The colour is yellowish brown passing into white on the
under parts ; the throat is longitudinally striped with leaden
brown, which colour prevails on the sides of the neck ; a
longitudinal stripe, which is edged with black, extends from each
64?
THE CHAMELEONS.
eye along the back of the neck to the sides of the dorsal region, and
there blends with the general tint. The hood and crests are more
developed in the male than the female.
As already mentioned many of the TguaiiidcB appear to be par-
tially aquatic in their habits ; and one species, the Avihlyrhynchus
cristafus, which is common on the Galapagos Islands, passes the
greater part of its time in the sea. Mr. Darwin, the first naturalist
who observed this Lizard, describes its habits in the following words :
— " It lives exclusively on the rocky sea beaches, and is never found
— at least I never saw one — even ten yards in-shore. It is a hideous-
looking creature, of a dirty black colour, stupid, and sluggish in its
movements. The usual length of a full-grown one is about a yard ;
but there are some even four feet long. I have seen a large one,
which weighed twenty pounds. These Lizards are occasionally seen
some hundred yards from the shore, swimming about ; and Captain
CoUnett, in his voyage, says, • they go out to sea in shoals to fish.'
With respect to the object, I believe he is mistaken ; but the fact,
stated on such good authority, cannot be doubted. When in the
water the animal swims with perfect ease and quickness, by a ser-
pentine movement of its body and flattened tail — the legs during this
time being perfectly motionless, and closely collapsed on its sides.
A seaman on board sank one with a heavy weight attached to it,
thinking thus to kill it directly ; but when, an hour afterwards, he
drew up the line, the Lizard was quite alive. Their limbs and strong
claws are admirably adapted for crawling over the rugged and
fissured masses of lava which everywhere form the coast. In such
situations, a group of six or seven of these hideous reptiles may often-
times be seen on the black rocks, a few feet above the surf, basking
in the sun with outstretched legs." Ugly as they are, these Lizards
are quite harmless, their food consisting of sea-weed.
Some of the Iguaiiidcs are of the most brilliant green colour,
with the large sac beneath the neck of a beautiful orange tint ; when
irritated or alarmed, however, they quickly change this gay livery for
a more sombre colour, and many of them become perfectly black
under these circumstances.
The Agamides, or Old World Iguanas, are principally inhabitants
of the warmer regions of Asia and Australia, and the intervening
islands; a few are found in the south of Australia, Van Diemen's
Land, and New Zealand, and some others in Africa, from Egypt to
the Cape of Good Hope. In their general form, and in the character
of their peculiar appendages they closely resemble the American
species ; but some of these are very remarkable. Amongst these is
the following which has already been mentioned : —
The Frilled Lizard {Chlamydosaurus kingii). (See Fig.
1628 ante.) This extraordinary Lizard, a native of Australia, is at
once to be known by an expanse of skin supported by a crescent-
shaped cartilage on each side of the neck, forming an expanded
frill, capable of being folded up or spread out ; the edge of this frill
is serrated, and the whole is covered with small keeled scales ; the
head is short ; the tail long ; the feet well adapted for climbing.
There are femoral pores.
When fully grown, this species measures nearly three feet in total
length ; it is arboreal in its habits, and was first discovered by Mr.
Allan Cunningham, who accompanied Captain King's expedition as
botanical collector. He found the specimen, from which the original
description was taken, on the branch of a tree in Careening Bay, at
the bottom of Port Nelson, and sent it to Sir E. Home, by whom it
was deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. In
his Journal, Mr. Cunningham thus writes : — " I secured a lizard of
extraordinary appearance, which had perched itself upon the stem of
a small decayed tree ; it had a curious crenated membrane, with a
ruff, or tippet round its neck, covering its shoulders, and when ex-
panded by means of slender transverse cartilages, it spreads five
inches on each side, in the form of an open umbrella. Its head was
rather large, and its eyes, whilst living, rather prominent ; its
tongue, though bifid, was thick and short, and appeared to be tubular."
Several fine specimens of this Lizard are in the British Museum.
Captain Grey (see his " Travels in Australia," vol. i., p. 194) says
— " As we were pursuing our route in the afternoon, we fell in with a
specimen of the remarkable frilled lizard {Chlamydosauriis kingii).
It lives principally in trees, though it can run very swiftly along the
ground. When not provoked or disturbed, it moves quietly about,
with its frill lying back in plaits upon the body ; but it is very iras-
cible, and directly it is frightened it elevates the frill, or ruff, and
makes for a tree, where, if overtaken, it throws itself upon its stern,
raising its head and chest as high as it can upon the fore-legs, then
doubling its tail underneath the body, and displaying a very formid-
able set of teeth from the concavity of its large frill, it boldly faces
an opponent, biting fiercely whatever is presented to it, and even
venturing so far in its rage as to fairly make a charge at its enemy.
We repeatedly tried the courage of this lizard, and it certainly fought
bravely whenever attacked. From the anmial making so much use
of its frill as a covering and means 01 defence for its body, this is
most probably one of the uses to which nature intended the appen-
dage should be applied."
The general colour of this species is yellowish-brown, variegated
with black ; tongue and inside of the mouth yellow.
A still more remarkable development of the dermal system is pre-
sented by the little Flying Dragons of the East Indies, which are
furnished with a broad membranous lobe on each side ; this is sup-
ported by the six first false ribs, which are extended straight outwards
from the vertebral column (Fig. 1631.) By the movements of these
bones, the Dragons are enabled to stretch their broad lateral mem-
branes, which thus form a sort of parachute to support them in long
leaps from branch to branch. They are, however, quite destitute of
any power to strike the air, so that their flight is, in fact, nothing
but a floating through the air. The Flying Dragons of the older
writers are fabulous creatures, and their descriptions are known to
have been, in some instances, founded upon articles manufactured
for the express purpose of taking-in the too credulous naturalist.
Fig. 1 63 1— The Flying Dragon (Draco volans).
Some other species of the Agamides are worthy of notice. Amongst
these we may mention the Stellio vulgaris, the Common Stellio, a
common Lizard in the Levant, and especially in Egypt, where its
excrements were formerly collected, and used as a cosmetic. Cuvier
states that the Mahometans destroy this Animal wherever they see
it, because, as they say, it insults them by bowing its head, in imi-
tation of their motions when engaged in prayer. (See Fig. 1632.)
A singular species of this group, from Australia, has been described
by Dr. Gray, under the name of Aloiock iwyridus. The whole sur-
face of this Lizard is covered with irregular plates and strong acute
spines, and the upper surface of the head bears two very large spines.
The larger conical spines are hollow, forming only a homy sheath,
placed on a fleshy process of the exact form of the spine. Dr. Gray
says that this Lizard is the most ferocious-looking of any with which
he is acquainted ; the horns on the head, and the numerous spines
on the body, giving it a most formidable aspect. The back of the
neck is furnished with a large rounded protuberance, covered with
granular spinous scales, and armed on each side with a long conical
spine ; this appendage greatly increases the singularity of the
Animal's appearance.
The Chameleons— Family ChamcBleontidcB.
These singular Reptiles, which are distributed to Africa. India,
and its islands, the Seychelles Islands, Bourbon, and Mauritius,
Australia, &c., but not America, as far as is at present ascertained,
may be distinguished by the deep compressed form of the body, sur-
mounted by an acute dorsal ridge ; by the toes which are united
together as far as the last joint, and armed with sharp claws, being
disposed in two se.s, antagonizing with each other, three being
placed anteriorly, two posteriorly, and forming, like the foot of the
Parrot, efBcient graspers ; by the surface of the skin being covered,
not by scales, but by minute horny granules ; and by the prehensile
power of the tapering tail. The head, we may add, is large, and,
from the shortness of the neck, seems as if set upon the shoulders ;
it is somewhat wedge-shaped in figure, being broad across the
occiput, which is surmounted with an elevated crest, or casque, in
some species greatly developed ; an abrupt ridge overtops both eyes,
extending thence to the muzzle, where each ridge meets. The mouth
is very wide, and the jaw-s are armed with small trilobed teeth. The
tongue is a most extraordinary organ, and is the instrument by means
of which the Animal takes its Insect prey. It consists of a hollow
tube, with a fleshy tuberculated apex, and is capable of being darted
out instantaneously to a great distance, and as instantaneously re-
tracted. When retracted, it folds up within itself, somewhat after
the manner of a pocket telescope ; it is lubricated by a glutinous
saliva, and when fully extended, is vermiform in appearance. So
rapidly does the Animal launch this instrument at a Fly, or other
Insect, or at a drop of water on a leaf or twig, and so rapidly is it
withdrawn, that the eye can but just follow the movement.
The eyes of the Chameleon have a singular and odd expression.
They appear mere points ■ the whole of the anterior portion of the
ball, excepting the pupil, being covered with skin, forming a single
circular eyelid. The balls thus covered with skin, to which they are
attached, are set each in a large orbit, with a deep furrow around
them, and roll about perfectly independent of each other; so that
THE CHAMELEONS
649
the axis of one eye may be directed backwards, forwards, upwards,
or downwards, and that of the other in a contrary c'lrectinn, the
Animal making- two distinct surveys at the same moment, thus pro-
ducing a grotesque effect.
We have heard of the Chameleon's food being the air ; it lives,
however, on more substantial diet ; but this story may have arisen
from the following circumstance : — the lungs are exceedingly volu-
minous, and these the creature is able to fill with air, so as to puff
itself up, and in this state it often remains for hours without any
movement of respiration being perceptible ; on exhausting the ungs
of the air, the sides of the body fall in, and the frame has a meagre
appearance till the lungs are again inflated, when it becomes sud-
denly bloated as before. Certain continuations of these lungs pene-
trate the numerous cellules into which the abdominal cavity is regu-
larly divided, while others penetrate under the skin between the
muscles, to which the former adheres only by lax membranes, espe-
cially on the spine, down the centre of the under parts, and on the
limbs and tail.
It may be asked,— Are not the changes in the colour of the skin,
for which the Chameleon has been long celebrated, dependent in
Fig. 1632.— The Common Stellio and Spine-footed Stelli
some degree on the respiration and differences of condition in the
lungs ? Barrow, indeed, declares, that previously to the Chameleon's
changing colour, it makes a long inspiration, swelling out twice its
usual size, and that as the inflation subsides, the change of colour
gradually takes place, the only permanent marks being two small
dark lines passing along the sides. From this account some have
ascribed the transitions of tint to the influence of oxygen on the fluids
and tissues of the body; and there is much appearance of proba-
bility in the theory.
Dr. Weissenborn attributes these changes to the varied influence
of light on the nervous system.
The following is M. Milne Edwards's theory, which, after all, does
not leave the subject completely explained. (Sec "Ann. des
Sciences Nat.," Jan., 1834.) '^he results of his observations are :—
1. " That the change in the colour of chameleons does not depend
essentially, cither on the more or less considerable swelling of their
bodies, or the changes which might hence result to the condition of
their blood or circulation ; nor does it depend on the greater or less
distance which may exist between the several cutaneous tubercles ;
although it is not to be denied that these circumstances probably
exercise some influence upon the phenomenon.
2. That there exist in the skin of these animals, two layers of
membraneous pigment, placed the one above the other, but disposed
in such a way as to appear simultaneously under the cuticle, and
sometimes in such a manner that the one may hide the other.
3. "That everything remarkable in the changes of colour which
manifest themselves in the chameleon, may be explained by the ap-
pearance of the pigment of the deeper layer, to an extent more or
less considerable, in the midst of the pigment of the superficial layer ;
or from its disappearance beneath this layer.
4. " That these displacements of the deeper pigment do in reality
occur; and it is a probable consequence
that the chameleon's colour changes dur-
ing life, and may continue to change even
after death.
5. "That there exists a close analogy
between the mechanism, by the help of
which the changes of colour appear to take
place in these reptiles, and that which
determines the successive appearance and
disappearance of coloured spots in the
mantles of several of the cephalopods."
How the mechanical admixture of two
pigments can produce the various tints,
exhibited at different times by the skin of
the chameleon, as primary yellow and red
yellowish-grey, brown and violet, or dull
inky blue, is not very clear. Must not the
pigments themselves change colour ? We
think so.
The skeleton is remarkable for the
strong spinous processes of the vertebral
column ; the number of the cervical verte-
br£e is only five(^the majority of Sauna
having eight) ; it is represented at Fig.
1633.
Fig. 1634 represents the head and
tongue of the Chameleon in the act of
taking prey.
As all its form indicates, the Chameleon
is arboreal in its habits ; it traverses the twigs and branches in a
slow and cautious manner, clinging by the tail, and grasping with
its feet ; on the ground its motions are awkward and irresolute, and
it gropes about, using its limbs in succession rather than in pairs.
We have had abundant opportunities of observing the Chameleon
in captivity, and cannot say that it is very attractive. It is slow and
inanimate, ever seeking the warmth of the sun, in the rays of which
it will bask for hours together, changing its tints as evening draws
on, and assuming with darkness a dusky hue. In a hothouse it will
live among the plants, as if in a state of perfect liberty, but never
displays any intelligence or activity.
Fig. 1633.— Skeleton of the Chameleon,
40
650
THE CHAMELEONS.
The female digs an excavation in tlio ground for tlie reception of
lier eggs, and covers them with earth and dried herbage. The eggs
are numerous, and oval, and covered with a tough semicalcareous
sort of parchment.
Fig. 1634.— Head and Tongue of the Chameleon.
The Common Cha:\iei,eon {Chameleo vulgaris): C. afn'camis).
— Tliis species is a native of Egypt, and the northern line of Africa,
and also the southern districts of Spain and Sicily, it was well known to
the ancients, and is the xn/|^^^5wv of Aristotle. A distinct variety, or
nearly allied species, inhabits India. Dr. Weissenborn, who had a
Chameleon for some months in his possession, remarks, that of all
the circumstances connected with the variations of its colour, none
were more surprising than the difference between the tint of one side
of the body and that of the other at the same time ; and he attributes
this to separate galvanic or nervous currents, directed independently
of each other to the two sides of the body.
His words are: "The remote causes of the difference of colour
Fig- 1635.— The Common Chameleon.
in the two lateral halves of the body may be distinctly referred to the
manner m which the hght acts upon the animal. The statement of
Murrray, that the side turned towards the light is always of a darker
colour, is perfectly true ; this rule holds good with reference to the
direct and diffused light of the sun and moon as to artificial light.
Even when the animal was moving in the walks of my garden, and
happened to come near enough to the border to be shaded by the
bo.x edging, that side so shaded would instantly become less darkly
coloured than the other. Now, as the light in these cases seldom
illumines exactly one half of the animal in a more powerful manner
than the other, and as the middle line is constantly the line of de-
marcation between the two different shades of colour, we must evi-
dently refer the different effects to two different centres, from which
the nervous currents can only radiate, under such circumstances, to-
wards the organs respectively situated on each side of the mesial
line. Over these centres, without doubt, the organs of vision imme-
diately presides ; and indeed we ought not to wonder that the action
of light has such powerful effects on the highly irritable organization
of the chameleon, considering that the eye is most highly developed
The lungs are but secondary effected, but they are likewise inore
strongly excited on the darker side, which is constantly more convex
than the other.
" Many other circumstances may be brought forward in favour of
the opinion that the nervous currents in one half of the chameleon are
going on independently of those in the other ; and that the animal
has two lateral centres of perception, sensation, and motion besides
the common one in which must reside the faculty of concentration
Notwithstanding the strictly symmetrical structure of the chameleon',
as to its two halves, the eyes move independently of each other and
convey different impressions to their different centres of perception ■
the consequence is, that when the animal is agitated, its movements
appear like those of two animals glued together. Each half wishes
to move its own way, and there is no concordance of action. The
chameleon, therefore, is not able to swim like other animals ; it is so
frightened if put into water, the faculty of concentration is lost, and
it tumbles about, as if in a state of intoxication. On the other hand
when the creature is undisturbed, the eye which receives the stronn-est
impression propagates it to the common centre, and prevails upon%he
other eye to follow that impression and direct itseU to the same
object. The chameleon moreover may be asleep on one side and
awake on the other. When cautiously approaching my specimen at
night, with a candle, so as not to awaken the whole animal bv the
shaking of the room, the eye turned towards the flame would onen
and begin to move, and tlie corresponding side to change colour
whereas the other side would remain for several seconds longer in its
torpid and changeable state with its eye shut." (See " Magazine of
Natural History." October, 1838, p. 532.) S zine 01
fll'^T" •y,";'^^°^ ?^ Weissenborn are worth consideration ; fuller
details will be found in the work referred to
n,^m;S'^r"''"f l*"!.^''^"' '".*^''° views, of the Fork -nosed
Chameleon (C//a//^«/,f<7^/;?,/«j) a native of the continent of India,
Fig. 1636.— Skulls of the Fork-nosed Chameleon.
the Moluccas, Bourbon, and also of Australia. The top of the head is
flat, the muzzle is prolonged into two distinct branches, which are
compressed and dentelated along the upper and under margins. In
its general manners this strange species agrees with the rest of its
congeners, and we cannot imagine the end to be answered by the
singular conformation of the snout.
Fossil Saurians.
The ChamccIcontidcB conclude the series of recent ,SVz7/;7(r ; but
we have still to notice a few groups of fossil species, which have no
living representative. Perhaps, in no branch of natural history can
there be found a more interesting study than that of these Fossil
Saurians. They form an intermediate link between the fossil re-
mains of the upper and lower Geological Strata — the recent and the
ancient ; and, consequently, they have become the subject of minute
investigation by the most eminent geologists and others. Fortu-
nately, the British Museum is rich in these specimens, particulars of
which will be found as follows : —
The Iguanodon.— In the Wealden Fresh-water formation of the
South of England, intermediate between the Marine Oolitic deposits
of the Portland stone, and those of the Greensand formation of the
Cretaceous series, the remains of an Extinct Gigantic Reptile occur,
closely allied to the Iguana of modern days. We owe the discovery
of them to Dr. Mantell. The teeth, which Cuvier at first regarded
as those of a Rhinoceros, evidently indicate an Herbivorous appe-
tite, and were fitted for grinding tough vegetables to a pulp. The
length of this Reptile could not have been much under seventy feet,
and was perhaps more. A description of the dentition of the Iguano-
don has been given, according to the views of Professor Owen, at
page 62 1 ante, but the following remarks will still further illustrate
the question : —
"The teeth," writes Dr. Buckland, " exhibit two kinds of provision
to maintain sharp edges along the cutting surface, from their first
protrusion, until they were worn down to the very stump. The first
of these is a sharp and serrated edge, extending on each side down-
wards, from the point to the broadest portion of the body of the tooth.
The second provision is one of compensation for the gradual destruc-
tion of this serrated edge, by substituting a plate of thin enamel, to
maintain a cutting power in the anterior portion of the tooth, until
its entire substance was consumed in service. Whilst the crown of
the tooth was thus gradually diminishing above, a simultaneous
absorption of the root went on below, caused by the pressure of a
new tooth rising to replace the old one, until, by this continual con-
sumption at both extremities, the middle portion of the older tooth
was reduced to a hollow stump, which fell from the jaw to make
room for a more efficient successor." The young tooth somewhat
resembled a serrated lancet. Dr. Buckland observes, that this
serrature ceased at the broadest diameter of the tooth, that is, pre-
cisely at the line below which, had the serrations been continued,
they would have had no effect in cutting. As these saw-like edges
were gradually worn away, the cutting power was transferred to the
enamel in front, which was traversed by alternate longitudinal
ridges and furrows, the latter serving " as ribs or buttresses, to
strengthen and prevent the enamel from scaling off, and forming,
together with the furrows, an edge slightly wavy, and disposed in a
series ot minute gouges, or fluted chisels ; hence the tooth became
an instrument of greater power to cut tough vegetables under the
FOSSIL SAUR2ANS.
651
action of the jaw, than if the enamel had been in a continuous
straight line. By these contrivances, also, it continued effective
Fig. 1637. — Teeth of Fossil Iguandon.
during- every stage through which it passed, from the serrated lancet-
point of the new tooth, to its final consumption."
At Fig. 1637 are exhibited, a, the crown of a tooth of the Iguano-
don not worn by use, closely resembling b, the magnified tooth of a
Recent Iguana ; r, is a portion of the upper jaw of a Recent Iguana
with eiglit teeth highly magnified; (/, front view of a tooth of the
Iguanodon, natural size, the point is worn by grinding food; c, is a
back view of the same tooth ; /, front and back view of a tooth of the
Iguanodon worn down by use ; /;, tlie worn surface ; /i, the cavity
formed by the pressure of a new tooth, as in the teeth of the Iguana,
at c. ,'
The Pterodactyles.— We next advert to some extinct forms,
which at some remote epoch tenanted our globe, realizing the
wildest dreams of poetic imagination, and forcibly impress upon our
minds the fact of the great difference between many beings which
once enjoyed life and light, and those which after the lapse of ages
occupy their places. We shall first draw attention to the Ptero-
dactyles. These extraordinary animals, which were regarded by
Blumenbach as Birds, and by Professor Hermann, of Strasburg, as
intermediate between Mammalia and Birds, were ascertained by
Cuvier to belong to the Saicria, or Reptiles : and his views have
been since amply confirmed. "They are," he says, " reptiles, of
which the principal characters are a very short tail, a very long
neck, the muzzle much elongated and armed with sharp teeth ; the
legs also long, and one of the toes of the anterior extremity exces-
sively elongated, having probably served for the attachment of a
membrane adapted for supporting them in the air ; besides this there
are four (or three) other toes of the ordinary size, tenninated by hooked
claws." The remains of these strange beings occur in the Litho-
graphic Limestone of the Jura formation at Aichstiidt and Solenhofen,
in the Lias of Lyme Regis, and the Oolite at Stonesfield, Banz, &c.
With them are mixed the remains of Fishes, crustaceous creatures,
and large Insects, as LibellulcB and Coleoptera. Eight species are
ascertained, varying in size from a Snipe to that of a Cormorant ;
viz., Pt. longirostris (Solenhofen) ; P. brevirostrts (Solenhofen) ;
P. crassirostris (Solenhofen) ; P. tnedius (Miinster) ; P. jnVmsteri
(Solenhofen) ; P. macronyx (Lyme Regis, and Banz in Germany) ;
P. grandis (Solenhofen) ; and P. bucklandi {?>\.<:i'^^%^t\A).
The Long-Muzzled Pterodactvle {Pterodactylus Injigf-
rostris). — (See Fig. 1638.) In all these Pterodactyles it will be
observed that, while the head as a whole is very large in proportion
to the body, the cranial cavity is very contracted ; the orbits are
large, and extensive facial apertures or hollows diminish much from
the weight of the muzzle. In all the neck is very long, but parti-
cularly in the present species ; the vertebras being very elongated
individually, with the exception of the first two. At the same time
they are strong, and the head, neck, and jaws were no doubt moved
by voluminous muscles. The length of the jaws armed anteriorly
with sharp teeth is extraordinary; the lower jaw is slender. The
vertebral column of the back and loins is stout, the tail short, and
Fig. 1638. — The Long-muzzled Pterodactyle.
t'ii
FOSSIL SAUHIANS.
the ribs slender. This species equalled a Woodcock in size, but the
extent of its wing-membranes, from the length of the outer finger of
the fore-limbs, must have been very great, and it may easily be
imagined what force of muscle was required for agitating them.
(See Fig. 1638.)
The Short-Muzzled Pterodactyle (Pi. brevirostris).—\-a
this small species the muzzle is short, and Bird-like in its outline,
which resembles that of the head of a Goose, and the neck is accord-
ingly abbreviated. (See Fig. 1639.)
The Thick-Muzzled Pterocactyle {Pt. crassirostris). — In
this species the muzzle is moderate and thick ; the head exceeds the
neck in length, which consists of enormously stout vertebrae, ex-
ceeding those of the back ; indeed the body seems disproportion-
ately small to the volume of the head and neck ; but the anterior
limbs are very long, and paws large, and the finger for supporting
the membrane greatly developed ; and no doubt, when this mem-
brane on each side was unfolded, it advanced so as to prevent the
animal from necessarily drooping the head during flight, and thus
maintained the balance of the body. (Fig. 1640 is a delineation of
this species).
Dr. Buckland remarks that in one species (the Pt. macronyx,
from the Lias, at Lyme Regis), there is an unusual provision for
giving support and movement to a large head at the extremity of a
long neck, by the occurrence of bony tendons, running parallel to
the cervical vertebrae, like the tendons that pass along the back of
the pigmy Musk-deer, and of many Birds. This provision, he ob-
serves, does not occur in any Recent Lizards, whose necks are short
and require no such aid.
and Plesiosauri, as the tyrant of the waters, its remains occurring
in strata posterior to those in which the bones of these latter Rep-
tiles are imbedded. It exceeded twenty-five feet in length, and was
expressly formed for cleaving the ocean with wonderful rapidity.
The tail was compressed laterally, high and deep, in the vertical
direction, and with this huge oar it lashed vigorously from side to
Fig. 1641. — Head of Camper's Mosasaurus.
side, sculling itself onwards. Instead of legs, it had four large
flippers, like those of the Plesiosaurus, and could, therefore, dive and
Fig. 1639. — The Short-muzzled Pterodactyle.
With respects to the habits and food of these Flying Lizards —
these At;rial Saurians, we can only form a conjecture. Dr. Buckland
thinks it probable that, besides having the power of flight, they
might be capable of swimming also, as the Rousette Bat of the
island of Benin {Pteropus), described at page 72 ante, and that the
larger species might possibly have fed upon Fishes, darting at them
as they rose to the surface and carrying them away ; the smaller
were probably Insectivorous. He adduces the size and form of the
hind foot, and also of the leg and thigh, to show that the Pterodactyles
had the power of standing firmly on the ground, where, with their
wings closed, they possibly moved after the manner of Birds ; and
that they could also perch, on trees and climb on rocks and clifts,
with their hind and fore feet conjointly, like Bats and Lizards.
Contemporary with these strange monsters — " chimaeras dirs" —
were monstrous Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri ploughing the waters,
while on the shore crawled Gigantic Crocodiles and Tortoises, and
huge Crustaceous Animals.
Camper's Mo.sasaurus {Mosasaurus camperi). — Head fossil,
(See Fig. 1641.)' In the Calcareous hills of the valley of the Meuse,
near Maestricht, in the Upper Chalk in England, and also in the
Greensand of Virginia, occur the remains of a huge Aquatic Lizard,
the head of which, in many points, resembles that of the Varans
( Varatius merseni) of the present day, but had teeth in the palate
(pterygoid bones) as well as in the jaws, like the Iguanas. This
Gigantic Reptile, the remains of which have been by some mistaken
for those of the Whale, appears to have succeeded the Iclitliyosaiiri
Fig. 1640. — The Thick-muzzled Pterodactyle.
mount again to the surface with the utmost ease. The ball-and-
socket union of the vertebra; forming the spinal column allowed the
utmost flexibility of movement, and thus was it organised for a life
of aquatic rapine, destroying the largest Fishes with a snap of its
tremendous jaws. The head measures four feet in length ; that of
the largest living Varan five inches,
Sommering's Geosaurus {Geosaurus scemmertttgiij. — Fossil
bones. (See Fig. 1642, &c.)
The remains of this Reptile were found in the Canton of Meulen-
hardt (near Mannheim), at the depth of ten feet, and at a little dis-
tance from the remains of the Crocodilus priscus, by labourers
employed to work the mines of granular iron, which fill the fissures
of the calcareous schist. Near these relics were the shell of an
Ammonite, fragments of a bluish shell, and a great quantity of small
scales. Other fragments of this Reptile have been found in the
Solcnhofen slate, and we believe in America (marl of the Greensand, '
New Jersey). This species, though allied to the preceding, differs
in dental characters ; and the orbit presents us with bony laminae,
which belonged, either to the upper eyelid, or, as is more probable,
to the sclerotic coat of the eye, a structure occurring in the recent
Varans, but not in Crocodiles. It appears to have measured twelve
or thirteen feet in length. Fig. 1642, a and b represent part of the
head, which has been compressed ; some of the sclerotic plates are
still visible within the orbit, at b. Fig. 1643, c, d, e, teeth which had
preserved their shining, hard, and brown enamel. Fig. 1644, a por-
tion of the vertebral column, with fragments of ribs, &c. Fig. 1645,
FOSSIL SAURIANS.
653
g, another portion of the vertebral column, also with fragments of
The Megalosaurus.— The remains of this enormous Reptile
have been found in the Oolitic slate at Stonesfield, the ferruginous
Sandstone of Tilgate Forest, and the Oolite cf Normandy. No entire
skeleton has been discovered, but the fragments prove its colossal
dimensions ; and the structure of its teeth, that it was carnivorous.
The tliigh-bone of an individual, formerly in the collection of Gideon
Mantel], Esq., and now in the British Museum (from the Tilgate
Fig. 1642, — Head of Sommerlng's Geosaurus.
Forest), measures more than twenty inches in circumference,
equalling in magnitude that of the largest Elephant. Hence,^ if the
total length of this Reptile was in proportion to the length of its ex-
tremities, it must in height have equalled our largest Elephants, and
have fallen but little short of the
largest Whales in length ; making,
however, every deduction, it v/ould
not have measured less than sixty
or seventy feet. To such a Reptile
our hugest Crocodiles are mere
pigmies. Thigh-bones of smaller
individuals are in the Museum of
Oxford. Of these, the largest is
nearly three feet in length, and ten
inches in circumference at its
smallest part. Hence, calculating
according to the ordinary stand-
ard of the Lizard families, the in-
dividual, when alive, could not have been less than from six to seven
feet high, nor than forty feet long. The teeth of this Animal were
compressed, sharp, and arched backwards, with the edges finely
denticulated ; the germs of successive teeth (those taking the place
of such as are worn out and fall) are in distinct sockets by the side
of their antecessors.
Fig. 1643. — Teeth of Geosaurus.
Fig. 1646 represents a, the anterior extremity of the right lower
jaw, seen from the inside ; b, the same, presenting its outer side.
Fig. 1647 shows the tooth of Megalosaurus, two-thirds the natural
size. The dotted lines indicate the conical cavity containing pulp,
within the root of the growing tooth ; a is a transverse section, show-
ing the compressed form, rounded back, and sharp cutting-edge
aiiteriorly.
Fig. 1645.— Portion of the Vertebral Column.
The Ichthyosaurus {Ichthyosatcriis commiaiis).—\i is in the Lias
and Oolitic formations that the remains of the Ichthyosauri, or Fish
Lizards, abound. They have been found chiefly in the Lias at Lyme
Regis ; but, according to Dr. Buckland, they exist along the whole
extent of this formation throughout England, from the coasts of
Dorset, through Somersetshire and Leicestershire, to the coast of
Yorkshire. They are found also in the Lias of France and Germany.
The range of the genus Ichthyosaurus, says Dr. Buckland, •' seems
Fig. 1646.— Portion of Lower Jaw of the Megalosaurus.
to have begun with the Muschelkalk, and to have extended through
the whole of the Oolitic period into the cretaceous formation. The
most recent stratum in which any remains of this genus have been
found is in the chalk marl at Dover, where they have been discovered
by Dr. Mantell. I have found them in the gault, near Benson,
Fig. 1644. — Vertebral Column, &c., of SiJmmering's Geosaurus,
654
FOSSIL SAURIANS.
Oxon." The general form of this extraordinary animal maybe easily
understood from a sur\'ey of the skeleton as restored by Conybeare,
Fig. 1648, Compared with Fig. 1649, the skeleton merely cleared
from the Lias in which it was imbedded. Some of the largest of these
Aquatic Reptiles must have exceeded thirty feet in length. Let us
suppose a Grampus, with sharp muzzle, with four broad paddles,
and a long tail laterally compressed, deep and high, forming a cau-
dal fin for lashing the water from side to side,
large eyes, and tremendous jaws, and we have
a tolerably faithful likeness of this tenant of the
ancient seas. The whole organization of the
skeleton demonstrates that the habits of the
Ichthyosaurus were e.\clusively Aquatic. The
muzzle is elongated and pointed, and the
teeth, amounting to one hundred and eighty
in some specimens, are set in a furrow of
the jaws, and their succession is managed,
as in the Crocodile, by " the 3'oung tooth bud-
ding up at the base of the old tooth, where, as
it grows its pressure sets the absorbents at
work ; the base of the old tooth is thus par-
tially removed, and as the new tooth advances,
is finally displaced to make room for its more
efficient successor." The nostrils are placed
just anterior to the orbits, in which we observe
still remaining the osseous sclerotic ring,
composed of distinct portions, placed in re-
gular array. The eye was extremely large ;
and we can imagine how it glared with ferocity
as the monster darted towards its prey. Tre-
mendous must have been the snap of the jaws when the Animal
seized his victim, and as they are long and slender, some
liability to fracture, from the mere force of the muscles produc-
ing their sudden and forceful collision, might not unreasonably be
expected ; indeed, as Dr. Buckland well observes, a definite provision
is made against this in the lower jaw, each ramus of which consists
of six pieces of unequal length, placed together on the same principle
as the plates forming the steel springs of carriages ; they are most
numerous and strong at the portion of the jaw where the greatest
strength is required to be exerted, where in fact the main stress is,
and are thinner and fewer anteriorly. This arrangement is well
seen on the uppermost skull, Fig. 1650, and in the sketch of the
lower jaw, Fig. 1651.
Fig. 1647.— Tooth of
the Megalosaurus.
oval, ball-and-socket joint ; and Mr. Conybeare observes that this
mode of articulation co-operates with the cup-shaped form of the
intervertebral joints, in giving Hexibility to the vertebral column, and
assisting its vibratory motions ; for, had these parts been consoli-
Fig. 1650.— Upper Skull of the Ichthyosaurus.
dated as in Quadrupeds, their articulating processes must have locked
the whole column together, so as to render such a motion of its parts
impossible.
Every one knows that the spinal column of a Recent Fish main-
Fig. 1648. — The Ichthyosaurus restored.
_ The neck is short, and the vertebral column very peculiar ; it con-
sists of more than one hundred vertebra;, which, instead of resem-
bling those of Saurian Reptiles, are formed on the type of those of
Fishes, they are, in fact, concave anteriorly and posteriorly, and were
doubtless filled by a thick fluid, and bound together by elastic cap-
sules. " The sauroid type," observes Dr. Buckland, is here departed
from, in favour of a conformation demanded by the habits of the ani-
mal." Itis further noticed, he adds, by Sir E. Home, that the annular
part of the vertebrae (enclosing the spinal cord above) is neither con-
solidated with the body of the separate bones as in Quadrupeds, nor
connected by any suture as in Crocodiles, but remains always dis-
tinct, being articulated by a peculiar joint resembling a compressed,
tains itself straight (when removed from the Animal), and has a
certain degree of springiness, or elasticity, by which, when bent, it
returns to the same form ; this results from the form of the vertebras,
the elastic capsules binding each to each, and the presence of the
fluid which fills their cup-shaped cavities ; it is very probable that in
the Ichthyosaurus the same character prevailed.
Fig. 1652 represents the sternal arch and anterior paddles of this
Animal, in which it will be seen how provision is made for the strain
of the latter, while breasting the rolling waves ; at the same time
the broad surface of the clavicles, besides adding to the strength of
the chest, afford an ample and solid surface for the attachment of
powerful muscles. The blades of the paddles, if we may use the ex-
Fig. 1649. — The Ichthyosaurus as found.
FOSSIL SAURIANS.
65s
pression, consist of polvafonal bones disposed in regular order, exhi-
biting a tessellated surface.
It is, however, not only the external form and jjeneral habits of
this beins: of an antique world, that the anatomist has the means of
ascertaining ; he has also the data from which he can deduce many
important inferences with respect both to the internal structure and
the nature of the food; indeed, the fossilised contents of the abdo-
minal viscera, termed Coprolites, are often found in abundance
between the ribs ; and without entering into details, we may observe
Fig. 1651. — Lower J.iw of the Ichthyosaurus
that the alimentary canal must have been very analogous to that of the
Sharks of the modern ocean ; these Coprolites consist principally of
the scales of extinct Fishes, and chiefly of those of a species (known in
a fossil state) termed Plwlido^lioriis litnbatiis ; these scales are not
only found in most of the Coprolites, but dispersed throughout the
entire region of the ribs. Fig. 1653 shows the ordinary form of the
Coprolites : « is a magnified scale of Pholidophortis limbafus im-
bedded therein (internal surface) ; b, the external surface of the
same.
fig. 1652 — Sternal Arch and Anterior Paddles of the Ichthyosaurus.
With respect to the tegumentary covering of the Ichthyosaurus,
■we may conclude, from the absence of plates or large scales, or the
impressions of such, in the Lias, that it was simple and naked, re-
sembhng that of the Grampus and other cetaceous Animals. Thus
then, from the beds of Lias in
which they have been entombed
for ages, have the relics of these
Aquatic Saurians "been sum-
moned by the labours of the geo-
logist to give evidence of events
that passed at the bottom of the
ancient seas, in ages long preced-
ing the existence of man." They
tell of seas over which the canoe
of the savage never floated, yet
teeming with life ; of a system of
warfare and destruction in which
man took no part ; of alterations
on the surface of our planet, them-
selves being the historic monu-
ments ; of changes in the forms of
organic existence ; of races com-
mencing, spreading far and wide,
and then blotted out of the
catalogue of living things. This
is no dream of fancy, no theory
i'lg. 1653 — Coprolite of the Tchthyo- based upon an unstable founda-
^^"'^"^' tion ; the proofs aro abundant, and
such as to force conviction. We
may picture to ourselves the huge Ichthyosaurus ploughing the bil-
lows, driving the shoals of Fish before him, pursuing them with un-
relenting pertinacity, and thinning their numbers; we may picture
him cruising about the mouths of rivers, and scattering terror in the
finny hordes around ; but a change has taken place, and the plough-
man drives his team where the Ichthyosaurus, entombed below, once
revelled in his might.
Several distinct species of Ichthyosaurus are recorded by Professor
Owen, viz. : IcMh. communis, Conybeare ; Iiitermedius, Con. ;
Platyodon, Con.; Conchiodoti, Owen; Lafi/roiis, Konig; La(i-
manus, Owen ; Thyreospondyliis, Owen ; Trigoiius, Owen ;
Tentn'rostris, Con. ; and Acutirostris, Owen.
This admirable anatomist, comparing the paddles of these Enalio-
saurians— derived from H'dXiot, marine ; tavpoq, a Lizard— as they
are termed, with those of the Ccfacea, comments on the development
of the clavicles, and of the sterno-clavicular and coracoid arches in
the former, an apparatus which would enable the animals, if stranded,
to raise themselves up and regain the water, like Seals, w-hich the
Ccfacea cannot do ; and he adds, " Doubtless the anterior paddles
might be subservient to locomotion, not only in the water, but on
land ; that when applied to the resisting soil, they might react with
due force upon the trunk. It is very conceivable that the Ichthyo-
saurus, like the Crocodile, may have come ashore to sleep, or to
deposit its eggs, supposing them to have been oviparous, as the
sum of their analogies deducible from their osseous texture would
indicate. The hind paddles would also be serviceable in terrestrial
progression, while in the strictly marine Ccfacea they can readily be
dispensed with."
If the Ichthyosaurus ever came on shore, its motions must have
been awkward and shuffling, not perhaps unlike those of the Marine
Turtles, which perhaps also resemble it in its mode of depositing and
burying its eggs.
The Plesiosaurus {Plenosatirtts dolichodeirus). — ^\Ve are here
presented with another group of extinct Enaliosaurians, of strange
form, the existence of which was contemporary with that of the
Ichthyosaurus, their remains occurring in the same strata.
The skeleton of the Plesiosaurus (Fig. 1654) was found in 1823, at
Lyme Regis, imbedded in the Shale or Slate, which lies between the
beds of Lias Limestone, and is crushed almost flat, probably by the
deposition of the vast mass of stone above it. Its components parts,
however, are easily made out ; the bones of the body having suffered
the most distortion. The small head, elongated neck, four ample
paddles, and short tail, are, with the exception of one paddle, very
apparent ; the vertebras of the lower part of the neck and chest, and
the ribs, are disunited and scattered confusedly ; yet from these may
the skeleton be rebuilt, and a fair idea of the appearance of the
living Animal deduced. It was a Reptile with large flippers,
adapted for Aquatic progression, with a flexible neck, exceeding the
body in length, and terminated by a small head, the jaws being
armed with formidable teeth. Dr. Buckland truly observes that the
discovery of this genus forms one of the most important additions
that geology has made to comparative anatomy. " It is of the
Plesiosaurus," he adds, " that Cuvier asserts the structure to have
been the most heteroclite, and its characters altogether the most
monstrous, that have been yet found amidst the ruins of a former
world. To the head of a Lizard it united the teeth of a Crocodile ; a
neck of enormous length, resembling the body of a serpent ; a trunk
and tail having the proportions of an ordinary quadruped ; the ribs
of a chameleon, and the paddles of a whale. Such are the strange
combinations of form and structure in the Plesiosaurus, a genus, the
remains of which, after interment for thousands of years, amidst the
wreck of millions of the inhabitants of the ancient earth, are at
length recalled to light by the researches of the geologist, and sub-
mitted to our examination, in nearly as perfect a state as the species
that are now existing upon the earth."
Conybeare, who, when materials were far more scanty than at pre-
sent, with singular acumen, restored the skeleton of this wonderful
extinct Animal, thus deduces a rationale of its probable habits and
manners: "That it was aquatic," he says, "is evident from the
form of its paddles ; that it was marine is almost equally so, from the
remains with which it is universally associated ; that it may have
occasionally visited the shore, the resemblance of its extremities to
those of a turtle may lead us to conjecture ; its motion, however,
must have been awkward on land ; its long neck must have impeded
its progress through the water, presenting a striking contrast to the
organisation which so admirably fits the Ichthyosaurus to cut through
the waves. May it not, therefore, be considered (since in addition to
these circumstances its respiration must have required frequent ac-
cess of air) that it swam upon or near the surface, arching back its
long neck like the swan, and occasionally darting it down at the fish
which happened to float within its reach ? It may, perhaps, have
lurked in shoal water along the coast, concealed among the seaweed,
and, raising its nostrils to the surface, from a considerable depth,
have found a secure retreat from the assaults of dangerous enemies ;
while the length and flexibility of its neck may have compensated
for the want of strength in its jaws and its incapacity for swift mo-
tion through the water, by the suddenness and agility of the attack
which they enabled it to make on every animal fitted for its prey
which came .within its reach." — (" Geol. Trans." vol. i. p. 388, N. S.)
6s6
FOSSIL SA URIANS.
The species of Plesiosaurus determined, are even more numerous
than those of the Ichthyosaurus, among- which are the following —
viz. : PL ha'iVkcnsii, Owen ; Dolichodcinis, Conybearc ; Macrocc-
fhahis, Conybeare ; Brachyccphalus, Owen; Jilacroiiuis, Owen;
Pachyoinus, Owen; Arctiahis, Owen; Siibfrigonous, Owen; Tri-
gonous, Cuvier ; Brachyspondylus, or BrachistcEpondyliis, Owen ;
Costatus, Owen ; Dcedicomus, Owen ; Rugosus, Owen ; Grandis,
Owen ; Trochantcrius, Owen ; and Affinis, Owen. Others will be
named at the end of this article, as may now be found in the British
Museum.
morass was crowded with plants apparently resembling the equise-
tum ; overhead sailed the Pterodactyles ; various Insects flitted
about, hovering over the marsh, along the borders of which wandered
the huge Megalosaurus ; the waters teemed with life ; Turtles,
Fishes, Ammonites, Nautili, Echini, and Cuttle-flsh, with varied
Encrintes and Corals, lived and perished in those seas whose
billows were breasted by Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri, darting after
their prey, and leaving a hoary track behind them. But silence
reigned, save when some monster uttered a hideous hiss or roar, or
lashed the water into foam ; no Birds saluted the morning sun with
Fig. 1654. — The Fossil remains of the Plesiosaurus, as found .it Lyme Regis.
We shall now proceed to offer a few general observations on thebones
of this genus, of which we have some interesting pictorial examples.
Fig. 1655 represents the skeleton of the P/esiosaurus dolicho-
darns as restored by Conybeare. The head (Fig. 1656, a, the
profile; b, the upper surface) is not unlike that of the Crocodile in
general form, but is much smaller in proportion to the body ; in the
elongated form of the strong cranial bones, and also in other details,
it exhibits, as Professor Owen remarks, an affinity to that of the La-
certian Saurians. The nostrils are situated just anterior to the orbits.
The usual complicated structure observable in the lower jaw of the
Saurians appears also in that of the Plesiosaurus. With respect to
the ribs, their free extremities are connected together in the ab-
dominal region, by a series of intermediate slender pieces, so
adapted to each other as to admit of a sliding motion of their com-
ponent parts on each other, thus favouring the expansion of the
cavity containing the lungs. These intermediate bones have been
termed by Conybeare sterno-costal arcs.
their voices, or made the woods resonant of melody ; a few perhaps
might have existed, but they were thinly scattered : no Deer or
Antelope browsed in rich meadows, no Cattle wandered over the
hills, no elephants came trampling their way through the forests ;
all was still and silent. If, indeed, any Mamalia existed, like the
Birds they were few and local ; for it is not till we arrive at the
Tertiary series of deposits that their remains in abundance prove
the earth then fairly fitted for their general distribution. During the
deposition of the Oolitic strata of the Secondary series, few spots
perhaps were adapted for their reception. How different the Animal
and Vegetable kingdoms of that far-distant period to the Animal
and Vegetable kingdoms of the present day, and how different the
relation of the land to the waters ! What are islands and continents
now, was a wide waste of ocean, or vast lagoons : but still have we
in the solid rock the monuments of time which proclaim (how
impressively !) the primeval phases through which our planet has
Fig. 1655.— Skeleton of the Plesiosaurus restored.
Fig. 1654 represents the relics of Plesiosaurus macroceihalus
as cleared from the block in which they were embedded. In this
species the head is comparatively larger than in PL dolichodeirus,
and the neck shorter and much thicker.
Such then is an outline of the general characters of these Reptiles
of a former world, beings which cannot fail to excite the astonish-
ment of all, who for a moment contemplate their form and proportions.
In the British Museum a splendid series of their remains strikes the
attention of even the most careless visitors, and leads the reflective
to throw themselves back upon a by-gone time, overleaping all
historic periods, and calling up around them scenes totally dissimilar
from any now displayed upon the surface of this planet. On the
land grew plants such as Lepidodendron, Stigmaria, &c., now
entirely unknown, towering pines, Zamias, and strange ferns ; the
passed, and the changes and succession of organic beings on its
surface. They prove, moreover, that at the period of the depositions
taking place to which we immediately refer, viz., the Oolitic, Lias,
and Jura Limestone, the Saurian order had assumed its full develop-
ment, and exhibited a series of monstrous forms, the contemplation
of which fills our minds with astonishment.
We have already largely exceeded the limits which our work
imposes on us in describing some of the Fossil Saurians ; because,
as already stated, the subject is of the highest interest. Those who
wish to pursue the study may consult the works of Owen, Ansted,
Morris, Murray, and other palseontologists. Among the other
fossil remains, beside those already mentioned, specimens of
the following may been seen in the British Museum, viz. : —
{IclUhyosaurius lunchiodon), Lias, Lyme Regis; {Id. enthe-
CROCODILES.
657
/vW.;0. Kimmeridge Clay, K.mmcr.dge ; {Id. lonsirostr^,-Lx^^,
Whitby ; (Plcsiosaurus laticcps). Lower Lias, Charmouth , Pies.
,-; Av7/«f Lower Lias, Charmouth ; {Pics, maiischi), Kimmendge
Clay, Km^meridge \{Plcs. homalospondylus) Upper Lias, WhUby ;
Y^cs. ncocomicrmsi Upper Greensand Cambridge ; {Mmmsaurus
cardncri), Gault, Folkestone; {Anthracosaurusrusselh), Co?\
Measures, Airdrie, Scotland ; {Archigosaurus dcchenu).C:^xhom-
ferous Sarbruck; {Capitosaiirus nasutus). Trias, N. Germany;
irrematosaurusbrauni). New Red Sandstone (Trias), N. Germany ;
iGcosaiiarus scrmmeriiig laccrta gigantla). Lithographic Stone,
Upper Oolite Manheim, Franconia ; {Homceosaurus maximiliana),
Fig. 1656. — Head of the Plesiosaurus.
Upper Oolite, Solenhofen; {Pleicrosaurus goldfiissii); Sapheosaiirus
laticcps). Lithographic Stone, Kilheim ; {Dolichosaurus longi-
co/Ii's), Lower Chalk, Kent ; Sclerosaurus armatus), Trias,
Warrabach, Baden ; {Teleosaurus chapinannii), Upper Lias,
Whitby.
^^s
some species, produced so as to form a long slender snout, and the
maxillary bones extend nearly to the apex of the upper jaw, the
intermaxillarics being of small size, and forming only its extremity.
(See Fig. 1658.) The palatine bones form a complete roof to the
mouth, and separate that cavity from the nasal passages, which
communicate with the pharynx through a complete foramen at the
hinder portion of this bony plate. The lower jaw is articulated to a
process arising from the back part of the head, which projects back-
wards, as in the Snakes, but is immovably attached to the skull ;
Fig. 1657. —The Plesiosaurus, as embedded in the Matrix in Strata.
Order \\\.—Loricata.
The present order of the Reptilia includes Animals of a different
type to any yet described. On some of their peculiar characteristics
it may be remarked that the anal aperture is longitudinal. The
dermal or skin skeleton is composed of bony matter. The order only
includes the living Crocodiles, and their extinct relatives. As a rule,
the form of the body resembles that of the Lizards. Their lesrs are
well developed, and are terminated by distinct toes, which are fre-
quently united by a swimming membrane or webbed foot.
The head of the Crocodiles is usually much elongated, bein'^, in
Fig. 1658. — IlcaJ of the Caiman.
hence the mouth is very wide, and when in the act of opening, it
appears as though both jaws moved, which, in fact, was long be-
lieved to be the case. The lower jaw is composed of no less than
six bones on each side, arranged together in such a manner as to
give the greatest amount of elasticity and strength, with the least
possible expenditure of material ; and it is only the last and longest
of these bones that is furnished with teeth.
The teeth are confined to the jaws, in which, however, they stand
in a most formidable and close array. They are inserted into regular
sockets, and are of an acutely conical form, usually striated on the
surface, as in the Ichthyosauri (See Fig. 1650 ante), with which
they also agree in the mode in which the old teeth arc replaced, the
new ones pushing forward into the cavity of the root of their prede-
cessors, and taking their place when the old teeth fall out in conse-
quence of the absorption of their roots. One of the teeth in the lower
jaw, on each side, is usually much larger than the others, and fits
into a notch or cavity in the upper jaw.
Fig. 1659. — Tooth of the Crocodile.
The cervical vertebra; are furnished with small false ribs, or rib-
like processes, which, by their contact, greatly diminish the flexibility
of this part of the body — to such an extent, in fact, that it is said the
Crocodiles have considerable difficulty in turning when on land, so
that they may easily be escaped by a process of doubling. (See
Fig. 1660) The ribs are strong, formed each of two bones, and
uniting below with a large sternum, which is continued along the
whole lower surface of the abdomen, and in this part of its course
gives rise to false ribs, which do not attain the spinal column. The
caudal vertebra; are furnished with long spinous processes, which give
a compressed form to the tail. The limbs are short and stout, but evi-
dently incapable of supporting the whole weight of the creatures when
on land, accordingly, the belly rests upon the surface, and they may
rather be said to push themselves along than to run. The anterior
feet are furnished with five, the posterior with four toes, of which the
three innermost on each foot are armed with claws ; the toes of the
anterior feet are usually nearly free, but those of the hinder pair arc
entirely or partially united by a membrane. (See Fig. 1661.)
The nostrils are situated quite at the extremity of the snout, and
furnished with a valve, by means of which the ingress of water into
the nasal cavities can be prevented when the Animal is immersed in
that element. The eyes are of considerable size, placed far back
upon the head, and furnished with well-developed lids ; their pupils
form a perpendicular slit when exposed to daylight. The external
ear can be closed at pleasure by a pair of valves. The tongue is
large and fleshy, and immovably attached to the bottom of the
mouth, a character which occurs in no other Reptiles; this in-
duced the ancients to believe that the Crocodile was destitute of this
organ. .
The structure of the dermal skeleton in these Animals, distin-
guishes them, at the first glance, from all other Reptiles. It consists
of numerous large, square, bony plates, developed in the leathery
corium, and forming a complete shield, covering the dorsal surface ;
these plates are more or less distinctly keeled, and the keels on the
caudal plates are very high, forming a compressed ridge, which be-
comes double towards the base. The lower part of the body 13
covered with a wrinkled skin, which contains only small scale-like
plates. The scales of the back of the neck are usually of a peculiar
shape, and frequently form two distinct groups, which have bcca
OjS
CROCODILES.
denominated nuclial and cervical shields. Their number, form, and
arrangement are often employed as characters for the discrimination
of the species. Under the throat there are two small orifices, that
communicate with glands, from which the peculiar musky secretion
characteristic of these Animals is produced. (See Figs. 1662 and
The lungs do not penetrate into the abdomen, as in other Reptiles ;
and there 'is even a trace of diaphragm, or partition between the
thoracic and abdominal cavities, in the form of a few muscular fibres.
In other respects their anatomy greatly resembles that of the Lizards
except that the ventricles of the heart are completely separated, and
that the male generative organ is retracted within the cloaca, which
opens externally by a longitudinal slit.
days under water, until it begins to putrify, before they commence
eating it.
Sub-Divisions.— The Recent Crocodiles form only a single family,
but two others have been established for the reception of so.reFossil
forms. These arc characterised particularly by differences in the
structure of the bodies of the vertebra. In the Tdcosauruics these
bones are concave at both extremities, like those of Fishes ; whilst
in the StoieosauridcB they arc convex in front, and concave behind.
In their general form, the Reptiles composing both these families
closely resembled the Gangetic Crocodile {Gavialis ganffcfica);
their remains occur principally in the Lias, Oolite, and Wealden
formations. , -r.
In the family Crocodilidce, or True Crocodiles, including the Recent
Fig. 1660. — Slseletoii (<;) and Sternum {I) of the Pike-nosed Caiman or Alligator.
They are all Oviparous Animals. Their eggs, which are enclosed
in a hard covering, are laid by the females in warm sandy places, or
in a heap of mud and vegetable matters, where they are hatched by
the heat of the sun, and "it appears that the parents take no further
care of their progeny. They abound in the fresh waters of all warm
Fig. 1661. — Hind Leg of the Caiman {a), and of the Crocodile (A).
climates, and are exceedingly voracious creatures, generally destroy-
ing their prey by drowning it, although they are unable to swallow
anything under water. They are said to hide their prey for some
and some Fossil species, the bodies of the vertebra: are convex behind,
and concave in front. In the general form oi the body, tlicse Animals
exhibit a very great similarity ; but the structure of the head at
once distinguishes the Gangetic Crocodile, or Gavial [Gavialis
gaiigetica), from all others. In this Animal the jaws are produced
Fis
1662. — Cervical Plates of the
Spectacled Caiman.
Fig. 1663. — Cervical Plates of the
Crocodile.
to an enormous length, forming a long slender snout, at the extremity
of which there is a large cartilaginous protuberance, in which the
nostrils are situated. The teeth are very numerous, and nearly
equal in size throughout the whole of the jaws. The hind feet are
palmated to the e.xtremities of the toes. This species is found abun-
CROCODILES.
6S9
dantly in the fresh waters of India, where it sometimes attains a
length of twenty-five feet. It was known to the ancients, ^han
mentioning the existence of a Crocodile in the Ganges wliich had a
horn at the extremity of its nose.
With respect to some characteristics of the Crocodile family, the
late Dr. Gray adduced many interesting facts, in a paper read before
the Zoological Section of the British Association, in 1862. He
stated that the Crocodile, on being first hatched, has the front face
short, and rounded, even in those 'that have an elongated beak when
full grown ; the nose gradually assuming that length which charac-
teris" s individual species. After the Animal has gained the adult
size, the bones of the head dilate, and the forehead and nose become
more swollen ; the dilation of the sides, and increase in thickness of
the bones of the head, being intended to give support to the large
teeth, which are gradually developed as the Animal grows. With
respect to the African Crocodile, he observed, that the Green Cro-
codile, from West Africa, was identical with that found in the rivers
of the northern and southern portions of that continent, and pointed
out the essential difference in the dentition between the African
Crocodile and the American Alligator. The Crocodiles of India had
been much misunderstood, some considering that the common
African species was identical with that of India. He remarked that
the latter country possessed four distinct species ; two being confined
to the brackish water at the mouth of rivers, as the C. ^orostis,
common to Java, Borneo, &c. ; and another species, chiefly found
i' ig. 1664. — The Common Crocodile.
on the coast of Pondicherry. The other two species frequent the
inland rivers, and even ascend so high as parts where the water is
occasionally frozen. These River Crocodiles, which have been con-
founded with the African species, may be distinguished from them by
the short, broad shape of the intermaxillary bone, which is separated
from the maxilla by a straight suture ; the African species having
the intermaxillary bone produced behind and between the edge of
the maxilla. One of these two latter species is generally distributed
over the remote parts of India ; whilst the other seems to be chiefly
confined to Siam, in the rivers of which country they are found in
large numbers. The various species of the Crocodile arc more
specially described as follows : —
The Common Crocodile {Crocodilus vulgaris). — The Crocodile,
which is by most writers regarded as the Leviathan of the Book of
Job, was by some of the Egyptians regarded as sacred, but not, as
it would appear from the statement of Herodotus, by all. His
words are, " Among some of the Egyptians the Crocodile is sacred,
while others pursue him as an enemy. The inhabitants of the
Thebais and the shores of the Lake Mceris regard him with venera-
tion. Each person has a tame crocodile ; he puts pendants of glass
and gold in its ear-lids, and gives it a regular allowance of food
daily. When it dies it is embalmed, and placed in the sacred re-
pository. But the inhabitants of the territory of Elephantine cat the
crocodile, not at all regarding it as sacred. This animal is not
called in Egypt crocodile (k-poKoOtiXoc), but champsa ; for the
former appellation was originally applied to it by the lonians, on ac-
count of its resemblance to a Lizard so called, which they find in
their hedges." (See Fig. 1664.)
With respect to the word Chamsa (x«/Ji/'a), it differs but little
from the modern appellation for the Crocodile in Egypt. In Coptic,
it is Amsah, or Hamsa, which, as we learn, with the feminine article
prefixed, has made the Arabic word Timsah, or Temsah, now in
common use on the banks of the Nile. According to Str.ibo, a
Sacred Crocodile was in his time kept in a tank, in the city called
Crocodinopolis, afterwards termed Arsinoe, and attended by priests.
The animal was tame, and went under the name of Suchus, or
Suchis (SoDxoc or Souxi'c), a word, as it would appear, applicable
only to this distinguished individual. The poor beast was fed most
unnaturally. " Our host," says Strabo, " who was a person of im-
portance, and our guide to all the sacred things, went with us to the
tank, taking with him from table a small cake, some roasted meat,
and a small cup of mulled wine. We found the crocodile lying on
the margin. The priests immediately went up to him, and while
some of them opened his mouth, another put in the cake, crammed
down the flesh, and finished by pouring down the wine. The
crocodile then jumped into the pond, and swam to the opposite
side." Glad, no doubt, was the Animal to escape its tormentors.
As we have stated, the Crocodile was not held sacred in all parts
of EjTypt, but appears to have been sometimes kept tame, as is
attested by one of the marbles, in the Townley Collection, in the
British Museum, which apparently represents an Egyptian tumbler,
exercising his feats on the back of one of these Animals.
'" The Egyptian notions as to sacred things seem not a little
strant^e and contradictory ; the crocodile was also one of the symbols
of Typhon, the evil genius, and the murderer of Osiris. It was an
Eevptian notion that Typhon assumed this form to avoid the ven-
geance of Horus, the son of Osiris. Between Harpocrates, an
Egyptian deity not mentioned by Herodo-
tus (but known to the later Greeks by this
corrupted name), and Horus, there were
some points of resemblance."
We must not omit to notice that Hero-
dotus, in his account of the Crocodile,
says, " that as it so constantly frequents
the water, its mouth becomes inlected
with bdcUa (/3c!fX\ui). which are by most
scholars supposed to mean leeches ; and
he adds, that a small Bird, called the
Trochilus [tpoxi-^^oq), relieves him of these
pests, boldly entering within his jaws,
opened to receive the western breeze, and
picking them out, while the huge beast,
pleased with the service rendered, offers no
injury to its little benefactor."
By M. Geoffrey St. Hilaire, these Bdcllcc
or sucking creatures were considered to
be some species of Gnat, and the Trochilus
one of the Plover tribe ; and we learn
from M. Descourtils that a species of
Gnat infests the gums and palate of the
Caimans of America.
We learn from Pliny that the Romans
first saw Crocodiles in the xdilcship of
Scaurus, about twenty-eight years before
the Christian era, and that he exhibited
five. Augustus introduced thirty-six of
them into the amphitheatre, where they
were encountered and killed by gladiators, as an amusement to the
spectators.
Though the Crocodile is no longer seen in the Delta, it is abun-
dant in the Thebaid and the Upper Nile, and in the tributary
branches throughout Nubia and Abyssinia. In Dongola it is
killed for the sake of its flesh, which is regarded as a delicacy. The-
venot, who tasted Crocodile's flesh in Egypt, found it good, though
rather insipid. The skin of the Crocodile has been tanned for use
in place of common leather.
The mode in which this powerful and ferocious animal is captured
in Angola is described as follows by Dr. Ruppell, who often witnessed
it: — "The most favourable season," he observes, "is either the
winter, when the animal usually sleeps on sandbanks, luxuriating in
the rays of the sun, or the spring, after the pairing time, when the
female regularly watches the sand-islands where she has buried her
eggs. The native finds out the place, and on the south side of it,
that is to the leeward, he digs a hole in the sand, throwing up the
earth to the side which he expects the animal to take. There he
conceals himself; and the crocodile, should it fail to observe him,
comes to the accustomed spot, and soon falls asleep. The huntsman
then darts his harpoon, with all his force, at the animal, for in order
that the stroke may be successful, the iron ought to penetrate to the
depth of at least four inches, in order that the barb be fixed firmly in
the flesh. The crocodile, on being wounded, rushes into the water,
and the huntsman retreats to a canoe, with which a companion
hastens to his assistance. A piece of wood, attached to the
harpoon by a long cord, swims on the water, and shows the direction
in which the crocodile is moving. The huntsmen, pulling at this
rope, drag the beast to the surface of the water, where it is again
pierced by a second harpoon. The skiU of the harpooner consists m
giving to the weapon sufficient impluse to pierce through the coat of
mail which protects the crocodile.
66o
CROCODILES.
" When the animal is struck, it by no means remains inactive;
on the contrary, it lashes violently with its tail, and endeavours to
bite the rope asunder. To prevent this, the rope is made of about
thirty separate slender lines, not twisted together, but merely placed
in juxtaposition, and bound round at intervals of every two feet.
The thin lines get between the teeth, or become entangled about
them.
" It frequently happens that the harpoons, by the pulling of the
men, break out of the animal's body, and it escapes.
" If I had not seen the fact with my own eyes, I could hardly have
believed that two men could drag out of the water a crocodile four-
teen feet long, fasten his muzzle, tie his legs over his back, and
finally despatch him, by plunging a sharp instrument into his neck,
so as to divide the spinal chord.
" The iron part of the harpoon which is used by the huntsman is a
span long, and formed towards the point like a penknife, being
sharp on one edge ; beyond this edge there is a strong barlD, while
on the back of the blade a piece projects to which the rope is
fastened. This iron head is affi.xed to a shaft of wood eight feet in
length. The flesh and fat of the crocodile are eaten by the Barabas
or Berberincs, who consider them excellent ; both, however, have an
odour of musk so strong that I could never eat crocodile's flesh with-
out sickness following. The musk-glands of the animal form a
great part of the profit which results from this capture ; as the
Berberines will give as much as two dollars for them, the unguent
being used as a perfume for the hair.
"In some of the rivers of Africa, the negroes are bold enough,
and indeed skilful enough, to combat the crocodile in his own
element. Armed only with a sharp dagger they dive beneath him,
and plunge the weapon into his belly. It often happens, however,
that the combat is fatal to the man, and frequently his only chance
of escape is to force his dagger, or if this be lost, his thumbs, into
the animal's eyes, with all his might, so as to produce great pain
and blindness."
Herodotus explains the mode of Crocodile-hunting in his time,
which was managed by means of a hook, baited with the chine of a
Pig, while the attention of the monster was aroused by the cries of a
living Pig, which the fishers had with them on the shore. In
anticipation of prey he dashed into the river, and meeting the baited
hook instantly seized and swallowed it, and was then dragged
ashore : the men then endeavoured to blind his eyes with mud, and
when this was accomplished, his destruction was easy, but if not,
so violent were his struggles, and so dangerous was it to approach
him, that it was not without difficulty that he was despatched.
Fish, floating carrion, Pigs, Dogs, and other Animals surprised
on the banks of the river, are the food of the Crocodile ; yet on land
escape is by no means difficult, as the legs are ill-formed for running,
and the little false ribs, or appendages to the vertebrae of _the neck,
limiting the lateral motion of that part, render sudden turns a matter
of difficulty. In the water, on the contrary, the Animal is prompt
and rapid ; lashing his tail from side to side, he cleaves the waters
like an arrow, leaving a track behind him from the impetuosity of his
progress. Sometimes, it is said, he will dart forward into the middle
of the river, uttering a loud bellowing his eyes glaring and his body
swollen, while with his powerful tail he lashes the surrounding water,
till it is worked into a foam. This exhibition of excitement ended,
he darts off to his accustomed covert, and regains his concealment.
The eggs of the Crocodile are of an oblong shape, hard, and some-
what larger that those of a Goose ; and the j'oung, compared with
their gigantic parents, are very small, but display, even at that early
period their innate ferocity. Numbers, both of young and eggs, are
destroyed by Beasts and Birds of prey. The Ichneumon has been
from an ancient date celebrated for the havoc it makes among them.
The Gavial {^Gavialis gangetic2is \ Gangetic Crocodile, Croco-
diliis fetiith-ostris, Daudin ; Cr. lo7igu-ostris, Schn.) — The Gavial
is subject to considerable variations in its progress from youth to
maturity. It is characterised by the jaws being very much elongated
and narrow, and somewhat depressed beak, armed with formidable
teeth to the number of one hundred and eighteen, or one hundred and
twenty. The first and fourth tooth on each side of the lower jaw are
the longest, and are received not into cavities of the upper jaw, but
into conspicuous notches. This long and formidable beak sinks
suddenly from the forehead, and is expanded at its extremity, where
the valvular nostrils form a large oval cartilaginous mass. The eye-
lid contains in its substance the rudiment of a bony plate.
At Fig. i66s are represented, a, the skull of the Great Gavial,
seen from above ; b, the lower jaw ; c, the profile of the skull ; d, an
outline of the head of the Gavial, covered with the integuments.
There are musk glands under the lower jaw. The hind feet of the
Gavial closely resemble those of the True Crocodiles, but the cervical
plates are arranged more nearly like those of the Caiman ; formino- a
long band commencing on the nape of the neck, and proloncin-T
themselves to the dorsal plates. There is, however, some diversity
in some kinds. The scales of the flanks are oval and fiat, the keels
of the plates, forming the dorsal cuirass, are low, but the crest of the
tail is much elevated.
The Gavial is a native of the Ganges, ai.d is the largest of the living
Smirz'a, often exceeding twenty-five feet in length ; it is one of the
scourges of the river, and is very formidable from its strength and
ferocity. The dying Hindoo exposed upon the bank, or the dead
body consigned to the sacred waters, often becomes the prey of this
dreaded monster.
Fig. 1665.— Head of the Gavial.
Several species of Fossil Crocodile have been discovered ; they be-
long to a distinct genera, and it is remarkable that those examples
alone, which have elongated beaks, approximating to the Recent
Gavial, occur in formations anterior to, and including, the Chalk,
whilst those with a short broad snout, like that of the Caiman, ap-
pear for the first time in Tertiary strata, containing in abundance the
remains of MaDimalia. "The discovery of crocodilean forms,"
says Dr. Buckland, "so nearly allied to the living Gavial, in the
same early strata that contain the first traces of the Ichthyosaurus
and Plesiosaurus, is a fact which seems wholly at variance with
every theory that would derive the race of crocodiles from Ichthyo-
sauri and Plesiosauri, by any process of gradual transmutation or
development. The first appearance of all these three families of
reptiles, seems to have been nearly simultaneous ; and they all con-
tinued to exist together until the termination of the secondary forma-
tions, when the Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri became extinct, and
forms of crocodiles approaching the cayman and alligators were
for the first time introduced." (" Bridgewater Treatise," vol. i., p.
254-)
Of the long-beaked Fossil-forms, that which approaches the nearest
to the living Gavial is the Stctieosaiirus, of which Fig. i666 repre-
sents the muzzle, from a specimen procured at Havre ; according to
Dr. Buckland, the relics of the same species are met with in the
Kimmeridge clay of Shotover Hill, near O.xford. In another Fossil
Fig. 1666.— Muzzle of the Fossil Stencosauvus.
genus, viz., Teleosanrus, the beak is also narrow and elongated, but
the nasal orifice, instead of opening upwards, terminates the anterior
apex of the upper jaw, as seen at Fig. 1667). Referring to Fig. 1668,
a represents the head of Teleosatirus chapnianni, seen from above ;
b, the head of another individual of the same species, seen from be-
low, showing the lower jaw; c, an inside view of the extremity of the
lower jaw. This species is found in the Lias, in the neighbourhood
of Whitby, and in the Great Oolite of Oxfordshire.
In Crocodilus spencer i (Fig. 1669), the skull approaches closely
to that of the Caimans, and is broad with a short and heavy snout.
1 1 is found in the London clay of the Isle of Sheppey.
A third group is formed by the Alligators, or Caimans, of the
American continent, which have a broad, obtuse snout, and the
THE TORTOISES.
661
canine teeth of the lower jaw received into a pit of the upper. Their
hind feet are never completely webbed, and in some instances the
membrane is almost entirely absent. These Animals are pretty
generally distributed over the continent of America ; but are more
abundant, and attain a larger size, in the warmer regions. The best
known species is the Alligator mlsslssi-
^iciisis {\"\s;. 1670), which is common in
the southern parts of the United States,
where it inhabits both the rivers and the
pieces of stagnant water in the morasses.
Its ordinary length seems to be from
fifteen to eighteen feet, but it is occa-
sionally met with of larger size ; and
Bartram says, that in Florida, the
Alligators are sometimes upwards of twenty-three feet long.
They prey upon almost any Animal that comes m their way ;
and Dr. Holbrook states, that in places where they abound, no
Animal of the size of a Dog can cross even small streams without
being dragged down, drowned, and devoured. They are also said
to strike their prey from the banks with their tails, bending the body
Fig. 1667. — Nasal Orifice
of the Teleosaurus,
Fig. 166S. — Head of the Fojsil Teleosaurus.
nearly into a circular form, so that the victim is thrown into the
mouth, or, at all events, into its immediate neighbourhood ; and
there is no doubt that they defend themselves from danger by power-
ful blows with the tail. At the approach of winter, the North
American Alligators bury themselves in holes in the banks of thoi-
aquatic abodes, and pass the cold season in a state of torpidity. At
this time tlicy are often dug out of their retreats by the negroes, who
esteem the tail a delicacy ; and Dr. Holbrook states that it is tolcra-
ble eating, although Catesby found its peculiar taste and odour dis-
agreeable. They are also taken by means of a sharp-hook, baited
with a piece of flesh, at which they bite readily. In the spring and
Fig. 1669. — Skull of a Fossil Crocodile.
early summer months, they make what Catesby calls, " a hideous
bellowing noise;" this is especially the case during the breeding
season, when the males often have tremendous combats amongst
themselves.
Order IV. — Chclonia, Tortoises, &c.
The distinguishing characteristic of the Chelonian Reptiles, and
the one which, in fact, enables us to recognise the members of this
order at the first glance, consists in their possession of a complete
bony case, within which the head and limbs can frequently be, more
or less, completely retracted. This case consists of two large bony
plates, of which the upper, that is more or less convex, is called the
carapace; whilst the lower one, which is usually perfectly flat, is
denominated the ^plastron. These two plates are united at their
lateral margins, leaving an anterior and posterior aperture for the
protrusion of the head, tail, and limbs. At the first glance it would
seem almost impossible to refer these singular Animals to the or-
dmary Vertebrate type ; but a little e.xamination of their anatomy
Fig. 1670. — The Alligator,
662
THE TORTOISES.
shows that their different parts are only modifications of the same
structure that we have seen to prevail throughout the preceding
groups.
When viewed from beneath (Fig. 1671), the central line of the
upper shield, or carapace, is seen to be composed of the
bodies of the dorsal vertebrse, on each side of which are the
broad flattened ribs, usually eight in number on each side, that are
immovably attached to each other by dentated sutures. The ribs
run almost to the margin of the carapace, which, however, is com-
pleted by a series of bones called marginal f>latcs, that have been
regarded as analogous to the sternal or cartilaginous portion of the
ribs in other Verfebrata, but which are now generally considered to
be dermal bones. The costal plates, as the flattened ribs are called,
are also regarded as belonging partly to the dermal skeleton. In
some instances the ribs are only dilated near their basal portion, and
taper off towards the margin of the carapace, so as to leave con-
siderable spaces between them, which are covered only by the
horny epidermal shields, or, in some instances, by a leathery
skin ; in these cases, however, the marginal plates are completely
developed.
Externally, the centre of the carapace is composed of a single
series of bony plates, supported upon the spinous processes of the
vertebras, of which they have been considered as mere expansions.
It appears, however, that these also partly belong to the dermal
system, the spinous processes only taking part in the formation of
eight of these plates (the second to the ninth), whilst the first, or
nuchal jilate, and some of the last of the central plates of the cara-
pace, are entirely developed in the corium.
The plastron, which usually consists of four pairs of bony plates,
and of a single median one, is regarded as consisting of a greatly
expanded sternum, probably united with peculiar dermal ossifica-
tions ; it is usually firmly attached by suture with the marginal plates
of the carapace, and thus forms a solid bony box, open at each ex-
tremity. The outer surface of the whole of this bony case is covered
with numerous horny epidermal plates, which vary greatly in number
Fig. 1671. — Skeleton of a Tortoise, with the plastron removed.
cv, cervical vertebra; ; co, coracoid bone ; dv, dorsal vertebrae ; r, ribs ; mt,
marginal plates ; /, tibia ; /, pelvis ; /, fibula ; /•, femur ; s, scapula :
d, clavicle.
size, and form, and by no means correspond in their arrano-ement
with the bony plates beneath them. They, however, present some
analogy in this respect, the horny plates of the carapace being gene-
rally divisible into three groups— namely, a central series, 'Cai'dorsal
shields ; a series on each side of these, the lateral shields ; and a
series surrounding the whole carapace, the marginal shields.
From either extremity of the fixed portion of the vertebral column,
which, with its appendages, constitute the case or shell of these
Animals, projects a flexicle portion of the same column. The
anterior flexilale portion consists of the cervical vertebra;, which are
quite destitute of transverse processes, and are thus endowed with
so much freedom of motion, that, although the neck is not unfre-
quently of considerable length, it can frequently be retracted,
together with the head, beneath the carapace. The skull is of a
semi-oval form, abruptly truncated behind, and somewhat pointed in
front, and the orous are completely enclosed. The jaws are strong',
but short, and the upper jaw and palatine bones are firmly attached
to the skull. Tlierc is no appearance of teeth in any part of the
mouth, but the jaws are very sharp at the edge, and covered with
horny plates, so that they present a considerable resemblance to the
beak of a Bird. The tail, or posterior movable portion of the verte-
bral column, is composed of numerous vertebrm ; it is usually short
and tapering, but sometimes attains a considerable length.
The most singular point in the remaining osteology of these
Animals, is the fact that the scapular arch, wliich is usually applied
to the exterior of the ribs, is here completely hidden witliin the bony
case. The scapula, or shoulder-blade, articulates with the carapace,
and the clavicle with the plastron, and there is a third bone of large
size (fi^Q coracoid bone) , which assists in the formation of the shoulder-
joint, but instead of articulating with the sternum, as in the Birds,
has its posterior extremity free. The pelvic arch is immovably
attached to the interior of the carapace. The limbs are always four
in number, and fully developed, but short and stout ; they exhibit
several modifications of form, which are characteristic of the different
families. All these movable portions of the Animals are merely
covered with a sort of scaly skin.
In their general internal structure the Chelonia agree pretty
closely with the other Reptiles. The heart is composed of three
cavities, the partition between the ventricles being very incomplete,
so that the venous and arterial blood can mix freely in that cavity.
The lungs are of very large size, and extend far into the cavity of
the body ; but as the ribs are immovable, respiration is effected, as
in the Batrachia (which are destitute of those bones), by a process
very analogous to swallowing. The tongue is short, fleshy, and
completely movable ; the ears are distinctly visible, and the eyes
well formed, and furnished with movable lids. The urinary bladder
is of large size, and discharges its contents into the cloaca, which
also contains the male generative organ, and opens by a longitu-
dinal slit, or a circular orifice, in the base of the tail.
The Chelonian Reptiles are usually sluggish and inactive Animals,
the slowness of the terrestrial species being even proverbial. They
are, however, exceedingly tenacious of life ; they will live for a long
period without any nourishment, and will even continue to give signs
of life for some time after they have been deprived of their heads.
They are found principally in the warmer regions of the earth, where
they generally subsist upon vegetable substances, although many of
the Aquatic species also devour small Animals. They arc Oviparous,
and the eggs are covered with a hard shell.
Sub-divisions. — These Reptiles may be divided into five families.
In the CheloniidcB, or Turtles, which are pre-eminently aquatic in
their habits, the limbs are all converted into large, flattened, fin-like
organs, the toes being completely concealed by a common skin.
The anterior pair of members is always considerably longer than the
posterior, and both the anterior and posterior limbs are frequently
furnished with one or two nails on the outer margin, which, however,
sometimes disappear as the Animal increases in age. The bony
case of these Animals is too small for the reception of the head and
limbs, and these parts are, consequently, always more or less pro-
truded. The ribs are narrowed towards the extremity, so as to have
spaces between them at that point, and the bony plates, of which
the plastron is composed, are also separated by intervals, which are
filled up with cartilage. The head is flattened above, and the jaws
horny, very sharp, and beak.like. The following is a description of
some of the best known species : — •
The Green Turtle {Chelonia midas). — The Turtles are found
in all the seas of the warm climates, but principally towards the
Torrid zone in the Equinoctial ocean ; on the shores of the Antilles,
Cuba, Jamaica, the Caiman Islands, and Hayti ; in the Atlantic
Ocean ; at the Cape de Verd and Ascension Islands ; in the Indian
Ocean ; at the Isles of France, Madagascar, Seychelles, and
Rodriguez ; at Vera Cruz, in the Gulf of Mexico ; and at the Sand-
wich and Galapagos Islands, in the Pacific Ocean. Often are they
seen slumbering motionless on a calm sunlit sea, several hundred
miles from land. They have their favourite breeding-places, to
which thousands periodically resort, often travelling thither from
immense distances. The eggs of most of the species are excellent,
but the albuminous portion, or "white," does acquire firmness by
boiling. Of the estimation in which the flesh of the Green Turtle
is held, little need be said : in our island it is a luxury, but it also
forms a useful and salutary portion of the stores of vessels engaged
in the commerce of the Tropical and Southern seas. It is the
Hawksbill Turtle [Chelonia imbricata) which furnishes the horny
plates, covering the carapace, known under the name of tortoiseshell.
This will be subsequently described.
Most of the Turtles feed upon various marine plants, and dive to
tear them up from their beds ; some however, feed upon Crustacea,
Shell-fish, Cuttle-fishes, Echini, &c., as the Hawksbill, Logg-erhead,
and Leathery kinds. They exhale a musky odour. Audubon says
" The hawksbilled species feeds on sea-weeds, crabs, various kinds
of shell-fish, and fishes ; the loggerhead mostly on the fish of conch-
shells of large size, which by means of its powerful beak it is enabled
to crush to pieces, apparently with as much ease as a man cracks a
7IIE TURTLES.
6C3
■walnut. The trunk (leathery) turtle feeds on mollusca, fish crus-
taceous animals, sea urchins (echini), and various marine plants."
Most, especially the Leathery Turtle, utter, when entangled in
nets, or when wounded, loud roars, resounding to a great distance.
It is on a low sandy beach that the Turtles deposit their eggs,
taking care that they are placed beyond high water mark. " On
rearing the shore," says M. Audubon, "and mostly on fine calm
moonlight nights, the turtle raises her head above the water, being
still distant thirty or forty yards from the beach, looks around her,
and attentively examines the objects on shore. Should she observe
nothing likely to disturb her intended operations, she emits a loud
hissing sound, by which such of her enemies as are unaccustomed
to it are startled, and so apt to remove to another place, although
unseen by her, Should she hear any more noise, or perceive any
indications of danger, she instantly sinks and goes off to a distance ;
but should everything be quiet, she advances slowly towards the
beach, crawls over it, her head raised to the full stretch of her neck,
and when she has reached a place fitted for her purpose she gazes
all around in silence. Finding all well, she proceeds to form a. hole
in the sand, which she efi'ects by removing it from under her body
with her hind-flappers, scooping it out with so much dexterity that the
sides seldom if ever fall in. The sand is raised alternately with
each flapper, as with a large ladle, until it has accumulated behind
her, when, supporting herself with her head and fore-part on the
ground, she with a spring from each flapper sends the sands around
her, scattering it to the distance of several feet. In this manner the
hole is dug to the depth of eighteen inches or sometimes more than
two feet. This labour I have seen performed in the short period of
nine minutes. The eggs are then dropped one by one, and disposed
in regular layers, to the number of one hundred and fifty, or
sometimes nearly two hundred. The whole time spent in this
operation may be about twenty minutes. She now scrapes the loose
sand back over the eggs, and so levels and smooths the surface,
that few persons seeing the spot would imagine that anything had
been d(5ne to it. This accomplished to her mind, she retreats to
the water with all possible despatch, leaving the hatching of the
eggs to the heat of the sand. When a turtle or loggerhead, for
example, is in the act of dropping her eggs, she will not move,
although one should go up to her, or even seat himself on her back ;
but the moment it is finished, off she starts, nor would it then be
possible for one, unless he were as strong as Hercules, to turn her
over and secure her."
It is at this period that the Turtle fishery is carried on. " In
spite," says Count Lacepede, " of the darkness which is chosen by
the female tortoises for concealment when employed in laying their
eggs, they cannot effectually escape from the pursuit of their
enemies ; the fishers wait for them on the shore, at the beginning of
the night, especially when it is moonlight, and, as they come from
the sea, or as they return after laying their eggs, they either despatch
them with blows of a club, or turn them quickly over on their backs,
not giving them time either to defend themselves, or to blind their
assailants, by throwing up the sand with their fins. When very
large, it requires the efforts of several men to turn them over, and
they must often employ the assistance of handspikes or levers for
that purpose. The buckler of this species is so flat as to render it
impossible for the animal to recover the recumbent posture, when it
is once turned on its back.
" A small number of fishers may turn over forty or fifty tortoises,
full of eggs, in less than three hours. During the day, they are
employed in securing those which they had caught in the preceding
night. They cut them up, and salt the flesh and the eggs. Some-
times they may extract above thirty pints of a yellow or greenish oil
from one large individual ; this is employed for burning, or, when
fresh, is used with different kinds of food. Sometimes they drag the
tortoises they have caught, on their backs, to enclosures, in which
they are reserved for occasional use.
"The tortoise-fishers from the West Indies and the Bahamas,
who catch these animals on the coast of Cuba and its adjoining
islands, particularly the Caimans, usually complete their cargoes in
six weeks or two months ; they afterwards return to their own islands
with the salted turtle, which is used for food, both by the whites and
the negroes. This salt turtle is in as great request in the American
colonies as the salted cod of Newfoundland is in man)' parts of
Europe ; and the fishing is followed by all these colonists, particu-
larly by the British, in small vessels, on various parts of the coast of
Spanish America, and the neighbouring desert islands.
" The green turtle is likewise often caught at sea in calm weather,
and in moonlight nights. For this purpose two men go together in
a small boat, which is rowed by one of them, while the other is pro-
vided with a harpoon, similar to that used for killing whales.
Whenever they discover a large tortoise, by the froth which it
occasions on the water in rising to the surface, they hasten to the
spot as quickly as possible, to prevent it from escaping. The
harpooner immediately throws his harpoon with sufficient force to
penetrate through the buckler to the flesh ; the tortoise instantly
dives, and the fisher gives out a line, which is fi,\ed to the harpoon,
and when the tortoise is spent with loss of blood, it is hauled into the
boat or on shore."
The H.\WK's-niLL Turtle {Chchnia imbricata). La Caret,
Lacepede. — I his species is well known, and much sought after for
the sake of the scales of the carapace, which are the Tortoiseshell
of commerce; and which are cruelly separated from the living
animal by presenting the convex surface to a glowing fire ; as is
done at Exeter Island, and other places, where the fishery of this
Animal is earned on. It appears that after this barbarous operation
the poor creatures are set at liberty, in order, as the shell grows
again, that another crop of tortoiseshell may, in a future year, be
taken; thesecond shell, however, is ver/ thin and inferior. The
eggs of this Turtle are excellent, but the flesh is bad. The Hawk's-
bill Turtle is not only an inhabitant of the warmer latitudes of the
American seas, it frequents the Islands of Bourbon, the Seychelles,
Amboyna, New Guinea, and the Indian Seas. Some instances arc
on record of its having been captured on our shores. It attains to a
large size, but seldom equals the Green Turtle, just described. (Sec
Fig. 1672.)
Fig. 1672.— The Ilawk's-biU Tuitlc,
The Leathery Turtle {Spargis coriacca; Testudo lyra,
Bechst). Tortue Luth of the French.
In the ^e.nw^ Spargis the osseus structure of the carapace and
plastron is covered with a leathery skin, instead of plates, tuber-
culous in the young, smooth in adults, with seven longitudinal-
ridged dorsal lines, slightly serrated. The plastron has five tuber-
culous ridges. The paddles have no distinct nails. In the
Leathery Turtle the muzzle is pointed, the jaws are of enormous
power, and the upper has an acute tooth-like prominanco at the
anterior part on each side, with a deep indentation behind, and a
triangular excavation anteriorly between the two teeth, for the recep-
tion of the sharp turned-up apex of the lower jaw. The opening of
the eyelids is almost vertical, and when closed the edge of the
posterior (or lower) covers that of the anterior. The anterior paddles
are immensely developed. This gigantic Tortoise occasionally
weighs from t, 600 to 1,700 pounds; and stray individuals have been
captured both on our shores and those of the adjacent continent,
w-eighing 700 or 800. This species is found in the Atlantic, the
Pacific, and Indian Oceans. It regularly visits the Tortugas, or
Turtle islands of Florida, for the purpose of depositing its eggs,
arriving there, according to Audubon, later than the other species,
and being, moreover, less cautious in choosing a place for their con-
cealment. The number of eggs which it deposits is about 350, in
two sets. It is occasionally seen in the Mediterranean, and is saiil
by Latreille to breed on the sandy shores of Barbary. When
attacked and wounded, this Turtle utters loud and piercing cries,
which have been heard at the distance of a quarter of a league.
Though very fat, the flesh is coarse and hard, and has been known
to produci* most severe effects in persons who have partaken of it ;
we cannot, however, affirm that it is poisonous. (See Fig. 1673.)
Fig. 1673. — The Leatheiy Tiirllc.
664
THE TURTLES.
The Loggerhead Turtle.— One of the largest species is the
Loggerhead Turtle [C/!elo>tia ca/'c/fa), which presents some resem-
blance to the Hawk's-bill Turtle in the form of its upper jaw. This
Animal not only inhabits the seas of the Tropics, but also extends to
a considerable distance beyond those regions, and occurs not unfre-
quently in the Mediterranean. Its size is sometimes enormous :
Dr. Shaw mentions a skull of this species, which measured more than
a foot in length, and was said to have been obtained from a speci-
men weighing above 1,600 pounds. If is exceedingly voracious,
feeding principally upon AIolluscu, the shells of which it crushes
between its powerful jaws. Its flesh is good for nothing, and its
epidermal scales are thin, and want the beauty which causes those
of the Hawk's-bill Turtle to be so highly prized ; but it furnishes a
a considerable quantity of an oil that burns well. (Fig. 1674 repre-
sents its skeleton.)
Fig. 1674, — Skeleton of the Loggerhead Turtle.
In the second family, the Trionycidce, or Soft Tortoises, the cara-
pace is still more incomplete than in the Turtles, the ribs being only
expanded and united at the base, and running out to the margin in
the form of the spokes of a wheel. This imperfect carapace is
covered with a tough leathery skin, which is flexible at the margin ;
and, as in the Turtles, the head and limbs are incapable of being
retracted within the bony case. The head is rather small, and
pointed in front ; the neck is very long ; the horny jaws are covered
with fleshy lips ; and the nostrils are produced into a short cylindrical
trunk. The feet are all short, and strong, furnished with five toes,
which are united by a strong web, three on each foot being furnished
with claws.
The Soft Tortoises live in the rivers of the warmer parts of Asia
and Africa, and one or two species are found in the North American
waters. They are active predaceous Animals, feeding principally
upon Fish, but occasionally concealing themselves amongst the reeds
and sedges of the banks, whence tliey rush out and seize Birds and
small Reptiles. Thus the Trionyx ferox, or Snapping Turtle (Fig.
1675), which inhabits the rivers and lakes of North America, destroys
Fig. 1675.— The Snapping Turtle;
great quantities of young Alligators; and another species, the
Trionyx iitloticiis, which is found in the African fresh waters, is
said to be equally destructive to the young of the Crocodile. They
seize their prey by suddenly darting forward the long neck, and.
when provoked, the Trionyx fcrox bites very severely ; it is even
said occasionally to attack men when bathing, and to bite pieces
out of them. Its flesh is said to be superior to that of any of the
Chclonia.
The ChelydidcB, which form the third family, present a considerable
resemblance to the Trionycidce ; but the head and neck are capable
of being retracted to a certain extent beneath the carapace, which is
covered with horny shields. The head is broad and depressed, with
the nose usually prolonged into a. proboscis, and the mouth is
furnished with soft lips ; both the head and neck are frequently
adorned with membranous lobes of remarkable forms. The feet,
which are not capable of being retracted within the shell, are short
and stout, furnished with five toes, which are more or less united
by a web, and either four or five of them are always armed with claws.
Like the Soft Turtles, these Animals live in the ponds and rivers
of warm climates, where they feed principally upon Fish. The
species figured, Clielys matamata (Fig. 1676), is an inhabitant of
South America, and was formerly very abundant in the rivers of
Guiana ; but it is said to have become scarce in that locality, from
the great numbers that are taken for the sake of their flesh, which is
considered very good.
Fig. 1676.— The Matamata.
Nearly allied to these is the great family of the Emydidcs, the
species of which are very generally distributed over the globe. They
agree with the preceding in the structure of the feet, but the cara-
pace is completely ossified, and its bones united by sutures ;
the jaws are horny, and destitute of lips ; and the head and
neck can be completely retracted within the front of the shell. The
nostrils are placed at the apex of the snout, but not prolonged into a
proboscis.
Like the preceding families, the Emydidcs are principally aquatic
in their habits, although their feet are certainly well adapted for
terrestrial progression. They feed upon small Fishes and Aquatic
Insects, and are generally of small size. They are found most abun-
dantly in warm climates, but some of the species extend far into the
temperate regions of the earth, several being inhabitants of the
North American continent, whilst two are found in Europe, of which
one occurs as far north as Prussia. The most remarkable species
are the Box Tortoises {Cistudo), in which the plastron is divided by
a transverse suture into two portions, united together, and, with the
carapace, by elastic ligaments, so that they are capable of being
brought close to the carapace, closing the apertures of the shell
completely when the Animal is retracted. In some other species, on
the contrary, such as the Alligator Tortoise {Chelydea serpeaiina)
of North America, the limbs and feet are too large to be retracted
within the shell.
The Alligator Tortoise {Emysaurus serpetiiinus ; Chelydea
serpe>iti)ia. Schweigger). — This extraordinary species seems to unite
initsaspectthe forms of the Tortoise and Crocodile. Its jaws arc
strong and hooked ; its head large and covered with small plates ;
its neck long, powerful, and capable of being retracted ; its limbs are
thick ; and the feet are armed with five robust claws before, four
behind ; the tail is long, and surmounted by a scaly crest, and
neither this nor the limbs are capable of being retracted within the
shell ; along the back of the fore-limbs hangs a loose expansion of
coarse granulated skin ; two small barbies, or rounded excrescences,
are under the chin. The plastron is small, but immovable.
The aspect of this Animal is ferocious, and its character accords
with its aspect ; it is a native of the lakes, rivers, and morasses of
Carolina, and when adult, attains to very large dimensions, and is
much to be dreaded. It swims with great rapidity, and pursues
Fish with avidity, tearing them in pieces by means of its talons. It
also lurks amidst the luxuriant herbage of oozy swamps, or the reedy
vegetation about the margin of rivers and lakes, ready to pounce
upon Aquatic Birds, or other Animals which come within its reach,
and upon which it suddenly darts, catching them with a snap of its
formidable mandibles. Mr. Bell records that he has known a stick
of half an inch in diameter at once snapped asunder by the jaws of
one of this species ; and, as we can afiirm, it is not safe to approach
them unguardedly, they will not only snap at the hands, if brought
too near them, but repeat the attack, with every demonstration of
malice. The individual which came under our observation was very
young, and only two feet six inches in length ; yet, from the strength
and fierceness it displayed, we were easily enabled to form an i.lja
IHE TORTOISES.
065
of the danger to be apprehended, in the case of a person, in the
midst of one of the morasses of Carolina, suddenly coming in
contact with an adult of large dimensions lurking in his hiding-place.
The carapace of this species is of an oblong figure, depressed,
with three longitudinal ridges above ; the general colour is brown ;
the jaws and head are of an olive tint. (See Fig. 1677.)
Fig. 1677.— The Alligator Tortoise.
The last family is that of the Tcsticdinidcc, or Land Tortoises, in
which the carapace is convex and solid, the ribs being united to-
gether throughout their length ; the plastron is also solid ; the feet
short, stout, and somewhat clubbed ; the toes being almost entirely
concealed under the skin, and terminated by blunt nails, there being
usually five upon each of the anterior, and four upon each of the
posterior feet. The head is rather small, and covered with shields ;
the jaws are horny, and destitute of lips. The head, limbs, and tail
can be completely retracted within the cavity of the shell, and, in
some cases, the plastron is furnished with movable lobes, by which
the aperture can be completely closed. The surface of the carapace
is covered with horny shields, which touch each other at the edges,
and exhibit concentric lines of growth ; at the hinder part of the
carapace, immediately over the tail, the shields {caudal shields),
which in the preceding families are usually separate, are here
united into a single broad plate. The Land Tortoises are generally
of small size. They are terrestrial in their general habits, although
most of them can swim when immersed in the water. They are very
slow in their movements, and live entirely upon vegetable matter.
Like the rest of the Chelonian Reptiles, they are far more abun-
dant in warm than in temperate climates ; a single species only, the
Teshido grcrca (Fig. 1678), is found in Europe, and this is confined
to the countries bordering the Mediterranean. It is this species
that may be so frequently seen hawked about the streets of London
during the summer, and that are sold for a few pence each.
Fig. 1678.— Common European Tortoise— from above <?, and below h.
One of the largest species is the Tcsttido uidtca, or Indian
Tortoise, which sometimes attains a length of three feet ; and a
species of equal size, inhabiting the Galapagos Islands, has been
described by Dr. Gray under the name of Testudo plankcps. The
Indian Tortoise is also found in those Islands, and Mr. Darwin has
given the following interesting account of its habits. Fig. 1679 re-
presents the skull of this Tortoise.
The day on which Mr. Darwin visited the little craters in the
Galapagos Archipelago was glowing hot, and the scrambling over
the rough surface, and through the intricate thickets, was very
fatiguing. "But," says Mr. Darwin, "I was well repaid by the
Cyclopean scene. In my walk I met two large tortoises, each of
which must have weighed at least two hundred pounds. One was
eating a piece of cactus, and when I approached, it looked at me,
and then quietly walked away ; the other gave a deep hiss and drew in
his head. These huge reptiles, surrounded by the black lava, the leaf-
less shrubs, and large cacti, resemble some antediluvian animals."
Mr. Darwin states his belief that these Tortoises are found in
all the islands of the Archipelago ; certainly in the greater number;
and thus continues his description :— " They frequent, in preference,
the high damp parts, but likewise inhabit the lower and arid districts.
Some individuals grow to an immense size. Mr. Lawson, an
Englishman, who had, at the time of our visit, charge of the colony,
told us that he had seen several so large that it required six or eight
men to lift them from the ground, and that some had afforded as
much as two hundred pounds of meat. The old males are the
largest, the females rarely growing to so great a size. The male can
readily be distinguished from the female by the greater length of its
tail. The tortoises which live on those islands where there is no
water, or in the lower and arid parts of the others, chiefly feed on
the succulent cactus. Those which frequent the higlier and damp
regions eat the leaves of various trees, a kind of berry (called guay-
avita) which is acid and austere, and likewise a pale green
filamentous lichen, that hangs in tresses from the boughs of the trees.
" The tortoise is very fond of water, drinking large quantities, and
wallowing in the mud. The larger islands alone possess springs,
and these are always situated towards the central parts, and at a
considerable elevation. The tortoises, therefore, which frequent the
lower districts, when thirsty, are obliged to travel from a long dis-
tance. Hence, broad and well-beaten paths radiate off in every
Fig. 1679. — Skull of the Indian Tortoise.
direction from the wells even down to the sea-coast ; and the
Spaniards, by following them up, first discovered the w-atering-
places. When I landed at Chatham Island, I could not imagine
what animal travelled so methodically along the well-chosen tracks.
Near the springs it was a curious spectacle to behold many of these
great monsters ; one set eagerly travelling onwards with outstretched
necks, and another set returning, after having drunk their fill.
When the the tortoise arrives at the spring, quite regardless of any
spectator, it buries its head in the water above its eyes, and greedily
swallows great mouthfuls, at the rate of about ten in a minute. The
inhabitants say that each animal stays three or four days in the
neighbourhood of the water, and then returns to the lower country ;
but they differed in their accounts respecting the frequency of these
visits. The animal probably regulates them according to the nature
of the food which it has consumed. It is, however, certain that tor-
toises can subsist even on those islands where there is no other
water than what falls during a few rainy days in the year.
"I believe it is well ascertained that the bladder of the frog acts
as a reservoir for the moisture necessary to its existence ; such seems
to be the case with the tortoise. For some time after a visit to the
springs, the bladder of these animals is distended with fluid, which
is said gradually to decrease in volume, and to become less pure.
The inhabitants, when walking in the lower district, and overcome
with thirst, often take advantage of this circumstance, by killing a
tortoise, and if the bladder is full, drinking its contents. In one I
saw killed, the fluid was quite limpid, and had only a very slightly
bitter taste. The inhabitants, however, always drink first the water
in the pericardium, which is described as being best. The tortoises,
when moving towards any definite point, travel by night and by day,
and arrive at their journey's end much sooner than would be ex-
pected. The inhabitants, from observation on marked individuals,
consider that they can move a distance of about eight miles in two
or three days. One large tortoise which I watched, I found walked
at the rate of sixty yards in ten minutes, that is, three hun-
dred and sixty in the hour, or four miles a day — allowing also a little
time for it to eat on the road. During the breeding season, when
the male and female are together, the male utters a hoarse roar or
bellowing, which, it is said, can be heard at the distance of more
than a hundred yards. The female never uses her voice, and the
male only at such times ; so that when the people hear this noise,
they know that the two are together. They w^ere at this time
(October) laying their eggs. The female, where the soil is sand,
deposits them together, and covers them up with sand ; but where
the ground is rocky, she drops them indiscriminately in any hollow.
Mr. Bynoe found seven placed in a line in a fissure. The egg is
white and spherical , one which I measured was seven inches and
three-eighths in circumterenee. The young animals, as soon
4Q
666
THE FROG TRIBE, OR BATRACHIA.
as they are hatched, fall a prey in great numbers to the buzzard
with the habits of the caracara. The old ones seem generally to die
from accidents, as from falling down precipices. At least several of
the inhabitants told me they had never found one dead without some
such apparent cause. The inhabitants believe that these animals are
absolutely deaf ; certainly they do not overhear a person walking
close behind them. I was always amused, when overtaking one of
these great monsters as it was quietly pacing along, to see how sud-
denly, the instant I passed, it would draw in its head and legs, and
uttering a deep hiss, fall to the ground with a heavy sound, as if
struck dead. I frequently got on their backs, and then, upon giving
a few raps on the hinder part of the shell, they would rise up and
walk away ; but I found it very difBcuIt to keep my balance. The
flesh of this animal is largely employed, both fresh and salted ; and
a beautifully clear oil is prepared from the fat. When a tortoise is
caught, the man makes a slit in the skin near its tail, so as to see
inside its body, whether the fat under the dorsal plate is thick. If
it is not, the animal is liberated ; and it is said to recover soon from
this strange operation. In order to secure the tortoises it is not
sufficient to turn them like turtle, for they are often able to regain
their upright position.
" It was confidently asserted that the tortoises coming from
different islands in the archipelago were slightly different in form ;
and that in certain islands they attained a larger average size than
in others. Mr. Lawson maintained that he could at once tell from
which island any one was brought. Unfortunately, the specimens
wliich came home in the Beagle, were to 5 small to institute any cer-
tain comparison. This tortoise which goes by the name of Tcsfiido
indicus, is at present found in many parts of the world. It is the
opinion of Mr. Boll and some others who have studied reptiles, that
it is not improbable that they all originally came from this archi-
pelago. When it is known how long these islands have been fre-
quented by the buccaneers, and that they constantly took away
numbers of these animals alive, it seems very probable that they
should have distributed them in different parts of the world. If this
tortoise does not originally come from these islands, it is a reiriark-
able anomaly ; inasmuch as nearly all the other land inhabitants
seem to have their birthplace here."
Fossil Tortoises. — Small as the existing species of Tortoises
are, it appears that in former periods of the earth's history, at least
one species of gigantic size belonging to this family, dragged its
ponderous bulk over the soil of India ; this is the ColossocJielys atlas,
the remains of which were discovered in the SewaUc Hills by Fal-
coner and Cautley. Those gentlemen thought it possible that this gi-
gantic Reptile, which measured about eighteen feet in length, probably
existed down to the human era, and that it may thus have given rise
to the extraordinary traditions of the Hindoos, which attribute most
important parts in the creation of the world to gigantic Tortoises.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
CLASS IV.— BATRACHIA— FROGS, ETC.
OR reasons already stated in the pre-
ceding chapter, the Batraciiia or Frog
Tribe have been separated by naturalists
from the Rcptilia. In fact, as will ap-
pear in further description, they really
form a kind of connecting link between
the Fishes and Reptiles, both in their
functions and habits of life, and afford a
distinct transition from the strictly Aquatic
Fishes to the strictly Air-breathing Rep-
tiles. As might be expected in a group
of this nature, the forms, and even the
organisation of the Animals composing it,
are exceedingly various. Thus, in the
lower orders, which approach most closely to the
preceding class, we meet with completely Fish-like
creatures, possessing permanent branchis, and in
which the limbs are reduced to a rudimentary con-
dition, and the tail is flattened and surrounded by a
fin. Indeed, zoologists are still divided in opinion
as to whether one of these orders should be referred
to this or the preceding class. With the exception of
a remarkable order of Apodal Terrestrial Animals, we
find that, as we advance in the class, the limbs are gradually more
and more developed, and fitted more especially for terrestrial pro-
gression ; many of the higher forms are capable of very active
motion on the ground, and some even have their habitual residence
in trees.
The structure of the skeleton also exhibits great differences. The
spinal column in some is composed of a continuous chorda dorsalis,
inclosed in a fibrous sheath, but furnished with bony superior and
inferior arches, for the protection of the spinal cord and principal
blood-vessels. In others, we meet with a repetition of the vertebral
column of the Bony Fishes, composed of separate vertebra;, of which
the bodies contain double conical cavities ; whilst in the highest
forms, the vertebra; are articulated together by a sort of ball-and-
socket joint. The vertebra; are usually furnished with long trans-
verse processes, which appear to take the place of ribs; the
latter arc deficient throughout the whole class. The development
of the skull partakes of this variable character. In the species with
a chorda dursalis, the skull is formed of a simple cartilaginous
capsule, with which the chorda is completely continuous ; and the
only indications of ossification are to be found in the lateral portions
of the occipital bone. In the higher forms the skull is completely
ossiiied ; it is always of a broad and flattened form, with enormously
large orbits, and possesses one constant character, which enables us
to distinguish readily between the skull of a Batrachian and that of
a True Reptile ; the occipital bone is always furnished with two
lateral condyles, which fit into corresponding sockets in the first
vertebra of the neck. The bones of the upper jaw and palate form a
broad arch, which is always firmly attached to the skull ; the maxil-
lai-y and intermaxillary bones assist in the formation of the edge of
the mouth, and both these and the palatine bones arc usually fur-
nished with teeth. The lower jaw is articulated to a bony process,
which usually projects more or less backwards from its point of
attachment to the skull, so that the opening of the mouth may not
unfrequently extend beyond the base of the skull. The hyoid bone
is generally of considerable size, and, in many cases, gives attach-
ment to a series of branchial arches, which, however, rarely reach
the skull, and in the higher forms are reduced to a rudimentary
condition.
Very few of the Bdtrdchia are quite destitute of limbs, but several
possess only a single pair. In the most Fish-like forms, the an-
terior limbs are attached, as in the Fishes, to the back of the skull ;
but in all the others the scapular arch is distinct. The structure of
the pelvic arch, and the development of the movable bones of the
limbs, vary greatly in the different orders into which the class is
divided ; but as their modifications will be described in charac-
terising those groups, it will be unnecessary to dwell further upon
them here.
In the majority of the Batrachia, the skin is smooth and naked.
It is composed of a soft corium, which usually lies loosely about the
body, and is covered b}' a thin colourless epidermis ; it frequently
contains numerous glandular organs, which secrete an acrid fluid of
a disagreeable odour. A few species are covered with minute horny
scales, resembling those of the Bony Fishes in their structure and
arrangement ; and some have larger scales of a peculiar composite
nature, which have been regarded as analogous with those of the
Ganoid Fishes.
In the development of the nervous system and the organs of the
senses, the Batrachia, as a class, exhibit a slight advance upon the
Fishes ; and the cerebral hemispheres, generally, constitute the
greater part of the brain. The nasal cavities are separated by a
partition, and always open into the mouth. The eyes are sometimes
rudimentary, and even concealed beneath the skin ; but, in most of
these Animals the organs of sight are well formed. In the Frogs
they are e.xceedingly movable, protected by eyelids, and furnished
with a nictitating membrane. In most of the Tailed Batrachia, the
ear exhibits but little advance from the condition of that organ in
Fishes ; but in the Frogs it has an external opening furnished with
a tympanic membrane ; and the labyrinth consists of three semi-
circular canals, and a sac, which is filled with microscopic calcareous
crystals.
The mouth in these Animals is always of large size, and, in most
cases, armed with small conical teeth. In a few species the jaws
are unarmed ; and, in others, the teeth are m the form of small
perpendicular plates. The tongue is usually of large size, and is
often capable of being protruded from the mouth to a considerable
distance, when it is employed in the capture of Insects. The intes-
tinal canal is short ; the liver is large, and usually divided into
two lobes ; the gall-bladder, pancreas, and spleen are always
present.
The structure of the respiratory organs indicates more clearly than
any other part of their organisation, the intermediate nature of these
THE FROG TRIBE.
6C7
Animals. They all possess lungs ; but during their young or larval
condition, they arc always furnished -with branching, and these, in
many instances, are persistent throughout the life of the animal.
The form and arrangement of the branchial organs will be
described hereafter. The heart is composed of three chambers, a
single muscular ventricle, and two membranous auricles ; but, in
some species, the partition between the latter is imperfect. The
arterial bulb is surrounded by a distinct muscular coat, as in the
Ganoid and Selachian Fishes ; and from the continuation of this,
the arteries running to the branchia; and lungs are given off.
The DafracJiia are all strictly Oviparous Animals, although, in
some species, the eggs are retained in or upon the body of the parent,
until the young have attained a certain degree of development. As
a general rule, the ova are impregnated by the male at the
moment of their leaving the abdomen of the female ; the eggs are
united by a glutinous matter into masses or long chains, which
may be constantly seen floating in the waters frequented by these
Animals.
The development of the young exhibits many points of great
interest. On leaving the &gg, the young Animals are very different
in form from their parents, and
they undergo a considerable series
of transformations before arriving
at their final state. In their
earliest stage (Fig. 1680 a) they
are well known as Tadpoles —
little. Fish-like creatures, with
broad heads, followed immediately
by a sac-like belly, and terminat-
ing posteriorly in a long com-
pressed tail. The mouth is
placed at the lower part of the
front of the head, and is fur-
nished with a pair of horny jaws,
with which the little creatures feed
upon the animalcula which form its
nourishment.
Whilst still very young, the
Tadpole is furnished with external
gills ; these soon disappear in the
young of the Frog ; but in the
Tadpoles of the Newts they re-
main for some time, and acquire
considerable size (Fig. 1681.) As
the Tadpole increases in size, the
acquires greater breadth ;
Fig. 16S0.-
-Development of the
Frog.
a. Tadpole in its first stage ; b, with tai
hind legs ; c, with two pairs of legs and, by degrees, the limbs ;burst
and well-developed tail ; </, young forth. It is remarkable that in
Frog, with the remains of the tail ; the Frogs the hinder legs are the
e, when completely developed. first to make their appearance
(Fig. 1680, b), whilst in the Newts,
the fore-legs precede the posterior pair. In the Tadpole of the
Frog, the hind-legs generally appear some little time before the
others ; and even after the fore-limbs have been developed, the tail
still continues to be the principal organ of motion (c, Fig. 1680);
but when these are fully formed, the large tail gradually disappears ;
and even before it has quite gone, the young Frogs often quit the
water (^/, Fig. 1680), and the remainder of the useless appendage is
got rid of afterwards (c, Fig. 1680). In the Newts, and the other
tailed ISatrachia. the process is very similar, except that the tail is
not cast off. But during the progress
of these external changes, modifica-
tions of a not less important character
are taking place in the internal organs.
The branchial apparatus at first exhibits
the arrangement shown in F'ig. 1682, in
which the circulation goes on exactly
as in the Fishes Thus the blood, driven
from the arterial bulb through the
branchix, is again collected in the bran-
chial veins, of which two pairs assist in
the formation of the great aorta of the
body, whilst the other pair is distributed
in the head. The pulmonary arteries
first make their appearance in a very
rudimentary form, springing from the
branchial vessels ; but, as the lungs arc
developed, and the aerial respiration
commences, they rapidly increase in
size, whilst the branchia; contract in the
same proportion. This condition of the
respiratory apparatus is shown in Fig.
1683, which may also be considered to represent the. state of these
organs in the Az//-ac/«'a with persistent branchia:. In the strictly
Air-breathing species, however, the change goes still further —
the branches (i, 2, 3) uniting the branchial arteries acquire a
much greater development, and gradually divert more and more o£ j
Fig. 16S1.— The T.idpole.
the blood from the branchia;, which quickly disappear altogether
(fig. 1684); the anterior branchial arches then become converted
into the arteries for the head and eyes, the second ,)air go to form
theaorta whilst the place of the third is taken by the pTeliminary
arteries, by the agency of which the whole business of respiration
IS now carried on. *^
«■» 2 o „„ „„ c ub 3
Fig. 1682.— Breathing Apparatus of the Larva of a Salamander.
a. the arterial bulb, giving rise to three pairs of biancliial artcrie.s "/' ; l>.
I, 2, 3, the three pairs of branchiae ; /, arteries running lo the liead, formed,
from the first branchial vein ; c, vessel formed by the union of the two
hinder branchial veins, and uniting with that of the other side to form the
aorta, av; «/, rudimentary pulmonary artery ; i, 2, 3, branches uniting the
branchial arteries and veins.
The Batrachia are essentially inhabitants of the warmer countries
of the earth ; they abound particularly in the Tropical zones.
Although they are by no means confined to the water, they are
always found in damp places, as moisture appears to be absolutely
necessary for their existence. The larvae feed entirely upon animal-
cula ; but the mature Animals derive their subsistence principally
Fig. 16S3. — The Vessels of the same Larva, after the commencement of aerial
respiration. The letters have the same meaning as in the preceding figure.
from Insects and Worms, in the capture of which they often display
great agility. In Temperate climates, they pass the winter in a
torpid state, buried in the mud of ponds and ditches, without food or
air; but, under other circumstances, tlie access of air rnust certainly
be necessary ; and the accounts which have repeatedly been given of
the occurrence of Toads in tlie heart of a solid block of stone, must
always be received with some little allowance for the surprise which
would naturally be created by the sudden appearance of the creature
in an unexpected situation, such as the inside of a tree, or of an
■ k
Fig. 1684.— The Vessels in the Perfect Animal.
668
THE FROG TRIBE— THE AXOLOTL.
aj>parently solid stone. It is well known that, under favourable
circumstances of air and moisture, the Toads will live for months with-
out food, so that if those two grand requisites be granted, we may
account for the most surprising of these cases without much difficulty.
Sub-divisions. — The class Bafrachia may be readily divided into
five very distinct orders — namely, the Lepidota, with a Fish-like
scaly body, four simple limbs, and permanent gills ; the Apoda, with
a Vermiform body and no legs; \he. Amphipncusta, with naked skin,
two or four legs, and permanent gills ; the Urodela, breathing by
lungs alone, and retaining the tail in the perfect state ; and the
Anura, in which the tail is wanting in the fully developed Animal.
Order I.— Lepidota.
This order includes only three singular Animals. The body is
completely Fish-like in its form,
Lepidosiren paradoxa.
covered with rounded scales, laid
over one another exactly like Fish
scales ; and immediately behind
the head there is a small branchial
aperture. The limbs are simple
styliform organs ; the anterior pair,
like the pectoral fins of a Fish,
being attached to the back of the
I head, and the fin that runs round
the posterior extremity of the body
is supported by a series of horny
rays. The scales with which the
body is covered are of a peculiar
structure ; they appear to be com-
posed of numerous small mosaic-
like pieces. The skeleton consists
of a continuous chorda, with bony
arches, and the skull is cartilaginous, with a few bony plates.
The teeth are in the form of perpendicular cutting plates. The
branchiffi are attached to three complete arches, between which
there is a similar number of slits opening into the pharynx, and there
are also two other arches which bear no branchial laminae. The
nasal cavities open into the mouth, and an opening into the
pharnyx leads to a pair of cellular lungs, which receive venous
blood from the heart, and return it, whenarterialised, into the aorta.
These cliaracters appear to prove that the Animals of this order
belong rather to the Batrachia than to the Fishes. Another impor-
tant character is, that one species, at least, possesses external
branchia: in the perfect state, a structure which does not occur in
any Fish.
Three species of this curious order are already known ; they are
found in tlie fresh waters of the hot regions of South America and
Africa. The South American species Lepidosiren paradoxa, (Fig.
1685) is between two and three feet in length ; and another species
(the L. an>iecfens), of about a foot long, is found in the Gambia.
During the dry season, these creatures bury themselves in the mud ;
and one of them is said to make itself a sort of nest, in which to pass
the period of torpidity. In these burrows they await the return of the
wet season, which recalls them to their aquatic life. The
Gambian species is said to pass nine months of the year in this
torpid state.
Order II.— Apoda.
The animals belonging to this order also present such anomalous
characters, that naturalists have long been doubtful whether they
should be placed amongst the Batrachia, or with the Snakes
amongst the Reptiles. In the form of the body they closely resemble
large Earth-worms ; they are totally destitute of limbs, and covered
with a soft, viscous skin,which is annulated and wrinkled, and contains
numerous minute horny scales, exactly resembling those of Fishes.
The mouth is of a moderate size ; the eyes very small, and sometimes
entirely wanting ; and the anus is situated at the hinder extremity
of the body, without the least indication of a tail.
The Apodal Batrachia form a single family, the CceciliidcB, so
called in consequence of the minute size and occasional absence of
the eyes. They live in the Tropical regions of both hemispheres,
where they burrow in marshy ground, like Earthworms, in pursuit of
the larvae of Insects, upon which they feed. The species generally
measure from one to two feet in length ; but Cuvier states that he
possessed the skeleton of a Cacilia which was more than six feet in
length, and contained two hundred and twenty-five vertebrae. (Fig.
1686 represents a species of this family, a illustrating the scaly
covering.)
Order III.— Amphipneusta.
General Characters. — This and the following order agree in
having the skin perfectly naked, the body elongated, and produced
behind into a permanent tail, and the limbs more or less developed.
The Amphipneusta are distinguished principally by the perma-
nent nature of the branchial organs already described when speaking
of the respiration of the Batrachia in general ; which project
from the sides of the neck during tlie whole life of the Animal. The
lungs, although existing, are in a comparatively rudimentary state,
and there can be no doubt that the respiration is essentially aquatic.
The eyes are always small, sometimes completely concealed beneath
the skin, but never furnished with eyelids; the legs are small and weak,
sometimes only two in number, and terminated by rudimentary toes.
Fig. 16S6. — The Two-banded Cacilia.
Sub-divisions. — These singular Animals, which are generally of
small size, are divisablc into two families, the Proteidce and the
Sirenida;. The former have a compressed tail, large branchiae, and
four legs. Of these the best known is the Proteus, or Hypoclithon
anguiiius, an extraordinary creature, which is only found in the sub-
terranean waters of some caves in the south of Europe (Carinthia,
and some other parts of the Austrian dominions). It is about afoot
long, and sometimes nearly three-quarters of an inch in diameter.
It is of a pale flesh colour, or perfectly white, with the exception of
the three pairs of branchial tufts, which are of a fine bright crimson ;
the body is cylindrical, and a good deal longer than the tail, which
is broad, and much compressed. The legs are very weak, and the
anterior pair terminate in three toes, the posterior in two. Although
apparently a weak and sluggish Animal, the Proteus swims with
considerable ease, with a leech-like undulation of the body ; and
like the Lepidosiren, it is said to bury itself in the mud, at the
bottom of its place of abode, when the water happens to dry up.
Several species of this group are found in different parts of
America ; of these, one of the most remarkable is the Axolotl
{Siredon pisci/orme), of which the following is a description : —
The Axolotl {Siredon pisciforme, Wagler ; Siren pisciformis,
Shaw ; Gyrinus edulis, Hernandez ; Mcnobranchiis pisciformis,
Harlan.) — This Fish-like amphibian is remarkable for the three long
fringed processes on each side of the neck, forming conspicuous gill-
tufts. The limbs are four ; the anterior are furnished with four toes,
the hinder with five ; there are teeth in both jaws as well as palatal
teeth, aggregated in numerous rows, and rasp-like, as in certain
Fishes ; the tail is compressed at the sides like that of a Water-Newt,
and furnished above and below by a membranous fin ; the muzzle is
blunt, and the eyes small. Referring to Fig. 1687 the sketch accom-
panying the figure represents the Under Jaw and Throat of the Animal
as seen from beneath, in order to show the singular form of the gills.
The Axolotl is a native of Mexico, and common in the lake sur-
rounding the city of that name ; and according to Baron Humboldt
is also found in cold waters of mountain lakes at a much greater
elevation above the level of the sea than the plain in which the city
of IVIexico is situated. This Animal is commonly sold in the markets
of that city, and is esteemed a luxury by the inhabitants ; it is
dressed after the manner of stewed Eels, and served up with a rich
sauce. Hernandez says that it is agreeable and wholesome. For a
long time the Axolotl was regarded as the Tadpole or larva of some
unknown Batrachian, and was so regarded by Cuvier, till he pre-
pared the last edition of his " Regne Animal," and even there he
seems to retain a degree of doubt respecting it.
The length of the Animal is from eight to ten inches ; the general
colour is uniform deep greyish-brown, everj'where thickly mottled
with small round black spots. The communications which open
from the gills into the mouth are four in number and of a size consi-
derably larger than in the allied genera. They are covered externally
by a species of operculum formed by a fold in the skin of the head.
The largest species appear to belong to the genus ilenobra/ichus,
of which one, the M. lateralis, which is found in the Great North
American lakes, attains a length of from two to three feet.
The Sirenida; have only the two a-.terior legs ; the body is elon-
gated, and somewhat cylindrical, a; id the branchial tufts small.
CHAMELEONS.
THE SALAMANDERS.
66()
They have no operculum. The best known species is the Siren
laccrtina, which inhabits the marshy rice-grounds of Carolina. It
is of an Eel-Iikc form, and occasionally measures as much as three
feet in length. The feet are small, and furnished with four toes, and
the tail is "compressed so as to form a sort of blunt fin. The Siren
laccrtiiia generally keeps in tlie mud and muddy water of the rice
swamps, but is said occasionally to come upon land ; it feeds upon
Worms and Insects. Its original discoverer, Dr. Garden, who fur-
Fig. 16S7.— The Siredon, or Axolotl.
nished Linna;us with specimens, accompanied them with some won-
derful stories relating to its supposed habits. He stated that the
Siren fed habitually on Serpents, and that it had a sort of singing
voice. From the latter circumstance Linnjcus gave the name of
Siren to the genus. Dr. Garden's statements have, however, been
denied by subsequent observers. Several smaller species are also
Fig. 16SS.— Skeleton of the Striated Siren.
found in di'Terent parts of the United States. (Fig. 1688 represents
the skeleton of a species of Siren.)
Order IV.— Urodela.
General Characters.— The Urodeia, in the general form of
the body, frequently present a close resemblance to the Lizards, with
which they were arranged by Linnasus and the older naturalists.
They have a persistent tail, four limbs, which are sometimes very
small, and occasionally the toes are furnished with claws. There
are no e.xternal branchiae, and the lungs are well developed ; but, in
a few species, there is a branchial aperture on each side of the neck,
within which are the branchial arches, with their laminaj. The skin
is either quite smooth or covered with w^arty prominences ; it is
usually furnished with numerous glands, which secrete an acrid,
viscid fluid ; and this has no doubt obtained for these animals the
reputation for venom which many of them enjoy.
SuB-DlvisiONS.— The Urodela form two great families. In the
Am^hiumidcB the limbs are of very small size ; the neck has
usually a branchial .aperture on each side ; and the eyes are minute
and destitute of eyelids. These Animals are generally of large size,
the Ampliiiuna tridactybtm attaining a length of three feet. Like
the Sirenida, which they a good deal resemble in form, they are
particularly partial to the mud of shallow waters.
The Three-toed Amphiuma {Amphiuma tridactylum).^
These Animals inhabit the stagnant pools and ditches of Louisiana,
Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina, and great numbers are often
found in clearing out ponds, buried deep in the mud at the bottom.
The body is extremely long, and covered with a smooth skin, which,
together with their general form, gives them an Hcl-Iike appearance ;
the limbs are four in number, but extremely minute ; in one species
the toes on each limb are three in number, in the other only two ;
Fig. i68g.— The Three-toed Amphiuma.
they are little jointless divisions. There are no ribs, and the verte-
bra resemble in their structure those of Fishes ; the eyes are very
small ; there are two longitudinal ranges of palatal teeth. These
Animals are essentially formed for the water, where they
obtain their prey ; on the approach of winter they bury
themselves in the mud and there hybernate ; occa-
sionally, however, they creep on land, and burrow
in spongy places, or under decaying logs, or fallen
trunks of trees in swamps and marshes. Dr. Harlan,
speaking of the small two-toed species, says, " I am in-
formed by Major Wace, that they are sometimes dis-
covered two or three feet under mud of the consistence
of mortar, in which they burrow like worms, as was
instanced in digging near a street in Pensacola, where
great numbers were thrown up during the winter season.
It is called in Florida the congo snake by the negroes,
who believe it to be poisonous, but without foundation."
The Three-toed Amphiuma attains the length of three
feet ; the two-toed is only about eighteen inches long.
(See Fig. 16S9.)
The SalamandridcB, the only family of Tailed Batra-
chia of which examples occur in our own country, is
distinguished from the preceding family by the total
absence of all traces of a branchial apparatus after the
Animals have attained their mature form, and also by
the structure of the eyes, which are very prominent, and
protected by eyelids.
This family is divisible into two very distinct groups, or
subfamilies — namely, the Tritons, or Aquatic Sala-
manders, in which the tail is much compressed, and which frequently
visit the water ; their reproduction is oviparous, their eggs pro-
ducing Tadpole-like larvae. These gradually acquire the form of
their parents, after swimming about for some time in the water,
respiring by means of gills. The Salamandra:, or Land Sala-
manders, have a cylindrical tail, and live on land in damp places,
producing their young alive.
These divisions into Terrestrial and Aquatic species, must not,
however, be received in the strictest sense, as it appears, from the
observations of Mr. Higginbottom upon our British Tritons, that
these little Animals really pass a great part of their time on_ land,
and only visit the water during the breeding season. Mr. Higgin-
bottom also states, that the Tritons do not breed until they are fully
three years old, and that the interval between their quittmg the
Tadpole state, and retiring to the water for the purpose of breedmg,
is entirely spent on the ground. During this period, the young
Tritons conceal themselves for the winter in solitary holes, often at a
considerable depth in the ground ; but the full-grown ones frequently
6/0
WATER-NEWTS.
collect together into a mass as large as a cricket-ball, and thus
hybemate in company. At the approach of the breeding season,
which commences in March or April, the Tritons begin to acquire
peculiar appendages, consisting principally of a fin-like crest run-
ning along the back and tail, and some similar membranous appen-
dages to the toes. When in the water they are exceedingly vora-
cious, devouring almost all small Aquatic Animals, and not even
sparing the Tadpoles of their own species. These are generally ex-
cluded about the month of June or July; and, in the course of July
or August, the old Tritons quit the water, and again betake them-
selves to a Terrestrial existence ; whilst the Tadpoles, according to
Mr. Higginbottom, remain for the most part without much change
until the following spring, when they acquire legs, and are enabled
to quit the water.
The species of Triton are very diiBcult to distinguish, as it appears
that the characters of the same species vary greatly in accordance
with sex and age — the crests and other appendages, which make
their appearance during the breeding season, having been particu-
larly fertile sources of confusion. It appears, however, that we pos-
sess at least two distinct species, of which the larger, Triton
^ahistris, measures, when full-grown, about six inches in length ;
whilst the smaller and commoner one, T. aquaficus, is only a little
more than half that length. We quote from_ another authority a
more detailed description of the Tritons, or British Newts.
Newts. — Fig. i6go represents a group of British Water-Newts a,
the Common Water-Newt {Triton cristatiis) ; b, the Common Smooth
Newt {Lissotriton punctatm) ; c, the Straight-lipped Water-Newt
(Triton bibroniij ; d, the Palmated Water-Newt {Lissotriton
Fig. 1690.— British Water-Newts.
f>ahnif>cs). Of the Water-Newts, four species inhabit the ponds,
ditches, and clear sluggish or standing waters of our island. Lizard-
like as these Reptiles are in appearance, they must not be con-
founded with the Lacertine group, with which Linna:us, overlooking
their true charactistics, associated them under the common term of
Lacerta. Like the Frog, the Newts begin their existence in a Tad-
pole state, furnished with tufted gills or branchia; for aquatic
respiration, which become ultimately lost, and arc replaced by true
lungs adapted for a different medium. The process of this structural
change, which is essentially the same as in the Frog, we shall sketch
as briefly as possible consistent with clearness.
On its first exclusion from the e^g^, the Tadpole of the Water-Newt
exhibit on the sides of the neck the" lobes of the branchia; in a simple
state, anterior to which are a pair of holders, by which the animal
attaches itself to objects in the water. In about three weeks on the
average, the anterior limbs have become developed, with terminal
feet, four-toed and distinct, the holders have disappeared, the
branchial tufts have acquired a fringed character, and the eyes have
assumed a definite outline ; the little creature now moves about with
considerable rapidity, propelling itself through the water by the
undulatory movements of its laterally flattened tail. -In a short time
after this, the anterior limbs become more perfect, the hind limbs
begin to sprout, and the branchial tufts, three on each side, are much
enlarged and finely plumed. In a short time, the hind limbs, and
feet with five toes, are completely formed, the body has attained its
nearly perfect figure, and the branchia; have assumed a deeper
colour and firmer texture. The lungs are now rapidly developing, a
change in the routine of the circulation is gradually taking place,
and the branchia; are becoming absorbed : towards the middle or
close of autumn they disappear, and air instead of water becomes
the medium of respiration. A similar transformation takes place in
the Tadpole of the Frog, as already explained, with this addition, that
the hind limbs first appear, and the compressed tail becomes
absorbed with the obliteration of the branchia;. In the branchix of
the Tadpole of the Newt and Frog, when the limbs have made some
progress, the circulation of the blood, when viewed through a good
microscope, is calculated to excite the greatest admiration ; their
transparency is such as to permit the currents of globules rapidly
coursing each other to be distinctly seen, as they ascend the
arteries and return by the veins to the aorta. We may here state
that in the Tadpole condition of these animals, the circulation of
the blood resembles that of Fishes.
The heart consists of one auricle and
one ventricle ; the auricle receives
the blood of the general system, and
immediately transmits it to the ven-
^^b^ tricle, which is muscular ; from this
ventricle it is propelled into an arterial
bulb {Bulhus arteriosus), and thence
through a system of minute branchial
arteries, and becomes subjected to the
action of o.xygen ; from these arteries it
merges into the branchial veins or re-
turning vessels, which ultimately unite
to form a systematic aorta, without the
intervention of a second ventricle. As
the branchia; become obliterated, the
pulmonary arteries develop, and the
lungs begin to expand, till at last the
branchia; are lost, and the heart and
circulation have assumed new charac-
ters. The heart now consists of two
auricles and one ventricle ; one auricle
of small size receives the arterialized
blood from the lungs ; the other,
which is capacious, the venous blood
from the system, and both transmit
their contents through valvular doors
into the common chamber of the ven-
tricle. The fluid thus mixed is sent
through the hulbus arteriosus, and
thence partly to the general system and
partly through the pulmonary arteries,
to undergo in the lungs the action of
oxygen. The development of the Tad-
pole of I'riton cristatus, as observed
by Rusconi, may be easily understood
by reference to the following illustra-
tions : —
Fig. 1691 exhibits the evolution of the
egg kept on the leaf, as deposited by
the female. The stages are denoted by
dates, from the beginning to the time in
which the young Animal is about to
emerge. Each phase* of the egg is
shown of the natural size, accompanied
by a magnified view of the same below.
Fig. 1692 shows the Tadpole on the day of its leaving the egg,
May 6th ; a, as magnified and seen from below ; b b, are the two
eminences formed by the globes of the eyes, and between them is a
slight depression which afterward becomes the mouth ; c, is the holder
of the right side; o', the gills of the same side; c, a rudiment of
the fore limbs of the same side _/, the same Animal in profile ; g,
the same seen from above.
Fig. 1693 shows the developemnt on the i8th of May, twelve days,
after exclusion : a and b are magnified representations. The fore
limbs are tolerably developed, and the branchia; are becoming
fringed. Fig. 1694 represents the same Animal, as it appears on
May 28th and June 12th ; a a, natural size ; b, magnified. In the
latter, the branichm are beautifully fringed, and the hinder limbs
WATER-NEWTS.
are in process of development. Y\g. 1695 shows the youn.<j Newt in
its last stage, July 18th, the branicha; now beginning to shorten.
April 23. April 2(i. April 28. .iprU 30.
Fig. 1691.— Eggs of Watei-Newt,
May C.
Fig. 1692. — Tadpole on leaving the egg.
Fig. 1693. — Tadpole at twelve days old.
671
This obliteration of the branicha: goes on for five or six days more,
when they become reduced to mere bud-like eminences ; the bran-
chial apertures have closed, the skeleton has become firmer, teeth
have appeared, and by the 27th of July all traces of its former condi-
tion have entirely ,,asscd away : it has changed from the state of a
!• ish to that of a Reptile. It would appear that the changes described
are retarded or accelerated according to the temperature. In our
island the process is more protracted than in the warmer parts of
the continent. '
Fig. 1694.— Tadpole at twenty-two and tliirty-seven days.
Fig. 1695.— Last stage of Young Water-Newt.
The Great Water-Newt {Triton cristatus) attains to the length of
more than six inches, and is one of the most Aquatic of its genus
residing almost constantly in the water ; we have, however, captured
it in meadows at the latter part of summer. Its bright orano-e-
coloured abdomen, with distinct round spots of black, together w?th
its size, prevent the possibility of confounding it with any other
species, except perhaps the Trifo7i palmi[pes, of which the under
surface is saffron yellow, or, as Latreille states, white without spots.
The great Water-Newt is active and voracious ; it feeds during the
spring and summer on the Tadpole of the Frog, and also upon the
smaller species of Newt, which it attacks and seizes with the utmost
determination ; it will also prey upon Worms, Insects, and Mollusks,
and may be taken by means of a hook baited with a small Worm.'
It swims vigorously, lashing its compressed tail from side to side, its
limbs being so disposed as to offer no resistance to the water ; we
have seen it crawl slowly at the bottom of clear ditches, as well as on
the land, where, however, its movements are inert. It hybcrnates
like the Frog, generally in the mud at the bottom of ponds and
ditches. Mr. Bell however states that he has found it hybernating
under stones, and we ourselves on one occasion, early in the spring,
saw several creeping out from under some large flags placed to sup-
port a bank ; on taking up one by the tail, as we well remember, the
tail, to our dismay, broke short off, and continued for some time to
be rapidly agitated. On awaking from its lethargy in the spring,
the male begins to assume a membranous dorsal, and caudal cresT
by which he is at once distinguished from the female. The dorsai
crest has its edge indented, but that along the tail has its edge
even ; with the completion of the crest the colours become brio-hter
and more decided, and the Animal is more lively and vigorous?" At
the latter end of April and during the months of May and June, the
female deposits her eggs, not as in the case of the Frog, in multi-
tudes all agglutinated together in a gelatinous medium, "but one by
one each in a distinct spot from the other. Resting on the leaf of
some Aquatic plant, she folds it by means of her two'hinder feet, and
in the duplication of the leaf thus made, deposits a single egg,
gluing at the same time the folded parts together, thus concealing
and protecting the enclosed deposit. This process was first described
by Rusconi, and has been minutely detailed by Mr. Bell from per-
sonal observation. The membranous dorsal crest of the male con-
tinues till autumn, when it is gradually absorbed ; a trace, however,
of the caudal crest still remains. In this species the upper lip is
slightly pendulous, the teeth are numerous and minute, a double
longitudinal series occuring on the palate ; the tongue is semi-
globular, slightly free at the sides, and pointed behind ; the head is
flattened, the body cylindrical, corrugated, and covered with minute
tubercles ; there are two patches of simple pores along each side of the
head, and a line of similar pores at distant intervals along each side of
the body. The upper parts are dusky black or yellowish-brown,
with darker round spots ; the under parts are orange red, with round
spots of black ; the sides are dotted with white, and the sides of
the tail are to a greater or less extent of a silvery white.
The Common Smooth Newt [Lissolrifon piincfaius, Bell) differs
considerably in its habits from the Great Water-newt. It is much
more terrestrial, frequenting damp places, and is often found in
cellars and underground vaults. Shaw, indeed, in his " General
Zoology," asserts that the Common Newt is altogether a terrestrial
species, and contradicts the statement of Linna;us that during its
Tadpole condition it inhabits the water ; he says, " I can safely
afiii-m that I have met with specimens in perfectly dry situations so
e.\tiemely minute as scarcely to equal lialf an inch in length, which
672
TOADS AND FROGS.
appear to differ in no respect, except in magnitude, from the full-
grown animal." We have seen the same in damp cellars in abund-
ance, and whatever difficulties there may be in accountings for their
presence in such situations, they had doubtless been previously in
a Tadpole condition, from which they had recently emerged. It is
a query, however, whether they require as much water as the other
species, and whether they will not undergo their change in extremely
humid spots, where water trickles freely about, and occasionally
gushes up, as well as in ponds or ditches ; certainly the specimens
we have seen could not have crawled many yards ; they were pallid,
and slow in their movements. The Common Water-newt is found in
clear ponds and ditches ; in the spring, the males appear ornamented
with a continuous membranous crest from the head down the back
to the end of the tail ; this crest they lose in the month of June or
July, when both adults and young quit the water for the land, where
they creep about, lodging in damp places, under stones, and in
crevices of the ground. Early in the winter, the crest of the male
reappears, and is complete in the beginning of the spring, at which
time he assumes a richer colouring. Aquatic Insects and their
larvae. Worms, &c. , constitute the food of this species. The female
deposits her eggs much in the same manner as already described,
generally within a folded leaf, but not unfrequently at the junction
of the leaf with the stalk. Mr. Bell states that he has sometimes
seen the females in the act of placing their eggs not only singly,
but by two, three, and four together.
In the Common Newt the skin is smooth ; on the head there are
two rows of pores, but none on the back or sides. The crest of the
male is not only much developed in the spring, but the margin is
crenate, the tips of the crenations being sometimes tinged with fine
red, sometimes with violet ; the general colour above is yellowish or
brownish grey, bright orange below, and everywhere marked with
dark spots, some of an irregular figure. The female is yellowish
brown, with scattered spots, and without the rich orange of the
under surface. The upper lip is quite straight. Length, nearly four
inches.
The Straight-lipped Water-Newt {Triton bibronii, Bell) differs
from the Great Water-Newt in having the upper lip perfectly straight
and not overhanging the lower at its sides. Its skin also is more rugous
and strongly tuberculated, and its colour darker. Habits the same
as in T. cristatus.
The Palmated Water-Newt {Lissofrifon -palmipes, Bell) is allied
to the Common Water-Newt, from which it differs in having the
upper lip pendulous at the sides, and the toes of the hind feet
fringed permanently by a short membrane, which is seen in the male
of L. pii7icfatus only during the breeding season. It is also of a
larger size, and the spots are more numerous and definite. The
head also is marked with brown longitudinal lines ; like the common
species, however, which it resembles in its habits, it is liable to some
variations of markings.
These Animals are provincially termed Efts and Askers. The
power which these Sa Id ?!ta?id rides possess of renewing the limbs
and the tail when removed, and that repeatedly in succession, is very
surprising. According to Bonnet, the reproduction of these parts is
favoured by heat, and retarded by cold ; in one instance, after the
total extirpation of an eye, the organ was reproduced, and perfect in
its structure at the end of a year Dufay has recorded their faculty
of remaining frozen in ice for a long period without perishing.
Though we mention these experiments, which are not without their
physological importance, we would distinctly state that their repeti-
tion for mere curiosity must be condemned as wanton and unpar-
donable cruelty.
The terrestrial species, or True Salamanders, have a rounded tail ;
and the young, instead of being developed in the water, are retained
within an enlarged part of the oviduct, where they pass through the
first part of their metamorphoses in albuminous fluid. The Sala-
manders have a large gland behind the ear, which secretes a yellow
matter ; and small glands of a similar nature are scattered through
the skin. The matter thus secreted is so abundant, that it was long
a vulgar superstition that the Salamander, if put upon a fire, imme-
diately discharged a quantity of water, sufBcient to put the fire out ;
and many of these unfortunate Ampiiibia have no doubt been
sacrificed in consequence of this belief. The Salamanders are
generally of small size ; none are found in this country, but several
occur on the continent. They rarely exceed six inches in length.
In the collection of the Zoological Society, in their Gardens, at
Regent's Park, London, is a specimen of the Gigantic Salamander,
of which the following is a description : —
"The Gigantic Salamander {Sieboldia maxima].— T\i\% kri\-
mal, remarkable as the largest existing form of the Tailed Batra-
chians, is a native of the clear hill-streams of Japan. It is a sluggish
creature, seldom moving unless disturbed, and remarkable chiefly
for its voracity, which renders it unsafe to keep more than one
specimen in the same tank. Our example, presented by Mr. A. A.
J. Gower in 1868, measures upwards of four feet in length."
A Fossil Salamander, of a species allied to the above, was found
in the CEningens beds (the Miocene period of Lyell) early in the last
century.
Order V.— Anura.
General Characters. — The general form of the Animals in-
cluded in this order, of which the well-known Frog may be taken as
the type, is shorter and broader than that of any of the preceding
groups, and the tail is entirely wanting. The head is broad, and
the opening of the mouth very large. The limbs are of unequal
length, the hinder pair being usually much longer than the anterior,
supplied with powerful muscles, and fitted to enable the Animals to
perform considerable springs. The skin is quite naked, smooth,
and extremely dilatable ; in many cases it is furnished with a great
number of glands, which secrete an acrid liquid.
The organs of the senses always exhibit a much greater degree of
perfection than in the preceding groups ; the eyes are almost always
of very large size, prominent, but retractile, and furnished with a
pair of eyelids, of which the lower one is large enough to cover
nearly the whole of the eye. The external ear is situated imme-
diately behind the eye, and the internal portions of the auditory
organ present a much greater perfection of organisation than in any
of the preceding Vertebrata.
The upper jaw is usually armed with small, hooked teeth, and
similar teeth are occasionally distributed in the lower jaw and pala-
tine bone. The tongue is sometimes wanting, but is generally of
large size, filling up nearly the whole space between the two sides of
the lower jaw. It is usually fixed to the front of the mouth, so that
its hinder part is quite free, and can be pushed out of the mouth to a
considerable extent, and employed in the capture of prey. The fore
legs are usually terminated by four free toes, which are of nearly
equal length ; the hind legs generally have five toes, more or less
united by a membrane, and of unequal length, the innermost being
by far the shortest, and the fourth usually the longest. The spinal
column of the Anura is very short, consisting, as a general rule, only
of eight vertebra ; it is terminated posteriorly by a long slender
bone, which runs down the middle of the elongated opening of the
pelvis ; the latter is composed of two very long parallel bones, which
lie in the same direction as the axis of the spine. The thighs are
articulated at the extremity of this pelvis. (See Fig. 1696.)
Fig, 1696. — Skelelon of the Common Frog.
The habits of these Animals are very various. Many of them live
constantly in the water, whilst others only visit that clement for the
purpose of depositing heir ova, which give origin to tailed Tadpoles,
the development of which has already been described at page 667
anie. Of the species which only visit the water occasionally in this
manner, some live constantly on the ground in moist places, or hide
themselves under stones, and come out in search of food generally in
the evening ; whilst others pursue their Insect prey upon the trees
and bushes, the extremities of their toes being furnished with adhe-
sive organs, which enable them to climb about with great ease and
security.
Sub-divisions. — This order, including the well-known Frogs and
Toads, is divisible into three distinct and well-marked families. Of
these,' the Pipidca are distinguished by the absence of the tongue ;
the tympanum of the ear is concealed, the head is triangular, and
the small eyes are placed low down towards the mouth. The body
is broad and thick, and the hind legs exceedingly large and power-
ful, the toes being completely united by an ample membrane.
THE TOADS.
673
In the typical genus Pipa, the teeth are wanting ; whilst in
Dactylcthra, which is also distinguished by having hoof-like claws
on some of the toes of the hind feet, the upper jaw is armed with
small pointed teeth. The Surinam Toad described as follows is an
illustration of the Fi'pidcs : —
The Surinam Toad {Pipa americana, Laur ; Bufo dorsigcr,
Latr.) — In this strange Reptile, the head is large, flattened, and
triangular, with the nostrils prolonged in the form of a little cutan-
eous tube ; the eyes are very minute and vertical, the eyelids reduced
to a simple rudiment incapable of closing over the eyes. There are
no teeth, either on the jaws or palate, nor are parotid glands
apparent. The anterior paws have each four fingers, terminating
in four star-like points ; the hind limbs are short and thick, the feet
large, and the toes, five in number, completely webbed. The body
is broad and flat ; a little barbule (barbillon) hangs on each side of
the upper jaw, and an ear-like appendage on each angle of the
mouth. The skin differs from that of all other Batrachians, being
covered with minute hard granules ; amongst which are scattered
small conical tubercles of a horny consistence. The male is dis-
tinguished by an enormous larynx formed like a triangular bo.x of
bone, within which are two movable pieces, the action of which in-
fluences the intonation of the voice. (See Fig. 1697.)
Fig. 1697. — The Surinam Toai
The mode in which the eggs of this Reptile are hatched, and the
circumstances connected with the development of the young, are
most extraordinary. It would appear that as fast as the female de-
posits her eggs, the male who attends her arranges them on her
broad back, to the number of fifty or upwards. The contact of the
skin with these eggs, appears to produce a sort of inflammation ; the
skin of the back swells, and becomes covered with pits, or cells,
which enclose each a single eg^, the surface of the back resembling
the closed cells of a honeycomb. The female now betakes herself to
the water, and in these cells the eggs are not only hatched, but the
Tadpoles undergo their metamorphosis, emerging in a perfect con-
dition, though very small, after a lapse of eighty-two days from the
time in which the eggs were placed in their respective pits. M.
Bibron says, that the cells occupy-
ing the middle portion of the back
are, according to his own observa-
tions, those which are the first
cleared of the young, "because,
doubtless, they are the first which
are formed, or the first occupied."
It would seem that in females
which have not as yet laid eggs,
these pits are not to be seen ; they
begin to be developed when the
eggs are first arranged on the
back, the skin of which, after the
I young have quitted their tene-
ments, appearing honeycombed
all over. The cells afterwards be-
come gradually obliterated. These
pits are only in the skin, and do
not penetrate into the muscular tis-
sue beneath, nor communicate with
the interior of the body. (Fig.
1698 shows the disposition of these
cells and their situation on the skin, which is thrown back so as to
expose the muscles below.)
Fig. 169S.— rils on the back of
the Surinam Toad.
The ripa, or Surinam Toad, is of large size, of a brown or olive
colour above, whitish below; it inhabits the marshes and swamos in
the forests of Guiana, Brazil, and other parts of South America". It
frequents the dark corners of houses. According to Seba and
Madame Merian, the negroes eat its flesh.
The Biifo7iidce, or Toads, are always provided with a well-
developed tongue, a character which serves to distin.guish them at
once from the preceding family. The body in these Animals is thick
and heavy, and the skin is usually covered with glandular warts,
from which an acrid juice exudes. The hind legs are but little
longer than the others, and the Animals are consequently unable to
perform those great springs which are characteristic of the following
family. But the most important distinction between these Animals
and the Frogs, consists in the absence of the teeth in the Toads, the
jaws being rather sharp at the edge, but quite unarmed. The Toads
are generally regarded with but little favour ; and there is certainly
not much in their appearance to recommend them. They generally
come abroad in search of food in the dusk of the evening, when they
may often be seen in gardens, woods, and lanes.
The Toads generally live out of the water, but visit that clement
during the breeding season, which is in March or April ; during
winter they lie in a torpid state, concealed in holes, or under stones.
They produce an immense number of eggs, which, instead of being
inclosed in a mass of gelatinous matter, as in the Frogs, are united
into long strings, inclosed in a similar substance. Of these strings
or necklaces of eggs, there are generally two, which the male draws
out of the body of the female with his hind feet.
We have two species of Toads in this country — the Common Toad
{^Bufo vulgaris), and the Natter-jack {D. calamita), of which the
following are descriptions : —
The Common Toad {Bufo vulgaris).— 1\\\s species is too well
known to need a detailed description. Though not very attractive
Fig. 1699. — The Common Tcid.
in its appearance, the Toad is far from meriting the opprobrium
which has been lavished upon it. To the gardener it is a useful
assistant, as it devours Slugs, Earwigs, Caterpillars, and Beetles.
It has been celebrated for two things — namely, the brightness of its
eyes, and its poison. Its eyes are certainly brilliant, and, notwith-
standing the poet's assertion, the only jewel it wears in its head.
With regard to its being poisonous, we may obser\'e that the glan-
dular tubercles of its skin pour out an acrid secretion ; and this is
intended evidently as a defence, for we have often seen a Dog seize
one of these Animals and instantly drop it, shaking his head in evi-
dent distress, while frothy saliva tilled his mouth, and continued to
flow for a considerable time. The parotid glands open externally
by numerous pores, and give out a milky fetid humour. The com-
mon belief that the Toad " spits venom " is absurd.
T he Toad is easily rendered familiar. Mr. Bell records a notice of
one which would sit on one of his hands, and eat from the other ;
and the story of Mr. Arscott's Toad, in Devonshire, which lived for
thirty-six years domesticated, and was killed by accident, has been
often quoted from Pennant. It is to Mr. Bell that we owe the first
authentic account of the manner in which the Toad disengages itself
from its slough ; the cuticle slits down the middle of the back and
belly, thereby allowing the legs to be withdrawn in rotation ; it is
then rolled into a ball, pushed by the two paws into the mouth, and
sw^allowed at a single gulp. Like the Frog, the Toad deposits its
eggs in the water, but rather later in the spring. In August, the
Tadpoles have completed their transformation, and creeping ashore
disperse themselves over the land. Large troops of these young
Toads may often be met with.
Most persons have heard of the marvellous accounts of living Toads
found imbedded in the hearts of trees, or in solid blocks of stone ;
and it must be confessed that many of the instances are supported by
4 K
674
THE FROGS.
no mean anthority; Smellie(in his " Philosophy of Natural History"),
Guettard (in " Memoire sur differentes Parties des Sciences at des
Arts" 1771), Edwards, and Mr. Thomas, (in " Silliman's Journal ")
respectively notice examples of the occurrence in question. Be it
however observed, that the stone or wood was never rigidly examined
nor is anything ever stated to disprove the possibility of a srnall
aperture, communicating with the external surface, through which
air, moisture, and Insects may have entered ; indeed, as Dr. Buck-
land says. " The attention of the discoverer is always directed more
to the toad than to the minutis of the state of the cavity in which it
was contained."
M. Herissant in 1777, Dr. Edwards in 1817, and Dr. Buckland in
1825-26, have proved by a series of experiments, that when deprived
of air these Animals speedily perish ; but that they will sur\'ive for
many months without food. Dr. Buckland's conclusions are that Toads
cannot live a year excluded totally from atmospheric air, and from
experiments made by enclosing these Animals in cells cut out in
Oolite that they cannot in all probability survive two years entirely
excluded from food. (" Zool. Journal," vol, v.)
It would seem then that accident must have introduced the Toads
in question into the prisons in which they have occasionally been
found ; that there they received food and air, and grew till too large to
make their exit by the aperture which once admitted them ; and which
itself became much narrowed or partially blocked up ; but still allow-
ing sufficient air and moisture (most probably also minute Insects) for
the support of the system in a sort of torpid condition. Here then
they would live till the blow of the hammer or axe set them at liberty
destroying at the same time all trace of the orifice or fissure which
admitted them, and through which they received their scanty nutri-
ment. To suppose that Toads imbedded in stone are thousands of
years old, the living relics of a world gone by and coeval with the
rock around them, is palpably absurd.
The N.\tter-jack {Bitfo calamita ; Biifo viridis, Laurenti ;
Bufo cruciatus, Schneid. ; Bttfo variabilis, Marr). — This species is
spread through the greater part of Europe and Western Asia, as
well as Northern Africa. In England it is tolerably common in cer-
tain localities ; it has been found on Blackheath, Putney Common,
in various parts of Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk. Mr.
Bell quotes Sir W. Jardine's account of the occurrence of this
Reptile in a marsh on the coast of the Solway Frith, in brackish
water, and within a hundred yards of spring-tide high-water mark.
They were, it is added, very abundant for six or seven miles along
the coast. Dry spots, however, are its favourite haunts, excepting
at the breeding season, when it visits the water. It is less crawling
and slow in its movements than the Common Toad : and will even
run with alertness for a short distance. Its general colour varies,
being grey, brown, yellow, or olive, with markings of a darker tint,
mostly with a yellowish line down the middle of the back. (See Fig.
1700.)
Fig. 1700. — The Natter-jack.
Several other species are found on the continent of Europe,
amongst which, the most remarkable in its habits is perhaps the
species called the Accoucheur Toad {B. obsfetricans), of which the
male not only assists the female in the exclusion of the eggs, but
attaches them afterwards to his own hind-legs, where the young are
developed until they arrive at the Tadpole state, when the male
visits the water, and the young animals escape. This species is
very common in the vicinity of Paris.
The Ranida, or Frogs, of which the Common Frog {Rana tempo-
aria, Fig. I70i)is a well-known example, have the body of a lighter
and more elegant form than the Toads, and the hind-legs are much
longer, exceedingly muscular, and fitted for the performance of
considerable leaps. The upper jaw is always armed with teeth ;
the skin is usually smooth, but in some cases is covered, as in the
Toads, with glandular warts. In the structure of the tongue, they
resemble the Toads.
The Frogs, undoubtedly, form the highest group of the Batrachian
class. They are active creatures, living on Insects and Worms,
and may be divided into two sub-families, in accordance with im-
portant differences in their structure and mode of life.
The Ranida;, or Frogs, which live upon the ground, in the neigh-
bourhood of standing water, and pass a considerable portion of their
lives in the water, have their toes pointed, and those of the hinder
feet united, almost to the tips, by a membrane.
Fig. 1701, — The Common Frog.
The Common Frog is a very abundant and well-known animal.
It is constantly to be found hopping about in the neighbourhood of
water, especially in damp evenings. It generally deposits its eggs
in the water in the month of March ; they are enveloped in a mass
of gelatinous matter, within which the eggs are seen gradually to
increase in size for a month or five weeks ; and, at the end of that
time, the young Tadpoles may be seen moving. (See ante, p. 667).
When ready to enter upon their aquatic existence, they eat their way
through the surrounding jelly, and thus escape. In the course of
six or eight weeks the four legs are fully formed ; the tail then
gradually disappears, and the young Frog usually quits the water
immediately. In this way they often suddenly make their appear-
ance in prodigious numbers in particular spots, giving rise to the
popular superstition of " Frog-rains ;" and, in some cases, it is said
that the little creatures have been taken up and carried to a distance
by high winds, to the great astonishment of the inhabitants of the
districts in which they descended.
The Common Frog is said to be five years in attaining its full size,
and its life is supposed to extend to twelve or fifteen years. It
passes the winter in a state of torpidity, either in holes in the earth,
or buried in the mud at the bottom of ponds, without the possibility
of feeding or breathing. The voice of the Frog is a peculiar hoarse
cry, well known as O'oakitig. In the males, there is a large sac on
each side of the neck, which is inflated with air during the croaking,
and probably serves to increase the sound.
The species of Frogs are very numerous, and distributed very
generally over the globe ; they are especially abundant in Tropical
countries. Their habits are generally very similar to those of the
Common Frog. Of the European species, the most celebrated is
the Edible Frog {R. esctilenta), which is exceedingly common in
standing water on the Continent, although in England it appears to
be rare. It is rather larger than the Common Frog ; and its noctur-
nal croakings are said to be so exceedingly loud and disagreeable,
that temporary dwellers in the neighbourhood of ponds frequented
by it, are often prevented from sleeping by its clamorous chorus. It
is this species that is most approved of on the Continent for culinarj'
purposes.
Of the Exotic species, one of the largest :s the Bull-frog {Rana
pipiens, See Fig. 1702) which inhabits North America, and has
received its name from the fact that its croak resembles the distant
lowing of a Bull. The body of this species measures sometimes as
much as eight inches in length, without including the hind-legs,
which are large, and have the toes broadly webbed. This Frog is
said to confine itself exclusively to the small pools formed at the
issue of springs, each of which, according to some observers, is
taken possession of by a pair of Bull-frogs. The inhabitants believe
that the Frogs keep the water clean ; consequently leave them with-
out molestation, although they are often destructive to young Ducks
and Goslings, which they swallow whole.
One of the most remarkable species is the Jakie {Rana paradoxa)
of Guiana, in which the Tadpole is of such large size, and possesses
such an enormously developed tail, that the earlier observers des-
cribed it as a Frog which became converted into a Fish.
The Hylides, or Tree-frogs, are distinguished from the preceding
Animals by their having the extremities of the toes dilated into
small knobs which usually produce a sticky secretion, of the greatest
service to the animal in its active arboreal life. These animals are
usually of a more elegant form, and of brighter colours than the
other Frogs, and thoy are particularly active during the day — thus.
THE FROGS.
675
in many respects, presenting a great approach to the Lizards. (See
Fi.t;-. 1703).
The Tree-frogs are active little creatures, pursuing their Insect
prey upon the trees and bushes ; sometimes steahng cautiously
towards their victims, and sometimes springing upon them with a
sudden leap. In all these evolutions it is greatly assisted by the
Fig. 1702. — The Bull-Frog.
sticky palette-like terminations of its toes, and also by some gland-
ular organs imbedded in the skin of the abdomen, which secrete a
viscous fluid. The Tree-frogs have a very loud croak, and are
observed to be particularly clamorous at the approach of rain.
During the winter they bury themselves, like the other Frogs, in the
mud at the bottom of pools. They breed in the spring, depositing
their spawn in the water.
A curious property is attributed by Linnscus and the older writers
to an American species of this group, the Hyla tinctoria. It was
said that the natives of South America were in the habit of pulling
out the feathers from young green parrots, and rubbing the blood of
this frog upon the bare place; when it was believed that the
feathers produced upon these spots would be of a yellow or red
colour.
Fig. 1703.— Green Tree-Frogs.
A singular species of this sub-family has been described by Dr.
Weinland, of Berlin, under the name of Notodelphys ovifera. In
this animal the back of the female is furnished with a large double
sac under the skin, in which the eggs are retained, and the embryo
developed as far as the production'" of the feet ; the further progress
of the young is not known. This species is from Venezuela.
676
FISHES.
CHAPTER XXVII I.
CLASS V.-PISCES, OR FISHES.
The
present Class ranks among the inost important in the range of Natural
History. Fish, as an article of diet, has been universally esteemed.
Fisheries form a valuable, and often the chief item of industry in
many countries, and so important has the question of the breeding
of Fish become, that what was once an art, has now become a prac-
tical application of science under the name of Pisiciilture. On the
coasts of some parts of Europe fishing farms exist, whose produce is
of great value. The preservation of Salmon in our country, is now
accompanied by the artificial hatching of the f^gg. The legislature
has, during the last quarter of a century, but especially of recent
years, passed several Acts for protecting both sea and fresh water
fisheries, and possibly in the course of time, when our rivers cease to
be polluted, fish of all kinds will again rank among the cheapest, as it
certainly forms one of the most nutritious, and easily digestible kind
of food.
General Characters. — The Animals of this class, as already
stated, are exclusively aquatic, and all the particulars of their
structure indicate an adaptation to this mode of existence. The
head is large, and set upon the trunk without the intervention of any
distinct neck ; the body is usually of a spindle-shape, tapering
gradually towards the posterior extremity ; and the surface is usually
smooth, without any irregularities which might impede the motions
of the creature in its native element. In its general form, the body,
is usually rounded, or slightly compressed at the sides ; sometimes
this flattening proceeds to a much greater extent, so that the animal
presents the appearance of a broad band or oval disc, of which the
edges correspond with the dorsal and ventral surfaces ; in other
cases the flattening takes place from above, downwards, producing
a disc-like body, of which the upper and lower surfaces are dorsal
and ventral.
Locomotion is always effected principally by lateral strokes of the
hinder extremity, accompanied, in the elongated species, by an un-
dulating motion of the whole body. In accordance with this
arrangement, the great bulk of the body of a Fish is made up of
powerful longitudinal muscles, whose office is the flexion of the
spine.
The skeleton exhibits a great diversity. In the lowest form of
Animal referred to this class, which has been described by some
naturalists as an Annelide, and regarded by others as a transition
form connecting the A?uielidce with the F^ishes, the only trace of
Fig. 1704. — Skeleton of the Perch.
the vetebrate internal skeleton consists in a semi-gelatinous cord
(the chorda dorsalis), which runs through the body of the Animal,
and supports the central axis of the nervous system, presenting, in
fact, a great analogy with the earliest form in which the skeleton
presents itself, in the embryonic states of other Vertehrata. In the
Lampreys, the development of the skeleton makes a little step in ad-
vance ; the chorda dorsalis acquires a firmer or somewhat cartil-
aginous consistence, and, in some cases, exhibits slight indications
of the segmentation of the vertebral column. In these Animals, also,
the brain is enclosed within a cartilaginous skull. As we advance,
we find the skeleton gradually acquiring greater firmness, becoming
first cartilaginous, and afterwards bony. In some cases, however,
the centre of the vertebral column retains almost its original consis-
tency, when the peripheral parts have arrived at the state of cartilage.
In nearly all Fishes which have the vertebral column in a bony or
cartilaginous condition, and formed of distinct vertebra;, the bodies
of the latter are hollowed out, both before and behind, into conical
cavities, the apices of which usually meet in the middle of the verte-
bra. These cavities are filled with a gelatinous matter, the remains of
the embryonic chorda dorsalis. Only a single Fish is known in
which the ossification of the centres of the vertebra; proceeds further
than this ; this is the Lcpidostcus, or Bony Pike of America, in which
each vertebra is furnished with an anterior convex, and a posterior
concave articulating surface. The superior or neural arches of the
vertebras usually terminate in very long spinous processes. The in-
ferior, or hajmal arches, exhibit a similar structure in the caudal
region of the body, where they form a bony canal for the passage of
the principal vessels ; and, in a few instances, the same conformation
extends into the abdominal region ; but here we generally find a
series of processes extending laterally from the bodies of the vertebra;
bearing ribs which inclose the abdominal cavity. The lower extremity
of the ribs is always free, as there is no sternum for their attach-
ment. (See Fig. 1704.)
The structure of the skull in Fishes, partakes of the variable
character of the rest of the skeleton. In the lowest forms it is a
nearly membranous expansion of the soft cord that here takes the
place of the vertebral column, which gradually acquires cartilaginous
supports. In the higher Fishes, with cartilaginous skeletons — such
as the Sharks and Rays — the skull is a cartilaginous case, formed of
a single piece ; but in the Bony Fishes, this becomes ossified from
numerous centres, and the skull in these is usually of a very compli-
cated construction. In most cases, however, the primitive cartila-
ginous skull is more or less persistent, so that in some instances the
bony plates may be removed after the head has been boiled, leaving
the brain for the most part still inclosed in its cartilaginous covering.
The skull of a Bony Fish (Fig. 1705) is of very complicated struc-
ture, the number of bones of which it is composed being very con-
siderable. The principal bones forming the cranium, are the occi-
pitals, the sphenoid, the ethnoid, the parietals, the frontals, and the
temporals ; the basi-occipital bone, forming the lower boundary of
the aperture through which the spinal cord quits the skull, exhibits,
Fig. 1705. — Bones of the Head of the Pike.
c, cranium ; or, orbit ; 71, nasal cavities ; im, intermaxillary bone ; m,
superior maxillary bone ; ?', lateral partition, separating gills from mouth ;
/, iOy op, bones of operculum, or gill cover.
on its posterior surface, the conical cavity, which has already been
described as characteristic of the body of the piscine vertebra, and
articulates in the usual way with the first vertebra of the spinal
column. The general form of the head is that of a pyramid with
the base directed backwards ; the orbits are placed on the sides, and
the nasal aperture is a little in front of them. The upper jaw is
formed of the maxillary and intermaxillary bones, of which the latter
usually bear teeth, and form the actual margin of the mouth ; whilst
the former, as a general rule, are unarmed, and lie concealed in the
flesh behind the intermaxillaries. These are bent back at an angle
at their interior portion, so that they consist, in fact, of two branches,
of which one serves, as just described, to form the biting edge of
the mouth, whilst the other is received in a groove at the end of the
SKELETON OF FISHES.
677
nose, in which it can move freely in those Fishes which have a pro-
tnisible mouth. The palate is formed of three bones : the palatine
bone, which is usually armed with teeth ; the transverse bono, by
which the palate is generally articulated to the cranium ; and the
pterj'goid bone. The vomer also assists in the formation of the roof
of the mouth, and is usually armed with teeth.
The two sides of the lower jaw are usually firmly united at the
anterior extremity, but rarely joined by ossification. Each side is
composed of several pieces, usually three, but sometimes four or more
in number. Of these, only one — the anterior — is furnished with
teeth ; the basal bone articulates with a sort of bony partition,
formed of several bones immovably articulated, which are also firmly
attached to the skull in several places. The opercula, or gill covers,
are also dependent from these bones. These are usually composed
of four bony plates, of which the first — the pre-operculum — is a some-
what crescent-shaped piece, e.xtending from the cranium to the
articulation of the lower jaw (Fig. 1706) ; whilst the others, which
are distinguished by particular names, descriptive of their relative
position, are movably articulated to the pre-operculum, and serve to
close the branchial aperture. The relative size of these plates, their
forms and general structure, furnish the zoologist with e.xcellent
characters for the discrimination of genera and species.
Below these bones, we find the hyoid arch, which attains a great
development in Fishes, and ser\-cs to support, not only the tongue,
but also the respiratory apparatus (Fig. 1706.) From the point of
this arch, a peculiar bone (the lingual ox giossi)hoyal)^ene\.ra.ics to
the apex of the tongue, where it is frequently covered with teeth.
Behind this, the hyoid bone forms two branches, each of which is
attached to the pre-operculum of its own side by a small bone called
the styloid, or siylokyal. To the side of each branch a variable number
of slender curved bones is articulated ; these are called bra^ichio-
stegal; they support a membrane called the branchio-stegal mem-
brane, whose office is to close the gill-slit from beneath. Behind
these, supported at one extremity upon the hyoid bone, and articu-
lated at the other to the bones of the cranium, are four pairs of bony
arches, formed of two pieces in the Cartilaginous F'ishes, but usually
consisting of four in the Bony species. On the outside these arches
bear the branchial lamina;, but their inner surface is usually armed
with spines, or teeth. They articulate with the cranium by small
bones called the superior pharyjigcals, which, like all the other
bones in the neighbourhood of the mouth, are often armed with
teeth.
-dp
Fig. 1706.— Bones of the head of tlte Perch, after the removal of the jaws,
lateral partition, and operculum, on one side, to show the interior of the
mouth, and the hyoid apparatus.
e, cranium ; or, orbit ; v, vomer (armed with teeth)? im, intermaxillary; d/',
teeth implanted on the palatine arch ; »«', lower jaw ; /, lingual bone ; b,
lateral branches of the hyoid apparatus; s, process for the attachment of
these to the lateral partition ; r, r, branchio-stegal r.iys ; a, branchial arches ;
//;, superior phaiyngeal bones ; ar, articular surface by which the lateral
partition is attached ; o to /;, bony framework supporting the pectoral fin, /> ;
and 0, scapula divided into two pieces ; /;, humerus ; ad, bone of the fore
arm ; ai, bone of the carpus ; co, coracoid bone.
The surface presented by Fishes to the surrounding element, is
greatly increased by the peculiar organs called ^us, These are of
two kinds. Some, placed in pairs on the lower surface of the body,
are the analogues of the limbs of the higher Vertebrated Animals ;
whilst the others, situated singly on the median line of the body, are
to be regarded as appendages or developments of the cutaneous
system. The former never exceed four in number ; but one or both
pairs are frequently absent.
These organs have received different names in accordance with
their position on the body (Fig. 1707.) Of the two pair of fins corres-
ponding with the limbs of other Verfcbrata, one pair has received
the name oi pectoral fins, from their being situated on the breast,
immediately behind the branchial aperture ; they are the analogues
of the anterior members. The representatives of the hind limbs of
other Vertebrated Animals are denominated ventral fins, their
normal position being on the belly, close to the anus/ These fins,
however, are liable to great changes of position, being often advanced
close under the pectoral fins, or even sometimes placed before these,
quite on the throat of the Animal. The single, or median fins, are
rather variable in number. The dorsal surface usually bears one or
more of these organs, called (/orja/Tfwj-; similar fins occur on the
ventral surface behind the anus, called atialfijts ; and the extremity
Fig.
/, pectoral fin ;
1707. — Bearded Mullet, showing the position of Fins.
V, ventral fin ; dl, first dorsal ; d2, second dorsal; c, caudal
a, anal ; 0, opening of gill covers.
of the tail is almost always furnished with a broad expansion, the
caudal fins, which is the principal agent in progression. In some
Fishes, the median fins are continuous round the wdiole posterior
portion of the body ; and this is the condition in which these organs
first make their appearance during the development of the embryo in
all Fishes, the subsequent changes whicii take place in the arrange-
ment of the parts, being due to the unequal development of the bony
rays, which support and stretch the membrane of which the fins are
composed. The structure and arrangem.ent of the rays, vary
greatly in the different groups of Fish, and will be referred to here-
after.
The pectoral fin, in all Fishes, consists essentially of the same
parts as the anterior limb of any other Vertebrated Animal. Con-
cealed within the skin, immediately behind the branchial openings,
we find a bony circle composed of several pieces, representing the
shoulder blade, with the coracoid bone and clavicle (see Fig. 1706.)
This supports the bones of the arm, which are usually very short, and
bear a scries of carpal bones at their extremity ; the latter support a
number of short cylindrical joints, from which the rays of the fin take
their rise. The internal supports of the ventral fins never present
such a close resemblance to the pelvis of the higher Vcrtchrata, as
do those of the pectorals to the scapular arch. When situated in
their normal position in the abdomen, they always consist of cartila-
ginous, or bony pieces lying freely in the muscles, and quite uncon-
nected with the vertebral column : but when the fins are advanced
from this position to the neighbourhood of the pectorals, their
internal supports are attached to the scapular arch of the latter
members.
The skin of the Animals of this class is almost always protected
by a covering of scales, which are sometimes of a horny, and occa-
sionally of a bony texture. Very few Fishes are destitute of this
scaly covering, which, however, is very variable in its distribution —
its component parts being sometimes placed so close that one scale
lies over the other, like the tiles upon the roof of a house ; at others
they are fitted together exactly by their edges, and sometimes
scattered irregularly over the surface of the skin. The differences
in the form and structure of the scales are of great importance in the
classification of Fishes ; and Professor Agassiz even considered that
they stand in such intimate relation with the general organisation of
the Animals, that he has proposed to employ them as primary cha-
racters for dividing this great group into orders. This system has
only been partially adopted by succeeding naturalists — as, although
it is admitted on all hands to have been of great service, especially
in facilitating the study of Fossil Fishes, there can be no doubt that
it has the defect common to all systems founded upon characters
derived from a single set of organs — that of separating nearly allied
Animals, and bringing others which have no mutual affinity into
close juxtaposition. The most ordinary form is the thin horny scale,
such as we meet with upon most of the common eatable Fish. These
consist of small horny plates, generally of a more or less oval form,
which lie one over another, exactly like tiles, and are usually
arranged in such a manner that each scale, being partially covered
by two scales of the preceding row, only exhibits a somewhat tri-
angular portion of its own surface. These scales arc peculiar to the
Osseous Fishes. They are found to consist of two layers, of which
the lower is of a horny texture, whilst the upper resembles enamel.
The scales are usually marked with concentric and radiating lines.
678
ORG42^S OF FISHES.
of which the former appear to belong to the outer, and the latter to
the inner layer. In some Fishes they present a smooth outline —
these are the Cycloidei (Gr. kuklos, a circle) of Agassiz ; wliilst in
others, forming the order Cteiioidei{Gx. ktenis, a comb) of the same
author, the hinder margins of the scales are set with spines.
Another form of scale, exhibited by very few living species,
although the Fishes of which it is characteristic were at one time
almost the only representatives of the Vertcbrata existing on our
planet, is composed of a hard bony substance covered with a coating
of enamel, which often resembles the enamel of the teeth in structure.
These scales are much thicker and larger than the horny scales, and
are usually of a rhomboidal form, arranged side by side without
overlapping, although, in a few instances, they resemble the horny
scales in arrangement. The Fishes furnished with this bony armour
are called Gaiioi'dei {Gv. ganos, splendour) by Agassiz. In a third
form the bony matter and enamel are distributed more or less irregu-
larly over the surface of the skin ; sometimes, as in the Sharks, pro-
jecting from all parts in the form of small grains, and at others, as
in the Rays, forming larger discoid organs, from the centre of which
acute spines, resembling teeth in their structure, frequently project.
These are the Placoidci (Gr. phix, a plate) of Agassiz.
A line of peculiar scales, each of whicli is furnished with a minute
tube, may be observed running along the sides of most Fishes ; it is
called the lateral line, and its peculiarities are of considerable
importance in the discrimination of genera and species. The little
tubes lead into a canal, which follows the course of the lateral line,
and which has been generally considered as subservient to the pro-
duction of the slimy matter with which the surface of Fishes is usually
so plentifully indued. It seems probable, however, that this slime
is, in reality, the representative of the outermost layer of the skin,
and that the so-called mucous ducts are connected with the exercise
of some special sense, as they communicate with a very singular
apparatus of tubes inclosed in the bones of the head, and furnished
with a peculiar arrangement of nerves.
The colours of Fishes are due to the presence of coloured fatty
matters in the skin ; but the beautiful metallic tints displayed by so
many of them, are produced by numerous microscopic plates,
apparently of a horny nature, which are distributed over the surface.
In their nervous system. Fishes exhibit a striking inferiority to the
generality of Vertebrate Animals. The cranial cavity is small ; but
even this is only partially occupied by the brain, which is of very
small size when compared with the body, or even with the other
parts of the nervous system. It is distinctly divided into three parts,
of which the anterior, representing the cerebral hemispheres of the
higher Vertebrata, is usually
small ; whilst the middle division,
from which the optic nerves take
their rise, generally forms a con-
siderable portion of the brain. In
the Sharks, however, the general
perfection of which contrasts
strongly with the cartilaginous
nature of their skeleton, the cere-
bral hemispheres generally pre-
dominate over the other parts of
the brain (Fig. 1708, B) ; and from
this and other circumstances,
these Fishes appear to be entitled
to take the first rank in the class,
although zoologists generally, look-
ing only at the imperfect ossifica-
„ ^ . . „. , tion of their skeletons, have as-
i7oS.-Eiams of Fishes. signed them a very different
B, Shark, ol, olfactory position. The olfactory lobes con-
ch, cerebral hemispheres ; stitute an interior prolongation of
op, middle brain, giving rise to the brain, and are usually of very
optic nerves ; ce, cerebellum ; sf, large size
spinal cord. The organs of the special senses
are, as usual, situated upon the
head. The nose is usually formed by a double cavity lined with a
folded membrane ; each cavity opens on the snout by one or two
apertures ; but, except in one or two instances, there is no communi-
cation between the interior of the nasal cavity and the mouth, or
pharynx. The eyes are large and flat, usually placed on the sides of
the head, and furnished with six muscles for their movement. The
auditory organ is completely enclosed within the bones of the head,
and usually consists of a sac containing two otolithes, and a vestibule
supporting three semicircular canals. In the Sharks, and their
allies, we also find traces of a communication between the internal
ear and the outer world. The sense of taste is probably by no means
acute in Fishes; and, as their scaly covering must necessarily render
their general surface rather insensible to external impressions, they
are often furnished with special tractile organs, in the shape of fila-
ments, surrounding the mouth (Fig. 1707), or detached from the
pectoral fins, which probably assist them in their search for prey.
A few Fishes are furnished with a peculiar apparatus, which con-
fers upon them the singular power of communicating an electric
Fig.
A, Cod
lobes ;
shock to any animal with which they come in contact. The appara-
tus consists, in all cases, of a mass of gelatinous columns, separated
by membranous partitions, which are richly furnished, both with
vessels and nerves. The only Fishes by which this curious property
is undoubtedly possessed, are the Gynmotus, or Electric Eel of
South America, the Fishes of the genus Torpedo, and the Mala-
pfeniriis and Mormyrus of the Nile.
The structure of the alimentary canal is often very complicated.
There is scarcely a bone that assists in the formation of the oral
cavity that is not often furnished with teeth, although these organs
are usually developed upon particular bones. The upper jaw
generally bears two parallel rows of teeth (Fig. 1706), one attached
to the intermaxillary bones, and the other to the palatine bones ; the
vomer also is commonly armed with teeth. The teeth in the lower
part of the mouth are usually confined to the lower jaw and lingual
bone. Besides these, the branchial arches, and the superior and
inferior pharyngeal bones, are almost always furnished with teeth,
forming a sort of trap at the entrance of the oesophagus. The teeth
are not inserted into sockets, as in Man and many other Vertebrata ;
they are merely attached to the surface of the bone upon which they
are supported. In some cases, they are simply imbedded in the
skin of the mouth ; in others, they are attached by means of liga-
mentous filaments, and these are frequently movable. In most
Fishes the teeth are constantly changing during the life of the
Animal, the older ones falling out to give place to others which are
developed in their neighbourhood. They vary greatly, both in their
external form and in their internal structure. The simplest form is
that of a cone ; but they are frequently compressed so as to consti-
tute cutting organs, or widened into grinders. The conical teeth
are often minute, and set very close together, so as to form a velvet-
like surface.
The oesophagus is usually very muscular, and the stomach large.
The pyloric aperture is generally furnished with a membranous
valve ; and behind the pylorus there are, in most Bony Fishes, a
variable number (from one to sixty) of blind appendages or cccca
(called the pyloric appendages, or caca), that are considered to be
the representatives of the pancreas, which, in fact, occupies their
place in the Cartilaginous Fishes. From this point the intestine is
more or less convoluted in the abdominal cavity, until it terminates
at the anus. In some Fishes, the colon is furnished with a spiral
arrangement of valves, serving to increase its surface. The anal
aperture is usually placed at the posterior portion of the abdomen ;
but, in many cases, it is removed further fonvard, and sometimes even
opens close under the throat. The liver is usually of great size ; it
is almost always furnished with a gall-bladder, and the gall-ducts
open into the intestine, close behind the pyloric aperture. The
spleen is also invariably present.
Almost all Fishes are Predaceous Animals, attacking and destroy-
ing indiscriminately all the weaker inhabitants of the waters, such
as Insects, Worms, Crustacea, and Molliisca, and preying with
avidity upon the smaller individuals of their own class. Many of
them are excessively voracious, seizing upon everything that comes
in their way ; these are always furnished with a formidable appara-
tus of teeth ; others, which are not provided with such powerful
offensive weapons, confine their depredations to the smaller and more
helpless aquatic Animals. Very few feed upon vegetable matters.
The respiration in all Fishes is aquatic, and we meet with no
instance of true lungs in any members of the class. Many species,
however, possess a large sac-like organ, containing air, which, as it
is often connected with the oesophagus by a tube, must be regarded
as, to a certain extent, analogous to the lungs of air-breathing Ver-
tebrata. This sac, which is known as the air-bladder, has, however,
nothing to do with respiration ; it receives blood from the arteries,
and returns it into the veins, and the air which it incloses is probably
derived from this fluid. Its ofBce is to lessen the specific gravity of
the Fish ; and it is furnished with a muscular apparatus, often of
very curious construction, by means of which its capacity may be
changed, so as to render the Animal heavier or lighter than the
surrounding medium.
The mechanism by which the respiration is affected is as follows : —
The gills are composed of a number of membranous laminse, fur-
nished with minute blood-vessels, and supported upon bony, or
cartilaginous arches, which surround the pharynx. These arches
are separated from each other by slits ; and the water which is
drawn into the pharynx by a movement of deglutition, passes off
through these slits, and escapes by the opercular aperture. These
organs are fitted exclusively for aquatic respiration. Unless the gill
laminae are surrounded by moisture, and, as it were, suspended in
the surrounding medium, the majority of Fishes soon die, from the
clogging of those delicate organs, and the rapid desiccation of their
surface. Some species, however, are furnished with a special appa-
ratus to keep their breathing organs moist when in the air ; and a
few others, which have no such provision, appear to be very little
affected by a temporary absence from their native element.
With but a single exception, all Fishes possess a muscular heart,
which is situated under the throat, usually within the angle formed
by the two sides of the scapular arch (Fig. 1709.) It is composed of
CLA SSTFTCA TION OF FTSTIES.
two cavities — an auricle, which receives the blood on its return from
the body, and a ventricle, which drives it again into the system.
The blood, on leaving- the ventricle, passes through a main artery,
which is usually bulbous at the base, and, in many Fishes, is covered
in the same part with a powerful muscular coat, and furnished with
a valvular apparatus. From the continuation of this arterial bulb,
which runs forward, the branchial vessels are given off on each side;
these conduct the blood, which is still in the venous state, into thegills,
where, in passing through the numerous capillary vessels with which
the surface of those organs is covered, it conies in contact with the
water, and undergoes that change which it is the object of respiration
to produce in the blood. After passing through this network of minute
vessels, the blood is again collected in larger vessels, and conveyed
to the aorta, or principal artery, which runs down the whole length
of the body immediately below the vertebral column, giving off
branches to the various organs during its passage. After passing
through the capillary vessels of the body, the blood is again collected
in the veins, which convey it into a great vein, running up towards
the heart, called the ve7ia cava. In
its course towards the heart, a por-
tion of the venous blood is, how-
ever, diverted into a peculiar system
of veins, called the system of the vena
forta, which ramifies through the
substance of the liver ; the kidneys
are also supplied with venous blood.
Thus, the heart in Fishes acts both
as a systemic and a respiratory
heart, a single contraction of the
ventricle serving to propel the blood,
not only through the vessels and
capillaries of the respiratory appa-
ratus, but also through those of the
general circulation ; whilst a portion
of the fluid also passes through the
capillaries of the liver and kidneys.
The last-mentioned organs are
usually of very large size, and lie
in the immediate neighbourhood
of the vertebral column. The
ureters are much branched at their
origin, but afterwards unite to form
a single canal, which often assumes
the form of a bladder ; and the secre-
tion is discharged sometimes into
the rectum, and sometimes by sepa-
rate apertures situated close behind
the anus.
These Animals are all essentially
Oviparous. The ovaries, well known
under the name of roe, are generally
of large size, and, when fully dis-
tended with ova, occupy a consi-
derable portion of the abdominal
cavity, which they often distend to
a great extent. The number of ova
contained in the ovaries of a single
Fish is often enormous. In most
Fishes, the mature ova are carried
arterial out by means of an oviduct, which
bulb ; c, ventricle ; d, auricle ; opens either into the last portion of
t, venous sinus ; f, vena porta, the intestine, or by a separate aper-
liver, &c. ; g, intestine ; h, vena ture, immediately behind the anus.
cava; i, vessels of the gills; In a few, the oviduct is wanting, and
k, dorsal artery ; /, kidneys ; m, the ova, when ready to be deposited
dorsal artery or aorta. break through the walls of the
ovaries into the abdominal cavity
whence they escape by one or more apertures. The male organs
occupy the same position as those of the female ; they are commonly
known as the soft roe. The mode in which their contents are evacua-
ted presents much the same difference as in the female. As a general
rule, the products of these organs are discharged at once into the
water ; tlie fish usually resorting in crowds to the same spot for the
purpose of spawning, so as to secure the impregnation of the ova.
This is evidently the object of the curious instinct which prompts so
many Fishes to undertake migrations in vast shoals, and often to
great distances. The Herring, the Pilchard, and the Mackerel are
e.xamples of Fishes which perform considerable journeys in search of
a proper place in which to deposit their spawn. The Salmon is also
very remarkable in this respect, from the pertinacity with which it
continues its course from the sea, in which it habitually resides, in
order to deposit its ova in the small streams near the sources of
rivers. The spawning appears to take place only once a year.
Many Fishes, however are what is called Ovo-viviparous ; that is
to say, the ova are retained within the oviduct until the complete
evolution of the embryo. The mode in which the impregnation of
the ova is effected in these cases is not exactly known.
Fig. 1709.
branchial arteiy ; b.
•Circulatory System
of Fish
Fishes appear always to select shallow water for the deposition of
their ova ; but, beyond this, they do not generally exhibit any care
for their offspnng. A few, however, form a sort of nest for the pro-
tection of their eggs and young ; and in some instances, the male
remains as a guard over the fry until they have acquired sudicient
strength and agility to venture forth into the world. The little
Sticklebacks {Gastcrostcus), so common in all our ponds, furnish an
interesting example of the exercise of this instinct.
SUB-DIVI.SIONS.
The classification of Fishes has always presented considerable
difficulties 1 1 the naturalist. Linnxus who placed the Cartilaginous
Fish amongst the Amphibia, divided the Bony Fishes into orders
according to the position of the ventral fins ; Cuvier founded his
primary groups upon characters derived from the consistence of the
skeleton (cartilaginous or bony), sub-dividing these into orders in
accordance with the characters presented by the fins and gills ; and
Professor Agassiz afterwards proposed the system to which we have
already referred, founded upon the structure of the scales. The
arrangement here followed is nearly identical with that proposed by
Professor Miiller in his valuable memoir on the Ganoid Fishes, pub-
lished in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy for 1844 ; in
which, by combining the systems of Cuvier and Agasssiz, and
making such alterations as his own extensive acquaintance with the
Animals suggested to him, he has succeeded in arranging the
members of this difficult class, in a far more satisfactory manner than
any of his predecessors.
We divide the class of Fishes into five great orders. In the first,
the Leptocardia, the heart is entirely absent, and the circulation is
effected by the pulsations of the great vessels. The vertebral column
is represented by a gelatinous band supporting the spinal cord, and
the latter exhibits scarcely any traces of cerebral organs at its ante-
rior extremity. The Fishes of the other four orders have a distinct
muscular heart, composed of two chambers. In the first and second
the aperture leading from the ventricle into the artery is furnished
with two valves, and the base of the artery is destitute of a muscular
coating : in the others, the valves at the entrance of the artery are
wanting ; but the inner surface of the latter is furnished with numer-
ous valves, and its outer surface is clothed with a muscular coating.
Of the former, the Cyclostomata are further distinguished by their
cartilaginous skeleton, their sac-like branchije opening by a series of
apertures along the sides behind the head, and their round sucking
mouth without jaws ; whilst the Teleostia have a well-developed bony
skeleton, a mouth furnished with jaws, and free branchial organs
concealed under an operculum.
The Ganoidea, forming the first order of Fishes with a muscular
arterial bulb, resemble the Teleostia, in having free branchia;, covered
by an operculum. The skeleton, in this order is sometimes bony,
sometimes cartilaginous ; and the skull is more or less covered with
bony dermal plates. In the second order, the Selachia, the skeletor.
is always cartilaginous, the gills are fixed, the water used in respira-
tion passing off through a series of openings, corresponding in
number to the gills, and the head is never covered by bony plates.
In accordance with the views of Professor Owen, and many other
naturalists, we have removed the Selachia (including the Sharks and
Rays) to the head of the class, a position to which they are undoubt-
edly entitled, on account of the evident approach which they make,
in many important particulars, to the higher groups of the Verte-
brata. This alteration has also necessitated the removal of the Gan-
oid Fishes, which in any system must occupy a position intermediate
between the Teleostia, or Bony, and the Selachia, or Cartilaginous
Fishes.
Professor Miiller includes a sixth group, (the Dipnoi) in the present
class, for the reception of the Protoptcrus and Lepidosiren — singular
Animals, which appear to partake almost equally of the characters
of this and the preceding class. It has, in fact, long been a matter
of dispute in which of these great groups these curious creatures
should be placed ; and we have preferred arranging them amongst
the Batrachia, as they agree with those Animals in possessing lungs
and a pervious nasal cavity. (See a7ite p. 668.)
Order I.— Leptocardi.\.
This order includes only a single small Fish, which rarely attains
a length of two inches, but which presents so many remarkable
characters, that its title to a place in the Vertebrate division of the
Animal Kingdom has been disputed by some authors. Ihis is the
Amphioxus lanceolatus,3.\\\.t\e., slender transparent creature, which
is found on sandy coasts in various parts of the world. Its body is
of an elongated lanceolate form, with a narrow membranous border,
running along the whole of the dorsal and a part of the ventral surface
and expanding at the caudal extremity into a lancet-shaped hn ;
which, however, is traversed by the tail itself. The vertebral column
is represented by a gelatinous column {chorda dorsalis), which sup-
ports the axis of the nervous system ; the latter terminates anteriorly
by a rounded extremity, without any signs of a brain. The head
68o
BONY OR OSSEOUS FISHES.
bears a pair of eyes, which are connected with the end of the nervous
axis, by short filaments ; and between these, is a small ciliated pit,
apparently the first rudiment of an olfactory organ. The mouth is
placed at the front of the head, where it forms an oval opening-, quite
destitute of jaws, but surrounded by a number of cartilaginous points,
the oral cavity leads into a large branchial sac, at the hinder extremity
of which is the entrance of the intestinal canal. By the action of
cilia, with which these cavities are lined, currents are produced in
the water ; and the water, thus carried into the branchial sac, passes
off through numerous slits in its walls into the general cavity of the
body, wlience it escapes by an opening in the ventral surface. The
circulation of the blood is effected entirely by the contractile power
of the arteries ; no trace of a muscular heart is to be detected in the
transparent body of the creature. The blood itself, unlike that of
all other Vcrtebrata, is perfectly colourless
Order ii. — Cyclostomata.
The Cychsfomafa still retain a good deal of the embryonic
character so characteristic of the preceding order, although in their
general organisation they exhibit a very great advance.
They are of an elongated, cylindric, and somewhat worm-like
form (Fig. 1710) ; the skin is tough, and quite destitute of scales;
the pectoral and ventral fins are wanting; and the continuous fin,
which runs round the posterior extremity of the body, contains
scarcely any rays. The skeleton is cartilaginous, and consists
Fig. 1710. — The Lamprey. ■
simply of a dorsal cord and of a rudimentary skull, without any trace
of nbs or other appendages. The mouth is destitute of jaws, and
usually forms a circular sucking-cup, supported by a curious carti-
lage. The inner surface of the mouth is often armed with teeth.
The branchiffi are in the form of little sacs, on the inner surface of
which the blood-vessels ramify. These usually open externally by
separate orifices.
The circulation of the blood in the Cylcostomata is effected, as in
all the remaining Fishes, by means of a muscular heart, composed
of two chambers. The orifice through which the blood passes from
the ventricle into the branchial artery, is provided with a pair of
semi-lunar valves, and the base of this vessel is not furnished with a
muscular coat.
SuB-uivisiONS. — This order contains only two families. In the
lilyxinidcs. the mouth is furnished with a number of cirri or
tentacles ; the lip bears a single tooth, and the tongue is sometimes
armed with a few teeth. The eyes are completely concealed, and
the nasal cavity opens into the mouth. These Fishes appear to eat
their way into the bodies of other Fishes, in which they are often
found by the fisherman. The best-known species is the Myxine
ghitinosa, called the Hag by the British fishermen. It was
described by Linna;us as a parasitic Worm, and receives its specific
name, " g/utinosa," from the immense quantity of mucus which it
can give off from its skin, and which is said to be so great, that if
put into a vessel of water, it will, in a very short period, convert the
whole of it into a glutinous mass, capable of being drawn out into
threads.
In the second family, the Petro7nyzonid<z, the mouth has the form
of a circular funnel, formed either of one or two lips. They are
_ always destitute of cirri, but the inside of the
mouth is usually armed with numerous teeth
(Fig. 171 1). The nasal cavities never lead into
the mouth; the eyes are usually well-formed,
and there are generally seven branchial sacs,
which open directly, by a corresponding number
of apertures along the sides of the body, whilst
they communicate, internally, with the pharynx
by the intervention of a common canal.
Fig. 1711. — Mouth of This family includes the various species of
the Lamprey. Lampreys, which generally inhabit fresh water,
although some species are found in the sea.
They commonly adhere to stones in the water by means of their
funnel-shaped mouth ; and are said also to attach themselves, by
the same means, to the bodies of other Fishes, so as to feed at leisure
upon their substance. This statememt, however, is very doubtful ;
and it appears more probable that the Lampreys derive their nourish-
ment entirely from small Aquatic Animals.
The Sea Lamprey {Petrojnyzon mai-ititts) attains a length of
three or four feet. It quits the sea early in the spring, and proceeds
up the larger rivers for the purpose of spawning ; it is at this period
that it is generally taken. In former days the Lamprey was regarded
as a great delicacy ; and one of our English kings is said to have
died in consequence of indulging too freely in a dish of these Fish.
They have gone somewhat out of repute in the present day ; but
great numbers of the River Lamprey \P. fluviatilis) are still taken
"in some parts of Germany, where they abound ; they are packed in
jars, with vinegar, spices, and bay leaves, and exported to other
countries. Some epicures have resorted to the ingenious experiment
of drowning Lampreys in wine ; a process which is supposed to give
them a very superior flavour. Formerly the River Lamprey was very
abundant in the Thames, and its capture formed a most important
part of the business of the Thames fishermen. But this, like many
other kinds of fisheries, has been destroyed by the pollution of the
river by sewage. They were sold in great quantities to the Dutch,
to be employed as bait in the Turbot and Cod fisheries. Mr. Yarrell
states, that as many as 400,000 of these Fish have been sold for this
purpose in one season.
Order hi.— Teleostia
General Characters. — The Fishes of this order, which corre-
sponds almost exactly with Cuvier's great section of Osseous Fishes,
must be regarded as the types of the class. They are all furnished
with a perfect bony skeleton, the structure of which has already been
described in our introductory remarks. The skull is always of a
very complicated structure, and composed of numerous bones ; the
gills are supported upon free bony arches, and the water passes away
from them by a single aperture, protected by a bony operculum or
gill cover. The mouth is always formed by a pair of regular jaws,
and usually armed with teeth. The arterial bulb, situated immedi-
ately in front of the ventricle of the heart, is always composed of
the thickened walls of the vessel, and is never provided with a
muscular coat. The only valves in this vessel are a pair placed at
the point where it communicates with the heart.
Many of these Fishes have a perfectly naked skin, but the majority
are covered with scales of various forms. These are generally of a
horny consistency, and e.xhibit the two principal types of form already
described as cycloid and ctenoid. In some cases, however, the
surface of the body is covered with bony scales and plates, which
sometimes unite so as to form a complete suit of bony armour, pre-
senting a considerable resemblance to that of the Ganoid Fish,
amongst which the Fishes, thus protected, were actually placed by
Agassiz.
We have already stated that, besides the pectoral and ventral fins,
the representatives of the anterior and posterior limbs, Fishes are
furnished with a series of perpendicular fins placed on the median
line of the body, and denominated, according to their position, the
dorsal, caudal, and anal fins. The folds of skin of which these, as
well as the pectoral and ventral fins, are composed, are extended by
means of an apparatus of rays, which present themselves under two
very distinct forms in the Bony Fishes — namely, as spines and soft
rays. The former are simple, bony spines, tapering gradually to a
point. They are generally stiff, and project, more or less, beyond
the membranous part of the fin, so that, in some instances, they
become dangerous weapons. The soft rays are also usually com-
posed of bony matter ; but, instead of being composed of a single
piece, like the spines, they are divided transversely into numerous
short joints, and are also constantly dividing and subdividing longi-
tudinally as they diverge from their point of insertion ; so that,
starting from the body as a single-jointed ray, they become split up,
before reaching the margin of the fin, in a bundle of smaller, but
similarly jointed branches. The soft rays are of universal occurrence
throughout the series of Bony Fishes ; the spiny rays occur in a great
number, but are often absent. The spiny rays are to be found in all
the fins except the caudal ; they always occupy the anterior part of
the fin, the remainder being composed of soft rays. In some Fishes,
with two dorsal fins, such as the Perch, the first dorsal is often
entirely supported by spiny rays ; but, in these cases, we must con-
sider the whole of the dorsal appendages as constituting one large
fin. In some Fishes, one or more of the spinous rays are completely
separate from the fins. These are generally employed as weapons
of offence and defence.
The rays of the pectoral and ventral fins are, of course, articulated
to the bones representing the anterior and posterior members, which,
in Fishes, are usually entirely concealed within the skin. The rays
of the median or perpendicular fins, articulate with a series of bones
(Fig. 17 1 2), which are plunged into the median line of the body,
between the great longitudinal masses of muscles, and which, from
their extremities passing in between the spinous processes of the
vertebral column, have been denominated interspinous bones. Small
muscles, attached at one extremity to the interspinous bones, and at
the other to the fin rays, enable the Fish to raise or depress the fin
at pleasure. In some Fishes, a small, thick fin, without true rays,
occurs behind the true dorsal fin ; this is called the adipose fin.
Sub-divisions. — This order includes a vast majority of the living
species of Fish ; and as the characters by which the genera and
species are distinguished from each other, are often by no means
strongly marked, there are few groups of Animals which present
THE EELS.
C8i
greater diiBculties to the student than this. It is divided into
numerous families, which may, however, be distributed under six
sub-orders, although these are sometimes rather imperfectly defined.
Fig. 1712. — Dorsal Fin, supported on spiny rays, r,r, and these resting on
interspinous bones, i, i.
Sub-order I.— Physostomata.
The Fishes belonging to this group are usually furnished with a
complete series of fins, which are always composed entirely of soft
rays, with the exception of the first ray in the dorsal, anal, and
pectoral fins, which are sometimes spinous. The ventral fins are
sometimes wanting ; when present, they are always abdominal in
position — that is to say, they are situated on the ventral region,
behind the pectorals. There is never more than one rayed dorsal
fin ; but behind this there is occasionally a second adipose
fin. The skin is sometimes naked, and occasionally more or less
covered with bony plates ; in most cases, however, it is thickly
clothed with scales, which always exhibit the cycloid character.
The air-bladder is always connected with the pharynx by a sort of
duct — a most important character, as it only occurs in these fishes
amongst all the Teleostia.
The Physostomata are exceedingly numerous, and inhabit both
salt and fresh waters. They include amongst them some of the
most important of the Fishes that are sought for by man as food ;
and also the only species of this order which possess electrical
powers.
SUB-DmsiONS. — Professor Mliller divides the Physostomata into
two principal groups — the Apoda, in which the ventral fins are
deficient, and the Abdominalia, in which they are placed on the
belly.
The former — of which the Common Eel is an example — are always
Soft-finned fishes, of an elongated. Snake-like form, which often want
both pairs of members, and in which the median fins usually present
the same embryonic form as in the Cyclostomata, except that they
are supported by distinct rays. The head is covered with a thick skin,
which leaves only a small branchial opening. Within this is a large
sac, from which a second sac is given off; and it is to this arrange-
ment that these Fishes are indebted for their power of supporting a
long separation from their native clement. They live both in the
sea and in fresh water, where they swim along with an undulating
movement of the body; they are exceedingly voracious Animals.
The Apodal Physostomata form three families. Of these, the
best known are the MurcsnidcB, or Eels, of which several species
are eaten in this and other countries. They have the branchial
apertures placed at the sides of the head, the intestine without
pyloric appendages, and the reproductive organs without efferent
ducts. Many species of Eels constantly inhabit the ocean ; whilst
others usually live in fresh water, but migrate to the sea at particular
periods, it is supposed to deposit their spawn. It is a very general
belief that Eels are Viviparous ; but this is quite a mistake ; and
the opinion has no doubt, taken its rise from the passage of intesti-
nal worms through the anus. The marine species attain a large
size ; the Common Conger of our coasts measuring sometimes as
much as ten feet in length.
(Fig. 1713 is a characteristic representative of the head of the
Eel.)
Head of an Eel.
The Sharp-nosed Eel (Atiguilla aciitirostris, Yarrell). — In
the genus Anguilla the body is elongated and cylindrical, becom-
ing more and more compressed to the tail ; the mucous glands of
the skin are large ; the air-bladder is long : there are teeth in each
jaw, and a few on the vomer. The pectoral fins are close to the
small branchial aperture. There are no ventral fins, and the dorsal
fins, the caudal fin, and the posterior below are all united.
Cuvier in his last edition of the ' Regne Animal,' in reference to
the True Eels (Anguilles vraies) says, " Our fishermen recognise
four kinds, which they regard as forming so many species, but which
authors confound under the general term of j\lur(e}ia a7igitilla,
Linnaeus, viz. : the ' Anguille vemiaux,' which is, I believe, the most
common; the 'Anguille long-bee,' of which the muzzle is more
compressed and pointed ; the 'Anguille plat-bee,' Grig-Eel of the
English, which has the muzzle more flattened and obtuse, and the
eye smaller; and the ' Anguille pimperneux,' Glut-eel of the English
Fig. 1714. — The Sharp- nosed EeL
4 s
682
THE EELS.
which has the muzzle shorter in proportion, and eyes larger than
those of the others."
Mr. Yarrell, in his work on Fishes, distinguishes the following-
species as indigenous in the British Islands : — ^The Sharp-nosed
Eel {A. aciitirostris). Long-bee of Cuvier ; the Broad-nosed Eel
{A. latirost>-is ; Glut-Eel, Bowdich (Pimpernaux, Cuvier) ; the Snig
\A . mcdiorosfn's). Besides these he introduces the figure of a
fourth Eel, with the following observation : " The term Grig in and
about London is applied to a particular Eel of small size, of which the
figure here introduced represents the head. This eel is the Anguille
plat-bee of Cuvier, ' R(-gne An., torn. ii. p. 349, who considers it as
a distinct species. It is the Grig-eel also of Mrs Bowdich's ' British
Freshwater Fishes,' No. 28, in which work the three Eels already
spoken of here are well figured ; and the species were considered by
Cuvif^r as identical with those of the ' Regne Animal.' "
If, then, this last be distinct from A. latirostris, we have four
species of Eels in the waters of our islands, and the same occur in
those of France. With respect to the term Grig we may observe,
that in most parts of England it is merely applied to any small Eel,
when not above nine or ten inches long, and of which from eight to
ten are required to make up a pound weight.
In their habits and manners these Eels are very similar, and their
flesh equally excellent. Eels inhabit ponds, rivers, and the brackish
water at the mouths of rivers ; and further, they may be regarded as
Migratory Fishes ; in the autumn they make their way to the sea in
vast numbers, as it is believed, for the purpose of depositing their
spawn ; whether they ever return up the river again, is not very clear,
but in spring myriads of minute Eels not above three or four inches
in length make their way from the brackish water, up the rivers,
which they ascend, dispersing themselves as they proceed. These
migrations have been observed in various rivers, as the Thames,
Severn, Dee, &c. Some writers consider that the parent Eels, as
well as their countless fry, return from the brackish water of the
estuary, and regain their haunts in the river.
"In a tideway river," says INIr. Yarrell, " the descent of eels to-
wards the brackish uatcr takes place during the autumn, and various
devices are employed in different streams to intercept them in their
progress." Among these are frames of wood supporting wicker bas-
kets or traps, which form very picturesque objects, and are common at
various places along the Thames ; yet it is very clear that all the
adult Eels in tidal rivers do not descend to the estuary, for it is well
known that thousands lie buried in the mud to the depth of twelve or
sixteen inches, in a state of torpidity, and quantities are often taken
in this condition by means of Eel-spears. In Somersetshire, says
Mr. Yarrell, " the people know how to find the holes in the banks of
rivers, in which eels are laid up, by the hoar-frost not lying over
them, as it does elsewhere, and dig them out in heaps. The practice
of searching for eels in cold weather is not confined to this country. "
Dr. Mitchell in his paper " On the Fishes of New York," published in
the " Transactions " of the Literary and Philosophical Society of that
city, says, " In the winter, eels lie concealed in the mud, and are
taken in great numbers by spears." The torpidity of the Eel is con-
nected with a low degree of respiration ; and, as Dr. Marshall Hall
has shown, with this low grade of respiration co-exist great muscular
irritability, a low temperature, and great tenacity of life, together
with the power of long sustaining the privation of air and food.
These peculiarities are characteristic of these Fishes, and, as Mr.
Yarrell observes, the muscular irritability of Eels accounts for their
restless motions and agitation during thunder-storms, at which time,
hundreds, roused from their haunts, rush tumultuously, and arc
captured in v.Trious traps, which imprison all that enter. He adds
also, that their power of enduring a low temperature is shown by the
fact that Eels exposed on the ground till frozen, then buried in the
snow, and at the end of four days put into water, and so thawed,
slowly discover signs of life, and soon perfectly recover. Now this
power of bearing cold is at singular variance with the opinion that
they are averse to a low temperature, and consequently that none
exist in the rivers of Siberia, the Wolga, the Danube, or any of its
tributary streams ; nay, more, that they are killed by cold or frost.
Mr. Thompson, in "Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.," March, 1841,
says, " On the 6th, 7th. and 8th of the present month, February,
1841, great quantities of this fish in a dead state floated down the
river Lagan to the quays at Belfast. Here, upon these days, and
along the coast of the river within the tideway, collecting dead eels
was quite an occupation at low water. Three examples sent me by
my friend Edmund Getty, Esq., were the Common Eel (A. aaiiiros-
iri's, Yarr.) They were found dead, of all sizes, up to the laro-est."
It appears that a piercing east wind, accompanied by a hard'^frost
prevailed ; and as at low water a great extent of mud-banks is un-
covered, the Eels there imbedded are supposed to have perished
from the intense cold arising from the rapid evaporation occasioned
by the bitter gale. In January, 1814, great quantities of Eels in the
same river met with a similar fate, an east wind prevailing, with an
intense frost. In 1841, during the month of March, at the same
time that the Eels perished in the Lagan, multitudes of Conger Eels,
varying from a foot to five or six feet in length, perished in the river-
Lee, about six miles below Cork. Other instances of a like nature
are on record.
That Eels breed in the fresh water of inland rivers and lakes,
from which they are unable to visit the sea, is a point on
which little doubt exists; indeed, Mr. Yarrell expressly states, that
in the Mole, the Wey, and the Longford river, and in various
large ponds, from which there is no possible egress, the Eel does not
deposit its spawn till near the end of April, while in Eels from the
brackish water of higher temperature the breeding season takes
place much earlier.
Eels often quit the water, and wander during warm dewy nights on
the grass, either in quest of Worms, Frogs, and other food, or in
order to change their locality ; hence they often travel from rivers
into adjacent ponds, where the fry of other Fishes are thinned by
their rapacity. On one occasion we ourselves saw three or four Eels
on the banks of the Severn, near Bewdiey ; it was dusk, the weather
was warm, and the grass wet with dew ; several small pools close by
seemed at the same time alive with Eels.
The passage of the shoals of young Eels up the Thames in spring,
■R'hich is continued for several days is called Eclfare, the Saxon
■s\'ord/»r(? signifying to travel (as in wayfare, seafaring, thoroughfare),
and Mr. Yarrell thinks that the term Elvei-, applied along the
Severn to a young Eel, is a corruption of Eclfare. The London
market is largely supplied with Eels from Holland by Dutch fisher-
men. The vessels are built with capacious wells for their preserva-
tion alive, and each brings a cargo of several thousand pounds'
weight of live Eels.
The Eel is among the Fishes of the South Sea Islands. Ellis, in
his " Polynesian Researches," vol. ii. p. 286, says : — " In Otaheite
eels are great favourites, and are tamed and fed until they attain
an enormous size. These pets are kept in large holes, two or three
feet deep, partially filled with -n-ater. On the sides of these pits they
generally remained, excepting when called by the person who fed
them. I have been several times with the young chief, when he has
sat down by the side of the hole, and by giving a shrill sort of
whistle has brought out an enormous eel, which has moved about the
surface of the water, and eaten with confidence out of its master's
hand."
In the Gyni7iot!dcB, the maxillary bones take part in the formation
of the margin of the upper jaw, which is not the case in the
MiiranidcB. The branchial apparatus is situated as in the pre-
ceding family ; the intestine is furnished with pyloric appendages ;
and the generative organs with efferent ducts. The dorsal fin is
entirely wanting ; but the anal fin is very long, running from the
anus, which is situated near the throat, to the hinder extremity of
the body.
The most remarkable Fish of this family is the Electrical Eel
{Gymnotus elecin'cus, Fig. 1715), which frequents the ponds and
marshy places of South America.
This Fish possesses a most wonder-
ful power of communicating an elec-
trical shock to anything with which it
comes in contact; and this is sufli-
ciently strong to knock down a man,
and deprive him of the use of a
limb for some time. The Electrical
Eels attain a length of five or six
feet ; and, as the apparatus from
which the electricity is evolved ex-
tends throughout the greater part of
its body, it may readily be imagined
that the discharge of such a battery
must be a formidable affair. The
apparatus is composed of four longi-
tudinal bundles, placed one on each
side of the dorsal, and one each side of the ventral region of the body.
These bundles are composed of a multitude of horizontal parallel
plates, which are intersected by transverse vertical plates ; the
quadrangular canals thus formed being filled with a gelatinous
matter. The whole apparatus is liberally supplied with nerves, and
may be considered to represent an exceedingly complicated voltaic
battery. So powerful, in fact, is the current of electricity evolved by
it, that it can decompose chemical compounds, and magnetise steel
needles. It appears that the anterior portion of the apparatus is
positive, and the posterior negative ; and that those parts of it only
which are in contact with an object are implicated in the production
of the current. Nevertheless, it is said that the Animal can make
use of it in benumbing small Fishes at some distance from it in the
water. The Indians of South America, when tliey wish to capture
this Fish, commence their operations by driving a number of Horses
and Mules into the ponds inhabited by them ; the Eels, alarmed at
the disturbance, immediately attack the intruders upon their quiet
domain, usually applying their entire length to the bellies of the
unfortunate quadrupeds, and thus giving the full effect of the whole
electrical apparatus. Some of the Horses soon become disabled, and
falling down in the water are drowned ; the others, being driven back
by the shouts and whips of the Indians, continue the conflict until
the powers of the Gytunoti 3xe., for the time, exhausted. These then
endeavour, in their turn, to escape from the scene of warfare, and
Fig. 1715.— TheEIectr!cr.l Eel.
THE HERRING FAMILY.
683
for this purpose approach the shore, where another enemy awaits
them ; the Indians armed with harpoons attaclied to long cords, strilce
at all that come within reach, and by jerking them rapidly out of the
water, so as to keep the cord from getting wet, contrive to secure their
booty without receiving any shock. Several other species of this
family are found in the waters of South America, but none of them
appear to possess electrical properties. Mr. Wallace found ten
species in the small streams near the sources of the Rio Negro and
Orinoco ; he says that they are all eaten, but that, owing to the
number of forked bones which they contain, they are but little
esteemed. The Indians informed him that a rostrated species, com-
mon in those rivers, has a very singular and ingenious manner of
obtaining its nourishment. They stated that its principal food con-
sisted of Ants and White Ants, Insects which are exceedingly abun-
dant in those regions ; and that, to procure them, it approached the
shore, and laid its tail upon the ground. The Ants, attracted by
the slimy matter with which this tempting morsel is covered, soon
crawl thickly upon it, when the Fish suddenly dives into the water,
leaving its prey struggling on the surface, from which it can pick
them off at its leisure.
The third family is that of the SymhranchidcB, in which the
branchial apertures, instead of being placed at the sides of the head,
as in the two preceding families, unite- to form a single opening, often
divided by a longitudinal partition in the throat. They are all in-
habitants of Tropical countries, and live in fresh water.
Of the abdominal Physostomata, the first family contains only a
single little blind Fish, which is found in the subterranean caves of
North America. The head is broad and rounded ; the eyes com-
pletely covered by an opaque skin, or entirely absent ; and the anus
is situated on the throat, in front of the pectoral fins. The young are
brought forth alive. It forms the family Amblyopsidcs.
The Fishes of the second family, the ClupeidcB, are always covered
with large thin scales ; the mouth is wide, and both the maxillary
and intermaxillary bones assist in the formation of the margin of the
upper jaw. The dorsal fin is single, and there is no adipose fin.
Most of them are furnished with pyloric coeca and air-bladders.
This family includes many of the most important of all Fishes, in
an economic point of view. Some of the most interesting species are
described as follows : —
The Herrixg— Family Chipeidcs.
The Vilchard {C/upca pi'lc/iardus). Gipsey Herring, in Scot-
land. — The Pilchard bears a strong resemblance to the Herring (see
Fig. 1716), but, instead of being found on every part of the coasts of
Britain, like that Fish, its geographical distribution is exceedingly
limited, and in this country it is only found in any great numbers on
the shores of Devon and Cornwall, chiefly from Dartmouth to Pad-
stow, round the Land's End. It requires a warmer and more genial
latitude than the Herring, and, though occasionally taken at Yar-
mouth, and as far north as Dublin and Belfast, yet these are only
individuals separated by accident from the great shoal.
Fig. 1716.— The Pilchard.
Pilchards frequent the French coasts, as well as those of Spain
but not m great numbers : the French fish for them in the Bay of
Biscay, attractmg them to their nets by throwing overboard laree
quantities of the salted roes of Fishes, of which they are very fond
Un the southern coast of Ireland large shoals sometimes make their
appearance and several years ago a tolerably productive fishery was
tnere carried on.
5, nv''%r""''''''""'i'"u^°''T', of England, stretching further south than
any other part of the United Kingdom, is however, their most
favoured haunt ; and individuals are there 'to be found at all seaTons
^Irf^ H^^'"'"^ /''^ "'T"^" ''■'"'^''- regulate their movements were
wn fn K^ "i^derstood, there can be no doubt but that their habits
ould be found directed by as wonderful a degree of instinct as that
Wn^^°''"°^ °l ^y portions of the unreasoning creation, with whose
accouT,tnft:f^.^''"■/'''5^^"'"'^• ^^'- Yarrell, in his interesting
account of the Pilchard (vol. 11. p. 96}, says-" In January they keep
near the bottom, and are chiefly seen in the stomachs of ravenous
fishes ; in March they sometimes assemble in schulls (shoals), and
thousands of hogsheads have in some years been taken in scans, but
this union is only partial, and not permanent: and it is not until
July that they regularly and permanently congregate so as to be
sought after by the fishermen." The Pilchard sometimes spawns in
May, but the usual season is October. Pennant stated that their
winter retreat was the same as the Herring, and that the same im-
pulses brought them from thence to our shores ; but it is now clear
that their migration consists merely of a change from the deep sea
to the shore, and again from the shore to the deep adjacent sea.
Their course generally appears to be from the west, but, like the
Herring, the Pilchard is very uncertain in its movements. Dr.
Forbes says— " Both the period of their arrival and departure, and
also the course they take, are uncertain, and have varied greatly in
different years. Fifty or sixty years since they remained on ' the
coasts till Christmas, and the fishermen were engaged in their cap-
ture five or six months, but now the season does not last more than
two or three months. Some years ago, indeed, they either did not
appear at all on the Cornish coast, or only for a few weeks, or even
days. In former years they also appeared first on the northern
coasts of Cornwall, towards the east, from whence they proceeded
westward round the Land's End, and then eastward along the
southern coasts. Lately, however, they have on some occasions
scarcely touched on the northern coasts, but have made their first
appearance on the eastern parts of the south coast." The Pilchard
measures from nine to eleven inches in length ; it contains more
oleaginous matter than the Herring ; the body is thicker and rounder,
and less compressed ; the under jaw shorter; the scales larger, and
forming a closer texture than those of the Herring, which drop off;
and are smaller and thinner ; the line of the abdomen smooth. The
upper part of the Pilchard is a bluish-green ; the belly a silvery white ;
head golden-coloured yellow ; tail dusky. The Pilchard has no
teeth, in which respect it differs from the Herring. The dorsal, or
back fin of the Pilchard being placed in the centre of gravity, the
body will rest in an exact horizontal position if taken up by this
part, whereas in the Herring, the dorsal fin being more backwards
than the centre, the Fish, on being taken up by it, will not remain
equipoised, but the head drops downwards.
The stations of the Pilchard fishery are St. Ives, on the northern
coast of Cornwall ; Mount's Bay, on the southern coast ; thence
eastward at St. Mawes, at Mevagissey, and to the coasts of Devon.
There are two modes of fishing, one with scans, and the other with
drift-nets. The former requires a considerable capital : about
eighteen men are employed in conducting the operations of a single
"concern," and three boats are necessary ; while the drift-nets are
managed by from four to six men in a single boat. The sean-fishery
is carried on near the shore, the drift-tishcry further at sea ; and
while the former supplies the foreign demand, the latter is chiefly
engaged in providing for the immediate consumption of the home
market, as from the manner in which the Fish are taken they
are not so well adapted for curing as those caught by the scans.
The nets used in the sean-fishery are, a stop-scan, with lead
weights at the bottom, and corks at the top to keep it float-
ing, being about a quarter of a mile in length, and nearly
100 feet in depth ; and a tuck-sean, which is made with a
hollow in the middle, is one-half the size in length, and
eighteen feet deeper than the larger net. Two "boats, of
about fifteen tons each, are used, in one of which the stop-
sean is carried ; the other, which carries the tuck-sean, is
required to assist in enclosing the Fish, and is called the
" volyer," supposed to be a corruption of " follower ;" the
smaller boat, of from two to four tons' burthen, is used to
carry the men to and from the shore, besides being useful
when the men are engaged with the nets ; it is called a
"lurker," and the crew consists of the master-seaner with
three of the men, while the remainder are equally divided
between the other two boats. The most favourable place
for the sean-fishing is a fine sandy bay. The fishermen
commence their labours towards evening, proceeding at
that time to the place which the Fish may be expected to
visit, and there they cast anchor. Should a shoal make its ap-
pearance, the master-seaner and his men are instantly on the
alert, in order to ascertain the extent of the shoal, and the nature of
the ground over which it is passing. As soon as the shoal is within
the depth of the scan, the boat containing it is rowed round, and
when they have reached the proper place, the three men whose busi-
ness it is to attend to the net, heave it out with the greatest des-
patch. This great body of net, rope, corks, and lead, is thrown into
the sea in less than five minutes. During the whole of these pro-
ceedings the movements of the fishermen are directed by signs from
the master-seaner in the lurker, as the Pilchard is easily alarmed.
We learn from Mr. Yan-ell's work that "The scan at first forms a
curved line across the course of the fish ; and while the two larger
boats are employed in warping the ends together, the lurker's station
is in the openings, where, by dashing the water, the fish are kept
away from the only place of escape. When the sean is closed and
684
THE HERRING.
the ends are laid together, if the body of the fish be great, and the
sea or tide strong, the net is secured by heavy grapnels, which are
attached to the head-ropes by hawsers. When the evening has
closed in, and the tide is low, they proceed to take up the fish. For
this purpose, leaving the stop-sean as before, the volyer passes
within it, and lays the tuck-sean round it on the inner side ; it is
then drawn together so as gradually to contract the limits of the
fish, and raise them from the bottom. When disturbed they become
exceedingly agitated ; and so great is the force derived from their
numbers "and fear, that the utmost caution is used lest the net should
either sink or be burst. When the tuck sean is thus gradually con-
tracting, and the boats surround it, stones suspended from
ropes, called minnies, are repeatedly plunged into the water
at that part where escape alone is practicable, until the fish
then to be taken are supported in the hollow or blunt of the
sean."
It is stated that it is not more difficult to take a thousand
hogsheads of Fish than to take a single hogshead ; and as
the movements of a large body are slower than a smaller,
the difficulty is probably less. Instances have occuiTed in
which two thousand hogsheads, or about five million Fish, have
been caught at once ; but when a very large number are caught,
only so many are taken out of the net at one time as the
boats can conveniently carry, and a week or ten days may
elapse before the whole are secured. By this arrangement,
the process of salting or curing is properly performed ;
whereas, if the whole were compelled to be brought on shore at once,
many would be spoiled, from the impossibility of getting through the
work in proper time. The Fish are brought to the surface by a
small net, and two men with a large basket bale them out of the net
into the boat. When the fishery is carried on beyond the usual dis-
tance from the coast, as at Mount's Bay, the Fish are conveyed to
the shore in small sloops of a few tons' burthen. In ordinary cases
they are conveyed by the sean boats.
The fishing by drift or driving nets, is generally carried on in
common fishing-boats, manned by four men and a boy. These boats
have generally either lug-sails or sprit-sails ; and there are often as
many as twenty nets to each boat, the whole of which being joined
together extend three-fourths of a mile in length, though they may
be much shorter, — the excellence and superiority of tfie tackle de-
pending upon the extent of the fisherman's capital.
The Fish, on being brought to the shore, are at once taken to the
cellars or store-houses, where they are salted and ranged in heaps,
from five to six feet in height, and, in some instances, ten or twelve
feet wide. After remaining in this state for five or six days, they are
packed into hogsheads. By the application of a poweri^ul lever at
the top of the hogshead, the oil is extracted, and runs out of the
casks through holes made for the purpose. The pressing continues
for about a fortnight. The refuse salt, which is mixed with the
scales and blood of the Fish, is sold as manure to the farmers, and
is applied with great advantage to the land. It is estimated that the
refuse of each Pilchard will manure one square foot of land. At the
present day large quantities of Pilchards are dried and smoked for
sale in the London and other markets.
The Herring {Clupea harengiis). — Contrary to the opinion of
Pennant and other naturalists, the Herring is a resident in the deep
water all round our coast, and only approaches the shores for the pur-
pose of depositing its spawn, which accomplished, it returns to the
deep. Pennant, however, describes the shoals as making the Arctic
circle their winter rendezvous ; and on their return, he says, they
first make their appearance off the Shetland Isles in April and May ;
but these, he adds, " are only forerunners of the grand shoal which
comes in June ; and their appearance is marked by certain signs, by
the number of Birds, such as Gannets and others, which follow to
prey on them : but when the main body approaches, its breadth and
depth are such as to alter the very appearance of the ocean. It is
divided into distinct columns of five or six miles in length, and three
or four in breadth, and they drive the water before them with a kind
of rippling ; sometimes they sink for the space often or fifteen minutes
then rise again to the surface, and in bright weather reflect a variety
of splendid colours. The first check this army meets in its march
southward is from the Shetland Isles, which divide it into two parts.
One wing takes to the east, the other to the western shores of Great
Britain, and fill every bay and creek with their numbers. Others pass
on towards Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of Herrings ; they
then pass through the British Channel, and after that in a manner
disappear. Those which take to the west, after offering themselves
to the Hebrides, where the great stationary fishery is, proceed towards
the north of Ireland, where they meet with a second interruption, and
are obliged to make a second division. The one takes to the
western side, and is scarce perceived, being soon lost in the immen-
sity of the Atlantic ; but the other, which passes into the Irish Sea,
rejoices and feeds the inhabitants of most of the coasts that border
on it."
Now so far from this migration to and from the Arctic circle taking
place, it would appear that the Herring has never been seen by voya-
gers or Whale-fishers in those high northern latitudes. On tht
southern coast of Greenland " some few of the large sort of herrings
are taken," says Crantz, and he previously states that the Angmarset,
a small Herring about six inches long, is the common food of the
Greenlanders, and this species was found by Sir John Franklin on the
shore of the Polar basin. No great shoals of the Common Herring,
however, have been observed. If this Fish does not make the Arc-
tic circle its asylum, so on the other hand it never visits the warmer
latitudes, nor farther south than the adjacent parts of the coast of
France. The extent of its migratory movements then is very limited :
from the shore to the deep sea, and from the deep sea to the shore.
The Common Herring spawns in October or the beginning of Novem-
Fi^. 1 7 17. — The Herring.
ber ; and two or three months previous to this, generally in the mid-
dle of July, when the Fish are in high condition, the shoals collect
oft' various parts of our coast, at which period the fishery, of such
national importance, is carried on ; after spawning the shoals depart,
but young Herrings, which unlike the Salmon, do not mature their
roe for the first year, abound in the shallows around the coast through-
out the winter, and during the whole of the summer, and are often
caught in small meshed nets used for taking Sprats, Atherine, and
other Fishes.
It is a remarkable circumstance in the history of the Herring, that
the shoals are extremely capricious with respect to the localities they
visit, and that too without any accountable reason. For years they
will resort by myriads to a given station, which will then be deserted,
and some portion of a coast where they have previously been extremely
rare will become thronged with countless multitudes. There is
scarcely a fishing station, says Mr. Yarrell, round the British Islands
that has not experienced in the visits of this Fish the greatest varia-
tions, both as to time and quantity. These frequent changes of their
haunts have led to many speculations. " Ordinary philosophy," says
Dr. McCulloch, " is never satisfied unless it can find a solution for
everything, and is satisfied for this reason with imaginary ones.
Thus in Long Island, one of the Hebrides (a great fishing station in
the time of Charles the First), it was asserted that the fish had
been driven away by the manufacture of kelp ; some imaginary coin-
cidence having been found between their disappearance and the
establishment of that business. But the kelp fires did not drive them
away from other shores, which they frequent and abandon indifferently
without regard to this work. It has been a still more favourite and
popular fancy that they were driven away by the firing of guns, and
hence this is not allowed during the fishing season. A gun has
scarcely been fired in the Western Islands, or on the west coast since
the days of Cromwell, yet they have changed their places many times
in that interval. In a similar manner, and with equal truth, it was
said they had been driven from the Baltic by the battle of Copenha-
gen It is amusing to see how old theories are revived. This is a
very ancient Highland hypothesis, with the necessary modification.
Before the days of gunpowder the Highlanders held that they quitted
the coasts where blood had been shed ; and thus ancient philosophy
is renovated. Steam-boats are now supposed to be the culprits,
since a reason must be found : to prove their effect. Loch Fyne
visited by steam-boats daily, is now their favourite haunt, and they
have deserted other lochs where steam-boats have never yet smoked.
Mr. Yarrell gives a ludicrous example of one reason why Herrings
desert an old station ; his words are, — " A member of the House of
Commons during the session of 1835, in a debate on the tythe bill,
stated that a clergyman having attained a living on the coast of
Ireland, signified his intention of taking the tythe of fish, which was,
however, considered to be so utterly repugnant to their privileges
and feelings, that not a single herring had ever since visited that
part of the shore."
The food of the Herring consists of small Crustaceous Animals and
Fishes ; and it would appear that they do not spare the young of
their own race, for Dr. Neill found five young Herrings in the stom-
ach of a large female. They have been caught by anglers with an
artificial fly, and the fishermen have not unfrequently taken them
with lines, the hooks having been baited with Limpets. It is doubt-
less to the quality and supply of food which different stations present
that the superiority of the Herrings of one place to those of another
is to be attributed. Mr. Jesse, in his " Gleanings in Natural His-
tory states that the Herrings of Cardigan Bay are much superior
to those taken at Swansea. From personal experience we assert that
THE HERRING AND SPRAT.
68s
the Herrings caught during June, July, (Src, in Loch Fyne, just
alluded to, exceed in flavour any other obtained round the British
Isles, whether eaten fresh, or after salting and smoking, if the latter
be done by peat-smoke. Abundance of nutritive food, we may readily
suppose will tend to the development of the roe ; and shoals that have
luxuriated on a perpetual feast are perhaps those which appear the
soonest on our coasts. At all events the Herring season is not at pre-
cisely the same time in every place. For example, on the western coast
of Scotland the fishery has sometimes terminated before that on the
eastern coast has commenced ; it has sometimes in a southern part
of the coast than farther north, and on the western coast of the county
of Cork before any other part of the United Kingdom. These facts,
moreover, militate against the once universally received theory of
their simultaneous Arctic migration and return.
The Herring dies almost the instant that it is taken out of the
water, and this, in some measure, results from the width of the gill-
openings. But it is to be observed that "those fish which swim near
the surface of the water, have a high standard of respiration, a low
degree of muscular irritability, and great necessity for oxygen, die
soon — almost immediately — when taken out of water, and have flesh
prone to rapid decomposition : mackerel, salmon, trout, and herrings
are examples. On the contrary, those Fish that live near the bottom
of the water, have a low standard of respiration, a high degree of
muscular irritability and less necessity for oxygen ; they sustain life
long after they are taken out of the water, and their flesh remains
good for several days : carp, tench, eels, the different sorts of skate,
and all the flat-fish may be quoted " (Yarrell).
The destruction made by Man, by Gannets, and other Water-
birds, and by larger Fishes, amongst the shoals of Herrings, is
almost incalculable ; yet their numbers appear undiminished,
myriads supplying the places of the myriads destroyed. The roe of
the Herring weighs 480 grains, and is composed of eggs varying in
number from 3,000 to 4,000. Thus it is then that this Fish, by the
economy of a wise Providence, yields to Man a never-failing
supply, the balance between loss and increase being duly main-
tained.
As we have said, the Herring fishery is only carried on during
spawning season, or rather before it, when the Fish are in the highest
perfection. The Yarmouth Herring Fishery commences about the
middle of September, but the season varies at different parts of the
coast. On the coast of Sutherland the early Herring fishery com-
mences in June ; the late fishery about the middle of July, and con-
tinues until September. On the coast of Cromarty large shoals
appear as early as the month of May. The great object is to obtain
a supply for the purpose of curing, although, in the early part of the
season, large numbers of fresh Herrings are brought to the London
market from Yarmouth ; and the consumption at Norwich and inland
places, such as Birmingham, &c., is also considerable. The Fish
are sometimes so rich in the early part of the season as to be unfit
for curing, and on this account they are brought into the market for
immediate consumption. The spawning season being over by the
end of October or the beginning of November, the fishing terminates,
as the Herrings are then in a poor and exhausted condition.
The size of the boat used in the Herring fishery depends upon the
distance from the shore at which the fishery is intended to be carried
on, and also as to whether the intention be to cure Red Herrings or
White Herrings. As Red Herrings must be cured on shore, while
White Herrings require only to be salted and put into barrels, those
who are engaged in the Red Herring trade find it convenient to keep
within a certain distance of the coast. The White Herrings may be
cured on board the vessel ; and, as the fishermen may go out to sea
wherever the Fish are to be found, this is called a deep-sea fishery,
and, of course, a vessel of a larger description is required than
when the cargo has to be taken as speedily as possible to the drying-
house. The business at Yarmouth is mostly in Red Herrings,
which are in the greatest demand for the home market, while the
export trade, carried on at other ports, chiefly consists of White
Herrings. The same men are, in general, acquainted with each mode
of curing. The vessels fitted out for the deep-sea fishery meet with
the earliest and best Herrings ; and, owing to the manner in which
Herrings desert parts of the coast which they have been accustomed
to frequent, it is a more permanent source of profit than the boat
fishery, though it requires a large capital. The vessels must con-
tain sufficient room in the hold for the stowage of salt, nets, barrels,
and provisions. They lie low in the water, and the sides are
furnished with rollers and lee-boards to facilitate the drawing in of
the nets. The Dutch, who pursued the deep-sea fishery, and once
carried it on with great spirit and success, were usually provided with
a double set of nets for fear of accident ; as their distance from port
would have rendered the loss or destruction of one set, a matter of
serious consequence, and the hopes of a whole season might have been
lost. The Yarmouth boats are generally of about fifty tons' burthen,
and manned with eleven or twelve men, of whom one-fourth are
usually landsmen. In addition, there are two landsmen who are
employed in ferrying to and from the decked vessel, and in curing
the Herrings on shore. The fishing-places are from fifteen to thirty
miles north of Yarmouth, from thirty to forty-five miles to the east-
ward. The depth of water in which the fishery is carried on is from
fifteen to twenty fathoms. The nets and ropes generally require to
be renewed nearly every fourth year, owing to the destructive effects
of the sea and the ravages of Dog-fish, which, in preying upon the
Herrings when they are inclosed within the nets, injure the nets
themselves.
We may here observe that a second species of Herring (Leach's
Herring, Chipea Leachii, Yarrell) visits our coast in autumn ; it is
of superior quality. This species deposits its spawn in February,
and is, perhaps, the first of the three kinds said .to visit the Baltic ;
these are the Strombling or small Spring Herring, which spawns
when the ice begins to molt, a larger Summer Herring, and, lastly,
the Autumn Herring, which makes its appearance towards the
middle of September. The length of Leach's Herring is only seven
and a half inches ; it is, however, deeper than the Common Herring
in proportion to its length.
The Sprat {Clupea spratlus). Garvie Herring in Scotland. —
For a long period this fish was regarded by naturalists as the young
of the Herring or the Pilchard, but the specific ditTerence is now well
established, and a momentary glance is sufficient to enable the
observer to detect the Sprat among the young of the Pilchard or
Herring of its own dimensions. In the Sprat the line or ridge of the
abdomen is strongly serrated, so that by the feel alone the distinction
may be appreciated. (See Fig. 1718 .)
Fig. 1718.— The Sprat.
Like the Herring, the Sprat moves in vast shoals, which in
summer frequent the deep water, advancing towards the close of
autumn towards the shore ; they then enter bays, and advance up
rivers, in numbers incalculable. Early in the month of November
the fishing season commences, and continues during the winter ; and
not only are the London and other markets supplied by bushels, but
tons are used as manure, for the wheat lands and hop-grounds of
our sea-bound counties ; and if judicious regulations were adopted,
the demand for this purpose might benefit the fisherman without a
decrease of the quantity sent into the markets for consumption.
The fishing season commences, as we have said, in November
and the foggy and gloomy nights which prevail at that period are
considered most favourable to the fisherman. The finest Fish are
caught in the same manner as Mackerel, but the largest quantities
are taken by the stow-boats, manned with five or six men. Mr.
Yarrell (p. 123, vol. ii. ' British Fishes') gives the following descrip-
tion of this mode : — " The stow-boat net goes with two horizontal
beams : the lower one, twenty-two feet long, is suspended a fathom
above the ground , the upper one, a foot shorter in length, is sus-
pended about six fathoms above the lower one. To these two
beams, or 'balks,' as they are called, a large bag-net is fixed, to-
wards the end of which, called the hose, the mesh is fine enough to
stop very small fry. The mouth of the net, twenty-two feet wide and
thirty-six feet high, is kept square by hanging it to a cable and
heavy anchor at the four ends of the beams. The net is set under
the boat's bottom : and a rope from each end of the upper beam
brought up under each bow of the boat, raises and sustains the beam,
and keeps the mouth of the net always open, and so moored that the
tide carries everything into it. A strong rope, which runs through
an iron ring at the middle of the upper beam, and is made fast to
the middle of the lower beam, brings both beams together parallel,
thus closing the mouth of the net when it is required to be raised."
The meshes of the net are so small, that a pen could scarcely be in-
serted in them, and nothing but water will pass through. Hence the
destruction of small fry is immense, and it is alleged that the scarcity
of Turbots, Brills, Soles, and other Fish in those parts of the coast
where they were once abundant is occasioned by the stow-boats.
Some of the fishermen state that about twenty years ago large quan-
tities of Soles and a few Turbots were caught off the coast of Kent
without difBculty, but that these Fish have now become scarce, and
the Fishermen are not in consequence so well off. The same com-
plaint has arisen in respect to the Sprat fishery in the Thames, but
arising in this case from the great pollution of the river by the influx
of sewage from the metropolis.
The Sprat is most abundant on the coasts of Norfolk, Suffolk,
Essex, and Kent ; but like the Herring this Fish is capricious in its
movements. About fifty years since vast shoals made their appear-
ance off the coast of Devon, which is now regularly visited. On
686
THE SALMON FAMILY.
one occasion we saw Sprats sold retail in Bristol at the rate of
twent3'-ei,a:Iit pounds for sixpence. In Cornwall, the True Sprat is
seldom seen, but the name is appropriated to the fry of the Herring
and Pilchard ; and -per contra on the eastern coast of England,
where the True Pilchard is rare, the term Pilchard is given to tlie fry
of the Shad, and the half-grown Herring. The Sprat is occasionally
taken on the coasts of Cork, Dublin, and Belfast.
Those who live in or near London, and those who have passed a
winter in London, well know the abundance of the Sprat in the
markets. Bushels are seen from day to day in the fishmongers'
shops, and bushels are cried about the streets ; London and its
suburbs are deluged with Sprats, sold, not by the dozen, but by
rough measurement, at a cheap rate. Nor is their consumption con-
fined to the humbler classes ; though rich and oily, the Sprat is an
excellent Fish, and a dish, hot from the gridiron, iinds favour even
with the wealthy. It is always present at the Lord Mayor's dinner
on the gth of November, in pursuance of an old custom. An immense
quantity of dried and smoked Sprats is sold in the metropolis, and
also in some provincial towns as a relish for breakfast, &c.
The TWAITE Shad {Alosa finhi, Clii;pea alosa); in the genus
Alosa there is a deep notch in the centre of the upper jaw. Two
species of Shad inhabit our seas, the Allice Shad [Alosa communis),
and the present, both sea Fishes, which enter high up our rivers to
deposit their spawn ; the latter being abundant in the Severn, but
little known elsewhere.
The Twaite Shad, which is the Chipea alosa of Linnasus, differs
from the Allice Shad, with which many have confounded it, in being
of much smaller size, averaging from twelve to sixteen inches in
length, in having a lateral row of spots, in possessing teeth, while
the Allice Shad is toothless, and in the last fin below being compara-
tively smaller. The Twaite Shad moreover is much more widely
distributed. It is common in the Thames. It visits the Severn, and
is occasionally taken off the coast of Norfolk. Northwards its range
is very extensive ; Professors Nilsson and Reinhardt enumerate it
among the Fishes of Scandinavia.
It is in the month of May that this Fish works its way up our rivers,
and those of the adjacent continent, in order to deposit its spawn,
which accomplished, it returns to the sea towards the end of July.
The flesh of the Twaite Shad is very inferior to that of the Allice,
being dry and full of bones.
The young both of the Twaite and Allice appear to grow very
slowly. With respect to the former, INIr. Yarrell says, " I have ob-
tained the young only two inches and a half long in October; " and
he adds that in the following spring he found them only four inches
long, and the young of the larger Allice Shad (which when adult is
from two to three feet in length) only six inches. The food of the
Shad consists of Small Fishes and various kinds of Crustacea, as
Shrimps, &c. The Twaite Shad has the line of the abdomen
strongly serrated ; the top of the head and back is dusky blue with
brown and green reflexions ; the sides are silvery white, with a cop-
pery tinge, and a row of six or more dark spots from the edge of the
gill-orifice to the tail. The mucous vessels on the surface of the
gill-covers are beautifully arborescent. (See Fig. 1719.)
^p ^
Fig. 1719.— The Twaite Shad.
Whitebait {Clupca a!lia).—li\\\% favourite delicacy, is another
of the C/iipeidcB. It was formerly regarded as the fry of other
species, but it is now regarded as an individual species. It is too ;
well known, especially in respect to its repute in London to require '
further description. At certain seasons it is abundant in the Thames '
and has given the name of the "Whitebait dinner," usually given
by her Majesty's ministers to their supporters at Greenwich, just
before Parliament is prorogued in the autumn.
The Anchovy {Engraulis encraskolus ; CluJ>ea encrasicolus,
Linn. ; Engrauiis vulgaris, Cuv.}— In the genus Engraulis, the
head is pointed, the upper jaw the longest ; the mouth deeply divi-
ded, the gape extending backwards beyond the line of the eyes.
Branchial apertures large, the ventral fins somewhat anterior to the
line of the commencement of the dorsal. Abdomen smooth. Bran-
chiostegous rays twelve. (See Fig. 1720.)
Fig. 1720. — The Anchovy,
From the earliest times, the Anchovy has been celebrated, and a
sauce or condiment prepared from it, called garum, or yapov, was in
high estimation among the Greeks and Romans. The Anchovy is
abundant in the Mediterranean, and along the coasts of Spain,
Portugal, and France, and extends thence northwards, being occa-
sionally found in the Baltic. It has occurred on various parts of our
coast, as Hampshire, Cornwall, Wales, &c.
In general, the Anchovy measures from four to hve inches in
length, but occasionally it is found much larger. Mr. Yarrell quotes
a statement of Mr. Couch, who says — " I have seen it in the Cornish
seas of the length of seven inches and a half; and 1 have met with
specimens from autumn, through winter, to the middle of March."
In preparing this fish for use, the head and viscera are always re-
moved, otherwise t'ne pickle would be intensely bitter ; it was, in
fact, once supposed to have the gall in its head.
The Sardine {Clupea sardina). — In the Mediterranean, the
place of the Herring is taken by the Sardine (C sardina), a Fish
which closely resembles the Pilchard, but is rather smaller in size.
It is also taken in great abundance on the coasts of Brittany ; and
its flesh is regarded as a most delicate article of food. It is im-
ported into the United Kingdom in small cases, filled with sweet oil.
During recent years our fish-curers have similarly preserved the
Herring, and others of the Clupcidcs. There is little doubt but that
the Common Sprat has frequently to do the duty of a substitute for
the Sardine, although, of course, their flavour is entirely different.
The Fishes of the third family, the Scopelidcs, present a consider-
able resemblance to the Salmons, and, like these, are furnished with
a small adipose second dorsal fin. They differ, however, in the
structure of their upper jaw, of which the biting edge is entirely
composed of the intermaxillary bones. They are sometimes naked ;
at others, covered with large, brilliant scales ; the air-bladder is
usually wanting, and the pylorus furnished with coeca. The Sco-
pelidcc are found principally in salt water. A few occur in the
Mediterranean, but most of them inhabit the Tropical Seas. Some
— such as SiernoJ>tyx — present very singular forms.
The Salmon 7 .^^nin—Salmomdes.
The great family of Salmomdcv, which includes some of the most
esteemed of our ordinary Edible F"ishes, agrees with the preceding
in some respects, especially in the presence of an adipose dorsal fin ;
but the maxillary bone assists in the formation of the edge of the
upper jaw, and the air-bladder is always present. The pylorus is
furnished with numerous cceca ; the skin is covered with cycloid
scales. The SalmonidcB differ from most other Bony Fishes in the
structure of the ovaries in the females. These organs form closed
sacs, destitute of any oviduct, and the ova escape into the cavity of
the body, whence they pass through an opening behind the anus.
The Fishes. of this family, in general, furnish a highly-prized
article of food. They are mostly inhabitants of the fresh waters ot
the northern parts of the world ; a few only, like the Salmon, passing
a portion of their existence in the sea, and ascending into the rivers
during the spawning season. They are exceedingly active and
voracious Fishes, generally of a slender form, and adorned with
brilliant colours, or elegantly spotted. They are usually of small
or moderate size — our Common Salmon being one of the largest
species.
The Salmon [Sahno saldr). — In the genus Satmo the head is
smooth , there are two dorsal fins, the second of which is fleshy
without rays. There are teeth on the maxillary bones, the vomer
and palatal bones, and a row of hooked teeth runs along each side
of the tongue ; branchiostegous rays ten or twelve. (See Fig. 1721.)
The unrivalled excellence, among Fishes, of the Salmon, as an
article of diet, its abundance, and its commercial importance, require
no comments. A Salmon fishery is valuable property ; the rights
and privileges connected with it, and the regulations to be observed
in conducting it, have been settled by repeated legislative enact-
ments.
The Salmon is a Migratory Fish, existing during one part of the
year in fresh water, the other in the sea. It is a native of the
former, and shoals of Salmon annually work their way up the rivers
of the United Kingdom, and of the northern portions of the con-
THE SALMON FAMILY.
687
tinent, for the sake of depositing their spawn ; in their progress they
surmount rapids and cataracts, still with unwearied perseverance
pursuing their course, till they arrive at the suitable locality. In
America the Salmon ascends the river St. Lawrence, and enters the
tributary streams of Lake Ontario ; but its progress within the
United States is arrested by the falls of Niagara. Gesner, a natura-
list of the early part of the sixteenth century, observed that " there
was no better salmon than in England; " and Isaac Walton states,
that, " though some of our northern counties have as large and as
fat as the river Thames, yet none of so excellent a taste." Owing
to the progress of population, the influx of sewage, (Src, and the ex-
tension of manufactures, the Salmon rivers in England arc far less
productive than formerly. A Thames Salmon is now a myth ; and
Fig. 1721. — The Salmon.
the rivers of the north of England, as well as those of the west,
though they have not declined to the same extent as the Thames, or
the Avon in Hampshire, are not now of much commercial importance,
except the Severn. The case is different in Scotland, the principal
supply of Salmon being derived from the Tay, the Tweed, the Dee,
the Don, and most of the streams along the coast. The Salmon rivers
in Ireland are the Erne, the Moy, the Bann, the Blackwater, the
Shannon, and nearly all the principal streams along the northern
and western coasts.
As a general rule, it is in autumn that the Salmon leaves the sea
or mouth of the estuary, and pushes up the rivers and their tributary
streams, whence they do not return till the spring, having in the
interval deposited their eggs, which have become hatched (if the
term be allowed), the young fry or smolts being carried down to the
sea in the months of April and May.
In some rivers the Salmon do not make their appearance until the
middle of April or the beginning of May, as the Esk, for instance, in
Cumberland ; and this delay is attributed to the lower temperature
of the water, compared with that of even adjacent streams. " Rivers,"
says Mr. Yarrell, " issuing from large lakes, afford early salmon,
the waters having been purified by deposition in the lakes ; on the
other hand, rivers swollen by melting snows in the spring months are
later in their season of producing Fish, and yield their supply when
the lake rivers are beginning to fail."
" It has been suggested that this variation in the season depended
on the warmth of the waters, and that those highland rivers which
rose from large lochs were all early, owing to the great mass and
warmer temperature of their sources, and that the spawn there was
sooner hatched. There are two rivers in Sutherlandshire which show
this late and early running under peculiar circumstances. One, the
Oikel, borders the county, and springs from a small alpine lake,
perhaps about half a mile in breadth ; the other, the Shin, is a tribu-
tary to the Oikel, joins it about five miles from the mouth, but takes
its rise from Loch Shin, a large and deep extent of water, and con-
nected by a chain of other deep lochs. Early in the spring, all the
salmon entering the common mouth diverge at the junction, turn up
the Shin, and return as it were to their own and warmer stream,
while very few keep the main course of the Oikel until a much later
period."
Whether it be in the autumn or spring that the Salmon ascends
the river, it does not return to the sea till after the spawn is depo-
sited ; and the females are the first to ascend, the males coming
after. The migration does not take place immediately on the Fish
leaving the sea, but they advance up the river or estuary, as far as
the tideway is felt, ascendmg with each flood-tide, and descending
with the ebb ; and thus, remaining partly in salt and partly in fresh
water, are better prepared for a long continuance in the latter.
Here stake-nets are placed for miles on both sides, and multitudes
of Fish captured.
The precise period at which the Salmon enters the river does not
appear to depend entirely upon the state of the ova, for, while some
Fish proceed far up the river, the roe of others is in so mature a state
that they can advance but half way, and others are compelled to
seek out a suitable place in the shallows nearer its mouth. The
great majority, however, as they get full of roe, ascend beyond the
tideway, after a short continuance in the brackish water, and push
on tow'ards the sources of the stream, overcoming impediments which
might be thought insurmountable. They will clear rapids or weirs
which arc eight or ten feet in height, and, tliough at first baffled in
tlieir efforts, resume the attempt with surprising vigour. Sometimes
they overshoot or mistake their mark and throw themselves upon dry
land. Though they seldom spring out of the water more than ten
feet, they have been known to descend a fall of the height of thirty
feet, and to leap over a dry rock of considerable height and drop into
the water on the other side. There is a fall (the fall of Kilmorac) on
the Beauly, in Invcrncss-shire, where, according to Mr. Mudie, in
the " British Naturalist," the sight of a voluntarily cooked Salmon
has been witnessed. A kettle, it is said, was placed upon the flat
rock on the south side of the fall, close by the edge of the water, and
kept full and boiling until a Salmon fell into the
kettle and was cooked on the spot. This was one
of the wonders which the Erasers of Lovat, the lords
of the manor, used to show their guests. This fall
was said to be literally thronged with Salmon en-
deavouring to pass higher up the river. It is an old
opinion, and still very generally entertained, that
previous to making a spring the Fish curves its body
and puts its tail in its mouth. The fact, however,
has been ascertained by observation, that Salmon
spring up nearly in a perpendicular line, and with
a strong tremulous motion ; but we have repeatedly
seen the curve of the tail towards the mouth, while
watching Salmon leap on the river Nith near Dum-
fries.
Having gained the upper and shallower part of the
river the Fish seek out clear gravelly beds, where
there is a strong current, and prepare to deposit
their ova. They proceed, generally in the morning, or during
the twilight of evening, to make a furrow with their noses in
the gravel, working against the stream, for the reception of
the spawn. At this season, both males and females are unfit for
food, and undergo a considerable alteration in appearance. The
male becomes marked on the cheeks with orange-coloured stripes,
and a golden orange tinge pervades the surface of the body, while
the lower jaw elongates, and a cartilaginous projection turns up from
the point, occupying, when the jaws are closed, a deep recess between
the intermaxillary bones of the upper jaw. In this state the Salmon
is called a " red-fish." The females have acquired a dark colour,
and are called "black-fish."
In making their furrow, we have said that the Fish works against
the stream ; it cannot, in fact, work with the head down the stream,
for the water forcing into the gills the wrong way would drown it.
The deposition of the spawn requires from eight to twelve days ; and
when this process is completed and the ova covered up, the Fish be-
take themselves to the pools and deeper parts of the river to recruit.
They are much out of condition, and are called ' ' kippers, " or " kelt-
fish."
Experiments have been made at different times, relative to the
vivification of the ova of the Salmon, the most interesting of which
are the two following : the first is detailed by Dr. Knox, in the Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. On the 2nd of November
he observed the ova of a Salmon deposited in the usual manner near
the sources of the Tweed. On the 25th of February, or a hundred
and sixteen days afterwards, the ova were dug up and found to be
unchanged. On the 23rd of March, twenty weeks from the period
of their deposition, the ova were changing, the fry lying in the gravel,
after having cast the outer shell. On the first of April the fry had
quitted the spawning-bed by ascending through the gravel. The
ova may be hatched artificially by being put into bottles of water in
warm rooms, but they cannot be preserved alive longer than ten days,
during which they eat nothing. The other experiment was made
by Mr. Hogarth, of Aberdeen, and is still more minute in its details
than the former one ; it is exemplified by the following figures, show-
ing the progress of the spawn of Salmon. In the South
Kensington Museum, London, the process of hatching the ova of
Salmon may be seen.
In the rivers and streams the ova become vivified during the
months of March and April, according to the stateof the season. By
the end of May the water is full of the fry, from an inch in size, per-
fectly formed, to the size of a minnow. At first they keep in shallow
water, but as their strength increases they may be seen in the middle
of the river or stream, moving towards the sea. The first flood or
fresh which occurs at this period hurries them to the mouth of the
river, where for a short time they remain in the tideway, and then
proceed at once to the sea. In June, not a single " smolt," or
" smoult," which is the name given to the fry, is to be found in the
fresh water.
Referring to our illustrations, we may observe that, at Fig. 1723,
A shows the <i^^ of the natural size after the vital principle has been
developed. The body of the Fish in tliis stage has a pinkish tinge,
and the eyes are very large ; B, the shell of the ovum just burst, and
the head of the Fish protruding from it.
Fig. 1723: — C, the state of the ovum eight hours after the bursting
688
THE SA LAION FA MIL V.
of the shell, when the pulsations of the heart become visible ; D, the
shell just thrown off, the tail droopins? ; about a third part of the
shell, which is transparent, is fractured by the Fish in its exertions
to extricate itself. Before the shell is broken, the tail envelops the
yoke, which is seen attached to the body of the Fish ; E, the tail in
a short time becomes straight, and the Fish more lively ; the mouth
assumes a distinct form, and the lower and pectoral fins, which are
quite transparent,, are in motion simultaneously with the action of
the heart which beats from sixty to sixty-five times in a minute.
Fig. 1724 : — F is a magnified representation of C, Fig. 1723,
the Fish adhering to the shell which is partly broken. G represents
E magnified : the heart is before the pectoral fins, under the throat.
Fig. 1725 is a still more enlarged view of E, showing the direction
in which the blood circulates, as seen by a microscope. The blood
flows from under the body of the Fish through the blood-vessels,
ramified along the sides of the back, and is then collected into the
large vessel which runs along the front and bottom of the bag,
communicating directly with the heart. An equal quantity
of air, or some transparent matter, circulates with the blood.
The blood is drawn by the heart from the large vessel alluded to, and
thrown in regular pulsations into the vessels of the head and throat,
where it assumes a darker colour. The rays of the gills are
visible, and the Fish soon begins to assume a brownish colour.
Salmon fry, or Smolts, for some time wander about the sides of the
stream, where the current is obstructed, but as they acquire strength
they trust themselves to the mid-stream, play in the pools and deep
spots, and on the setting in of the spring rains are carried down to
the junction of the river with the salt-water, where they remain till
habituated to the novel element, into which they then proceed. The
growth of the Smolts or Young Salmon is very rapid, especially after
they have reached the sea where food is in abundance. Fry marked
in April or May, as Mr. Yarrell informs us, have returned by the end
of June weighing from two to three pounds and upwards, and a
month or two later they have been found to weigh as much as si.x
pounds. The small-sized Fish under the weight of two pounds, are
called " Salmon-peal," all above that weight " Grilse." These Fish
hatched in the spring breed the first winter, and for that purpose
return from the sea to the rivers rather earlier, as it would appear,
than the adult Fish, and though fewer ova are perfected, each egg
individually is nearly as large as in the latter. The growth of the
Grilse during the second visit to the sea and for several subsequent
years equals, if it does not exceed, that of the first year. The Sand-
launce (A mmoclUes /a^!cea) and other Fishes constitute the food of
the Salmon when out at sea ; and that it is a voracious feeder may be
inferred both from its rapid increase of size and its dental arrangement
It has been stated that the food of the Salmon consists principally of
the eggs of various kinds of Echinodermata and some of the Crus-
tacea, and that to a certain extent the excellent flavour of its flesh
depends on the richness of its food. Salmon when in rivers rise at
flies, like the Trout, and have been taken with a Minnow for a bait,
and also with a Worm.
Though few Salmon, perhaps none, that haunt our coast and visit
our estuaries and rivers, ever attain to their full growth, or the com-
pletion of their natural term of existence (so extensive and incessant is
the destruction made amongst them), yet enormous specimens have
often been captured. Some have weighed over eighty pounds, but such
is a rare case.
There are numerous methods of catching Salmon. Angling is only
resorted to as a recreation, and for taking Fish for private consump-
tion ; other modes of wholesale capture are adopted for the supply
of the markets. Of these one is by the stake-net. The stake-net
was first brought into use on the Solway about a hundred years since
and was termed the raise or rise net. Improvements were afterwards
made in its construction, and gradually it became general ; these
nets were introduced on the Frith of Tay about the year 1797, and
proved so advantageous, being efficient both during the flood and
ebb tide, that double the number of Salmon were taken than before
they were in use. As many as five hundred Salmon and Grilses
have been taken at one time in a stake-net. Stake-nets are only
used where the tide is constantly ebbing and flowing, and are con-
fined within the limits of low-water mark, as they are not adapted to
the middle of the channel. They are fixed by stakes driven into the
rocky ground ; and are visible at several miles distance, serving to
warn vessels off rocks and shallows, both by day and night, the noise
made by the water rushing through them indicating their vicinity
when they themselves cannot be distinctly seen.
The stage-net has been greatly superseded by the stake-net ; it is
adapted for the coast or tide-way of a river, and is, like the latter,
stretched between high and low water mark. The leader, which
terminates at high-water mark, is formed of stakes and rough wicker-
work ; the fishermen are stationed on a platform or stage above the
bag-nets, and see or feel when a Fish enters one of them, Vfhen it is
irrhnediately drawn up to the top of the stage and the Fish taken out
and killed. We may enumerate cobble-nets, used in the higher
parts of the river, and in pools, above the tidal rise ; but as the nets
are trailed over the top of the spawning beds, raking them up, this
mode is justly regarded as injurious. Cruives are formed by artificial
dykes, which act as leaders, conducting the Fish into a trap, or recep-
tacle in the dam-wall, through which the water rushes, and in which
grating of a peculiar structure prevents the exit of the Fish.
A mode of spearing Salmon is practised in some parts of Scotland ;
it is often termed stream-fishing. A dyke of loose stones is constructed
in the river, which acts as a leader to the Fish coming up the stream,
directing them to the channel nearest the bank ; at the end of the
dyke there is a hut in which the fisherman waits the approach of the
Salmon, which he strikes with a five-pronged instrument.
Salmon-spearing, by torch-light, is an animated mode requiring
D
Fig. 1723.
Fig. 1724. — Progress of Spawn of the Salmon.
Fig. 1725. — Young Salmon.
great skill and dexterity. In the long pools of deep clear water, nets
are placed in various directions; the disturbance of the water by the
boats, and the glare of the lights, terrify the Fish, which rush into
the nets, while those passing within reach are speared and killed.
A somewhat varied method is graphically described by Sir Walter
Scott, in " Guy Mannering," and which may, as he says, be called a
kind of Salmon-hunting. The account is as follows : — " The chace,
in which the fish is pursued and struck with barbed spears, or a sort
of long-shafted trident, called a vsraster, is much practised at the
mouth of the Esk, and in the other salmon rivers of Scotland. The
sport is followed by day and night, but most commonly in the latter,
when the fish are discovered by means of torches or fire-grates filled
with blazing fragments of tar-barrels, which shed a strong, though
partial, light upon the water. Upon the present occasion the prin-
cipal party were embarked in a crazy boat, upon a part of the river
which was enlarged and deepened by the restraint of a mill-weir.
THE SALMON FAMILY.
689
while others, like the ancient Bacchanals in their gambols, ran
along the banks brandishing their torches and spears, and pursuing
the salmon ; some of which endeavoured to escape up the stream,
while others, shrouding themselves under roots of trees, fragments of
stones, and large rocks, attempted to conceal themselves from the re-
searches of the fishermen. These the party in the boat detected by the
slightest indications ; the twinkling of a fin, the rising of an air-well
was sufficient to point out to these adroit sportsmen in what direction
to use their weapons." A hundred Salmon were often taken during
one of these animated excursions, and it is added that, " the best
were selected for the use of the principal farmers ; the others divided
among their shepherds, cottars, dependents, and others of inferior
rank who attended. These fish, dried in the turf-smoke of their
cabins or slieahngs, formed a savoury addition to the mess of pota-
toes, mixed with onions, which were the principal part of their win-
ter food. "
The following is an account of the mode of spearing Fish by the
Chippeway Indians on the River Thames, which rises in the country
between Lakes Ontario and Huron, and falls into Lake St. Clair.
This manner of fishing "requires a dexterity in its management
which scarcely any but an Indian can achieve. Two Indians occupy
a canoe in the centre of the stream : one poises himself on each edge
of the vessel in front, the other in a similar way behind : each has a
fish-spear. The canoe, though probably in the centre of a rapid
stream, amid rocks, and shoals, and eddies, is kept perfectly steady,
and in a straight course, by occasional thrusts and shoves at any
object which presents itself, — an overhanging or sunken rock, or the
broken trunk of a fallen tree. The labour of keeping the boat steady
does not interfere with the spearing of the fish, which is carried on
in silence, and with unceasing attention. The fish, as caught, are
jerked off the spear into the boat ; they are afterwards handed over
to the women, who clean them, and dry them by suspending them
from a stick over a smoky fire. This mode of catching fish never
fails to attract the attention of Europeans, from the dexterity with
which it is done, and the seeming danger of the operation. The
Indians resort to the streams and rapids in spring and autumn, as
the fish are then running — attempting the passes in shoals."
The lakes and rivers of North America yield an abundance of
excellent Fish. The only lake in the great chain of lakes which
yields such fish as make migratory excursions to the sea, Salmon,
&c., is Lake Ontario — the falls of Niagara presenting an effectual
barrier to their visiting the other lakes. But the fresh-water stock
of Fish in these lakes is sufficiently diversified ; amongst the
favourite sorts are White-fish, particularly those of the Detroit river,
the Grey or Salmon Trout, Black and Rock Bass (there are also
White and Striped Bass), Pickerel, Pike, and Fresh-water Herrings.
Some of the outlets of the lake abound with Sturgeon, but in general
the flesh of the American Sturgeon is but little esteemed. A species
of Pike, called the Muskanungee, grows to a large size, and is con-
sidered by many an excellent Fish. In the very small lakes of Noith
America the Grey or Salmon Trout is never found to exceed four or
five pounds in weight ; in the larger lakes it is to be found of ten or
twelve pounds ; but in the " great lakes" it will sometimes be found
of the weight of thirty or forty pounds. All the rivers and small
streams are stocked with Trout of delicious flavour.
Another species of Salmon {Salmo rossii) is found in great abun-
dance in the Arctic Sea, at the mouths of the rivers which fall into
that ocean from the northern portion of the American continent.
This Fish occurs in such vast shoals, according to Dr. Richardson,
its discoverer, that, during one of the Arctic expeditions, as many as
3,378 were obtained at one haul of a small seine. It is of a more
slender form than the Common Salmon ; the under jaw is very long,
and projects considerably in front of the upper ; and the scales are
small, and separated from each other by a bare space of skin. The
sides are adorned with numerous bright crimson spots.
Immense quantities of preserved Salmon are imported into
England from the United States. The Fish is generally packed in
air-tight tin cans containing about one pound in weight. Norway
supplies the English markets with abundant and excellent fresh
Salmon. As a rule Salmon is rarely seen in the London Markets
before the beginning of February. But poaching is carried on in the
British rivers to an enormous extent, and the Fish are sold by retail
as coming from Norway or other places abroad. Consequent on
this, numerous Acts have been passed during the present century
for the purpose of protecting Salmon and other fish, and the follow-
ing general account of them, as existing in 1879, may be of interest :
Under the Salmon Fishery Acts, 1861, 1863, 1865, 1870, and 1873,
Salmon are protected, and a close-time of not less than 154 days is
fixed for England and Wales, during which all fishing for Salmon,
except with rod and line, is prohibited. The commencement and
termination of the close season may be varied by the local boards of
conservators, but it must never begin later than ist November.
For rod and line minimum close-time of ninety-two days is fixed,
which must commence not later than ist December. No Salmon
may be sold after the 3rd November in any year, except such as can
be proved to come from parts beyond the seas : in those rivers or
districts in which the capture of Salmon is legal, after the ist Sep-
tember, their sale is allowed, provided their capture in such river or
district wis lawful by any means other than by rod and line.
In those rivers and districts where no bye-law on the subject has
been made, and these greatly vary, the close-time for nets begins on
1st Sept.. and ends on 2nd Feb.; and for rods it begins on ist
Nov., and ends on the 2nd Feb.
A weekly close season, during which net-fishing for Salmon is
prohibited, is fixed in England at not less than forty-two hours, nor
more than forty-eight hours, to be determined by the boards,
between Friday at midnight and noon on Monday. Licences, to be
obtained from local boards, and available only within the limits of
the district in which they are issued, must be taken out for instru-
ments employed in fishing for Salmon, and the use of spears, lights,
snatches, and similar instruments is prohibited. During the open
season no Unclean Salmon maybe taken. The word" salmon"
includes all migratory Sahnoaida:, and for the purposes of the
sections applying to spears and Unclean Fish, 'J'roii i a.nd Char a.xa
included. The capture of Trout and Char in fishery districts in
England and Wales, and their sale, wherever caught, are prohibited
between 2nd Oct. and ist Feb.
By an Act passed in 1876, the Trout close-time may be varied by
bye-law, made by boards of conservators in various districts, so,
however, that the close-time does not commence earlier than the 2nd
September nor later than the 2nd November, and shall not be less
than 123 days.
There were in 1879 forty-three fishery districts in England and
Wales, each with its board of conservators. These boards have
power to make bye-laws for the regulation of Salmon-fishing, and,
during the Salmon close-time, of all other kinds of fishing ; and
heavy penalties are fixed for infractions of the law.
In Scotland there were in the same year 120 fishery districts, and
thirty boards, with similar powers. There the annual close-time
must never be less than 168 days, and varies between the extreme
dates of 27th August and 25th February. The weekly close-time is
fixed at not less than thirty-six hours, between 6 p.m. Saturday and
6 a.m. Monday. The River Tweed is specially regulated by the
Tweed Fishery Acts. Its close-time is from 14th September to 15th
February.
Eels. — By an Act passed in 1876, a close-time for Elvers, or the
fry of Eels, is provided, from ist January to the last day of February,
and from 26th April to 24th June ; this Act only applies to the River
Severn in England. By the Salmon Fishery Acts it is illegal to
place in any other Salmon river any fixed engines for the capture of
Eels, or Elvers, between ist January and 24th June. In Ireland a
similar close-time for Eels exists, between loth January and 1st
July.
Fresh-water Fish. — By the Norfolk and Suffolk Fisheries Act,
1877, a close-time for the capture of Coarse Fresh-water Fish was
established in those counties.
Crabs and Lobsters. — By the Oyster, Crab and Lobster Fishery
Act 1877, the Board of Trade may make regulations for local close-
times for these Shell-fish.
In the case of the sale of Salmon after 3rd September, it must be
proved that this exception is legalised by a bye-law of the district in
which the fish has been caught. The onus of proof that the Fish
were caught beyond the limits of the Acts, or that they were caught
during the legal open season by legal means, lies on the person
selling or exposing for sale. The exportation of Salmon is pro-
hibited between 3rd September and 30th April (Salmon Acts,
Amendment Acts, 1863 and 1870), unless it can be proved that the
Salmon exported or entered for exportation was caught during the
time at which its sale would be legal in the United Kingdom :
the onus probandi lies on the person exporting. Hence, as
we have already stated, the attempts on the part of fishmongers
to account for the possession and sale of Salmon as from foreign
parts, during the British close-time.
The Trout {Salino fario). — This excellent Fish is spread over
the continent, and is common in the British islands. It delights in
clear and sparkling rivers, w'hich have a rapid current, bubbling over
stones, and tumbling down weirs and little falls, where the pictur-
esque water-mill well accords with the attractive scenery. In such
rivers Trout lurk in the deep pools, in the shadow of large stones, or
under the precipitous banks during the day, bestirring themselves
towards evening, when they eagerly pursue their prey. The Trout
is abundant also in our stream-fed lakes, and those of Scotland and
Ireland. The great difference in size and colour which this Fish
displays in different localities is very remarkable, and has led to the
suspicion that it was connected with distinction of species ; but when
we take into account the variety in the character of the water, and
the influence which the soil and the several strata over which it
passes in its course have in producing modifications in its quality,
connected with the nature and respective abundance of food which
different rivers afford, according to the soil and general aspect of the
country through which they pass, we may perhaps account for the
difference of size and colour exhibited. Still it is by no means im-
possible that distinctions of species as well as of mere variety may
be ascertained.
4T
690
THE SA LMON PA MIL Y.
In the Wye, the Dove, and Derwent (Derbyshire), the Trout are
numerous, but small, measuring from six to ten inches in length on
the average ; and in some inky streams that flow over shale \\\ the
hills near Buxton, and are impregnated with iron, we have seen
numerous Trout of small size, and so dark that, by way of distinc-
tion, they might be called black, while those in the Wye at Bake-
well and in the Derwent and Dove, are brightly coloured. Black
Trout occur in Loch Knitching, and also in Loch Katrine, the colour
being attributed to the drainage from the boggy moors.
There are fine Trout-streams in Hampshire, Surrey, Wiltshire, and
other counties, and splendid Trout are frequently caught in the
Thames above Hampton ; we have seen Trout from the latter locality
from nine to eleven pounds weight, but larger have been taken, some
Fig. 1726. — The Trout.
of the weight of fifteen pounds. These noble Fish are generally
caught by trolling or spinning with Bleak, Gudgeon, or Ivlinnows,
but they will rise at the May-fly. To land one of these Trout
requires no ordinary skill and patience. There are some deep
pools in the Thames above Oxford where fine Trout are to be cap-
tured.
Various kinds of files, as May-fiies, stone-flics, &c., the ova of
other Fishes, the aquatic larvae of Insects, and small Fishes, consti-
tute the food of the Trout. From experiments which liave been made
by feeding Trout placed in separate tanks, respectively on Worms,
Minnows, and dark-coloured Water-flies, it was found that those fed
with Worms grew slowly, and had an emaciated aspect ; those
nourished witli Minnows, on which they darted with voracity, became
much larger ; while those to which Flies only were given, attained
in a short time prodigious dimensions, though the quantity of food
swallowed by them was nowise so great. The breeding-season of
the Trout is generally in October, at which period the adult Fish
ascend the river and deposit their spawn in the same manner as the
Salmon ; the under jaw of the male becomes also elongated and
curved upwards. In May the Trout comes into full season, and then
acquires the brightest tints and deepest spots, the flesh also being of
a livelier pink and superior flavour. This condition of the Fish con-
tinues during the summer, depending, however, on the quantity and
quality of the food ; hence in some rivers the Fish becomes out of
season sooner than in others. (See Fig. 1726.)
In its habits the Trout is shy and wary, and the angler's success
will depend much on the wind, the sky, the choice of the fly, and his
knowledge of the river in which he angles. On these points, how-
ever, we must refer to works which professedly treat on the subject
of angling.
We may here observe, that in Lough Neagh, and other loughs in
Ireland, a variety of the Trout, called the Gillaroo, which attains to
a considerable size, is found. The internal surface of the stomach
of one examined by Mr. Yarrell presented nn indurated cuticle, but
the parietes were not thicker than those of other Trouts ; the teeth
are small, but in number and situation like those of the ordinary
^ Deformed Trout with the upper jaw truncated, or stunted in growth,
and the lower jaw protruding, occur in some of the lakes in Wales,
and have been taken also in a small loch called Lochdow, near
Pitmain in Inverness-shire. They are of small size. The Salmon
Trout iSalmo trutta) is a British species, which, however, unlike
the above, chooses the sea as a habitual residence, ascending the
rivers only to spawn. t, t ■ r. ,
The Northern Char, or Charr [Sa/mo zimbla, Linn, iialmo
alpinus, Pennant ; Ombre Chevalier of the
Lake of Geneva. — When Walton published
his " Angler," he stated his belief that the
Char was only to be found as a British Fish
in Lake Windermere. This, however, is
not correct : it inhabits many of the lakes
of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lan-
cashire, as Keswick, Cruramock Water,
Buttermere, Coniston, &c. ; it is also found
in many of the lochs of Scotland, as well
as of Ireland, as Loughs Esk, Egesh,
Neagh, Dan, &c. The lakes of the Tyrol
are famous for Char. Speaking of this
Fish, Sir. H. Davy says :—" They gene-
rally haunt deep cool lakes, and are seldom
found at the surface till late in the
autumn." At this period they will take
either Fly or Minnow, and he mentions, as
something remarkable, having caught a
Char in summer in one of the beautiful
small deep lakes of the upper Tyrol, but
it was where a cool stream entered from
the mountain, and the Fish did not rise but
swallowed the artificial Fly under water.
Char afi^ord the angler but little sport ; yet
the Fly-fisher whipping for Trout, which
often abound in the same lakes, occasionally
hooks one of the former, but it is by no
means a common occurrence. (See Fig.
Except at the spawning season, Novem-
ber and December, the Char never leaves
the deep clear water of the lake ; at that
period however, they make their way up
the rivers, preferring those with a rocky
channel : as an instance in point, Mr.
Yarrell remarks that of the two principal
feeders of Windermere (viz., the Rothay
and Brathay), the Rothay has a sandy
bottom, but the channel of the Brathay
is rocky. Before merging into the lake,
these streams unite at the western corner of
the head of the lake, and the shoals of Char entering to spawn, push
their way up both of these rivers, but those Fish which have ascended
the sandy-bedded Rothay (a river to which the Trout gives the pre-
ference), finding it unsuitable, invariably return, and pass up the
rocky channel of the Brathay, where they deposit their eggs.
From some cause or other, the Char, even at the same season of
the year, exhibit great differences in their tints and the intensity of
their colour. Hence the terms Case Char, Gilt Char, Red Char,
and Silver Char, which have been applied to the different varieties.
Food, age, or individual vigour may in some measure perhaps modi-
fy the tints; but after all the explanation is not very easy. According
to M. Jurine, in the Lake of Geneva the females are the finest in
colour, but Mr. Mascall states that in the Lake Ennerdale, Cumber-
land, he found the males of the richest hue.
The Char is not a large Fish ; it seldom exceeds twelve or fourteen
inches in length, though some occasionally attain to eighteen inches
and even two feet. As a delicacy for the table, it is undoubtedly one
of the first of fresh-water Fish, combining the flavour of the Trout with
that of the Mullet. The following adds some interesting particulars
respecting the Char : —
" On account of these interesting and valuable fish, some sections
of both Windermere and Coniston Lakes rent pretty high a s fisheries,
and although they do not yield any great quantities, the price these
fish command in the market commonly remunerates, in a moderate
degree, the persons employed in the fisheries. The common size of
the Windermere char certainly does not, on the average, equal half
a pound each : some few are caught that weigh a pound, or some-
thing more ; but, probably, six ounces would be nearer the average
weight of those that are annually taken. On accout of their small
size, it will at once appear obvious that they are not well adapted for
being dressed and brought to table, in the ordinary way, that is
boiled, — neither are they commonly broiled or dressed as a pau fish,
THE SALMON FAMILY.
6gi
and, when they are so, they are scarcely, if at all, superior to good
trout. They possess a flavour, however, that connoisseurs seem
greatly to admire ; and the flesh when dressed has a rich and inviting
appearance, being beautifully flaky, and of a deep orange tinge. But
the general way of dressing these fish is that of potting— that is,
seasoning them with certain condiments after they have been stewed
and the bones taken out, and afterwards placing them in courses in
shallow pots (hence potting), of seven, eight, or nine inches in diam-
eter, and pouring the finest melted fresh butter, over the fish, until
they are w^ell covered, and thus secured from the action of the air.
They are so highly seasoned, that with this simple covering of but-
ter, the pots containing the char may be sent to any part of the
kingdom, and the fish will remain untainted for some months. This
enables the persons connected with the char fisheries to send them
to the best markets, our luxurious metropolis being undoutedly at the
head of the list.
Fig. 1727. — The Northern Char.
"Disavowing all malice or ill-will towards the char-potters of
Bowness, Ambleside, Coniston, and others in the vicinity of those
lakes where this profitable business is carried on, I cannot abstain
from stating that which I know to be an undeniable fact, namely,
that in many cases a smaller quantity of char is mixed with a larger
quantity of trout, or some other inferior fish, and the adulterated
pots then sold as genuine char. This is only, it is urged, a common
trick with most manufacturers, and not considered any serious impo-
sition to substitute a few nice plump trout in the place of as many
char. An acquaintance of mine, who resided on the banks of Win-
dermere, and who possessed opportunities of ascertaining the produce
ot the fisheries in real char, as well as the quantities exported from
thence, in pots alone, amused himself with making calculations, and
the result was, that he found nearly three times the quantity exported
that were actually caught.
"Except in the spawning season, the common haunts of these fish
are in the clear and deep water ; and the usual way of taking them
is in sunken nets, or trammels as they are called, which are furnished
with bait to allure the fish ; and which sometimes remain set for several
days before any of them are enticed into the snare. Their haunts are
generally badly calculated for employing drag-nets, on account of
the rocky nature of those lakes. It has already been stated that
these fish do not afford the angler much amusement ; nevertheless
they are now angled for far more than they formerly were. An expert
angler, however, may think himself fortunate if he succeed in killing
more than a dozen during the day. They are occasionally allured to
the surface by a templing artificial fly ; but trolling with a small
minnow several feet below the surface is a more likely mode of not
being forced to leave the fishing-ground with an entirely empty
fishing-basket.
" In its shape this Fish approaches that perfect symmetry for
which many of the Salino species are so very remarkable ; not dif-
fering materially from the common trout, though, perhaps, a little
more slender and tapering than a trout that is plump and well fed.
The colour of the Red Char — for there is another variety called Case
Char, and the fishermen would make out a third, which they call Gilt
Char — ^may be described as follows : The head terminates in rather a
blunt point, the under jaw scarcely at all projecting. The pupil of
the eye is black, in a silver iris, surrounded with a circle of gold.
The body is covered with very minute scales. The dorsal fin, which
is yellow, is marked with a few dark spots ; the back is dark with a
peculiarly beautiful greenish cast, shading into the most delicate
white on the lower parts, and tinted with a bluish-likc-hue that is
difficult to describe. All the fins, except the dorsal, are reddish ;
and during the season of spawning, the belly for the most part be-
comes as red as the fins. The body all over is sprinkled with pale
spots, of a considerable size for so small a fish." At the present
time. Char both fresh and potted is a great rarity in England.
The Welsh Char, or Torgoch (red-belly), found in Lyn Cawellyn,
and a piece of water near Barmouth in Merionethshire, called
" Coss-y-gedawl," is a distinct
species ; it is a deeper and shorter
_, , Fish with a larger eye and teeth
and more ample fins than the Win-
dermere species. It is described and
figured by Donovan, and also by Mr.
Yarrell, under the title of Salmo save-
li}nis.
The Great Grey Trout {Salmo
ferox ; Lake Trout, Salino laais-
fris, Berkenhout.) — This noble species,
which according to M. Agassiz dif-
fers from any of the large Continental
species, is a native of many of the
larger and deeper lakes of Scotland
and Ireland It occurs in Loch Awe,
Loch Laggan, Lochs Shin, Loyal,
and Assynt, in Lough Neagh. in Ire-
land, where it is called Buddagh, and
in UUswater Lake in Cumberland.
Dr. Heysham records it in his cata-
logue of Cumberland Animals, and ob-
serves that some specimens have been
found to weigh between fifty and sixty
pounds.
It is probably the Trout mentioned
by the Rev. Mr. Lowe, in his" Fauna
Orcadensis," as occuring in the Ork-
neys and Shetlands, and weighing
thirty-six pounds and upwards. We
have seen specimens from Lough
Neagh thirty-five inches long.
This species roves about indiscrimi-
nately, and feeds almost entirely upon
the smaller Fish. By persons residing
on the banks of the lakes which they in-
habit, they are often taken by night
lines, " few rising at the artificial fly, but they may be always taken by
strong trolling tackle baited with a small trout ; they are extremely
voracious, and having seized the bait, will allow themselves to be
dragged by the teeth for forty or fifty yards, and when accidentally
freed, will immediately again seize it." Young Fish will rise freelv
at the Fly. This species seldom ventures either up or down any of
the streams connected with the lakes ; it spawns in September.
(See Fig. 1728.)
Fig. 1728.— The Great Grey Trout.
The Smelt {Osmerus cspcrlanus). Sparling and Spirling,
Provincial. — In the genus Osmerus the body is elongated and
covered with small scales ; there are two dorsal fins ; the first
with rays, the second fleshy without rays. The ventral fins
are placed in a vertical line under the common cement of the dorsal
fin ; teeth on the jaws, and tongue long and sharp ; two distinct
692
THE SALMON FA MIL Y.
Branchiostearous
rov/s on each palatal bone, none on the vomer,
rays ei.sjht. (See Fig. 1729.)
The True Smelt seems to be confined as a British Fish to the east-
ern and western coasts of our island ; its place along the southern
coast being occupied by the Atherine, or Sand-smelt {Atherina
presbyter, "Q.w-^.), which is very plentiful, of excellent quality, and
■with a slight odour of cucumbers. Like the Salmon, the Smelt
visits the rivers, which it inhabits from August to May ; it spawns in
March or April, after which the shoals return to the sea. In the
Fig. 1729.
-The Smelt.
month of August the young fry may be seen in the mouths of rivers,
swimmino- near the surface, ascending and descendmg with the tide ;
at this period the adults are making their way up the river. For-
merly these Fish abounded at the proper season in the Thames from
Wandsworth to Hammersmith ; but, at present, owing to the pol-
luted state of the water, none advance so high as London. The
Medway produces Smelts of excellent quality. The peculiar odour
of this Fish, resembling that of a cucumber, is well known ; it is
very powerful when the fish is just taken from the water, but a few
days' exposure to the air greatly diminishes or even destroys it, and
the delicate flavour of the flesh is lost.
Experiments seem to prove that the Smelt will not only live, but
thrive and multiply in the fresh water of ponds or lakes. Colonel
Meynell, of Yarm, in Yorkshire, introduced Smelts into a fresh-water
pond of about three acres, having no communication with the sea ;
here they remained for four years, and greatly multiplied ; they were
not affected by the freezing over of the pond, though the ice was
EuflBciently strong to admit of skating ; and when at last the pond
was drawn, they proved to be equal in size and flavour to the finest
which had enjoyed their natural range.
The Smelt is a voracious little Fish ; it devours young Fry, and
small Crustacea, Shrimps, and Molluscs. In the Thames and
Medway this Fish is taken by means of small meshed nets, from the
end of August tiU April. Along the eastern coast, and especially
Lincolnshire, numbers are taken in shallow bays. They occur in
the Swale, in Essex. The Smelt, as seen in the shops, is seldom
above six or seven inches in length ; occasionally, specimens of ten
or eleven inches occur ; and Pennant mentions one which measured
thirteen inches long, and weighed eight ounces.
The back of the Smelt is of a pale greyish-green, passing on the
sides into silvery white, which is the colour of the gill-covers and
under parts.
Before concluding our outline of the Salmonidce, we may observe
that, as respects the genus Salmo, great difficult exists in dis-
criminating between many of the species, especially when young.
The Parr, or Samlet, has been, and still is in some places, regarded
as the young of the Salmon. Mr. Yarrell says :— "The fry of the
different species of migratory Sahnonidce are even now probably
accurately known only to a few persons ; their great similarity, when
very small, has so frequently deceived even those who have lived the
greater part of their lives on the Salmon river banks, that the fry
marked by them in their experiments, have been re-taken as Grilse,
Bull-trout, Salmon-trout, and River-trout."
The species of the genus Salmo, described as British by Mr.
Yarrell, are— the Salnion {S. salar), the Bull-Trout (.S". eriox), the
Salmon-Trout {S. trutta), the Parr, or Samlet (.S". salnmlus), the
Common Trout {S. fan'o). the Great Grey Trout {S. ferox), the
Northern Charr {S. iimbla), and the Welsh Charr {S. savcliiius).
The other Salmoindcc are the Smelt {Osmeriis esperlaniis), the
Grayling {Thymalltcs vulgaris), represented with a Perch in Fig.
1730, the Gwyniad {Coregonus fera ?), the Vendace f Cortf^o«o?/j
zv?/tug!ibuj, and the Argentine {Scopelus hzunboldtii).
The Norwegian Salmon, already mentioned, which are large, and
of excellent quality, are caught in various ways. One of their
methods deserves a description, and seems to be very effective. In
descending one of the longest and most picturesque of the fiords
(Sostrand "fiord), Mr. Twining's attention was caught by a number
of small barrels floating on the surface of the water. "These
barrels," he says, "at a short distance from each other, were
secured each by a thin rope or cord, and all these cords were joined
tcether at the end of a high scaffold that projected over the fiord :
it was a sort of platform, long and narrow, one end of which rested
on the bank, while the other, at a slight angle of elevation, was sup-
ported by long poles on the edge of a rock that advanced into the
water. It was not long before I saw the head and arm of a man,
whose body was concealed behind a sort of screen, made of planks
at the end of the platform. Although he did not make the least
motion, he appeared very much occupied, and was evidently not
perched on that frail observatory for motives of mere curiosity. My
boatman explained the enigma by telling me that he was fishing for
salmon. A large net is suspended horizontally under the barrels,
and the extreme transparency of the water of the fiord permits the
fisherman to see all the fish that swim in it. When a shoal of salmon
passes over his net, he rapidly draws up in one clue all the cords
attached to the different barrels ; the barrels thus close together at
one point, — the net is shut, and all the fish in it are taken. Although
the fiords abound with fish, as do also the mountain-streams that
discharge themselves into them, it appears that these men often lie
in ambush the best part of a day without taking anything, — but one
fortunate capture is an ample reward."
Fig. 1730. — Grayling and Perch.
On the rivers and streams there is a very simple method of taking
Salmon in large quantities. They either make artificial embank-
ments, or avail themselves of ledges of rocks that divide the stream
into several narrow channels. On each of these channels they place
two sluices, the one above and the other below, in such a manner
that they can be opened and shut at pleasure. The Fish, having
once entered these locks, are prevented from proceeding or return-
ing, and, the water being let off, they are taken by the hand without
any troutile. The method is also common in Sweden, where, on the
river Deje, they often thus take from five to eight hundred Salmon in
a single day. The greater part of the Salmon caught in the fiords
are salted and exported, but many of the Fish are sold fresh in the
neighbouring country, at the rate of about an English penny the
pound. Large quantities, preserved in ice, are now sent to England.
Angling seems too slow an operation for the Norwegians ; but several
English gentlemen, who of late years have been attracted by the
romantic beauty of the country and the love of fishing, have found
excellent sport in that way, particularly on the fiord where Dron-
theim is situated, and in the streams leading to it, which abound
with Salmon, Salmon-Trout, and other species of Salinonida.
We here venture to introduce the name of a fisherman of the olden
time, one famous for his skill in the gentle craft, right eloquent in
the commendation of the art which he loved so vifell, and happy in
the elucidation of its details. It is that of" one well known and as well
beloved of all good men," — of no less a personage than honest Izaak
Walton himself, " the father of angling." It was in 1655 that he
published " The Complete Angler, or Contemplative Man's Recrea-
tion," a work which, to use the words of Sir Nicholas Harris,
" whether considered as a treatise on the art of angling, or as a
beautiful pastoral, abounding in exquisite descriptions of rural
scenery, in sentiments of the purest morality, and in an unaffected
love of the Creator and his works, has long been ranked among the
most popular compositions in our language." Izaak Walton was
born at Stafford, on the 9th of August, ^593, and died at Winchester
on the 15th of December, 1683. His remains lie in Winchester
Cathedral.
Close to the Satmoutdce Professor Muller places a small family,
the Gataxiidce, which he has established lor the reception 01" a single
THE PIKE.
693
genus of Fishes {Galaxrns), placed bv Cuvier amona;st the Esncidcs,
or Pikes. They agree with the Salmons in their Sfeneral structure,
and in the mode in which the ova are excluded, and are distin-
guished principally by the absence of the adipose fin, and the want
of scales.
The Pike — Family Esocidm.
In the Esocidcs, the biting edge of the upper jaw is formed as in
the Salmonida;, both by the maxillary and intermaxillary bones ; but
the adipose fin and the pyloric cceca are wanting. The mouth is
furnished with a most formidable apparatus of teeth ; almost all the
bones, which assist in the formation of that cavity, being thus armed.
All the known Fishes of this family inhabit fresh waters, and only
occur in temperate climates. They are of an elongated form, clothed
with cycloid scales, and furnished with powerful fins ; their whole
conformation being eminently adapted for that rapid motion through
their native element, without which their voracious propensities
would stand but a poor chance of gratification. The only Fish now
placed in this family are the True Pikes {Esoces), and a few small
Fishes forming the genus Umbra, of which one species is found in
the rivers of Austria. The Common Pike {Esox lucius) of this
country may be taken as an example.
Yarrell states that the result of four days' Pike-fishing at the above
Mere and Ileigham Sounds, according to information which he
received from a q:entleman of celebrity in wild-sports, was 256 Pike,
weighing altogether 1,135 pounds. Yet, as Isaak Walton correctly
observes, " old or very great pike have in them more of state than
goodness, the smaller or midc.le-sized pikes being by the most and
choicest palates observed to be the best meat."
The Pike is certainly a very long-lived Fish ; Walton says, Sir
Francis Bacon " computes it to be not usually above forty years, and
others think it to be not above ten years." But this is erroneous.
Pennant refers to one ascertained to be ninety years of age, and
Gesner, as Walton remarks, mentions a Pike taken in Suabia, in the
year 1497, at Hailbrun, on which was a brazen ring with these words
in Greek :— " I am the fish which was first of all put into this lake,
by the hands of the Governor of the Universe, Frederick the Second,
the 5th of October, 1230." The Fish, therefore, was 26/ years old'.
Mr. Yarrell states in addition, that the skeleton, nineteen feet in
length, was long preserved at Manheim,
natural history.
as a great curiosity in
Fig. 1 73 1.— The Pike.
Iw^ 'PlYi-E {Esox lucius). Jack, Luce, Pickerel; in Scotland,
Gedd.— This voracious Fish is common in the lakes and rivers of the
greater portion of Europe: and though, as its rarity at one time
proves. It IS not an aboriginal of the waters of our island there
are few lakes, meres, or rivers, in England, Scotland, and
Ireland, in which it is not abundant. In the reign of Edward the
First the value of the Pike, as established by royal ordinance, ex-
ceeded that of fresh Salmon, and was ten times greater than that of
the best Turbot or Cod. In the time of Henry the Eighth, so scarce
was this Fish, that a large one sold for double the price of a house-
lamb in February, and a small one, or Pickerel, for more than a fat
Capon. The Pike is still in repute for the table, and in ihe North of
Europe large quantities are taken and dried for winter consumption.
Horsea Mere, and Heigham Sounds, two large sheets of water in
JNoriolk, covering a surface of six hundred acres, are celebrated for
the quantity and excellent quality of the Pike; and those of the
Medway, as Mr. Yarrell observes, when feeding on the smelt, acquire
excellent condition, with peculiarly fine Havour.
The Pike grows rapidly, and, in favourable localities, attains to
very large dimensions. In Horsea Mere, Pike have been caug-ht
weighing trom twenty-eight to thirty-four pounds each; and Mr
The voracity of the Pike, and the destructio'n it makes among
other Fish are notorious. " Eight pike," says Mr. Jesse, '' of about
five pounds weight each, consumed nearly 800 g-udgeons in three
weeks ; and the appetite of one of these pike was almost insatiable.
One morning I threw to him five roach, each
about four inches in length; he swallowed
four of them, and kept the fifth in his mouth
for about a quarter of an hour, when it also
disappeared."
It is not only among Fish that the Pike
makes havoc : Frogs, Water-rats, Field-
mice, also young Clucks, Dabchicks, Moor-
hens, and other Aquatic Birds are seized and
devoured, and instances are on record of other
Animals, and even man, being attacked.
Gesner, says Izaak Walton, relates that a
man "going to a pond, where it seems a pike
had devoured all the fish, to water his mule,
had a pike bite his mule by the lips, to which
the pike hung so fast that the mule drew
him out of the water ; and by that acci lent
the owner of the mule angled out the pike.
And the same Gesner observes that a maid
in Poland had a pike bite her by the foot, as
she was washing clothes in a pond. And I
have heard the like of a woman in Killing-
worth pond, not far from Coventry. But I
have been assured by my friend Mr. Sea-
grave, that keeps tame otters, that he hath
known a pike in extreme hunger, fight with
one of his otters for a carp that the otter
had caught, and was bringing it out of the
water."
At the breeding season, which occurs in
March or early in April, the Pike leaves the
deep water, and seeks the weedy shallows
arfd creeks, where its spawn is deposited. In
the fens in the neighbouihood of Ely this Fish
is bred in great numbers ; and in spring,
shoals migrate thence into the river Cam.
We may here allude to one of the modes
of catching Pike, as practised on the meres
of Norfolk, where the species abounds. It
is by what is called a ligger, or trimmer,
which, says Mr. Yarrell, "is a long cylin-
drical float, made of wood or cork, or rushes
. tied together at each end ; to the middle of
this float a string is fi.xed, in length from eight to fifteen feet ; this
string is wound round the float except two or three feet, when the
trimmer is to be put into the water, and slightly fixed by a notch in
the wood or cork, or by putting it between the ends of the rushes.
The bait IS fixed on the hook, and the hook fastened to the end of
the pendent string, and the whole then dropped into the water.
When the bait is seized by a Pike, the jerk looses the fastening,
and the whole string unwinds, the wood, cork, or rushes, floating at
the top, indicating what has occurred." The common modes of
trolling need not be described.
The Pike is admirably formed for velocity in the water; the body,
the tail muscular, with the dorsal fin opposite the last undcr-fin ; the
head is long and depressed, with considerable brendth ; the gape is
extensive ; the vomer is furnished with small sharp teeth, and there
are numerous large teeth on the palatal bones, the largest being
seated on the line of the inner edges. The superior maxillary bones
have no teeth. The lower jaw exceeds the upper, and is armed
anteriorly with numerous small teeth, while along the sides are live
or six teeth, apart from each other, very long and sharp. On the
top of the head are several raucous orifices placed in pairs. (See
694
THE CARP FAMILY.
In the lakes of North America, a Pike of huge size, called the
Muskanunofee, is abundant, and affords excellent sport.
Nearly allied to the Pikes is a small family of Fishes, the
Morinyridcs, the members of which have hitherto only been found
in the Nile, and, according to Cuvier in the Senegal. They re-
semble t\i& Esoa'dcc m the form of the body and the position of the
fins, and the maxillary bones assist in the formation of the edge of
the upper jaw ; but the intermaxillary bones are completely united in
front, so as to form a single bone, without any trace of suture — a
structure which does not occur in any other Fishes. The mouth is
small ; the arrangement of the teeth varies ; and the pylorus is
furnished with two coeca. The air-bladder is simple. The skin of
the body is covered with scales, but the head is clothed with a thick,
naked skin, which incloses the opercula, and only leaves a small
perpendicular branchial aperture, presenting a considerable re-
semblance to a spiracle. The sides of the tail are thickened, and
contain a small eletrical organ. The Mormyri of the Nile are
reckoned amongst the best Fish produced by that river.
The Carp — Family Cyprinidce.
The large family of Cypri7iid(B, or Carps, which includes the
greater number of the Fresh- water Fishes of temperate climates, is
distinguished by its small mouth and toothless jaws, of which the
Fig. 1732.— The Carp.
upper is entirely composed of the intermaxillary bones. To make
up for the want of teeth in the mouth, the inferior pharyngeal bones are
armed with very powerful teeth, which work against a singular
process of the lower part of the skull, covered with horny plates.
The body is usually compressed, and always clothed with scales,
sometimes of very large, at others of very small size; the head is
small ; the dorsal fin is single, and there is no adipose fin ; but in some
cases the dorsal and anal fins have a single-toothed spinous ray.
The air-bladder is usually divided by a constriction into two parts,
and communicates with the labyrinth of the ear by a series of small
bones ; the intestine is destitute of cceca.
The Fishes of this family are found in great abundance in all the
fresh waters of Europe. Many of them are much sought after by
anglers ; but rather for the sake of sport than for the goodness of
their flesh, which is usually watery and insipid. In fo'rmer times,
however, when the transportation of marine productions, in a fresh
state, to great distances from the coast was attended with greater
difficulties than in the present day, these Fish were regarded as of
sorne importance, especially as a change from the salt-fish diet to
which many good Catholics were condemned during Lent.
The Cyprmidcs feed principally upon aquatic plants and Worms ;
but a few of them seem occasionally to prey upon small Fishes.
One of the finest and best of the European species is the Carp
{Cyp}'!iuis carpi'o), to the breeding of which, in ponds, great
attention is still paid in many places, although in this country the
abundant supply of Sea Fish has rather thrown it out of favour,
except amongst anglers. Another Fish belonging to this family,
which is a great favourite with the disciples of Walton, although its
flesh is far inferior to that of the Carp, is the Barbel {Biirdus
vulgaris). It is one of the largest species, measuring sometimes as
much as three feet in length, and is exceedingly abundant in all the
larger rivers of this country. Its name appears to refer to the great
length of the tentacles surrounding the mouth, which it possesses in
common with several other species of Cyprinida:. These tentacles
are also very long in the Loaches [Cobitis), a group of small Fishes
belonging to this family.
Many Cypn'uidcB are distinguished by the beautiful silvery hue
of their bodies ; they form the genus Leucisctis, of which the Roach
(Z. riitilus), the Dace (Z. vulgaj-is) the Chub (Z. cephalus), and
the Bleak (Z. albu?-?itts), ars species well known to anglers. The
scales of these Fish, and especially those of the Bleak, are employed
in the manufacture of artificial pearls. The beautiful Gold and
Silver Fish {Cypn'm's auratus) of China, which are now completely
naturalised in this country, also belong to this family.
The Carp {Cypriiuis carpid). — In the genus Cyprinus the body
is protected by large scales ; there is a
single elongated dorsal fin ; the lips are
fleshy ; pharyngal but not maxillary
teeth ; branchiostegous rays three. (See
Fig. 1732.)
This beautiful Fish, rich with burnished
gold, is not an original of our country,
common as it is in our ponds, lakes, and
rivers, but was, at some period not as-
certained, introduced into our island
from the continent, where it is widely
spread. Mr. Yarrell says, " Leonard
Mascall takes credit to himself for having
introduced the carp, as well as the pippin ;
but notices of the existence of the carp in
England occur prior to Mascall's time,
1600. In the celebrated ' Boke of St.
Albans,' by Dame Juliana Barnes or
Berners, the Prioress of Sopewell Nun-
nery, printed at Westminster, by Wynkyn
de Worde, in 1496, Carp is mentioned as
a ' deyntous fisshe ; ' and in the privy
purse expenses of King Henry VIII., in
1532, various entries are made of rewards
to persons for bringing ' carpes to the
king.' "
The Carp is very prolific, and prefers
ponds and lakes with a muddy bottom
to clear rivers, in which it is the opposite
of the Trout. In favourable waters often
it attains to an enormous size. Daniel,
in his "Rural Sports," says that "Mr.
Ladbroke, from his park at Gatton, pre-
sented Lord Egremont with a brace that
weighed thirty-five pounds, as specimens
to ascertain whether the Surrey could vie
with the Sussex carp." Mr. Yarrell ad-
duces two instances, in one of which a
Carp taken at Stourheadwas thirty inches
long, upwards of twenty-two broad, and
eighteen pounds in weight ; the other is
that of a Carp taken from the White-Sitch
Lake, at Weston Hall, Statfordshire, the seat of the Earl of Brad-
ford, which weighed nineteen pounds and a-half ; a painting of it is
preserved. The growth of the Carp, however, is not very rapid,
yet it would appear that some have attained a weight of three
pounds by their sixth year, and of six pounds before their tenth
year. The breeding time of this Fish is towards the end of May
or at the beginning of June ; Bloch found six hundred thousand
eggs in the roe of a female of nine pounds weight.
Few Fish are more tenacious of life, out of the water, than the
Carp ; in wet moss they will live for weeks, and in some parts of the
continent they are thus kept, refreshed occasionally by water thrown
over them, and the moss freely saturated ; while thus mewed up, they
are fed upon bread steeped in milk.
In the winter. Carp appear to undergo a partial state of torpor,
burying themselves in the mud, or in deep holes under the bank.
White, in his "Natural History of Selbourne," says : — " In the
Garden of the Black Bear Inn, in the town of Reading, is a stream
or canal, running under the stables, and out into the fields on the
other side of the road. In this water are many carps, which lie
rolling about in sight, being fed by travellers, who amuse themselves
by tossing them bread. But as soon as the weather grows at all
THE CARP FAMILY.
69s
severe, these fishes are no lon_a:er seen, because they retire under
the stables, where they remain till the return of Spring." The Carp
is in season from October to April : its flesh has been much praised,
but we think undeservedly ; it is not to be compared to that of the
Tench. Boccius says that those which are more than twenty years
old are hideously coarse ; and Mr. Yarrell considers it more indebted
to the cook for the estimation in which it is held, than its intrinsic
flavour. Isaac Walton seems to have been of the same opinion,
notwithstanding that he calls this Fish the "queen of rivers."
Carp are said to live to 150 or 200 years old, but they lose their fine
colour and become grey. Worms, the larva; of Insects, and soft
aquatic plants are their food.
The first dorsal fin ray is short, stout, and bony; the second also
is bony, and strongly serrated behind ; the other rays are flexible ;
the first ray of the last fin below is also bony, strong, and serrated
posteriori}', it consists of two slips soldered together. Two small
barbules at each corner of the mouth.
The beautiful Gold-fish from China [Cyprinus auratus) is an
allied species, as already mentioned.
The Barbel (Barbus vulgaris ; Cypriiius barbus, Linn.) — In
the genus Barbus the dorsal fin is short, with the first ray, strong,
bony, and serrated; mouth with four barbules, two near the point
of the nose, and one on each side at the angle of the mouth. (See
Fig- I7S3)-
The Barbel is a native of the rivers of the wanner parts of
Europe, but is very common in the Thames, from Richmond upwards ;
it is also found in the River Lea, in Essex.
In the summer, Barbel frequent the weedy parts of the river in
shoals, and retire on the approach of winter to deeper waters, often
sheltering themselves under steep banks, the wood-work of artificial
FiS- 1733.— The Barbel.
falls, old sunken boats, and the like, crowded together in dense
masses ; they are then easily taken by means of a net. As the
weather becomes cold, they sink into a torpid state, and may be
captured by the hand, without any resistance. Their flesh, however,
is worthless. In summer, the Barbel affords excellent sport to the
angler; it will bite at worms ; and requires a strong rod and line, as
it is very vigorous. It is often taken by anglers, when trolling with
Bleak or Minnows, for large Thames Trout.
So numerous were Barbel at Shepperton and Walton, that, accord-
ing to Mr. Yarrell, 150 pounds weight have been caught in five hours,
and on one occasion, it is said that 280 pounds weight of large
sized Barbel were taken in one day. He adds, that the largest Fish
he can find recorded, weighed fifteen pounds and a-half.
In searching for food, the Barbel turns up the mud with its snout,
and bores into the loose soil, in quest both of vegetable ailment, and
Molluscs, Worms, the larvae of Aquatic Insects, &c It breeds in
May and June.
In its habits the Barbel is shy and retiring. Mr. Jesse, describ-
ing" the manners of various Fishes kept in a vivarium, says, that of
all the Barbel were the shyest and most impatient of observation :
they are, notwithstanding, very playful ; "in the spring, when they
could not perceive any one watching them, they would roll about,
and rub themselves against the brickwork, and show considerable
playfulness." The general colour of this Fish above is greenish-
brown, assuming a yellow tinge on the sides, and passing into white
beneath ; the sides of the muzzle and the gill-covers are tinged with
bronze ; the dorsal and caudal fins are brown, the rest fleshy red.
The tail is forked, the muzzle long, the head wedge-shaped ; the
upper jaw exceeds the under, which is short ; the upper lip is
fleshy, and doubtless endowed with considerable sensibility, to which
probably the barbules contribute.
The Gudgeon [Gobw Jluviatt'hs : Cyfrinus gobio, Linn.) — The
genus Gobio has the dorsal fin short, and the angles ot the mouth
furnished with barbules, but is destitute of the strong serrated bony
ray of the dorsal and last under fin, as seen in the Carp.
This pretty little Fish is very common on the Continent, and in
our island, frequenting clear rivers and streams, where it swims
about in shoals, displaying considerable alertness. It feeds on
Worms, Aquatic Insects, and their larva;, small Molluscs, &c. Iq
the Thames, the Kennet, the Mersey, and Avon, tlic Gudgeon is
particularly abundant ; and to those who like to pull out Fish one
after another, with the utmost despatch, Gudgeon-fishing affords
excellent sport, for no Fish bites more freely, and the small red
Worm is a captivating bait.
Small as this Fish is, seldom exceeding six or seven inches, its
flesh is very delicate, and as weight can be made up by numbers, it
forms an e.'ccellent dish. In the Thames the fishermen enclose
F'g- I734- — The Gudgeon.
shoals of Gudgeong in their casting nets with small meshes, and
keep them in their well-boats alive for sale ; and many of the fish,
mongers preserve them in tanks or cisterns, supplying them with
fresh water.
The breeding time of the Gudgeon is in May; the shoals then
seek shallow water, exposed to the sun ; in a short time the young
are hatched, and may be, soon after, seen swimming about, near
the margin of the stream, in many a mazy curve, and darting away
when alarmed into deeper retreats. To the Pike, Trout, and Perch,
&c., the Gudgeon offers a perpetual repast. (See Fig. 1734.)
The Bream {Abramis brama). — In this genus there are neither
bony rays nor barbules ; the body is deep and compressed, forming
an oval outline ; the dorsal fin is short, the posterior fin below
long.
Fig. 1735. — The Bream.
The Bream is common on the Continent as far north as Norway
and Sweden, inhabiting rivers and lakes. In our island it is local.
It exists in the Mole, and the Medway, the Trent, and also in other
rivers that are slow and deep ; as well as in canals, and extensive
ponds, where it is often very abundant. The lakes of Cumberland
and Westmoreland, and many of the Irish lakes, abound with Bream
of a large size, many weighing from ten to fourteen or fifteen
pounds. The flesh is not held in much estimation, but it is said to
be best in spring and autumn. Formerly, indeed, it appears to have
been in high request, and, we believe, is still esteemed on the Conti-
nent, where Freshwater Fish are more valued than in our island,
which enjoys an ample supply of Sea-fish, not only around the
coast, and in the metropolis, but (such is the rapidity of carriage-
conveyance) even in the most central counties, and carried by
railway.
If we may credit Daniel, Bream-fishing must afford excellent
sport to the angler, as the Fish bites eagerly and plays vigorously.
He thus describes a day of Bream-fishing at New Hall Pond, in
Essex " The weather was cloudy, and the wind brisk ; there were
seven rods used by the party, and very frequently there were bites at
them all at the same time. When a fish was hooked, and played at
the top, 01 near the surface of the water, numbers were seen to
696
THE CARP FAMILY.
follow him, and so soon as the hooks were fresh baited, were alike
greedily taken. Some few perch and tench were caught, but princi-
pally bream, which averaged at least two pounds a fish ; and of
these, from six in the morning till dark in the evening, some
hundredweight were taken. The bait used was the large red worm,
and the spot had been baited on the morning and evening previous
to the day of fishing ; the ground-bait used, was boiled wheat and
tallow-melters' greaves mi.xed together." The Bream herd together
in large shoals ; in the lakes of Ireland several hundredweight have
been taken in a short time ; the peasantry split and dry them, and
thus preserve them for food. The breeding season of this Fish is
May.
The general colour of the Bream is golden brown ; the cheeks and
gill-covers silvery white ; the fins are pale, with a tinge of brown,
except the pectoral and ventral, which are tinted with red ; iris
golden yellow. Young Fish are of a yellowish-white. This species
is often called the Carp-bream. An allied species of smaller size,
the White Bream, or Breamflat [Abramis bticca) is found in several
of our rivers, as the Trent, Cam, and others, and is common in the
lakes and rivers of the Continent. It rarely exceeds ten or twelve
inches in length, and is of a silvery bluish-white, with silvery white
irrides. It is of little value for the table. (See Fig. 1735.)
The Dace and Roach. — In the genus Ze^^c/jc«j the dorsal and
last fin below are short, and destitute of spines ; there are no bar-
the venerated angler on this point. Roach fishing, indeed, is ex-
cellent practice for beginners ; and almost as much quickness and
dexterity are required as in fly-fishing. To the more experienced,
even, the Fish affords excellent sport : Walton added, "especially
the great roaches about London, where I think there be the best
roach anglers." Neither Roach nor Dace are in much estimation
for the table. They both make good bait for Pike, the Dace for his
silvery whiteness ; and the Roach, being more tenacious of life as
well, is used for night-hooks. Roach are in the best condition in
October, and Dace in February, though on this point there are
different opinions. Both spawn at the end of May or early in June,
and recover their strength in about a fortnight afterwards. Roach
ascend the upper parts of the Thames preparatory to spawning ;
and vast shoals leave Loch Lomond at the same season, and during
three or four days are caught on their migration in large numbers.
The Dace seldom exceeds nine or ten inches in length, but the
Roach attains a larger size. Mr, Jesse caught a Thames Roach
which weighed three pounds. Walton thought one of two pounds
worthy of special notice. " The Thames," he says, " affords the
largest and fullest in this nation, especially below London Bridge."
He would have some difiiculty in proving the truth of this statement
at the present day !
Mr. Yarrell observes that " Mr. Donovan, in his ' History of
British Fishes,' says, ' In the River Thames, the finest roach are
Fig. 1736.— The Dace {a) and the Roach [b.)
bules about the lips. The species termed, collectively, White-fish
are numerous. Fig. 1736 shows the Dace {Leuciscus vulgaris) la
Vaudoise of the French, m comparison with the Roach {Leuciscus
rutihis), la Rosse of the French. The lower figure is the Dace a
the upper the Roach, b. ' '
These two Fish are common throughout the whole of Europe and
are abundant in our island; especially the Roach, which is also
more extensively spread on the Continent. In many respects they
are alike in their habiis, and do not greatly differ from each other
in appearance. "They be much of a kind," says Walton, "in
matter of feeding, cunning, and goodness, and usually in size."
The Dace, however, is longer, and not so broad as the Roach, and
Its fins and eyes have a less brilliant colour, but they have both a
handsome silvery appearance.
Roach prefer deep and quiet rivers, and will breed well in ponds •
but Dace love streams deep but clear, with a gentle current, and do
not thrive so well in ponds. By day Roach haunt deep water in
and near beds of weeds, or under the shade of the trees which over-
hang the banks. Walton terms this Fish the " water-sheep, for his
simplicity or foolishness ; " but several writers do not coincide with
caught about the middle ot l\Iay, or early in June, when those fish
come up in shoals from the sea to deposit their spawn in the higher
parts of the river.' But the roach in this instance came from the
direction only in which the sea lies, not, I apprehend, from the sea
itself." The attempt to gain a higher station in the river, where the
o.xygen is in greater quantity at this season, accounts for the migra-
tory movements of this and other Fishes ; but, adds Mr. Yarrell,
" I have never known a roach to be taken in the sea into which the
fish had entered voluntarily." Montagu, in his MS., referring to
Donovan's statement of this migration from the sea, expresses his
belief that Mr. Donovan was mistaken, and his conviction that the
Roach could not exist in sea water at all ; quoting the following
fact which came under his own observation. " In a small river that
runs into a large piece of water of nearly two miles in extent, close
to the sea on the south coast of Devon, there is no outlet but by
means of percolation through the shingle that forms a barrier be-
tween it and the sea; in this situation roach thrive and multiply
beyond all example. About eight or nine years ago the sea broke
its boundary and flowed copiously into the lake at every tide for a
considerable time, by which every species of fish were destroyed."
THE CARP FAMILY.
697
The follo\vin,q^ account of the alteration which has taken place with
respect to the locaUties of Roach and other Fish in the river Thames
is a very intrrestinj^ communication : —
" Punt-tishing- for roach by the starlings of Old London Bridge,
was once a common amusement of the city anglers, which tliey con-
tinued to enjoy to the end of the reign of George I. Sir John
Havvkms, in his edition of Walton's 'Angler,' published in 1760,
gives an interesting account of their latter-day exploits. ' The
Thames,' he says, ' as well above as below bridge, was formerly
much resorted to by London Anglers ; and, which is strange to think
on, consiilcring the unpleasantness of the station, they were used to
fish near the starlings of the bridge. This will account for the many
fishing-tackle shops that were formerly in Crooked Lane, which leads
to the bridge. In the memory of a person not long since living, a
waterman tliat plied at Esse.x Stairs, his name John Reeves, got a
comfortable living by attending anglers with his boat : his method
was to watch when the shoals of roach came down from the country,
and when he had found them, to go round to his customers and give
them notice. Sometimes they (the fish) settled opposite the Temple ;
at others at Blackfriars or Queenhithe ; but most frequently about
the chalk hills (waste rubble) near London Bridge. His hire was
two shillings a tide. A certain number of persons who were accus-
tomed thus to employ him, raised a sum sufficient to buy him a
waterman's coat and silver badge, the impress whereof was ' Him-
self, with an angler in his boat," and he had annually a new coat to
the time of his death, which might be about the year 1730.' In
1760, Shepperton and Hampton were much resorted to by London
anglers for roach fishing. If the respectable old angler who joyfully
put his tackle in order when John Reeves announced a shoal of roach
at London Bridge, could now see half-a-dozen steamboats at one
time movmg between Queenhithe and Blackfriars, he would easily
conclude that his sport in that quarter was destroyed. But he would
not at once perceive all the other causes which had driven the fish
away, such as improved sewers, disgorging the impurities of treble
the population of the London of his day, the increase in a still larger
proportion of manufactories, and the establishment of works he never
dreamt of, for converting coal into a gas for lighting shops and streets.
Turning to one of the Parliamentary Reports on the state of the
water supplied to the inhabitants from the river, he would learn by
the evidence of fishermen, that since 1820, flounders, eels, roach,
smelt, salmon, and other fish, had been unable to live in that part of
the Thames between Woolwich and Putney. In this Report, issued
in 1828, Mr. Goldham, the clerk of Billingsgate-market, states, that
about 1817 there were 400 fishermen, each of whom was the owner
of a boat and employed a boy, and they obtained a good livlihood by
the exercise of their craft between Deptford and London, taking
roach, plaice, smelts, flounders, salmon, shad, eels, gudgeon, dace,
dabs, &c. Mr. Goldham states, that about 1810, he had known
instances of as many as ten salmon and 3,000 smelts being taken at
one haul up the river towards Wandsworth, and 50,000 smelts were
brought daily to Billingsgate, and not fewer than 3,000 Thames
salmon in the season. Some of the boats earned £,b a week, and
salmon was sold at three shillings and four shillings the pound. The
fishery was nearly destroyed at the time when this evidence was
given. The masters of the Dutch eel-ships stated, before the same
committee, that a feu years before they could bring their live eels in
'wells' as far as Gallions' Reach, below Woolwich: but in 1828
they were obliged to stop at Erith, and that they had sustained
serious losses from the deleterious quality of the water, which killed
the fish. Many other facts might be mentioned to the angler of the
old school still more perplexing — of salmon brought from Scotland in
ships moved by steam, and in such large quantities as frequently to
sell at sixpence and eightpence the pound ; of the supplies of fish
from the coast being conveyed to London in three or four hours by
railroads ; and that by these means fresh fish, once the most diffi-
cult commodity to put into extensive circulation, was now regularly
sold in the markets of most inland parts of the country not very
many hours after being caught."
The Chub [Leuciicus cephalus). — In most of our rivers in Eng-
land the Chub is common. In some parts of the Thames it is very
abundant, preferring deep spots under banks, sheltered by trees, and
the tranquil water along the margin of willow-aits, where it shrouds
itself from observation. It feeds on Worms, Insects, and their
larvae, and bites eagerly at the Chafer-beetle, which forms the most
killing bait. The Chub seldom acquires a very large size, and
specimens of even three and four pounds weight are very rare. The
breeding season is from the end of April to the middle of May. The
flesh of this species is of inferior quality. The general colouring above
is bluish-black passing into bluish-white on the sides, and silvery
beneath. Top of the head blackish-brown ; pectoral fins reddish-
brown; caudal fin dusky; gills and iris golden-yellow. (See Fig. 1737.)
As species of the same genus, we may enumerate the Ide (Z. idus) ;
the Dobule Roach (Z. Dobiila) ; the Graining (Z. lancastriensis,
Yarrell) ; the Redeye, or Rudd (Z. crythropthalinus) ; the Azurine
(Z. ccsruleus, Yarrell) ; the Bleak (Z. alburnus) ; and the Mmnow
[L. phoxinus).
All these Fish afford more or less sport to the honest angler, who
"loves the sweet air of the sweet savour of flowers," and the
" melodious harmony of fowls," and we may add those sylvan scenes,
those quiet nooks, where the water now flows smoothly and slowly
along, and now with quicker current " makes sweet music to the
enameU'd meads," such scenes as our own rivers, winding their way
" to the wide bosom of the ocean," present at every step — such as
we see along the banks of the Avon, where the poet of nature once
wandered, who, in three lines, describes the "contemplative man's
recreation : " —
"The pleasantest angling is to see the fish
Cut wilh her golden oars the silver stream
And greedily devour the treacherous bail."
Nor must he forget the injunction of Dame Juliana Berners : — "Ye
shall use this foresaid crafty sport for no covetyseness to the cncreas-
ing and sparing of your money only, but principally for your solace,
and to the cause of the health of your body, and specially of your
soul."
V'^^^V^^
Fig. 1737.— The Chub.
We have just given a quotation in respect to the state of the
Thames in 1828. It may be interesting to give some account of the
river in 1878. The following facts were arrived at by personal ex-
amination carried on by the Editor of this work, but fuller details
may be found in the two volumes of Engineering, issued in 1X78,
and also in several articles in the same journal for previous years.
Commencing at Richmond, the issue in July and August, 1878, of
sewage matter rendered the Thames simply offensive as far as Kew.
The banks on each side of the river were a mass of decomposing
sewage matter. From Kew to Westminster Bridge, matters were a
little better ; but not a sign of Fish could be seen. From London
Bridge to Blackwall the Thames could only be compared with a stink-
ing ditch. At the Barking and Crossness outfalls of the London
sewage, north and south, amounting to about 220,000,000 gallons
daily, of course the state of the river became worse. From these
points up to Gravesend, with an ebb-tide, the river was little better
than a common sewer; and perhaps at Gravesend, on the instant of
the flow of the tide the worst point of actual pollution was arrived at.
The then condition of the Thames may be generally better imagined
when it is stated that owing to a terrible collision off Margaret-ness,
or Tripcock Point, near Woolwich, between the Byiuell Castle, a
steam collier, and the Princess Alice, a favourite river steam plea-
sure-boat, by which about 700 lives were sacrificed on September 3rd,
1878, the medical evidence showed that many must have died by
poisoning through the filthy condition of the Thames. The bodies
recovered, to the extent of about 600, showed signs of decomposition,
at least two days earlier than would have ordinarily occurred by the
usual cause of death. Here is a truthful description of a river
which at one time was crowded by Salmon, but which in the year of
grace and science, 1879, was simply a foul ditch for an extent of at
least forty miles, between Richmond and Gravesend.
Nearly allied to the Cyprinidcc are two small families, the
Pceciliida and the Characinida. The Fishes of the former of these
families resemble the Carps so closely in their general form and
in the position of their fins, that they were formerly included with
them in the same family. They differ from the Cypriiiidcs, however,
in having both jaws armed with numerous small teeth ; the large
pharyngeal teeth and the cranial plate of the Carps are replaced by
teeth of the same form as those of the mouth ; and the air-bladder
is simple, and presents no traces of the series of bones communi-
cating with the ear. They are all small, scaly Fish, inhabiting the
fresh waters of warm climates. In some of them the oviduct is
dilated into a sac, in which the eggs are retained until the young are
hatched, so that the Fish brings forth living young. In some
curious little Fish belonging to this family, forming the genus
4U
698
THE SPINELESS FISHES— THE CODFISH.
Anableps, the cornea and iris of each eye are divided into two parts
by transverse bands, which give the creature the appearance of
having four eyes, ahhough all the inner portions of the eye are single.
The best known species is the Anableps tetraphthalmus, or Four-
eyed Loach, a native of the rivers of Guiana.
The CharacinidcB appear to be intermediate between the
Cyprttn'dcs and SalmonidcE, with the latter of which they were
placed by Cuvier. Like these, they have usually a small adipose fin
on the back, behind the true dorsal fin ; the upper jaw is composed
of the maxillary and intermaxillary bones, and the jaws are usually
furnished with teeth ; the pyloric cceca are numerous ; but the
ovaries are provided with continuous oviducts, and the air-bladder is
divided into two parts, and communicates by a series of bones with
the auditory organs. These Fishes are found in the rivers and lakes
of Tropical countries, where some of them attain a considerable size.
A few are very voracious ; Scrrasa/mones of the South American
rivers are said to seize upon Water-fowl, and even to attack Men
when bathing in the rivers.
This sub-order is closed by the curious family Silurid(B, including
Fresh-water Fishes, usually of considerable size, of which the skin is
either naked or more or less covered with bony plates, especially
about the head. The mouth is usually furnished with teeth, and
always surrounded by tentacles ; the edge of the upper jaws is
formed entirely by the intermaxillary bones, and the opercula are
formed only of three pieces. All the fishes of this family possess an
air-bladder, which is connected with the ear by a series of small
bones. The first ray of the pectoral fins is usually converted into a
strong spine, which constitutes a formidable weapon ; and the
wounds inflicted by this have often been considered venomous, al-
though apparently without any sufficient foundation. The dorsal fin
is often very large ; but in some species the rayed dorsal is entirely
deficient, and its place is supplied by an adipose fin.
These Fibhes are, for the most part, confined to the rivers and
lakes of Tropical climates ; only a single species {Siliiriis glanis) is
found in the European waters ; but this often attains a length of
from six to eight feet, and weighs several hundredweight. They
swim slowly, and appear to take their prey by concealing themselves
in the mud, and lying in wait for the approach of any unlucky Fish,
a proceeding which is greatly favoured by their dark colour.
A species inhabiting the rivers of Africa, especially the Nile and
the Senegal, the Malapferuriis electricus, which attains a length of
twelve or fifteen inches, is remarkable from its possessing electrical
properties, although in a comparatively slight degree. Some nearly
allied species inhabiting South America, which have the whole body
covered with an armour of bony plates, and in which the air-bladder,
with its series of bones, is entirely wanting, have been formed into a
distinct family under the name oi Lor icar tides.
We may observe before closing our remarks on this sub-order that
both British Salmon and Trout have become acclimatised both in
Australia and Tasmania. Some years ago ova were transported to
those colonies, and the result has been a great success. We have
seen Tasmanian Trout exceeding eighteen inches in length, and
evidently in an excellent condition when caught, the specimens we
inspected having been preserved in the ordinary manner. Immense
quantities of preserved Salmon are now imported into England
from the United States, in tin cans similar to those employed for the
preserved meats of Australia, (Sic. Tlie economy of food production
and preservation, in regard to Fish especially, has become a feature
of the age.
Sub-order II. — Anacanthina.
The sub-order Anacanf/iina, or Spineless Fishes, presents a con-
siderable resemblance to the preceding group ; the fins are entirely
supported upon soft rays ; and even the single spine, which occa-
sionally occurs in some of the fins of the Physostomatous Fishes, is
wanted here. Like the Physostomata, these Fishes are also divisible
into two groups, characterised by the presence or absence of the
ventral fins ; but these organs, when present, are always placed on
the chest or throat, and supported by the same bony arch which
bears the pectoral fins.
They also present an important difference in the structure of the
air-bladder, which instead of communicating with the oesophagus by
a duct, as is the case in the Physostomata, is here completely closed ;
and, as a general rule, the duct, which exists in the embryo, has
entirely disappeared, so that there is no connection between the
anterior part of the air-bladder and the oesophagus. The inferior
pharyngeal bones are always separated.
Sob-Divisions. — The Anacaniliina constitute four families, of
which two are destitute of ventral fins [Apoda), whilst the others
have these organs placed in the neighbourhood of the pectorals
{Subbrachiala). The apodal species usually agree very closely with
the Eels, not only in the absence of the ventral, and sometimes of
the pectoral fins, but also in the general form of the body, which is
elongated, and often serpentiform ; they may, however, always be
distinguished from the Apodal Physostomata by the greater freedom
of the opercular apparatus, which is never inclosed in a thick skin,
as in the Eels.
The first family, the Ammodytida;, is further distinguished from
the Eels by the form of the caudal fin, which is well developed, distinct
from the dorsal and anal, and considerably forked at the extremity.
The skin is naked, but of a beautiful silvery lustre ; the dorsal fin
commences a little behind the head, and runs nearly to the root of
the caudal fin ; the anal fin extends about a third, or one-half, the
length of the body ; and both the dorsal and anal are supported upon
soft, but simple rays.
There are two British species, which are much used by the fisher-
men as baits for other Fish. They are known by the names of Sand-
lances, or Sand-eels, from their habit of burying themselves in the
sand, to a depth of six or seven inches, during the ebb of the tide,
generally selecting for this purpose those parts of the beach which
are left dry at low water ; it is in this position that they are mostly
taken by the fishermen, who rake them out by means of iron hooks
and rakes. The largest British species {Ammodytes tobianus)
usually measures about a foot in length ; the smaller one {A . lancea)
only five or six inches.
In the OphidiidcB the Eel-like form makes its appearance with
still greater distinctness ; as in the Eels, the median fins are con-
tinuous, forming a border round the hinder extremity of the body;
the caudal fin is rounded or pointed, but never forked, and the pec-
toral fins are occasionally wanting. The body is sometimes naked,
sometimes covered with minute scales imbedded in the skin ; the
anus is situated sometimes in the middle of the body, and occasion-
ally under the throat, the air-bladder is alwavs present, and quite desti-
tute of a duct. These are generally small Fishes, inhabiting only the
sea : several species are found in the Mediterranean, and two or
three have occurred upon the British coasts.
The Siibbrachiate anacanthina, or those with ventral fins
attached to the breast or throat, include two families of Fishes,
which are of the greatest importance as articles of food — the
Gadidce, or Cod family, and the Pleuronectidce, or Flat Fishes.
In the former, the body is of an elongated spindle-shape, produced
behind into a long tail ; the skin is usually furnished with very small,
soft scales, which are entirely enclosed in separate sacs ; the median
fins are of very large size, and usually divided into several portions ;
the mouth is wide, furnished with numerous small teeth, and the
margin of the upper jaw is entirely formed by the intermaxillary
bones. The lower jaw is frequently furnished with a single cirrus,
or beard, beneath its extremity, and the nose sometimes bears one
or two pairs of similar appendages ; the ventral fins, also, are some-
times reduced to a single ray, so as to acquire the appearance, as
they no doubt perform the office, of cirri. These, in some species
{such as the Forked Hake — Phycis fiircatis — of our own coasts), are
of considerable length, and give off a branch from about their
middle, which is sometimes longer than the main stalk.
The GadidcB are active and exceedingly voracious Fishes, feeding
indiscriminately upon almost all the smaller Aquatic Animals. Mr.
Yarrell states, that " Mr. Couch has taken thirty-five crabs, none
less than the size of a half-crown piece, from the stomach of one
cod." They are nearly all marine; their flesh is exceedingly firm
and well-flavoured ; and as many of the species occur in the greatest
profusion, their importance, in furnishing an abundant supply of
agreeable and nutritious food to the human race, is almost incal-
culable. The principal species found in our markets are the Cod
[Morrhua inilga?'is), the Haddock [M. cBglefinus), the Whiting
{Merlangus vulgaris), and the Ling {Lota niolva) ; but many
others are taken on various parts of the coast, although they rarely
find their way to London. These Fishes are all taken by hook and
line, baited with common Mollusca, such as Limpets, Whelks, &c.,
or with pieces of Fish. For the deep-sea fishing very long lines are
used ; these are fixed to the bottom by means of a small anchor, the
other end being supported by a buoy, and the hooks are placed at
the extremities of short lines, usually about six feet in length,
attached at intervals to the main line. The long lines are usually
left for about six hours, or for a whole tide, when they are taken up
and examined. In the interval the fishermen are not idle ; they
carry on the work of destruction by means of hand-lines, of which
each man manages a pair. In this manner an immense quantity of
these and other valuable Fish are taken at almost all parts of the
British coasts. Besides the consumption in a fresh state, several
species of this family are commonly preserved by drying, either with
or without salt ; of these, the most important are Cod, Haddock, and
Ling-
In spite of the enormous consumption constantly going on, the
numbers of these Fish do not appear to decrease ; and this, perhaps,
is the less to be wondered at, when we consider that the roe of a
single female Cod, has been found to contain no fewer than nine
millions of ova. Their general spawning-time appears to be the
winter, or very early in the spring ; they are full of roe, and in their
greatest perfection during the early winter months.
The species of Gadidcs appear to be principally confined to the
seas of the northern parts of the world ; the common Cod is distri-
buted from Iceland to the coasts of Spain, without entering the
Mediterranean ; and most of the other species abound especially in
northern latitudes. One species, the Burbot {Lota vulgaris), nearly
THE FLATFISH— THE FLOUNDER.
690
allied to the Ling, is found in the rivers and Likes of several countries
of Europe and Asia. It is of an elongated form, and presents con-
siderable resemblance to the Eel in its habits, from which circum-
stance it is called the Eelpout, in some places. It inhabits a few
English rivers, but it is not generally known, although its flesh is
said to be most excellent.
Flatfish— Family Pleufotiectidcs.
The family of Pleuronectidcs, or Flatfish, which concludes the
present sub-order, consists of numerous Fishes, which, in their
general appearance, are remarkably different from those of the
preceding groups, and, indeed, from all other Fishes. They have a
broad, flat body, margined almost throughout by long dorsal and
anal fins ; the head is singularly twisted, so that the eyes are both
brought to one side of the body ; and this, which is always upper-
most, is usually of a dark colour, and often spotted, whilst the
opposite side is ahvays white. These surfaces are often regarded
as the back and belly of the Fish, but incorrectly ; the gill-openings
and the paired fins being situated on both surfaces, the pectorals a
little behind the apertures of the gills, and the ventrals in front of
these on the throat (Fig. 1738). The abdominal cavity is very
small, and the anus opens under the throat ; so that, as remarked
by Professor Vogt, the whole body is nothing but an exceedingly
compressed, disc-like tail. The mouth is small, and armed with
small teeth, and, in most species, the skin is covered with ctenoid
scales.
Fig. 173S.— The Plaice
The Flatfishes swim with the dark side uppermost, and with a sort
of undulating motion of the whole body ; they generally keep close
to the bottom of the water, viihere they feed upon small Fishes,
MoUiisca, Worms, Crustacea, &c. Some species attain a large
size ; the Halibut {Hippoglossus vutgaris) is said sometimes to
weigh as much as 50Q pounds ; and a specimen measuring " seven
feet six inches in length, three feet six inches in breadth, and
weighing 320 pounds, was taken (in April, 1828) off the Isle of Man,
and sent to Edinburgh market." The Turbot [E/ioinbus inaximtis),
which is regarded as the finest Fish of the family, does not appear
to reach quite such gigantic dimensions ; the largest recorded by
Mr. Yarrell weighed 190 pounds, and measured six feet across.
These Fish are caught either by means of hooks and lines or by
the trawl-net ; the former method is employed during the warmer
men lis of the year. The species most esteemed are the Turbot and
the Sole {Solea vulgaris) ; but several others, although inferior in
the quality of their flesh, are of great importance, as they are caught
in such numbers that they can be sold at a very cheap rate. Of
these, the best known are the Plaice [Ptatessa vulgaris, Fig. 1738).
the Brill {Ehombus vulgaris), and the Flounder (Platessa Jlesus).
All the Pleuro7iectid(B are inhabitants of the sea, although they
sometimes ascend the brackish waters of tidal rivers ; and the
Flounder even appears capable of thriving in perfectly fresh water.
They are rather voracious Fishes ; and, in spite of their singular
form, are often very active in their habits. They conclude the sub-
order Anacaiithiiia. Of some of these, the following affords a more
particular description : —
The Dab {Platessa limanda).— The Dab or Saltie of the Scotch,
is common on all the sandy parts of our coast, and is easily to be
distinguished from the Plaice and Flounder, with which it is com-
monly caught, by the roughness of its scaly upper side, whence the
term Limaiida, from lima, a file. The flesh of this Fish is good,
and Cuvier says that the Dab (la Limando), 'though small, is more
esteemed in Paris than the Plaice (la Pile), because it bears carriage
better. In the London markets it is very abundant, and also in those
of Edinburgh. The breeding season of this species is in May or
June. It is caught both by nets and lines ; small Fish, Molluscs,
and minute Crustacea constitute its food. The Dab measures on
an average from eight to ten inches in length ; the laferal line forms
an arch over tlie pectoral fin ; the colour of the upper side is of a
uniform pale brown ; of the under side white.
The Flounder {Platessa flesus). Flook, Fluke, or FIcuke ;
Mayock Fleuke, Edmburgh ; Butt, Yarmouth.— The Flounder,
though really a Sea-fish, and extremely common around our coast,
where a soft muddy or sandy bed prevails, ascends the rivers, and
thrives alike m saline, brackish, or fresh water. It is abundant in
the mouth of the Thames. The mode of fishing for it is by a tuck-
net, one end of which is fixed to a grapple ; the boat is then sculled
by an assistant so as to describe a circle, while the fisherman hands
out the net gradually into the water ; when the circle is completed
and the space enclosed, the net is hauled in, near the startinff-
pomt, the Fish extricated, and put into the well of the boat, and the
net again cast as before. The Flounder will live in fresh-water
ponds, though most probably it will not breed there, unless they be
of considerable extent, but we are not aware to what degree experi-
ments on this point have been carried. As the Flounder lives Ion"-
out of water, its transportation from place to place is elTected with
but little difficulty. We have seen this Fish in the Severn ; and
Colonel Montague notices it as being found up the Avon, within
three miles of Bath. Along our southern coast, and about Margate
and Ramsgate, shoals of Flounders abound, and also along the
shores of the adjacent continent, where other species of Flatfish are
very common.
The Flounder feeds on small Crustacea, Worms, Insects, and
small Fishes. Mr. Jesse states that he has seen it pursue minnows
with great eagerness in the shallows where the Mole runs into the
Thames at Hampton Court. It breeds in February or March. The
Flounders we commonly see in the fishmongers' shops are of small
size ; Mr. Yarrell says that some have been known to acquire the
weight of four pounds, but such instances are rare. The flesh is
agreeable and delicate.
Fig. 1739. — The Flounder.
Cuvier observes that reversed individuals (tournes en sens con-
traire) are very frequent ; and Mr. Yarrell says " Varieties of the
flounder occur more commonly than those of any other species of
flat-fish. I have before me, while now writing, specimens without
any colour on either side ; specimens with colour on both sides ;
and specimens with eyes and the whole of the colour on the left
side, instead of the right. Those without any colour on either side
are albino varieties, through the transparent skins of which the
colour of the blood-vessels and muscles has suggested the names of
rosea and carnaria to the authors who considered them species."
The Flounder is subject to great variations of colour, and those
taken from spots where there is a considerable deposit of mud, are
far darker than those which inhabit sandy places. The Flounders,
for example, caught in the backwaters behind Yarmouth, on a bed
of mud, are so dark that they are distinguished by the name of
Black Butts. Generally, however, the upper side is of an olive-grey,
or brownish-olive tint, mottled with irregular dusky spots and
marblings ; the fins are paler than the body.
The Turbot (Rhombus maximus). — From the time of the
ancient Greeks and Romans to the present, the Turbot has been
celebrated as one of the luxuries of the table, and is often seen of
extraordinary weight and dimensions. The ordinary weight of this
Fish is from five to ten pounds, but instances are not unfrequent in
which it is found to weigh fifteen or twenty, and even thirty pounds.
Mr. Crouch, says Mr. Yarrell, "notices in his MS. a record of one
taken in 1730, at Cawsand, near Plymouth, which weighed seventy
pounds. On the i8tli of February, 1853, a turbot was caught at
Staiths, near Whitby, which weighed 190 pounds, and measured six
feet across. Rondelctius, however, states that he had seen a turbot
five cubits in length, four in breadth, and a foot in thickness." It
must have been such a Turbot which was taken during the reign of
Domitian, and which not only puzzled his cooks, but even the senators
of Rome, called together by command, in order to devise the best
mode of bringing it to table.
The Turbot is taken on nearly all the coasts of our island, and is
found from Scotland to Cornwall. In Ireland it is principally con-
fined to the south-western coast. Like most other Fishes, the
Turbot has its favourite haunts, where it is found in greater abun-
700
THE TURBOT, BRILL, AND SOLE.
dance and perfection than in other places. The sandbanks between
Dover and the French coast, and those between the English and
Dutch coast, which extend in a parallel line to the eastern shores
of Great Britain, are the most valuable fishing-grounds. The coast
extending from the North Foreland to the Land's End also abounds
with this esteemed Fish. On the Flemish banks the finest Turbots
are taken in abundance by the Dutch fishermen for the London
market. The fishing begins towards the end of March, and the
fishermen then " assemble a few leagues to the south of Scheveling ;
as the warm weather comes on, the fish advance to the northward,
and during the months of April and May they are found in great
shoals on the banks called the Broad Forties. Early in June they
have proceeded to the banks which surround the small island of
Heligoland, off the mouth of the Elbe, where the fishery continues
to the middle of August (the spawning season), when it terminates
for that year."
A preference is sometimes given in London to the Dutch Turbot,
■which it deserves to some extent. The fiesh on the dark-coloured
side is considered as the best, and the Dutch Turbot are of a darker
hue than those obtained on some parts of our own coast ; but those
taken on the north-eastern coast of England are equal to the Dutch
in this respect, while those which the south-western coast produces
are lighter.
The Dutch adopt two methods of Turbot-fishing : when the Fish
are on a smooth sandy bottom in shallow water, they use the haul-
net, which brings up other kinds of Flat-fish, as Soles, Plaice, &c.,
■with the Turbot ; but when the weather becomes warm, and the
Fish have retired to deeper water, with rough and broken banks at
the bottom, they have recourse to long many-hooked lines, baited
with Smelts, Garfish, &c. The Turbot is a dainty feeder; and
though very voracious, it is not every bait that will tempt him ; if it
be not very fresh, he refuses it, but if bright-coloured and living, it
immediately attracts his notice.
According to Mr. Crouch, " the turbot keeps in sandy ground, and
is a great wanderer, usually in companies ; " and he adds, " though
its proper habitation is close to the bottom, it sometimes mounts
aloft, and I have known it upon the surface over a depth of thirty
fathoms. I have been informed also of its pursuing to the surface a
companion that was drawn up by the line, when both were taken
together."
On the English coasts the Turbot fishery is carried on both with lines
and by trawling. The former is the most general mode pursued on
the north-eastern coast, and trawling is practised to a greater extent
on the south-western coasts. The Turbot is too well known to need
minute description ; the upper side is tuberculous, with little starlike
bones imbedded in the skin. It is called Bannock Fleuk in Scot-
land.
The Brill [Rhombus vulgaris). — This well-known Fish is taken
in the same localities, and by the same modes of fishing, as the
Turbot ; in the firmness and flavour of its flesh, however, it is very
inferior to the latter, though there is a good sale for it in the London
markets ; numbers are brought from the deep waters and bays of our
southern coast, where it is very common, spawning in the month of
August. On the Devonshire and Cornish coasts it is termed the
Kite, and in some parts of Scotland the Bonnet Fleuk. Like the
Turbot, the Brill feeds on small Fish, Crustacea, Molluscs, &c., and
is equally ravenous ; its mouth is large and deeply cleft, and the
under jaw is longer than the upper. The weight of the Brill seldom
exceeds seven or eight pounds. It is more oval than the Turbot,
and the skin is destitute of tubercles, its surface being perfectly
smooth.
The Sole {Solea vulgaris). — In the genus Solea both the eyes
and colour are on the right side ; there are small teeth in both jaws,
but confined to the under side only, none being on the same side as
the eyes. The form of the body is oblong. This well-known and
excellent Fish is found all round our coasts where the bed of the sea
is sandy, its range extending northwards to the Baltic, and south-
wards to the Mediterranean. The principal fisheries of the Sole for
the London markets are along the southern coast of England, from
Dover to Devonshire ; and, as the Fish seldom takes the bait,
trawling.nets are used, by means of which enormous quantities are
captured ; they are sent to market packed up in baskets.
The Sole is in season throughout the greatest portion of the year,
and is full of roe in February. In March or April it spawns, and is
then for a few weeks soft and flabby, but soon recovers. Its food
consists of small shelled Molluscs, and the spawn and fry of other
Fishes. The flesh of the sole is firm, white, and of excellent flavour ;
■were it, indeed, a rare Fish, instead of being abundant, it would
command a high price in the market ; as it is, this delicacy finds
its way to the tables of all classes.
Mr. Yarrell records a pair of soles taken in Torbay which
measured each in length twenty-three inches, and weighed together
ten pounds ; and he adds, " For the particulars of the largest I have
heard of, I am indebted to the Rev. W. F. Cornish, of Totnes.
This specimen, a remarkably fine-grown Fish, and very thick, was
twenty-six inches long, eleven inches and a half ■n'ide, and weighed
nine pounds. — Totness market, June 21, 1826."
Though the Sole is a Sea-fish, it thrives well in fresh water, to
which, indeed, it may be transferred without difficulty. Dr.
MacCuUock, in his papers in the Royal Institution Quarterly
Journal, 1825, on changing the residence of certain Fishes from salt
to fresh water, instances a sole that, for many years, was kept in a
pond of fresh water in a garden. The following interesting letter
from a gentleman residing on the banks of the Arun contains an
important statement : —
" I succeeded yesterday in seeing the person who caught the soles
about which you inquire, and who has been in the constant habit of
trawling for them with a ten-feet-bream trawl in this river (the
Arun) for the last forty years. The season for taking theni is from
May to November : they breed in the river, frequenting it from its
mouth, five miles upwards, which is nearly to the town of Arandel,
and remain in it the whole year, burying themselves in the sand
during the cold months. The fisherman has occasionally taken
them of large size, two pounds weight each, but frequently of one
pound, and they are thicker in proportion than the soles usually
caught at sea ; in other respects, precisely the same ; and it is
evident they breed in great numbers in the river, from the quantity
of small ones, about two inches long, that are constantly brought
ashore when drawing the net for grey mullet."
Reversed Soles, that is, with the left side dark coloured and the
eyes sinistral, are not uncommon. Mr. Yarrell informs us that he
had a curious specimen of the usual dark colour, with rough ciliated
scales, on both sides alike.
We owe the recognizance of a distinct species of British Sole, the
Lemon Sole {Solea ;pegusa), to that excellent naturalist, Mr.
Yarrell, who obtained a specimen at Brighton, in February, 1829.
Since that time two or three other specimens have been obtained in
the London market ; those which were presented by Mr. Yarrell to
the Museum of the Zoological Society we have often examined.
Mr. Yarrell states that " this sole is occasionally taken with the
common sole when trawling over a clear bottom of soft sand, about
sixteen miles from Brighton, in a direction towards the coast of
France, from which circumstance this fish is known to some of our
fishermen by the name of French sole ; others call it by that of
lemon sole, in reference to its prevailing yellowish colour. In shape
the lemon sole is wider in proportion to its length than the common
sole ; it is also somewhat thicker, and the head is smaller. The
prevailing colour is a mixture of orange and light brown, speckled
over with numerous small round spots of dark nutmeg brown, giving
a mottled appearance to the whole upper surface."
The scales differ in character, and the tail is narrower than in the
ordinary species ; the under surface of the head is almost smooth,
without any of those papillary eminences so numerous and remark-
able in the Common Sole ; and the nostril is pierced in a prominent
tubular projection, which is wanting in the other ; the scales, more-
over, of the under surface, are more strongly marked than those of
the upper. Another rare Sole, the Variegated Sole {Monochirus
linguatulus, Cuv.) is also occasionally taken ofiE our shores. There
are other varieties occasionally met with.
Sub-order III.— Pharyngognatha.
General Characters. — This sub-order includes an assem-
blage of Fishes that undoubtedly presents a very great diversity of
form, and in which we not only meet with species having all the fins
supported upon soft ravs, but also with others which possess
spinous rays, as strong and well developed as those of any Fishes
belonging to the remaining groups. The principal character which
serves to unite the Pharyngognatha is derived from the structure of
the inferior pharj-ngeal bones, which, in all the Fishes of this sub-
order, are completely coalescent, so as to form a single bone,
usually armed with teeth. So complete is the union in most cases,
that no trace of the original separation of the bones can be dis-
covered. In other respects, it must be confessed that the Fishes
referred to this order, present but few characters in common ;
the fins, as already stated, are sometimes entirely composed of soft
rays [Malacopterygii. Miiller), and occasionally partially spinous
{Acatithopterygii, Miiller), The ventral fins are sometimes placed
on the belly ; in others on the chest or throat ; and the scales are
cycloid in some species, ctenoid in others. The air-bladder is
always completely closed.
Sub-divisions. — Professor Miiller divides the Pharyngognatha
into two grjups, for which he adopts the names of Malacopterygii
and Acamhopterygii, proposed by Cuvier for his primary divisions
of Osseous Fishes. The former group, including the soft-finned
species, contains only a single small family, the Scojnberesocidce, so
called from the mingled resemblance which the Fishes composing it
appear to bear to the Scomberes, or Mackerels, and the Esoces, or
Pikes. They are usually of an elongated form, and clothed with
cycloid scales. The dorsal and anal fins are placed far back, and a
series of small fins often intervenes between these and the caudal
fin ; the ventral fins are placed on the abdomen, and the pectorals
usually removed far back, and often of considerable size. In the
true Flying-fishes {Exoccelus), which belong to this family, the
THE FLYING-FISH.
701
pectoral fins attain a pfreat length, and possess sufEcient force to
serve the Fishes as wing-s, upon which these creatures can rise
from the water, and support themselves in the air for a considerable
time. One species of Flying-fish, the Exoccetus exiliens, inhabits
the Mediterranean, and has been found dead on the south coast of
England ; a second smaller species is found in the ocean, especially
in the tropical parts of the world.
The Flymg-fishes exhibit a good deal of the form of the Herring,
and, like it, are covered with tolerably large scales ; but, in the
typical species of the family, the body is very long, and the texture
of the surface resembles that of the Mackerel. These also present
the conformation of the jaws which has led to their comparison with
the Pike, and even to their being included amongst the Esocidce by
many ichthyologists' The jaws are much produced, forming a
slender snout, not unlike that of the Gangetic Crocodile, and are
often armed with strong teeth. In the genus HemirainpJuis the
lower jaw only is produced in this manner ; hence these Fishes
have received the name of the Under Sword-fish.
The Fishes of this family inhabit the sea exclusively ; and several
species are taken on our coasts, where they are commonly known by
the names of Garfish, Sea-pike, Sea-needle, &c. The commonest
species, Bclone vulgaris (Fig. 1740) is sometimes called the
Mackerel-guide.
Fig. 1740. — The Garfish.
The Garfish {Belone vulgaris). Sea-pike, Mackerel-guide. —
The Garfish is abundant in the seas of Europe, and is found along
the coasts of Norway and Sweden. In April or May shoals of this
Fish visit the shores of Kent and Sussex, for the purpose of deposit-
ing their spawn ; and from their appearing a short time before the
Mackerel, has arisen one of the names appropriated to the species —
viz., Mackerel-guide. During their stay, which is not of long con-
tinuance, numbers are taken for the London market ; their flesh has
some resemblance in flavour to that of the Mackerel, but is more
insipid, and their bones are green. Various parts of the Irish coast
are visited by this Fish ; and, according to Mr. Couch, it is per-
manent on the Cornish coast, though most abundant in summer.
Great numbers are taken off the coast of Holland ; but the Garfish is
there only used as a bait for more valued kinds.
As its form would lead us to predict, the Garfish is quick and
active in the water, swimming with considerable rapidity near the
surface, and leaping and gambolling as if in the exuberance of viva-
city. Length, from fifteen inches to two feet.
The Flying-fish (.£',vo(:fi?/'«j i'6»///(7;zj).^The Flying-fish is met
with in shoals in the warmer latitudes of the ocean, and has been
seen also off different parts of our coast, although the exact species
has not been determined.
Pursued by Dorados and other Fishes of prey, the Flying-fishes
eijdeavour to escape by rising out of the water, and skimming
through the air, an action which they repeat, successively rising and
descending, till out of sight in the distance. In the meantime their
pursuers below keep up the chase, while Gulls and Albatrosses
pounce upon them from above. " The greatest length of time," says
Mr. G. Bennett (' Wanderings,' &c.), " that I have seen these
Fig. r74l. — The Flying-fish,
volatile fish on the fiji has been thirty seconds by the watch, and
their longest flight, mentioned by Captain Hall, has been two hun-
dred yards, but he thinks that subsequent observation has extended
the space. The most usual height of flight, as seen above the
surface of the water, is from two to three feet, but I have known
them come on board at a height of fourteen feet and upwards, and they
h.ave been well ascertained to come into the channels of a line-of-battle
ship, which is considered as high as twenty feet and upwards. But
it must not be supposed they have the power of elevating themselves
into the air after having left their native element, for on watchin;^
them I have often seen them fall much below the elevation at which
they first rose from the water, but never in any instance could I ob-
serve them raise themselves from the height to which they first
sprang ; for I regard the elevation they take to depend on the power
of the first spring or leap they make on leaving their native ele-
ment." The food of these Fishes appears to consist of Molluscs,
and small Fish ; their flesh is accounted of excellent flavour, and is
often eaten by mariners. (See Fig. 1741.)
The following lines by the celebrated Irish Poet, Thomas Moore,
beautifully describe the habits of the Flying-fish : —
TO THE FLYING-FISH.
When I have seen thy snow-white wing
From the blue wave at evening spring.
And give those scales of silvery white
So gaily to the eye of light,
As if thy frame were form'd to rise,
And live amid the glorious skies ;
Oh ! it h.is made me proudly feel,
How.hke thy wing's impatient zeal
Is the pure soul, that rests not, pent
Within this world's gross element.
But takes the wing that God has given.
And rises into light and heaven !
But when I see that wing, so bright.
Grow languid with a moment's flight.
Attempt the paths of air in vain.
And sink into the waves again ;
Alas ! the fljltering pride is o'er ;
Like thee, awhile, the soul may soar.
But erring man must blush to think.
Like thee, again the soul may sink.
O Virtue ! when thy clime I seek.
Let not my spirit's flight be weak :
Let me not, like this leeble thing.
With brine still drojiping from its wing.
Just sparkle in the solar glow.
And jilunge again to depths below ;
But when I leave the grosser throng.
With whom my soul hath dwelt so long,
Let me, in that a-piring day,
Cast every lingering stain away,
And panting for thy purer air,
Fly up at once and fix me there !
The Aca?iihoJ>tcrygiotis OT spiny-finned division of this sub-order, is
characterised by the possession of a single long dorsal fin, of which the
anterior portion is spinous, the posterior supported only on soft rays.
Near the extremity of each of the spinous rays there is usually a
small membranous appendage ; and the ventral fins are generally
placed upon the breast or throat. Most of them are handsome
Fishes, frequently most beautifully variegated with brilliant colours ;
and some are remarkable for the eccentricity of their forms. They
form three families.
The ChromidfB are characterised by their fleshy lips, and by their
interrupted lateral line, the anterior portion of which terminates
about the middle of the body ; whilst the anterior portion commences
where this disappears, but at some distance below it. The greater
part of the dorsal fin is spinous, and the spines are usually furnished
with membranous appendages ; the head and body are covered with
ctenoid scales ; the edge of the pre-operculum is almost always
smooth ; the inferior pharyngeals are united by a suture ; and the
lamina? of the fourth branchial arch are of equal length. The
stomach has a ccecum, but the pyloric caeca are wanting.
The C/zrowzi/(Z generally inhabit the fresh waters of warm climates.
One small species is caught in great quantities in the Medi-
terranean ; and another, which inhabits the Nile, and attains
a length of two feet, is regarded as one of the best Fishes to be
found in Egypt.
The PomacentridcB resemble the Chro7md<B in their general form,
and, like these, are principally found in hot climates ; but they are
exclusively inhabitants of the sea. They have the ctenoid scales and
interrupted lateral line of the Fishes of the preceding family, but are
destitute of the fleshy lips, and of the appendages to the spiny rays
of the dorsal fin. The inferior phar>'ngeal bones, also, are com-
pletely fused together ; the fourth branchial arch has two rows of
unequal lamina ; and the pre-operculum is usually toothed, or even
armed with spines. The stomach is furnished with a ccecum, and
the intestines with pyloric appendages.
In the third familv, the Labridcs, the fleshy lips again make their
appearance, and the body is clothed with large cycloid scales ; the
lateral line is uninterrupted. The mouth is protrusible, and armed
702
THE SPINY-FINNED FISHES.
with formidable teeth in the jaws ; the palate is unarmed ; but the
lower pharyngeal bones, which, as in the preceding' family, are
completely coalescent, are furnished with broad grinders. In some
species (such as those of the genus Scarus), the jaws are formed
into a sort of beak, which is covered with a modification of the
teeth, giving them, in some cases, a very close resemblance to the
beak of a Parrot, whence some of these Fishes are denominated
Parrot-tishes. (See Fig. 1742.) The fourth branchial arch has only
a single series of lamina ; the stomach is simple, and the pyloric
cceca are wanting.
Fig. 1742. — Head and Mouth of the Parrot-fish.
The Labi-ides are distributed in the seas of most parts of the
world ; they are generally of moderate size, of a stout and somewhat
compressed form, and in many instances adorned with the most
beautiful colours. Some of our British species scarcely yield in this
respect to those of the Tropical seas. They are known by different
names on different parts of the coast — Wrasse, Rock-fish, &c. In
some places they are called O/d Wives ; and the French give them
a similar name. The Labrus niaculatus , or Ballan Wrasse, is a
common British species. One of the most beautiful species is the
Blue-striped Wrasse (Z. variegatus), of which the general colour is
Fig. 1743. — Labrus maculatus.
orange, becoming reddish on the back, yellow on the belly ; the
sides are striped with blue ; the anterior portion of the dorsal fin is
blue, edged with orange, and the hinder part orange, with blue
spots. The remaining fins are orange, with blue edges. We select
the British species as a type of the Labndcs.
The Ballan Wrasse {Labrus maculaius). — The Ballan Wrasse
haunts submarine rocks off our coast and that of the adjacent con-
tinent. It has been taken also on the coast of Ireland. It feeds on
various kinds of Crustacea, and, according to Mr. Couch, takes a
bait freely ; the fishermen, he says, remark that when they first fish
in a place they take but few, and those few of large size, but on
trying the same spot a few days afterwards, they catch a greater
number, and those smaller, whence they conclude that the laro-e
Fish assume the dominion of a district and keep the younger at a
distance. They breed in April, and the young are seen
swimming about the rocks in clear shallow water during the
summer.
The flesh of the Ballan Wrasse is soft and worthless ; in beauty
of colouring, however, it is exceeded by few. The head and cheeks
are of a rich deep bluish-green, reticulated with lines of fine orange-
red. The back and sides are of a deep bluish-green, becommg
paler on the belly ; and every scale is margined with orange-red.
The fins are spotted with verditer, the fin-rays being reddish-orange.
Lips flesh colour. Length from sixteen to twenty inches. (See Fig.
I744-)
A fine specimen of this beautiful Fish, some years ago, came
under our immediate notice. When put into spirits, for the sake of
preservation, its fine blue tints began rapidly to fade ; and the
colouring matter being dissolved by the spirits, rendered the
liquor blue. In a few days the Fish had lost its splendour, so that
no idea could have been formed from its appearance of its original
colours.
This species is subject to some variety. A specimen taken in
January, 183 1, in Swansea Bay, was red, becoming pale orange on
the belly; the body ornamented with bluish-green oval spots; the
fins and tail green, with a few red spots ; the dorsal fin had spots
along the base only. (See Yarrell.) The specimen which came
Fig. 1744. — The Ballan Wrasse.
under our notice (see " Zool. Proceeds.," Dec, 1830, p. 17) was
marked with orange, as described, on a deep rich blue. Specimens
may be seen in the collection of the British Museum.
Sub-order IV.— Acanthoptera.
General Characters. — This sub-order includes those of the
Acaiithopterygii, or Spiny-finned Fishes of Cuvier, which have the
inferior pharyngeal bones distinctly separated. The rays of the first
dorsal fin are always spinous ; and the first rays of the remaining
fins (with the exception of the caudal) are often of the same structure.
The membranous portion of the first dorsal fin is sometimes wholly
or partially deficient, when the spinous rays stand freely on the back,
and constitute formidable defensive weapons. The ventral fins are
almost always situated in the neighbourhood of the pectorals, on the
breast or throat ; the bones, forming the upper jaw, are free and
movable ; and the air-bladder, when present, is completely closed.
Sub-divisions. — The number of Fishes belonging to this sub-
order, which may be regarded as the most typical of the class, is
exceedingly great — more so, perhaps, than in any other of the
equivalent groups ; the families, also, as might be expected, are
rather numerous, and present a considerable diversity of structure.
The first of these is rendered remarkable by the form assumed by
the heads of the Fishes composing it — the bones of the face, and
some of those of the head, being drawn out into a longish tube, at
the extremity of which is the opening of the mouth, which is very
small, and composed of the usual maxillary and mandibular bones
(Fig. 1745.) Hence the names of Sea Snipes, Trumpet Fishes,
Bellows Fishes, &c., applied to these Animals; and the scientific
name of the family, AulosiomidcB, also refers to the same peculiarity
of structure. The skin is sometimes naked, and sometimes clothed
with small ctenoid scales ; and in one genus {Amjihisyle) the back
is covered with large scaly plates.
In one genus, the spiny fin-rays are entirely wanting, and the
ventral fins are always placed upon the belly, indicating a certain
approach to the Physostoma. The first dorsal fin is sometimes re-
presented only by a series of small spines, running along the back
of the Animal ; and the second soft dorsal is placed far back, close
to the tail; in other cases (Fig. 1745), the first ray of the dorsal Is
Fig. 1745.— The Sea Snipe.
produced into a long spine, which is generally placed on the back of
the Animal ; but in the genus Amphisyle, already referred to, this
spine forms the actual hinder extremity of the Animal, projecting
backwards in the same line as the axis of the body, and havino- the
second dorsal and the true caudal fin in front of it, on the lower sur-
face of the Fish.
These Fishes are, for the most part, inhabitants of the seas of
wnrm climates. The species (Fig. 1745), Ccntriscus scolopax, is
found in the Mediterranean, the most northern locality regularly in-
habited by any Fish of this family, although a single specimen has
been cast ashore on the coast of Cornwall. It is about four or five
inches long, reddish on the back and sides, and silvery on the belly,
THE PERCHES.
?03
with more or less of a ffolden tinge. In others, principally inhabit-
ing the eastern seas, the body is elongated and cylindrical ; one of
these, the Tobacco-pipe Fish {Fistularia tabacaria), attains a
length of three feet. ■
The second family of spiny-finned Fishes, the TrigUdcv, or Cafa-
Mracta, is characterised by having tlie series of dermal bones,
which occupy the lower portion of the orbit (the itifra-orbitals)
greatly expanded and coalescent, forming bony plates which cover
the cheeks, and articulate with the pre-operculum. The head is
also usually more or less armed with spines and other angular pro-
minences, or furnished with membranous appendages, which not un-
frequently give these Fishes a most singular appearance. The fins
are generally greatly developed ; the dorsal is sometimes separated
into'two distinct fins, and sometimes forms a single continuous fin,
of which the anterior portion is spinous, the posterior soft. In some
cases, as in the Common Sticklebacks {Gasterosteus), the mem-
branous portion of the first or spinous dorsal is wanting, and the
rays form a more or less numerous series of acute spines on the back
of the Fish. The pectoral fins are always of large size, sometimes
remarkably developed, as in the genus Dactyloptera (Fig. 1746),
Fig. 1746. — Dactyloptera Mediterranea.
where they attain such a length as to enable the animal to support
itself in the air for a short time. Hence these Fishes are commonly
known z.s flying fisli ; one species is common in the Mediterranean.
In the common Gurnards (Trigld), which we so often see in the
fishmongers' shops, the pectoral fins are also of considerable size ;
the three first rays of each are destitute of membrane, and separated
from the rest of the fin, so as to form cirri or tentacles. The ventral
fins are usually of small or moderate size, and placed on the breast
beneath the pectorals ; in the Sticklebacks, they are replaced by a
single strong spine on each side, which constitutes a powerful offen-
sive weapon for these pugnacious little creatures.
The skin is rarely naked — usually covered with small ctenoid
scales. In the Sticklebacks, and some other genera, the scales are
replaced by bony plates (Fig. 1748). The majority of these Fishes
are inhabitants of the sea ; only a few species of the genera Gas-
terosteus, or Sticklebacks, and Cottus, or Bull-heads, being found
in fresh water. The best known species are the Gurnards [TriglcB),
of which several species are taken round the British coasts. Of
these the commonest is the Sapphirine Gurnard [T. hiruado), which
may often be seen in the shops, with its broad pectoral fins skewered
in a most ludicrous manner over its large angular head. It is the
largest of the British species, occasionally measuring two feet in
length, and its flesh is considered to be very good. The Gurnards
generally inhabit deep water, from which they are taken by the
trawl net ; they may also be caught by line-fishing. The Bull-heads
[Cottus), of which several species inhabit the European seas, and
one of which is found commonly in our fresh waters, are remarkable
for the large size of their heads, which are frequently armed with
spines in a most formidable manner. A nearly allied species, the
Aspidophoriis Em-opaus (Fig. 1747), is {Scorjxeitce), and some
allied genera, perhaps present the most singular appearance of any
Fishes, their heads being not only armed with spines and angular
projections of the most remarkable foim, but also frequently fur-
nished with curious membranous lobes and filaments.
Fig. 1747. — The armed Bull-head.
The Sticklebacks {Gasterostais). — The most interesting species
of this family, as regards their habits, are the Sticklebacks, of whi( li
several are found abundantly in our fresh waters. They are small
Fishes, measuring from two to three inches in length. The sides
are more or less covered with bony plates ; and those parts of the
skin which are not thus protected, are quite free from scales. These
little creatures present almost the only known instance amongst
Fishes in which the parents take any further care of their offspring-
than that of depositing their ova in a suitable place, the young fry
being usually left to shift for themselves as soon as they are excluded.
The Stickleback, on the contrary, seems to approach the Birds in
the attention which it pays to the protection of its young from danger.
About the time of oviposition, the male takes possession of some
particular spot in the pond which he inhabits, and this he defends
with the greatest pertinacity, attacking all intruders on his domain
with great fury, and endeavouring to wound them with the ventral
spines. According to an observer, quoted by Mr. Yarrcll, he even
sometimes succeeds in ripping up and destroying' his opponent by
means of these formidable weapons. The object of all tins exertion
soon becomes apparent ; the Fish begins to collect small fragments
of vegetable matter, with which he forms a sort of nest. In this the
female deposits her spawn ; and it seems not improbable, that during
the operation of nest-building, the male Fish endues the materials of
his nest with the milt, as he is observed to pass frequently over the
nest whilst in progress, apparently exuding a glutinous matter at
each time of so doing. Be this as it may, after the deposition of the
ova, the male still keeps watch over his treasure, attacking all in-
truders with the same ferocity as before. Nor does his care cease
when the young fry are evolved : he still continues to watch, and
carries back any incautious straggler to the security of the nest. It
is very singular that, in every case, it is the male that takes upon
himself all the duties of nidification.
The Gasierosteus spinachia, or Fifteen-spined Stickleback, a
marine species which is not uncommon round our coasts, also forms
a nest for its ova. The Common Stickleback {G. trachurus), which
has three spines on- the back, and bony plates along the whole
length of its sides, is found both in salt and fresh water. It is found
in the sluggish streams and pools of the Lincolnshire fens, in such
vast quantities that it is occasionally employed as manure. Mr.
Yarrell gives the following account of the habits of the Fifteen-
spined Stickleback, as supplied by Mr. Couch. " It keeps near
rocks and stones covered with seaweeds, among which it lakes refuge
upon any alarm. Though less active than its brethren of the fresh water,
it is scarcely less rapacious. On one occasion I noticed a specimen
six inches in length engaged in taking its prey from a clump of ore-
weed, during which it assumed every posture from the horizontal
and perpendicular, with its head downward or upward, thrusting its
snout into the crevices of the stems, and seizing its prey with a
spring. Having taken this fish with a net, and transferred it to a
vessel of water in company with an Eel three inches in length, it was
not long before the latter was attacked, and devoured head foremost ;
not indeed altogether, for the Eel -ft'as too large a morsel to be
Fig. 1748. — The Fifteen spined Stickleback.
managed, so that the tail remained hanging out of the mouth ; and
it was obliged at last to disgorge the eel partly digested. It also
seized from the surface a moth that fell on the water, but threw up
the wings. The effect of the passions on the colour of the skin of
this species is remarkable ; and the specimen now spoken of, under
the influence of terror, from a dark olive with golden sides, changed
to pale for eighteen hours, when it as suddenly regained its former
tints. It spawns in spring, and the young, not half an inch in length,
are seen in considerable numbers at the margin of the sea in summer. "
(See Fig. 1748.)
The Perches— Family Percidce.
The vast family of the Perches, or Percfda-, of which the Common
Perch may be taken as the type, is distinguished from the preceding
by the freedom and small size of the infra-orbital bones in the Fishes
of which it is composed. The mouth is large, and jaws, vomer, and
palatine bones are armed \\'ith numerous small teeth, amongst which,
a few longer fangs are often present. The head is generally free
from those angles and spines, which give so many of the Catapliracta
704
THE PERCHES.
such a remarkable appearance ; but the edges of the opercula and
pre-opercula are usually toothed, or even armed with spines ; and if
either of these bones be smooth at the margin, the other is always
toothed. The fins are well developed ; the dorsal fin is sometimes
continuous (Fig. 1749, the Japan Perch), sometimes divided into
two parts ; the ventrals are placed either on the breast or throat.
The skin is clothed with ctenoid scales, the free surface of which is
often beset with spiny processes. The branchiostegous rays are
generally seven in number ; sometimes more, but very rarely
fewer.
Fig. 1749. — Priacanthus japonicus.
The PercidcB are generally handsome Fishes, often of consider-
able size, and have beautiful colours. They abound in the seas of
most parts of the world, but some species only live in fresh
water.
Fig. 1750.— The Perch.
The Common Perch {Percafluviatms Fig. 1750).— This is the
best known species of the family, and is a very common denizen of
almost every piece of clear fresh water. It is one of the best and
handsomest of our fresh-water Fishes. Its body is broad and
compressed ; the back has two dorsal fins, of which the anterior is
supported upon stiff, sharp, spinous rays, which are said to serve as
a defence even against the voracity of the Pike. The colour of the
upper part of the body is greenish-brown, gradually passino- to a
golden yellowish-white on the belly ; and the sides are adorne°d with
from five to seven broad blackish bands ; the dorsal and pectoral fins
are brownish, and the ventral, anal, and caudal fins of a brjc^ht Ver-
million colour, which adds great liveliness to the appearanc? of the
irisn. Ihe Perch does not usually attain a large size, one of three
or four pounds being considered a heavy Fish ; but a few instances
of the capture of Perch twice this weight are on record ; and Pennant
mentions his having heard of a specimen, taken in the Serpentine,
which weighed nine pounds.
Mr. Yarrell gives many instances of enormous Perch, having been
taken in different places, varying from five to nine pounds in weight.
The flesh of the Perch is firm, white, and of good flavour. The
spawning time is at the end of April or beginning of May. The roe
of a small Perch, only half a pound in weight, has been found to
contain 280,000 eggs. The form and colours of the Perch are too
well known to need description. We may observe, however, that
there are two external openings to each nostril, surrounded by the
orifices of numerous mucous ducts, from which oozes a secretion for
defending the skin from the action of the water. On this Mr. Yar-
rell remarks, " the distribution of the numerous orifices over the liead
is one of those beautiful and advantageous provisions of nature,
which are so often to be observed and admired. Whether the fish
inhabits the stream or the lake, the current of water in one instance,
or progression through it in the other, carries this defensive secre-
tion backwards and spreads it over the whole surface of the body.
In fishes with small scales this defensive secretion is more abundant
in proportion ; and in those species which have the body elongated,
as the eels, the mucous orifices may be observed along the whole
length of the lateral line."
As the Perch bites freely, it is much sought after, especially by
young anglers. Like the other species of the family, it is an
exceedingly voracious Fish, feeding indiscriminately upon any
animal it can master, especially Worms, Insects, and small Fishes.
It is very tenacious of life, and will live for a considerable time out
of the water. Mr. Yarrell states, that in Catholic countries, it is a
common practice to bring the Perch to market alive, when, if not
sold, they are returned to the ponds
from which they were taken, to remain
there until they are again wanted.
Another fresh-water species, the Sander
{Lucioperca sandra), is common in
Germany and the east of Europe. It is
of a much more elongated form than
the Perch, and attains a length of three
or four feet ; its flesh is considered ex-
cellent. A small species, nearly resem-
bling the Perch in its general form, but
having a continuous dorsal fin, is
found in almost all the rii'ers of this
country. This is the Ruffe {Aceriiia
vulgaris) ; it rarely exceeds seven or
eiglit inches in length, but its flesh is
said to be very good.
Of the marine species, very few are
found in the British seas. The best
known of these is the Basse (Labrax
lupus), sometimes called the Sea Perch.
Tiie Basse is exceedingly abundant in
the Mediterranean, which is also inha-
bited by several other Fishes of this
family, some of them of large size. The
following is a more particular description
of this Fish : —
The Basse {Labrax lupus ; Perca
labrax, Linn.) — In its generic charac-
ters, Labrax closely approximates to
Perca ; the cheeks, praeoperculum and
operculum are covered with scales ; the
praeoperculum is notched below, and
serrated posteriorly; the operculum
ends in two points directed backwards ;
the tongue is covered with small teeth.
This Basse may be regarded as a
Marine Perch, and was known to the
Greeks by the name of Labrax (Xa/lpaK),
from Labros (Xa/3pof), voracious; the
Romans, from its disposition, called
it Lupus, or Wolf. It was caught abun-
,, , . dantly in the Mediterranean, and highly
esteemed for the table. It is found along the whole line of our
southern coast, and in St. George's and the Bristol Channel It
also frequents the eastern shore of the Irish coast. The Basse
associates in shoals, which, at the spawning time, frequent the
mouths of rivers, or even advance up the stream to a considerable
distance ; indeed, as has been proved by Mr. Arnold, this Fish will
not only live, but thrive m fresh water altogether, the flesh acquiring a
superior flavour. This Fish generally measures from twelve to
f '^:f,'^en 'nches in length, but is often caught much larger, and
NVillughby states that individuals have been captured of the weight
of fifteen pounds. Its food consists of small Fishes and various
Crustaceans ; and, as it takes the bait freely, it may be captured
with the rod and hue. Ihe net is most generally employed.
THE PERCHES, MULLETS, &>c.
70s
iu its form this Fish is more elongated than the Perch. The
nostrils have two orifices ; the mucous pores are numerous. The
~al colour of the back is dusky blue, passmg on the under-
^arts tnto silvery white ; the fins are brown ; the indcs silvery ; the
scales are moderate, and adhere firmly. (See Fig. 1751).
We have separated from the Pcrcidca of Professor MuUer the
three following small families, as they appear to possess characters
of ■sufficient value to justify such a proceeding.
7^ Trachuudcv,^^^o^vn in England as the tVcevcrs have two
dorsal fins, of which the anterior is small, but very strongly spinous ;
fhe ventm fins are situated in front of the pectorals on the throat;
and insead of thorough ctenoid scales of the True Perches the
skin IS covered with smooth cycloid scales. They are generally of
an elongated form, with a broad head, on which the eyes are p aced
fn such a manner as to look more or less upwards; in fact, one
eenus has received the name of Um,wscoJ>us, or Star-gazer, from
• ^iTs circumstance. The second dorsal and anal fins are of nearly
equal length, and occupy the greater part of the upper and lower
surfaces of the body ; the anus is thrown very far forwards. They
have no air-bladder.
Fig. 1751. — Head of the Basse,
The strong spines, with which the first dorsal fin and the opercula
of these Fishes are armed, enable them to inflict severe wounds
upon those who handle them incautiously ; and the effects of these
wounds are so exceedingly painful, that there is a general belief
amongst the fishermen that the species possesses some venomous
property. Two species are found in the British seas ; the largest of
which, the TracJihiiis draco, attains a length of twelve or eighteen
inches. They appear to prefer deep water, and are very voracious
in their habit.^i. They live for a considerable time after being taken
out of the water ; and the flesh — at least, that of the larger species —
is highly esteemed.
A second small family, which is still included with the Percidcshy
many authors, is composed of the Mullets {Mnilidcs). They agree
with the Perches in the position of their fins ; but the opercular
bones are entirely unarmed, and the branchiostegal membrane has
only four rays. The scales are very large, and readily fall off ;
their hinder margins have scarcely any indications of the ctenoid
structure. In most of the species the under jaw is furnished with
cirri.
A well-known example of this group is the Common Red Mullet
{Mulitts surmulletus), which is often taken in considerable num-
bers off the British coasts. The Mullet, although comparatively a
small Fish, is in high esteem ; its flesh is white, firm, well-flavoured,
and easy of digestion. Amongst the epicures of ancient Rome, its
reputation stood very high ; and large sums were often paid by
them for particularly fine Fish. Thus, a Mullet of six pounds is
said to have produced a sum equal to ;^48 sterling ; and a larger
one as much as ^64 ; whilst no less than ;^240 were given for three
large Mullets, which were procured on the same occasion, for a
repast of more than usual magnificence, according to Yarrell. The
Romans also kept Mullets in glass vases ; but these appear to have
been specimens of the smaller species, the MiiUiis harbatus (Fig.
1707 ante), which is of a still more beautiful colour than the Common
Mullet of our shops. Both species are abundant in the Mediterra-
nean, and occur also in the British seas, although here the AT
barbatus is far from being common.
The third of these groups, which were referred by MuUcr and
Cuvier to the Perches, is the family of Sphyrcr7tidcr, of which a few
species are found in the Mediterranean, although the greater num-
ber live in the seas of Tropical climates. The Fishes of this family
are of an elongated form, somewhat resembling the Pikes [Esocidcv],
with which Linnaius placed those species that he was acquainted
with : in the form of the head and jaws, and the formidable nature
of the teeth, they also somewhat remind one of those soft-finned
Fishes. They are, however, furnished with two dorsal fins, separated
by a considerable interval, of which the anterior is strongly spinous ;
and the air-bladder is completely closed. They differ from the
PercidcB in having the ventral fins placed on the belly, at a con-
siderable distance behind the pectorals ; the margins of the opercula
and pre-opercula perfectly smooth ; and the scales, which cover not
only the body, but also the sides of the head, of the description
called cycloid.
The SphyrcsnidcB are all exceedingly predaceous Fishes, and
some of them attain a considerable size. The best known species,
the Sphyrcena vulgaris, which appears to be tolerably common in
the Mediterranean, often measures as much as three feet in length,
and is a handsome, silvery Fish, with a bronzed or bluish back.
It is said that the fluid called " essence d' orient," used in the manu-
facture of artificial pearls, is prepared from the scales of this tish,
too-ether with the minute silvery particles of its air-bladder. A
sp1;cies inhabiting the seas of Tropical America, the S. barracuda,
grows to a much larger size, and is almost as much dreaded as the
Shark, by the inhabitants of those countries. Its flesh is said to be
exceedingly good, and not unlike that of the Pike ; it is eaten both
salted and fresh. At certain times, however, it is found to be un-
wholesome ; and this quality is said to be derived from its feeding at
those periods upon the fruit of the manchineel-tree, although this
appears to be exceedingly improbable. The symptoms produced by
eating it, when thus out of condition, are sickness, nausea, and
violent pains in the joints ; the latter are said to have lasted for
twenty-five years, accompanied by a loss of hair and of the nails. It
is asserted that the poisonous individuals may be recognised by the
bitterness of the liver, and by the flowing of a white fluid from them
when cut; when salted, they are said to lose their injurious pro-
perties. . .
The Scicenidcs are also neariy allied to the Perches, with which
they agree in the arrangement of their fins, and in having the
opercula and pre-opercula dentated; but the vomer and palatine
bones, which, in the Percidce, are always armed with teeth, are
toothless in these Fishes. Some of the bones of the head are inflated
and cavernous, giving a more or less convex appearance to the
forehead ; the mouth is large, and the jaws are usually armed with
powerful fangs, interspersed amongst the smaller teeth. '1 he body
is always covered with ctenoid scales, which, as in the Sphynxnida:,
frequently extend over the head. The air-bladder is of very singular
construction ; it is completely closed, and furnished with numerous
ccecal appendages, which are often branched, and sometimes
surround it in such a manner as to give it the appearance of a fringed
bag. This peculiar form of the air-bladder is very striking in the
Maigre {Scicena aqiiild), as figured by Cuvier and Valenciennes,
and by Mr. Yarrell.
The ScicenidcB are large and powerful rapacious Fishes. The
species just referred to is common in the Mediterranean, and occurs
occasionally on our own coasts, where specimens upwards of five
feet in length have been taken. In the Mediterranean, it often
grows to six feet. Its flesh is considered pretty good, and was in
great repute with the Roman epicures.
The Maigres swim in small shoals, uttering a peculiar grunting
noise, which is said to be audible even when the Fishes are at a con-
siderable depth. When taken, their strength often renders their
struggles very inconvenient in the boats, as they are said to be
capable of knocking over their captors. To avoid such a disagree-
able interruption to their labours, the fishermen usually knock them
on the head as soon as they are got into the boat. The bones of the
ear in the Sciconidai, are usually larger than in most other Fishes,
and, in former days, extraordinary properties were attributed to them ;
they were said to prevent and cure the colic, and for this reason were
often honoured with a gold setting, and suspended from the neck.
It was necessary, however, that the colic-sto72e, as it was called,
should have been presented to the wearer, otherwise it was of no
efiScacy. Numerous species of this family inhabit the seas of the
warmer regions, and many of them furnish excellent food.
The Sparidw, in their general form, and in their toothless palates,
present a great similarity to the Fishes of the preceding family ;
but the bones of their opercula are not toothed or spinous, and the
forehead does not exhibit the inflated appearance characteristic of
the Sa'anidcc. The ctenoid structure of the scales is very indistinct
in this family ; the scales, as in the preceding family, cover the sides
of the head, but never extend over any portion of the fins. The body
is usually broad and much compressed, with a single long dorsal fin,
of which the anterior portion is supported upon strong spinous rays;
the ventral fins are placed on the breast, under the pectorals. The
1 teeth are sometimes in the form of acute fangs, of which some are
4X
7o5
THE MACKEREL FAMILY.
often of considerable size ; whilst, in other species, they are broad
and rounded, constitutinga powerful grinding apparatus, with which
the Fishes, thus provided, crush the hard shells of the MoHusca, on
which they principally feed.
The SparidcB are all inhabitants of the sea, and most of them are
found in warm climates, although the Mediterranean possesses
several species ; and a few are not unknown on our own coasts.
They are divisible into two groups, which, in fact, were regarded as
distinct families by Cuvier. In one of these groups (the Mccnides)
the mouth is protrusible, the pedicles of tlie intermaxillary bones
being very long, so as to give the upper jaw a considerable power
of motion. Some species are very abundant in the Mediterranean ;
but their flesh is very little esteemed. A West Indian species
{Gerrcs rhombeus) is said occasionally to find its way to the coast
Fig. 1752. — The Braize or Becker.
of Cornwall, accompanying pieces of wood covered with barnacles,
which are conveyed across the ocean by the currents.
In the other group (the True Sparides), the upper jaw is firmly
attached to the head, and not protrusible ; of these, several species
are occasionally taken off the British coasts. Some of them attain
a length of upwards of two feet ; and several are highly prized as
food in the countries bordering the Mediterranean, as the Braize or
Becker [Pagriis vulgaris, or Sparies pagrtis. See Fig. 1752),
where they occur in great abundance. They appear to be voracious
Fishes, feeding on Mollnsca, Crustacea, and small Fishes ; but
some of them vary this diet by devouring sea-weeds, which they
tear from the rocks.
The great family of the Chcstodo?iiidcs is distinguished from the
preceding groups by the exceedingly compressed form of the body,
and by the singular manner in which the soft parts of the perpendi-
cular fins are clothed with scales, often to such an extent that the
boundary between the body and fin is quite undiscoverable (Fig. 1753).
The Fishes of this family are generally of a discoid form, like many
of the common Flat Fishes, but the eyes are placed on each side of
the head ; both sides of the body are similarly coloured, and the
Fishes swim upright in the water. The mouth is usually small, and
furnished with bristle-like teeth ; in a few species it is larger, and
F'S- '753 — Hcniochus moiwcerns.
armed with cutting teeth, or fangs. The whole body, including the
sides of the head, and the base of the median fins, are covered with
ctenoid scales ; the dorsal fin is single, with a few, usually short,
spinous rays at its anterior part. The first soft rays of the dorsal
and anal fins are sometimes produced into long filaments, or the fins
themselves are very long, and pointed anteriorly, gradually de-
creasing in depth towards the hinder part of the body, so that the
whole Fish assumes the form of a crescent, with the tail projecting
from the centre of the concavity. The ventral fins are placed under
the pectorals.
The Chatodontida: are generally of small or moderate size, and
most of them are inhabitants of the Tropical seas. They are re-
markable for the exceedingly magnificent colours with which they
are generally adorned, and which are rendered still more pleasing to
the eye, by the broad black bands which, in most cases, traverse the
body from the dorsal to the ventral margin. One of these bands
generally passes down the region of the eye.
The flesh of these Fishes is said to be exceedingly delicate and
well flavoured. Only a single species (the Brama rati) inhabits
the British seas, where it is, by no means, common ; although in
the Mediterranean, it occurs in great abundance. It is said occa-
sionally to measure two feet six inches in length ; but the largest
specimen seen by Mr. Yarrell did not exceed sixteen .inches. Its
flesh is highly esteemed. A singular species, the Chehnon ros-
trafus, inhabiting the Chinese seas, has the jaws very much pro-
longed, forming a sort of beak, but so inclosed in the skin, that only
a small opening is left at its extremity for the mouth. This Fish is
said to exhibit a very curious instinct ; it projects a drop of water
from its mouth at any insect that it perceives within reach of such a
missile, so as to bring it down into the water, where, of course, it
falls an easy prey to its dexterous assailant. The Chinese keep
these Fishes in basins, and amuse themselves by watching their
efforts to bring down a fly, suspended over them by a thread. A
Javanese species, the Toxotes jaciilator, which has a wide mouth,
with the lower jaw considerably prolonged, exhibits the same pecu-
liar instinct ; it is said to throw the water to a height of three or four
feet, and rarely to miss its aim.
The family Tcuthidce includes a small number of Fishes, w'hich are
all inhabitants of the seas of hot climates, and which are remarkable
for having the sides of the tail armed, either with several sharp
prickles, or with a large curved spine (Fig. 1754). They are of a
broad compressed form, with a single dorsal fin, in front of which
Fig. 1754. — The Surgeon Fish.
there is often a free spine. The body is covered with ctenoid scales,
which, however, do not extend over any part of the fins ; and the
jaws are furnished with a single series of cutting teeth.
The Teuthidoi are Herbivorous Fishes, feeding upon sea-weeds.
The species with spinous tails, if incautiously handled, inflict severe
wounds upon their captors ; and the common West Indian species
{Acanthiirus chirurgus) has received the name of the surgeon,
from this circumstance.
The next four families were included by Cuvier in a single group.
They are all composed of active Fishes, with powerful fins and
smooth bodies, usually covered with small scales, which are often
concealed in the skin ; the opercula are unarmed. The pyloric coeca
are numerous.
The Mackerels — Family Scombcridce.
In the great family of the Scomberidce, or Mackerels, many of
which are of such great importance as food, the skin is sometimes
quite naked, occasionally more or less clothed with cycloid scales ;
and the tail, which is slender, and furnished with a powerful, usually
forked, fin, is almost always marked with scaly ridges. The Fishes of
this family have sometimes one, and even two dorsal fins ; in some
cases the spinous rays of the first dorsal are very short, and desti-
tute of membrane ; in others, the fin is well developed, and the rays
are furnished with long filamentous appendages (Fig. 1755). The
second dorsal, and the anal, also exhibit a considerable diversity of
structure ; the spinous portion of the anal fin is frequently separated
from the soft part ; and the latter, both in the anal and second
dorsal, may either form an entire fin, or give rise to a series of
TTTE MACKEREL FAMILY.
707
small fins, runninq: alonff tlic upper and lower surfaces of the tail— a
structure which is readily seen in the Common Mackerel. Ihe
teeth are generally confined to the jaws ; they are almost always
acute and often of large size.
The Fishes of this family are all marine, and usually prcdaceous
in their habits. In the form of their bodies, they present two dis-
tinct types, which might perhaps be regarded as sufficient for their
division into two families. In one, the Zem'dcs, the body is short,
broad, and compressed, presenting a great resemblance in form to
the Chatodontidcc, with which these Fishes also agree in the consi-
derable development of the perpendicular fins, that are often fur-
nished with filamentous processes. The mouth is usually protrusible,
and the teeth small and weak.
Of this group, the commonest species is the Doree, or John iJory
iZcusfabcr, Fig. 1756), which is taken abundantly on our southern
coasts, and was regarded by the epicure Quin as such a dehcacy.
Mr.
' that
round whitish spots ; the fins are of a fine vermilion colour.
Yarrell tells, that a person, looking at a specimen, observed,^
it looked like one of Neptune's lords dressed for a court day."
The second division of the family, the Scombcrtdcs, includes a
great number of exceedingly valuable Fishes, which present more
or less resemblance to the' Common Mackerel. The body, instead
of being compressed, is elongated and spindle-shaped, or occa-
sionally almost cylindrical ; the mouth is large, not protrusible, and
frequently armed with large teeth. The type of this section is the
Common Mackerel.
The Mackerel {Scomber sconibrus). — This beautiful Fish re-
splendent in green and silver barred with a dusky tint, is well known
for its excellence as an article of food, prized alike at the table of
the wealthy and of the humble. (See Fig. 1757.)
The Mackerel approaches the coast in large shoals, and it was
FiS- I755-— The Blephaiis.
that it was worth the trouble of a journey from Bath to Plymouth,
then by coach, and back again, in order to eat Doree boiled in sea-
water. The origin of the English name of this Fish has frequently
exercised the ingenuity of zoological etymologists ; but the most
rational derivation appears to be from the French doree, or jaune
doree, which refers to the golden-yellow colour of the Fish when
fresh. Roman Catholic legends point to it as the Fish from which
St. Peter took the tribute-money ; the black marks on its sides being
ascribed to the pressure of the Apostle's fingers. Hence it is known
in several countries of Europe as SL Peter's Fish; although the
Haddock, which also exhibits a blackish mark on each side of the
body, is considered by many to dispute its title to this honour. The
Doree attains a weight of ten or twelve pounds ; but the ordinary
weight of those brought to the London market, is between four and
six pounds.
Two other species of this section of the family are occasionally
taken in the British seas, although they are apparently rare. One
of these, the Opah, or King-fish \Lamj>ris guttains), appears'to be
Fig. 1756.— The Doree.
distributed over nearly the whole globe, as, according to Mr. Yarrell,
it has not only been taken in the European seas, but is also said to
occur on tlie west coast of Africa, and appears to be well known
both in China and Japan. In the latter empire the Opah was
sacred to the Japanese Neptune. It is a magnificent Fish ; the
back and sides are of a fine green, with purple and gold reflections,
fading into yellowish-green on the belly, aud covered with numerous
Fig. 1757. — ^The Mackerel.
formerly considered that its annual movements were from northern
to southern latitudes, and from southern to northern ; but it
is to be met with in our own seas at all seasons of the year,
though in the winter they are not found in great numbers);
and the situation of those parts of the coast where they make
their first appearance disproves the fact of their migrating only in a
southern direction when the season has become more genial, as they
frequently appear on a southern part of the coast before they have
visited its northern limits. On the Cornish coast, which they often
visit so early as the month of March, the course of the shoals seems
to be from west to east. When the fishermen commence very early
in the year, they have to proceed a considerable distance out to sea,
as the Fish do not approach the coast until a more advanced period.
May and June are the busiest months for Mackerel fishing. In the
latter month they spawn, the female roe containing above half a million
ova. The process of depositing spawn takes place earlier on a sandy
and shallow shore than on a rugged coast, the former being also
more favourable to vivification. Previous to winter, the young retire to
deep water. The Mackerel maybe considered as frequenting nearly
every part of the coasts of the United Kingdom, but it is most abundant
on the southern portion of Great Britain, on the coasts of Sussex,
Kent, Hampshire, and the western counties, and on those of Suffolk
and Norfolk. They do not make their appearance on the Scotch
coast until late in the summer. Whatever may be the fact as to
their migration to the Arctic seas, the following statement, taken
from the " Edinburgh Journal of Science," shows that they are
found in those latitudes under singular circumstances : — " Admiral
Pleville-Lepley, who had had his home on the ocean for half a cen-
tury, assured M. Lacepede, that in Greenland, in the smaller bays
surrounded with rock, so common on this coast, where the water is
always calm, and the bottom generally soft mud and juice, he had
seen, in the beginning of spring, myriads of mackerel, with their
heads sunk some inches in the mud, their tails elevated verti-
cally above its level ; and that this mass of fish was such, that at a
distance it might be taken for a reef of rocks. The admiral sup-
posed that the mackerel had passed the winter torpid under the ice
and snow ; and added, that for fifteen or twenty days after their
arrival, these fishes were affected with a kind of blindness, and that
then many were taken with the net ; but as they recovered their
sight, the net would not answer, and hooks and lines were used."_
The Mackerel fishery is, perhaps, the liveliest, if not the most in-
teresting, of any which are carried on in the British Islands. The
flesh of the Mackerel being very tender, the greatest despatch is
used in conveying it to market, another incentive to exertion being
the high price obtained for those Fish which first arrive. The boats
are frequently putting off and returning to the shore, the cargoes
being conveyed by railway to the metropolis; or, from some parts of
the coast, by vessels towed by a steam-tug. A light gale, which
gently ripples the surface of the water, and is called a Mackerel
gale, is most favourable to the fisherman, who chiefly follows his
employment during the night. There are tliree modes of fishing, —
with drift-nets, with scans, and with the line. By the latter mode a
couple of men will take from 500 to 1,000 Fish in one day, if the
weather be favourable. The Frc'nch boats frequently go out with si^i
7o8
THE MACKEREL FAMILY.
or eight people on board, all of whom fish with the line ; and some
of them are sufficiently adroit to pay attention to a couple of lines at
the same time. The Fish bite voraciously, and are taken with great
rapidity by a bait cut from its own kind, and made to resemble a
living Fish. They will seize, and may be taken by, a piece of scarlet
cloth or leather. The scan fishing requires two boats, and resembles
in some respects the same mode applied to the taking of Pilchards,
though on a smaller scale. The scan, however, is sometimes hauled
on shore. The drift-net fishing is the most common, and by this
mode a larger number of Fish can be taken than in any other way.
Mr. Yarrell's work contains the following minute account of the
drift-net fishing : — " The drift-net is twenty feet deep by one hun-
dred and twenty feet long, well corked at the top, but without lead
at the bottom. They are made of small fine twine, which is tanned
of a reddish-brown colour, to preserve it from the action of the sea-
water ; and it is thereby rendered much more durable. The size of
the mesh about two inches and a-half, or rather larger. Twelve,
fifteen, and sometimes eighteen of these nets are attached length-
ways, by tying along a thick rope, called the drift-rope, and, at the
ends of each net, to each other. When arranged for depositing in
the sea, a large buoy attached to the end of the drift-rope is thrown
overboard, the vessel is put before the wind, and, as she sails along,
the rope with the nets thus attached is passed over the stern into the
water till the whole of the nets are run out. The net thus deposited,
hangs suspended in the water perpendicularly twenty feet deep from
the drift-rope, and extending from three-quarters of a mile to a mile,
or even a mile and a-half, depending on the number of nets belonging
to the party or company engaged in fishing together. When the
whole of the nets are thus handed out, the drift-rope is shifted from
the stern to the bow of the vessel, and she rides by it as if at anchor.
The benefit gained by the boat's hanging at the end of the drift-
rope is, that the net is kept strained in a straight line, which with-
out this pull upon it would not be the case. The nets are shot in the
evening, and sometimes hauled once during the night ; at others
allowed to remain in the water all night. The fish roving in the dark
through the water hang in the meshes of the net, which are large
enough to admit them beyond the gill-covers and pectoral fins, but
not large enough to allow the thickest part of the body to pass
through. In the morning early, preparations are made for hauling
the nets. A capstan on the deck is manned, about which two turns
of the drift-rope are taken. One man stands forward to untie the
upper edge of each net from the drift-rope, which is called casting-
off the lashings ; others hand in the net with the fish caught, to
which one side of the vessel is devoted ; the other side is occupied
by the drift-rope, which is wound in by the men at the capstan."
The most active period of the fishery has already been stated. The
seasons fluctuate considerably, an abundant year being succeeded
by a scarce one : or several of the latter may occur together, and
afterwards may be compensated by successive years of plenty. On
some nights two or three thousand Fish will be caught by one boat,
and another not more than a mile distant may not take one hundred.
This uncertainty contributes to render the fishery a precarious source
of subsistence to those who can only embark capital in it on a small
scale, and cannot stand against the unforeseen reverses which may
occur in a short period, but are counterbalanced on an average of
years.
The boats employed are generally about thirty feet in the keel,
built of oak or ash, and copper-fastened. They possess great depth
of waist and breadth of beam, are noted for their durability, and
considered as fast and safe a class of boats as are to be found in the
fisheries on any coast of the United Kingdom. From Hastings to
Dungeness the beach and coast are bold and rocky, and the strength
of the boats is severely attested in attempting to " beach," besides
the frequent loss of life ; but latterly a different method has been
adopted of gammg the beach, by which this object is effected in a
more skilful and less dangerous manner.
The Tunny (Thyunus vulgaris) a Fish belonging to this family,
which IS very abundant in the Mediterranean, grows nearly to
twenty feet in length, and weighs sometimes as much as ten hun-
dredweight. (See Fig. 1758). Like the Mackerel, this large Fish
approaches the shores m large shoals for the purpose of spawning,
when It IS captured by means of a large net, called a mandrague.
This is composed of nets arranged
in a funnel-like form, so that the
Fish, entering the wide mouth,
are gradually led up to a narrow
prison, when they are destroyed by
spears and harpoons. Professor
Vogt, who has given a most ani-
mated description of the Tunny
fishery, states that these nets extend a quarter of a mile, and cost as
much as 30,000 francs. The flesh of the Tunny is highly prized by
the inhabitants of the countries bordering the Mediterranean, where
its capture has been an important object from the most remote
antiquity. Several allied species are also found in that sea ; amongst
which the most celebrated is the Bonito {Thyiinus jbelamys).
Fig. 175S.— The Tunny.
One of the most remarkable Fishes of this family is the Pilot-fish
{Naticrates diictor, see Fig. 1759), which receives its name from its
habit of accompanying ships for weeks together ; the ancients even
asserted that it pointed out the proper course to the mariner when
he was at a loss how to proceed, leaving him when he had arrived
in sight of the desired haven. It appears probable, however, that
the Pilot-fish only attends the voyager for the sake of the numerous
pieces of food which are constantly being thrown overboard ; and a
community of feeling in this respect may, perhaps, account for the
frequent association of the Pilot-fish and the Shark. It is, however, a
Fig. 1759.— The Pilot Fish.
general opinion amongst navigators that the Pilot-fish really attends
upon the Shark as a guide ; and an instance has been related, in
which two of them led a Shark to a baited hook that had been thrown
out for him. Another observer, however, quoted by Dr. Hamilton
Smith, in Gx\^\h'^A7timal Kingdom, states that he repeatedly saw
a Shark, which was inclined to swallow a bait put out for him, pre-
vented from doing so by one or other of four Pilot-fishes which accom-
panied him ; and that when at length the Shark had swallowed the
tempting morsal, and was being hauled out of the water, one of his
diminutive friends clung to his side for some little time. Colonel
Hamilton Smith also states that he had witnessed a similar circum-
stance. The Pilot-fish attains a length of about a foot. It is some-
what of the form of the Mackerel, of a silvery grey colour, bluish on
the back, and adorned with five dark-blue bands, which go round
the whole body. Its flesh is said to be very good.
Nearly allied to the Mackerels are the Sword-fishes {Xij>hiidcB),
which are rendered remarkable by the prolongation of the upper jaw
into a long, spear-like weapon. They are also characterised by the
structure of the branchia;, the laminae of each branchial arch being
united so as to form a band-like organ, in which the separation of
the lamina; is only indicated by superficial marks. This structure
occurs in no other Bony Fishes. In the form of the body they resem-
ble the Mackerels ; the spinous dorsal fin commences close to the
neck, where it is high and sickle-shaped, and runs thence nearly to
the tail, where it is followed by a small soft fin ; the anal fin exhibits
a very similar construction, although it is much shorter. The
ventral fins are wanting, or represented only by a pair of spinous
rays, situated on the throat ; the caudal is deeply forked, and the
sides of the tail have large ridges.
The Sword-fish [XiJ)hias gladius; Xijikias imperator,
Schn.) — This formidable Fish, which was well known to the ancients,
is a native of the Mediterranean, where it is common ; it does not,
however, confine itself to that sea, but passing through the Straits of
Gibraltar into the wide ocean, takes either a northward or a south-
ward course, seldom continuing its direction westward. It has been
found along the coast of Europe as far as the Baltic, and along that
of Africa to the Cape of Good Hope. Captain Beechy met with it
near Easter Island, in the Pacific. This species was first noticed in
our seas by Sibbald, and subsequently many naturalists have had
opportunities of examining specimens taken along the coast of Scot-
land. In 1834 a dead Sword-fish, ten feet long, was found on the
Essex coast; and Daniel, in his " Rural Sports," relates that "in
the Severn, near Worcester, a man bathing was struck and abso-
lutely received his death-wound from a sword-fish ; the fish was
caught immediately afterwards, so that the fact was ascertained
beyond a doubt." The Sword-fish attains to the length of twelve
and even fifteen feet, and is prodigiously active and powerful ; it is
said to go in pairs. Its food consists of Fish, Cuttle-fish, &c. It is
said to be a great enemy to the Tunny, a Fish of the Mediterranean
[Thyniiits vulgaris), celebrated for the excellence of its flesh, and
already described. Belon affirms that the shoals of Tunnies are as
much alarmed at the appearance of a Sword-fish, as a flock of Sheep
at the sight of a Wolf. It pursues them with great pertinacity, and
transfixes them with its spear. (See F'ig. 1760).
In that sea the fishery of this formidable species is regularly
practised by the fishermen of Sicily, Capri, and other places, for in
many places it is esteemed as an article of food, especially by the
Sicilians, who buy it up eagerly at any price at the commencement
of the season, which lasts from May to August. They cut it into
pieces, and salt it for future use. This process was in ancient
times particularly performed at the town of Thuri, in the bay of
Tarentum, whence the fish was called Tomus Thurianus. A
description of the ancient manner of taking this Fish has been left
THE SWORD-FISH.
709
us by Strabo, from which it appears that the process was nearly the
same as that now in use. A man mounts upon a cliff that overhangs
the sea ; and as soon as he discovers the Fisli, gives notice to a boat
in attendance of the course it has taken. A man in the boat tlien
mounts the mast, and on seeing the Sword-fish directs the rowers
towards it. As soon as they think themselves within reach, the man
on the mast descends, and, taking in his hand a harpoon, to which
a cord is attached, strikes it into the Fish, sometimes at a consider-
able distance. After being wearied with its agitations and attempts
to escape, as well as exhausted by its wound, the Fish is seized and
drawn into the boat. The operation has considerable resemblance
to the Whale fishery on a small scale. The superstitious Sicilian
fishermen have an unintelligible chant, which they regard as a most
essential part of their apparatus. Brydone thinks it is Greek : but
be that as it may, the fishermen are convinced of its efficacy as a
charm, its operation being to attract and detain the Fish near tlie
boat. There are certainly some Italian words in it, although it is
said that the men believe that the Fish would dive into the water
and be seen no more if it happened to hear a word of Italian.
The reported hostility of the Sword-fish to the Whale, which it
The captain of an East Indiaman sent to Sir Joseph Banks an ac-
count of an astonishing but not singular instance of the strength of
an individual of this broad-finned species ; the bottom of his ship
was pierced through by its sword in such a manner that it was com-
pletely imbedded, or driven llirough almost to its base— the Animal
having been killed with tlie violence of the shock. It is a fortunate
circumstance that the Fish is generally either killed or else perishes
from being unable to withdraw its weapon, for could it effect this
object, the vessel must inevitably founder in consequence of the leak ;
and indeed, instances are recorded in which some wooden vessels,
probably old, or a slight description, have been greatly endangered,
or even lost, in consequence of having been struck by a Sword-fish.
Pliny mentions the power of the Sword-fish to transfix vessels ;
and this was for a long time regarded as one of the exaggerated
statements which are so common in the works of the ancient natura-
lists. Dr. Shaw thinks that Pliny, not being acquainted with the
distinction of species, must have attributed to the Common Sword-
fish what is true only of another species ; but the operation seems to
be as often performed by the Common Fish as by that with the
broad fin. (See Fig. 1761.)
Fig. 1760.— The Sword-Fish.
attacks with fury, seems to have some foundation. Captain Crow
gives the following fact as having been witnessed by himself during
a voyage to Memel. " One morning, during a calm, when near the
Hebrides, all hands were called up at three A.M. to witness a battle
between several of the fish called thrashers or fox-sharks (Crtrc/^ar/aj
I'ulpcs), and some sword-fish on one side, and an enormous whale
on the other. It was in the middle of summer, and the weather
being clear, and the fish close to the vessel, we had a fine opportu-
nity of witnessing the contest. As soon as the whale's back
appeared above the water, the thrashers springing several yards
into the air, descended with great violence on the object of their
rancour, and inflicted upon him the most severe slaps with their long
tails, the sounds of which resembled the reports of muskets fired at
a distance.; The sword-fish in return attacked the distressed whale,
stabbing from below ; and thus beset on all sides and wounded,
when the poor creature appeared, the water around him was dyed
with blood. In this manner they continued tormenting and wound-
ing him for many hours, until we lost sight of him ; and I have no
doubt they, in the end, completed his destruction." It is a well
established fact that this species of Sword-fish, and .another of still
more gigantic size, found chiefly in the Indian and Brazilian seas,
Istiophorus platy^ferus [Xipktas ;platyptertis, Shaw), often drive
violently against vessels, mistaking them, as it is supposed, for
Whales.
In the CoryJ)hcc!2idcs the body is much compressed, with a broad
dorsal fin running along the whole of the back ; all the rays of this
fin are almost equally flexible, although those of the anterior portion,
are not articulated. The ventral fins are frequently wanting ; when
present, they are usually very small, and placed under the pectorals,
although sometimes situated on the throat. The abdominal cavity
is small, so that the anal opening is placed far forwards ; and the
anal fin usually occupies a considerable portion of the ventral sur-
face, sometimes extending forwards to the levels of the pectorals.
The dorsal and anal fins are generally very high ; and in one genus
{Ptcraclis) they attain such a development, as to make the lateral
surface of the whole Fish at least three times as great as that of the
body The tail-fin also is very large, and usually deeply forked.
The mouth is of moderate size, and armed with acute teeth. (See
Fig. 1762.)
The CoryphcBtiida are all inhabitants of the salt water, and gene-
rally occur only in the seas of warm climates. The only European
sea in which they are found is the IMediterranean, which possesses
several species. Amongst these the best known is the Dorado
{CoryphcBiia hippurus), sometimes called the Dolphin, a Fish
adorned with the most beautiful metallic tints, and which is also
remarkable for the swiftness of its course, and for the continual war
of destruction which it wages with the Flying-fish (See Fig. 1763.)
It attains a length of about five feet; the head is large; and the
,710
THE MULLET FA MIL Y.
body tapers gradually from this to the tail. The back is bluish, the I
belly yellow, and the whole surface spotted with a darker blue. In
the water, it presents a splendid golden lustre ; which, however,
rapidly vanishes when it is taken out of its native element.
It is the poet's
• Dolphin, whom each pang embues
With a new colour as it gasps away.
The last still loveliest, till 'tis gone and all is grey."
Eyron.
The fourth and last of the families, formed by modern authors at
the expense of the Cuverian Scombcroides, is that of the Notacdti-
thidcr, in which the body is much elongated, and more or less Eel-
like in form, and has its hinder extremity usually surrounded by the
same continuous fin that is characteristic of the Eels. The spinous
portion of the dorsal fin is destitute of membrane, so that the rays
Fig. 1761. — Tush of the Sword-fish driven into timbers of a ship,
form a scries of spines running along the back ; the second or
soft dorsal is frequently wanting altogether. A further point of re-
semblance to the Eels is presented by the pectoral fins, which are
attached to the spinal column at some distance behind the head ;
the ventral fins are sometimes wanting, and, when present, are
situated on the abdomen. The whole surface is covered with small
cycloid scales ; and the front of the upper jaw is usually produced
into a sort of beak. Most of the species of this family occur in the
Tropical regions ; but one, the Notacanthus 7iastcs, is found in the
Arctic Ocean. Some of them live in fresh water.
Fig. 1762.— The Ocellated Pteraclis.
In the exceedingly elongated form of their bodies, the Fishes of
the next family, the Ccpoltda, or Ribbon-fishes, present a consider-
able resemblance to the Notacanthidcc ; but their bodies are much
compressed, so as to acquire a ribbon-like form. The dorsal fin,
which always commences close to or upon the head, is completely fur-
nished witii membrane ; and the caudal, when present, is usually
quite distinct from the other perpendicular fins. The position of the
caudal fin in some of these Fishes is very peculiar ; instead of being
placed at the extremity of the body, as in most Fishes, it is set on at
a right angle, forming a fan-like organ, extending upwards from the
extremity of the tail. The ventral fins are sometimes altogether de-
ficient ; when present, they are placed under the pectorals, vary in
size, and occasionally are represented by one or more long spines.
The body is covered with very small scales.
These singular Fishes are all inhabitants of the sea ; some species
have been taken on our own coasts, although they are of rare occur-
rence. Several of them attain a considerable length ; the one here
figured, Gymnet>-us banksii (Fig. 1764), having been found as
much as twelve feet long. With this extraordinary length, its
greatest thickness was two inches and three-quarters. It is of a
beautiful silvery colour, with a few blackish streaks and spots.
Some of the species, although rarely met with, appear to have a very
wide geographical distribution ; LeJ>idoj>us argy?-cus, or Scabbard-
Fig. 1763. — The Dorado or Dolphin.
fish, is found on the English coasts, and at the Cape of Good Hope ;
and the Ti-ichiurus lepturus inhabits the seas of both America and
the Old World. Scarcely anything is known of the Fishes of this
family.
The family MugiHdcs, of which the Grey Mullet is a typical
example, includes only a few Fishes, with a more or less cylindrical
or spindle-shaped body, covered with large scales, which, although
in reality ctenoid in their structure, lose their denticulations so
easily, that they often appear to be cycloid. The head, which is
somewhat flattened above, is covered with similar scales, or with
polygonal plates ; the mouth is rather small, and furnished with ex-
cessively fine teeth, which are sometimes almost imperceptible. In
their appearance, these Fishes present a great resemblance to some
of the more elongated Cyp?-i?t!dcs, but are easily distinguishable
from these by the distinct, spinous, first dorsal fin, which is rarely
supported upon more than four rays, and is separated from the se-
Fig. 1764. — Cymndriis banksii.
cond dorsal by a considerable interval. The ventral fins are placed
on the abdomen a little behind the pectorals. The pharyngeal bones
are very large ; the stomach is furnished with a sort of fleshy gizzard ;
and the intestine with a few pyloric cceca.
The J\Iugilid(B generally inhabit salt water, keeping by preference
about the mouths of rivers, which they usually ascend and descend
with the flow and ebb of the tide. Our Common Grey Mullet [Mi/gil
capitd) is regarded as a very delicate Fish, and the county of Sussex
is especially celebrated for it. Two other species of Miigil are found
upon the British coasts, but they appear to be rare ; the Mediterranean
possesses five species. The following is a more particular descrip-
tion of the Common Grey IMulIet : —
The Grey Mullet {Mngil capito, Cuv.)— This species con-
founded by Linnaeus with the Mtigil cephahis, is an inhabitant, not
only of the Mediterranean, but also of the western shores of tem-
perate Europe. It is common along our southern coast, and that of
Essex, and is found also along many parts of the Irish coast ; it
occurs in the Baltic.
Mr. Couch, a gentleman who paid much attention to the habits of
Fish on the shores of Cornwall, communicated the following interest-
ing facts respecting the Grey Mullet to Mr. Yarrell : — " The fish
never goes to a great distance from land, but delights in shallow
water when the weather is warm and fine ; at which time it is seen
prowling near th.e margin in search of food, and imprinting a ripple
on the placid surface as it snatches beneath any oily substance that
may be swimming. It ventures to some distance up rivers, but
THE MULLETS.
7"
always returns with the tide. Carew, the Cornish historian, had a
pond of salt water, in which these fish were kept ; and he says that
liavinCT been accustomed to feed them at a certain place every even-
ing, they became so tame that a knocking like that of chopping
would certainly cause them to assemble. The intelligence this
argues may also be inferred from the skill and vigilance this fish
displays in avoiding danger, more especially in effecting its escape
in circumstances of great peril. When enclosed within a ground-
sean or sweep-net, as soon as the danger is seen, and before the
limits of its range are straightened, and when even the end of the
net might be passed, it is its commoa habit to prefer the shorter
course, and throw itself over the head-line and so escape ; and when
one of the company passes all immediately follow."
The Grey Mullet will rise freely at Flies, like the Trout, and affords
good sport to the angler, as it is a vigorous Fish and requires skilful
management It feeds upon soft and unctuous substances, and is
often seen thrusting its mouth into the mud in search of small de-
composing morsels, for the selection of which its lips appear to be
endowed with a high sense of taste. It avoids large and hard sub-
stances, and will often take the bait between its lips and immediately
reject it if suspicion be at all e.xcited. The best bait for ordinary
fishing according to Mr. Couch, is a small bit of the fat intestine of
a Fish, or cabbage boiled in broth. Midsummer is the breeding
season of this species.
to this family. It resembles the Grey Mullet in the habit of ascend-
ing the mouths of rivers with the tide. The Sand-smelt is about five
or six inches in length, and is considered to have some resemblance
to the Smelt in its llavour. It is a favourite Fish with visitors
to the southern watering places, but seldom reaches the London
market.
Nearly allied to the Miigilidcc is the singular family of the Ana-
baiidcc, the remarkable habits attributed to one member of which,
has obtained for it the name of tlie Climbing Perch. The Fishes of
this family are very variable in form— sometimes broad and flat,
sometimes elongated and cylindrical ; they have a single dorsal fin,
of which the anterior portion is usually strongly spinous ; but in some
species, the rays of this part of the fin, although undivided, are very
flexible. The anal fin is also single, with a spinous anterior portion.
The whole surface is covered with scales, which, in the soft-finned
species, are truly cycloid ; whilst those of the spiny forms are ctenoid.
The ventral fins are placed under the pectorals ; one of the rays is
frequently much elongated ; and in some species the ventral fin is
represented by a single long filament.
The most remarkable character presented by these Fishes, how-
ever, consists in the structure of the superior pharyngeal bones (Fig.
1766), which are dilated into voluminous folded lamina;, inclosed in
a large cavity of the base of the skull, and forming numerous cells,
in which a supply of water may be carried, for the purpose of
moistening the gills, when the crea-
ture, as its habit is, quits the water
for a time.
Fig. 1766. — Head of the Anabas scandcns,
^ with operculum removed.
Fig. 1765.— The Grey Mullet.
_ Mr. Yarrell, alluding to the old proverb, that the county of Sussex
IS celebrated for six good things, gives, as one, the Arundel Mullet.
The town of Arundel, on the Arun, is ten miles from the sea, and,
he continues, " during the summer of 1834, probably owing to the
warmth of it, the grey mullet migrated much farther up "the river
than usual, and numbers were caught above even where the spring
tides flow, as high up as Amberg Castle, which is by the river nearly
ten miles above the town of Arundel, and nearly twenty miles from
the sea."
That the Grey Mullet will not only live entirely in fresh water, but
even thrive, has been proved by Mr. Arnould, who put a number of
the fry into his pond at Guernsey, covering about three acres ; and
a few years afterwards Mullet of four pounds weight were caught,
fatter, deeper, and heavier, for their length, than those obtained
from the sea.
_ The colour of this species above is dusky bluish-grey, passin<r
into silvery white on the sides and belly, marked with parallel
longitudinal dusky lines ; irides reddish-brown ; pupil black. (See
Fig. 1765.)
I he Sand-smelt {Atherina ^resdyier), a small Fish which is
tolerably abundant along the south coast of our island, also belongs
This peculiar structure attains its
greatest development in the Aiiabas
sca7idens, or Climbing Perch of India
(Fig. 1767), which is by this means
enabled to live out of the water for as
long a period as six days. They fre-
quently quit the ponds or streams
which they inhabit, and wander for
a considerable distance over the land —
a circumstance which has led the in-
habitants of the countries frequented
by them, to suppose that these Fishes
fell from the skies. They are even
said to climb trees ; and Daldorii
states that he once took a specimen,
at a height of five feet from the ground,
on the stem of a palm-tree; but this
habit has been denied by some other
naturalists. Daldorff's statement,
however, receives some support from
the Tamul name of the Fish — Paneiri,
or the Climber of Trees. This, and
some other species of the family, are commonly exhibited by the
jugglers of India and China, to which countries the Fishes of
this family are almost entirely confined ; their flesh is exceedingly
good ; and one species, the Gourami {Osphromentis o/fax), which
grows to the size of the Turbot, is considered even to excel that
Fig. 1767. — The Climbing Perch.
highly-prized European Fish. The Gourami is a native of China ;
but has been naturalised in the Mauritius, and even in Cayenne.
713
THE BLENNIES.
The great tenacity of life possessed by these Fishes enables the
fishermen to bring them to market alive ; and the larger species
are often cut up alive to suit the convenience of the smaller con-
sumers.
- The GobiidcB, or Gobies, are usually distinguishable, at the first
glance, by having the ventral fins, which are situated on the breast,
united into a funnel-shaped disc. These fins are sometimes dis-
tinctly separated, or united only at their bases ; but, even in these
cases, they are usually capable of being formed into a funnel, at the
pleasure of the animal. The pectoral fins are large, and the entire
rays of the dorsal and anal fins soft and flexible. The skin is some-
times naked, occasionally clothed with large, finely ctenoid scales :
the edges of the opercula are unarmed, and the opercular aperture
small, so that these Fishes are enabled to live for some time
out of the water. The stomach and intestines are both destitute of
coeca.
Some of the Fishes of this family produce living young ; but the
majority appear to be Oviparous. The male of a species of Gobius,
inhabiting the Mediterranean, has been observed to make a nest
amongst the sea-weeds, with the roots oiihe Zosiera, orGrasswrack ;
in this he awaits the females, which soon come to deposit their
spawn ; this is fecundated by the male, and he then remains as a
guard over the precious deposit, which he defends with the greatest
courage. This habit of the Gobius was probably known to the
ancients, as Aristotle mentions a Fish, called //y'«!s-, which he says
is the only Fish that constructs a nest ; we have already seen, however,
that it is certainly equalled in this respect by our common Stickle-
backs, already described.
The Gobiidce are, for the most part, small Fishes, which keep close
to the shore, usually amongst rocks ; they often attach themselves,
by means of their disc-like ventral fins, to the lower surface of
stones and other objects. Some species are also abundant in tidal
rivers.
One of the largest and most singular species is the Lump-fish
{Cyclojiterus lumpus), which inhabits the northern European seas,
and may often be seen hanging up in the shops of London fish-
mongers. It is also called the Lump-sucker, and is the Cock-paddle
of the Scotch. The Lump-fish sometimes weighs as much as seven
pounds, and is of a thick, massive form ; but its flesh is very soft and
insipid. It is of a purplish-black colour, variegated with red and
brown, and the belly is crimson. The back and sides have rows of
tubercles, and the appearance of the Fish is extremely grotesque.
The sucker, formed of the ventral fins, is of a somewhat oval form,
and of great size and power. So firmly does it adhere by means of
this organ, that, according to Pennant, on putting a freshly-caught
specimen into a pail, containing several gallons of water, it fixed
itself so firmly to the bottom, that the whole pail, with its contents,
could be lifted by taking hold of the tail of the Fish. It is said to
feed upon Mediiscs and other Gelatinous Marine Animals, and, in its
turn, affords a favourite repast for the Seals, which, however, reject
the skin.
A still more remarkable and celebrated Fish, belonging to this
family, is the Remora, or Sucking-fish {Echeneis, Fig. 1768), of which
a few species are found in the seas of various parts of the world. In
this genus, the ventral fins are
only united at the base, and do
not appear to be applicable to
the attachment of the Animal
to submarine bodies ; but, to
compensate for this, the upper
surface of the head is furnished
with a singular disc, formed of transverse, cartilaginous, denticu-
lated plates, by means of which the Remora attaches itself to rocks,
ships, and even to the bodies of large Fishes.
The habit which this Fish has of fixing itself to the bottoms of
ships, gave rise, in ancient times, to the opinion that it could thus
instantaneously arrest the course of a ship in full sail ; and the names
still applied to it, in several countries, refer to this fable, which is
related in the most circumstantial manner, and with the utmost good
faith, by several ancient authors. Thus, amongst other marvellous
tales, we are told that, at the battle of Actium, Antony's ship was
held motionless by a Remora, notwithstanding the exertions of several
hundred sailors ; and, on another occasion, we are informed that
Caligula, when on a voyage, was arrested by one of these Fishes,
which attached itself to the rudder, and manifested such an invin-
cible determination that the emperor should not proceed on his
voyage, that the efforts of 400 able seamen were of no avail, until one
of them, more knowing than his fellows, ascertained the cause of this
disagreeable occurrence, and, by detaching the obstinate Remora,
set the ship free to pursue her course. The Common Remora is
about a foot long, and somewhat of the form of the Herring. It
occurs commonly in the Mediterranean, and is also found in the
ocean, and occasionally on the British coasts. Some of the other
species are larger, and more elongated.
The Dragoncts [Calliojiymus), of which two species are found on
our coasts, are arranged amongst the GobiidcB, although they appear
to possess characters which might entitle them to form the types of
Fig. 1768.— The Sucking Fish.
a distinct family. Their branchial apertures are very small, and
placed at the upper part of the opercula, close to the back ; and their
ventral fins are very large and distant. The eyes are placed on the
top of the head, looking upwards ; the skin is smooth and scaleless,
and the first dorsal fin has bristle-like rays, of which the first is
sometimes exceedingly elongated. They are handsome Fishes, of
moderate size, often adorned with brilliant colours, and their flesh is
said to be very good. (See Fig, 1769.)
Fig. 1769. — The Gemmeoiis Dr.agonet.
Nearly allied to the preceding are the Blenniida;, which were, in
fact, placed in the same family with the Gobies by Cuvier. They are
distinguished, however, by the structure of the ventral fins, which are
placed on the fore part of the breast, or on the throat, and consist
only of a few, usually two, rays. In the Sea-wolf [Anarrkicas
lupus. Fig. 1770) the ventral fins are entirely wanting. They agree
with the GobiidtS in the structure of the intestinal canal, and in the
Fig. 1770.— The Sea-wolf.
absence of the air-bladder ; the skin is either naked, or furnished
with very small concealed scales, and is covered with a great quan-
tity of mucous matter; from the latter circumstance the name of the
typical genus, Ble?inii/s (Gr. bleiinos, mucous), is derived. T he
dorsal fin is very long, usually extending throughout the whole length
of the back ; the entire rays of this and of all the other fins are
fiexible, as in the preceding family. The pectoral fins also are very
large. The mouth is usually armed with acute fangs, which, in the
Sea-wolf, acquire most formidable dimensions, and are accompanied
by an inner series of blunt molars, that serve to crush the shells of
the Molluscous Animals upon which this creature usually feeds. The
abdominal cavity is short, and the anal fin consequently of con-
siderable length. The head is frequently furnished with tentacular
filaments, which are sometimes singularly branched (Fig. 1771.)
Of the British species, the Shanny i^Blennius pholis) is remarkable
for the habit e.xhibited by the larger specimens, of creeping out of
Fig. 1771.— The Ocellated Blenny.
the water, with the aid of their pectoral fins, as the tide recedes, and
hiding themselves in holes amongst the rocks, where they remain
until, on the return of the tide, the water again covers them, and sets
them at liberty. They place themselves singly in these caves, with
their heads outwards ; and if any danger shows itself at the mouth
of their retreat, they immediately retire backwards to its more
sheltered recesses. This Fish has even been known to survive a con-
finement of thirty hours in a dry box ; but it is soon killed by being
put into fresh water.
Many of these Fishes produce living young ; and, in general, the
outlet of the male generative organs is situated in a small prominence
near the anal opening, which gives considerable support to the
opinion, that a genuine copulation must take place between these
Fishes.
tifcr
SEA-HORSES AND PIPE-FISH.
THE SEA-HORSES.
7«3
Of the British Blennics, one species, the Zoarcns vivipartts,
exhibits this peculiarity of bringing forth its young alive ; and they
are said to be perfectly able to take care of themselves from the
moment of their exclusion. The young appear to be of different
sizes, in proportion to the size of the females producing them.
Thus, Mr. Yarrell mentions, that a specimen of fifteen inches long,
which was brought to the Edinburgh fish-market, contained several
dozens of young, which were still alive, and measured from four to
five inches long ; whilst the young of another female, seven inches
in length, were only about an inch and a-half long.
The Blennies are generally of small size, and of little or no value.
They swim together in small shoals amongst the rocks of the sea-
shore, and are constantly to be found in the small rock pools left by
the retiring tide. They are exceedingly active, and difficult to
catch, even when confined within a small space, dashing and leaping
about with the greatest rapidity, and concealing themselves under
the sea-weeds which fringe their pool. Like the GobiidcE, they are
able to live for a considerable time out of the water ; and one
species, the Salai'ias scandens of Ehrenberg, which inhabits the
Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, is able to climb and leap about the
rocks of the shore. It is so exceedingly active in this somewhat
anomalous position, that it has been taken by some observers for a
small Lizard ; and, as it can take leaps of four or five feet, it is by
no means easy to catch.
One of the largest and most formidable Fishes of our seas is the
Sea-wolf (Aiiarrliicas hipus. Fig. 1770 ante), w-hich belongs to
this family, and the dentition of which has already been referred to.
In the British seas, this Fish attains a length of six or seven feet ;
and in more northern and colder latitudes it is said to grow still
larger. The back of this formidable Fish is of a brow-nish-grey or
olive-brown colour, with transverse black or brown stripes, which
extend more or less over the whitish belly. Its common food con-
sists of Crustaceous and Molluscus animals, for crushing which, its
powerful apparatus of teeth is especially adapted ; and the strength
of its jaws is exceedingly great. When captured, it defends itself
vigorously, attacking the fishermen with the greatest ferocity, and
often inflicting severe wounds upon those who are not very careful
in their approaches : this ferocity, however, is the means of shorten-
ing the captive's life ; for the fishermen, knowing its habits, gene-
rally contrive to knock it on the head before it has an opportunity of
doing any mischief. Its appearance is completely in accordance
with its nature ; for few Fishes look more savage than the Sea-wolf.
Its fiesh, however, is said to be exceedingly good ; and, as it bears
salting well, it is of no small importance to the inhabitants of Iceland,
where it is found in great abundance. The skin is converted into a
sort of shagreen, which is much used for making bags and pouches ;
and Cuvier states, that the Icelanders employ its liver in place of
soap.
The Lo;phiidce, forming the last family of the Spiny-finned Fishes,
present a great resemblance to the Gobiida, and especially to the
Callionymi and their allies ; they are particularly distinguished by
having the carpal bones very long, forming a sort of arm, at the
extremity of which the pectoral fins are supported. The ventral fins
are placed in front of these, on the flattened lower surface of the
body ; and the pectoral fins thus form, as it were, a pair of hinder
legs, upon which many of the creatures are able to hop about upon
the sea-beach in a very curious manner. Most of these Fishes have a
large head, and a short, stout body, terminated by a slender tail.
They are covered with a naked skin, which is usually roughened
with warts and tubercles of different kinds. The branchial aperture,
placed behind the pectoral fins, is very small ; whilst the branchial
cavity itself is of large size ; and, as is usual in Fishes which exhibit
this conformation, the Lopliiidcc are able to endure a tolerably pro
longed absence from the water.
Fig. 1772. — The Fishing Frog.
The best known of these Fishes is the Lophitts fiscatorius (Fig.
1772), commonly known under the names of Angler, Fishing Frog,
and Sea Devil. It is, perhaps, one of the ugliest of all Fishes; its
head is of enormous size, forming nearly half the entire body, and is
cleft in front by a most formidable transverse mouth, armed with
numerous pointed teeth. The head is much depressed, and the eyes
are placed upon the top of it, rather close together. The body is
very short, and terminated, posteriorly, by the pectoral fins, behind
which it runs off into a gradually tapering tail, bearing two dorsal
fins, and the caudal and anal fins.
The Fishing Frog is a sluggish Fish, and as its voracious appear-
ance by no means belies its character, it might be supposed that it
would have some difficulty in gratifying the enormous appetite which
must apparently be associated with such a tremendous mouth. It is
said, however, that the Fish possesses a stratagem by which to
satisfy the cravings of its maw, without the necessity of subjecting
its unwieldly person to any violent exertion. On the upper surface
of the front of the head are two long, movable, bony filaments ; the
foremost of these is dilated at its tip, which has a silvery lustre.
Lying close to the ground, the Fish disturbs the sand or mud, so as
to obscure the water around it, justly thinking, no doubt, that its
appearance is not sufficiently amiable to inspire much confidence in
the weaker inhabitants of the deep ; it then elevates the filamentous
appendages just described, and waves them to and fro in the water,
when the small Fishes, which are soon attracted by the hope that
this silvery object is something to eat, become, instead, the prey of
their artful foe. This is said to be the ordinary mode followed by
this Fish for procuring its food, but it certainly at times seeks its
prey by other methods. Thus, Mr. Yarrell quotes a case, in which
one of these Fishes seized a Cod which had just been hooked by a
fisherman, and allowed himself to be drawn up to the surface, where
he was only compelled to quit his hold by a severe blow on the head ;
and on another occasion, a Fishing Frog seized a Conger Eel that
had just been hooked, when the latter wriggled himself through the
narrow branchial aperture of his second captor, and in this manner
both Fishes were drawn up together.
The Lophitts piiscatorius is a large Fish, sometimes attaining a
length of no less than five feet. The most common size, however, is
about three feet ; and specimens of this size are not unfrequcntly
taken at various parts of the coast. In itself, the Fish is of no
value ; but many of the Fish found in its capacious stomach are
generally uninjured, sometimes even alive ; and the fishermen fre-
quently make a little money by exhibiting the Fish itself to sea-side
visitors, generally accompanying their exhibition with a most doleful
lamentation upon the ravages committed by their not very preposess-
ing captive.
Sub-order V.— Lophobranchia.
General Characters. — In all the groups of Bony Fishes which
we have hitherto had under consideration, the gills are formed of
comb-like series of lamina; ; but in the LophobrancJiia, these organs
are arranged in little tufts, disposed in pairs along the branchial
arches, a conformation which is not exhibited by any other Bony
Fishes. The opercula are very large, but are confined throughout by
a membrane w'hich only leaves a very small aperture for the exit of
water ; and the branchiostegous rays are entirely wanting. The
body is very elongated in its form, and covered with bony plates,
which are usually of considerable comparative size, so that the body
becomes more or less angular. The fins are usually very imperfectly
developed ; the pectorals are small, the ventrals usually altogether
absent, and the caudal and anal fins are also often wanting. The
bones of the face are much prolonged, forming a sort of snout or
proboscis, at the extremity of which the oral aperture is situated — a
structure very similar to that which we have seen in
the family Fistularidce, in the preceding sub-order.
This sub-order includes only a single family, the
Syngnathidcs, composed of small Fishes of very
singular appearance. The best known form is the
Hippocampus, or Sea-horse (Fig. 1773), so called
from the remarkable resemblance which they present
to that Mammal, when the elongated head is bent at
about a right angle to the axis of the body. One
species is found in the British seas ; but specimens
of Tropical species are often brought home by sailors,
and may commonly be seen in the shops of dealers
in curiosities. They possess no caudal fin, and
make use of the long tapering tail to support them-
selves, by twisting it around the stems of sea-weeds
Fig. 1773.— Sea- and other objects. In this position they present a
Horse. very curious appearance, wonderfully justifying the
popular comparison with the Horse. "
The true Syngnathi are of still more elongated form than the
Hippocampi, and have the head in the same direction as the axis of
the body. They are commonly known as Pipe-fish, and some species
are tolerably abundant on some parts of our coast ; the largest
British species is said, by some authors, to attain a length of three
feet. The habits of all the species appear to be very similar ; they
swim about slowly amongst the sea-weeds, feeding upon minute
Criislacca, ^^'orms, MoUiisca, &c. (See Fig. 1774).
4X
714
THE PIPE FISH— THE TRUNK FISH.
The most singular part of the history of these creatures, however,
Js their mode of reproduction. Individuals are found furnished with
a curious pouch or cavity at the base of the tail, which is either com-
pletely closed, with the exception of a small opening-, or concealed
by a pair of membranous folds. In the course of the summer this is
found filled with eggs ; and at a later period, when the fry are
hatched, it appears that they continue for a time to seek shelter from
danger in this singular cavity. The attachment of the Syngnatlii to
their young has been noticed by several authors ; and Mr. Yarrell
says, that he has been assured by fishermen, that if the young be
shaken out of the pouch into the water, close to the boat, they do
not swim away ; but when the parent fish is held in the water, in a
favourable position, the young again enter the pouch. The most
remarkable circumstance, however, connected with this is, that the
pouch-bearer is the male Fish, and that the female is quite destitute
of any such organ, so that the ova must actually be deposited, by the
latter, in the abdominal receptacle of her mate.
The Deep-nosed Pipe-fish.
Mr. Walcott's observations upon a British species, the Syjignathus
acus, as quoted by Mr. Yarrell, are as follows :— " The male differs
from the female, in the belly, from the vent to the tail-fin, being
much broader, and in having, for about two-thirds of its length,
two soft flaps, which fold together, and form a false belly (or
pouch). They breed in the summer ; the females casting their roe
into the false belly of the male. This I have asserted from having
examined many, and having constantly found, early in the summer,
roe in those without a false belly, but never any in those with ;
and, on opening them later in the summer, there has been no roe
in those which I have termed the female, but only in the false
belly of the male." Mr. Yarrell also remarks, that he has ascer-
tained the correctness of these statements by the dissection of
specimens, and found that the individuals with the ventral pouch
were actually furnished with the usual internal organs of the male
sex ; whilst those which had no pouch, possessed ovaries crowded
in the usual manner with eggs.
The mode in which the ova are introduced into the ventral pouch
of the male is still unknown; but it is remarkable, that amongst
Fishes, wherever any unusual care is taken of the eggs and young,
this duty always devolves upon the male ; whereas, amongst other
classes, it appears to be a general rule that the care of the young is
the special business of the mother ; although, in many cases, the
male undoubtedly shares in the labours of his partner. Thus, the
males of many Birds assist in collecting materials and in the con-
struction of the nest, and, in some instances, even take a share in
the work of incubation ; but we know of only one instance, amongst
BirdSj in which the eggs and young are dependent upon paternal care.
Sub-order VI.— Plectognatha.
General Characters.— In this, the last group of the Teleostia,
we meet, to a certain extent, with a combination of the characters of
this and the following orders. The bones of the head are perfectly
ossified ; but the rest of the skeleton, and especially the vertebral
column, often remains in a state very similar to that which prevails
in many of the Ganoid and Cartilaginous Fishes. The union of the
bones of the head, also, is much closer than in the other Fishes of
the present order ; and the principal character of the group consists
in the firm attachment of the bones of the upper jaw and palate to
those of the cranium. The principal part of the upper jaw is made
up of the intermaxillary bones, which constitute the entire margin of
that part of the mouth ; and these are firmly fixed to, or rather
amalgamated with, the cranial and maxillary bones. The bones of
the palate, also, are immovably attached, by a suture, to those
of the cranium. The head is large ; the mouth small ; and
the opercula are so covered by skin and muscles, that only a small
aperture is left for the exit of the water employed in respiration.
The body is usually short and stout, and covered with a thick skin,
which is sometimes roughened by scattered points, like those in the
skin of the Shark, and occasionally more or less covered with bony
plates. The fins are small and soft ; the ventrals usually entirely
deficient. The intestinal canal is short, and destitute of pyloric
coeca, and most of them possess a large air-bladder.
Sub-divisions. — The Plectognatha form only two families. The
Sclerodcrmata have the head more or less produced into a snout, in
front of the eyes ; at the extremity of this is the mouth, armed with a
series of distinct teeth, which are received into sockets of the jaws,
and bear some resemblance to the front teeth in man. The body is
covered w'ith bony plates, which, in some cases, as in the Trunk-fish
[Ostracio/i, Fig. 1775), are of large size and regular shape, covering
the whole surface of the body with a suit of inflexible bony armour.
The tail is inclosed in a sort of bony tube ; and this and the pectoral
fins are the only movable parts of the Fish ; the vertebra;, even, are
usually immovable. The dorsal fin is single, small, and entirely
composed of soft rays. They are generally of small size, and are
found only in the seas of warm climates.
In the Fishes of the genus Batistes (Figs. 1776 and 1777), and
their allies, on the other hand, the dermal skeleton takes the form
of regular scales or grains,
leaving the skin a certain
amount of flexibility. The
ventral fins are often repre-
sented by a pair of powerful
denticulated spines, and the
back bears two dorsal fins, of
which the anterior is formed of
strong spinous rays, the first
being usually very large, and denticulated in front. This first dorsal
fin is sometimes reduced to a single strong spine ; it is supported upon
a bone attached to the head, and can be retracted within a groove
formed in the latter. These Fishes are generally of rather small
size ; they inhabit the Tropical seas, and are often adorned with the
most brilliant colours. One species occurs on the British coasts.
They are but indifferent food, and are said to become poisonous at
certain seasons, from feeding upon the coral Polypes ; this, however,
is probably a mistake, as Cuvier states, that in all specimens opened
by him, he found nothing but sea-weeds.
775.— The Trunk-fish.
-^
Fig. 1776. — The Eallsta gi'ograplikus.
The second family, the Gymnndonta, is distinguished from the
preceding by the structure of the mouth, which, instead of teeth,
has the surfaces of the jaws covered with a plate of an ivory-like
substance. They feed upon sea-weeds, and also upon Crustacea
and Molliisca, in breaking up the shelly coverings of which, these
solid jaws are of great service to them. The skin is thick and
leathery, usually beset with spines ; and the branchial aperture is
reduced by it to a very small size.
Like those of the preceding family, the majority of these Fishes
are found only in the seas of warm climates, very few occurring in
the waters of Europe. Some of them, belonging to the genera
Diodon and Tctraodoii, have a large air-bladder, and possess the
singular power of inflating the body with air, so as to swell it up into
Fig. 1777. — The Batistes pcmcilligerns.
a more or less globular form. This inflation is effected by the pas-
sage of air into a large sac, which opens into the oesophagus, and
extends over the whole of the belly, beneath the skin. The air.
THE SUNFISH—THE GANOID FISHES.
71S
according to Mr. Darwin's observations, is swallowed, and then
forced into the sac, where it is retained by a muscular contraction.
This sac was formerly described as a crop, or first stomach. When
thus distended, the j^reat quantity of air collected in the ventral
region, causes the fisii to float with its belly upwards at the surface
of the water, in a most helpless position, although it appears to have
some little power of directing its course by the aid of the pectoral
fins. The distention of the skin also causes the spines, with which
it is covered, to erect themselves in a most formidable manner,
affording an efficient protection against the attacks of ordinary
enemies. Mr. Darwin states, that a species observed by him on the
coast of Brazil, was able to bite most severely; and that it could
eject water from its mouth to some distance, at the same time
making a curious noise, by the movement of its jaws. A singular
phenomenon presented by this Fish was, " that it emitted from the
skin of its belly, when handled, a most beautiful carmine-red secre-
tion, which stained ivory and paper in so curious a manner, that the
tint is retained with all its brightness to the present day." These
Fishes, some of which are well known as Sea Porcupines, are of
moderate size, many of them measuring .above two feet in length.
They are, however, of little value ; their flesh being very indifferent,
if not absolutely unwholesome. One species has been taken on the
coast of Cornwall ; it was first described
by Pennant, who considered it identical
with the I'ctrodon Icevigatiis of Lin-
naeus — -a species found in Carolina. Mr.
Yarrell considers it to be distinct from
this, and has described it under the name
oi T. pennantii. It attains a length of
more than a foot anda-half; and the
diameter of the inflated belly, in a speci-
men of this size, is about a foot. A
species found in the Nile, the 2\ lineatus,
which is said to possess electrical proper-
ties, is often deposited on the banks
of that river, by its periodical inunda-
tions ; on finding themselves hopelessly
deserted by the water, they always swell
up their ventral sac, and become dried
in this inflated condition, when they are
collected by,the children, and used asballs.
The largest species of this family, and
indeed of the whole sub-order, are the
Ortliagorisci, which have a soft skeleton,
and a short, thick body, destitute of tail ;
the air-bladder and the ventral sac of
the preceding Fishes are entirely absent, and the Fishes possess no
power of inflating their bodies. Their appearance is very peculiar ;
they look like the anterior portion of some very large Fish, cut off
through the dorsal and anal fins, and then closed behind, and fur-
nished with a broad caudal fin. Of this curious group, two species
are found in the British seas, although they appear to be rather rare
in the waters surrounding our ccasts. One of these, the Short Sun-
fish, or the Sun-fish ^«r excellence {Orthagorisciis mola), is almost
of a circular form, with long dorsal and anal fins, projecting like
handles from its hinder part, the space between these being occupied
by a broad caudal fin. About the centre of the body, on each side,
is a small pectoral fin, and in front of this the orifice of the bran-
chial cavity. The other British species, the O. oblongus, is of an
oblong form ; it has the fins in the same position as a circular
species. Both these Fishes attain a large size ; the Short Sun-fish,
in particular, sometimes weighs three or four hundred pounds, and
measures four or five feet in length. The flesh of the Ot'tkagorisci is,
soft and veryindifferent, and possesses a disagreeable odour ; qualities
which cause it to be very little esteemed. It is, however, fat, and
yields a considerable quantity of oil. When alive, these Fishes have
a silvery appearance, and at night they are said to be e.'cceedingly
phosporescent ; from which circumstance, coupled with their more
or less rounded form, it is probable that the names of Sun-fish and
Moon-fish, applied to them in different places, are derived.
Order IV.— Ganoidea.
General Characters.— Of the remarkable Fishes belonging to
this order, very few exist at present in our waters. But their Fossil
remains occur in abundance in almost all the Fossiliferous strata of
the earth, and, in some of the older formations, constitute almost the
only indications of the existence of Vertebrated Animals upon our
planet at the period of the deposition of these strata. It was, in
fact, the abundance and variety of these Fossil remains, that first
called the attention of naturalists to these Fishes, and thus introduced
a new and important element into ichthyological classification.
Professor Agassiz, in his great work on the Fossil Fishes, found it
necessary to adopt a different system from that generally is use
amongst zoologists, as, in many instances, the organs upon which
the latter relied for the characters of their groups, were absent or
unrecognisable in the remains of the Fishes of former ages. Under
Fig. 177S.— The Short
Sun-fiili.
these circumstances he derived the leading characters of his general
classification of Fishes from the form and structure of the scales, or
dermal appendages, these organs being generally well preserved in
Fossil specimens ; .and this has undoubtedly been of gre.il service to
the study of Fossil Ichthyology. It cannot be denied, however, that,
as is always the case where the structure of a single systenj of organs
is adopted as the basis of classification, the arrangement of Fishes
proposed by Professor Agassiz is evidently artilicial, and often
violates the natural affinities of the Animals, removing closely-allied
species to a distance from each other ; and bringing others into close
juxtaposition, which have nothing in common but the general form
of their scales.
This is abundantly evident from the study of the characters of the
Bony Fishes, previously described; and it is equally true with regard
to the Ganoidea of Agassiz, the establishment of which, as a distinct
order, is the most important zoological point in the work of that
eminent naturalist. In strict accordance with his principle of
arrangement, he includes under this order all the Fishes which are
either entirely or partially covered with bony plate — .a character
which is exhibited by many of the Fishes already referred to amongst
the Teleustia, such as the Lophobranchia, a considerable portion of
the Plectognatha and Siluridce, and many other Fishes belonging
to different groups of Bony Fishes. But a great many of the living
representatives of the order of Ganoidea, as originally circumscribed
by Agassiz, were well known to be nearly allied to other species and
groups in which the dermal skeleton never presented the Ganoid
structure, so that it became necessary either to violate these natural
affinities, by preserving the order in the form originally proposed by
its founder, or to introduce into it new elements which did not exhibit
the peculiarities by which it was characterised, and which, of course,
would have entirely effaced the boundaries of the order. The per-
ception of this difficulty induced Professor Miiller to investigate the
structure of the living species of Ganoidea, 3.n<\ to compare it with
that of the Bony Fishes on the one hand, and with that of the
Cartilaginous Fishes on the other ; and it appears, from his re-
searches, that a portion of the Ganoidea of Agassiz present cha-
racters entitling them to rank as a distinct order, intermediate
between the Teleosiia and Selachia, but that a considerable number
of the Fishes, originally referred to the order, must occupy places
amongst the Teleostia.
The character by which the Ganoidea were first distinguished
from other Fishes, was the nature of the dermal skeleton. This con-
sists of smooth, bony plates, covered with a layer of enamel, which
are sometimes distributed over the whole surface, or confined to the
region of the head, and occasionally arranged on the sides of the
body, with intervals of greater or less extent between them. They
are frequently of a rhomboidal form, arranged edge to edge, in
obliquely transverse rows, the plates forming each of these being
attached to those of the next row by a distinct process. In other
cases, the covering of these Fishes is formed of rounded scales, very
similar, both in form and arrangement, to the horny scales of the
Teleostia, but often very distinct from these in their structure. Like
the scales of the Teleostia, these bony plates are formed in capsules
of the skin, and the membrane of this capsule appears to extend in
the form of a very thin pellicle over their surface. In a few species
the skin is quite naked.
The skeleton of the Ganoid Fishes presents a considerable diversity
in its structure, and especially in the extent to which ossification
takes place in it. Thus, in some forms, the centre of the vertebral
column is reduced to a mere dorsal cord (cltorda dorsalis) termi-
nated by a cartilaginous skull, which is usually protected by external
bony plates. The processes forming the arches for the passage of
the spinal cord anti aorta, in these Fishes, arc distinctly ossified.
By degrees, however, the ossification extends further ; the skull and
vertebral column are seen to be composed of distinct bones ; the
bodies of the vertebra exhibiting, in some cases, the same structure
as in the Selachia, of a series of cartilaginous rings, inclosing a
larger or smaller portion of the gelatinous matter of the original
dorsal cord ; whilst, in others, the vertebrae acquire the form
exhibited by those of the Teleostia, or even, as in the Lepidosteus,
arrive at a still higher development ; the anterior surface of the body
of each vertebra being furnished with a convex process, which fits
into a cavity of the posterior surface of the preceding one. Thus the
structure of the spinal column shows that the Ganoid Fishes should
occupy a position intermediate between the Teleostia and Selachia,
as the peculiarities of both these groups are reproduced in different
members of the order. The Lepidosteus even appears, in this
respect, to approach the higher classes of Vertebrata, the Reptilia
and Batrachia in which its peculiar vertebral conformation is first
met with. In the compound structure of the lower jaw, also, the
Lepidosteus presents a considerable resemblance to the Reptiles.
The structure of the fin-rays partakes of the same diversity as that
of the skeleton. They are all, with the exception of the first rays
in some of the fins, of a soft and flexible consistence ; but, in some
cases, they are entire ; in others, divided like the soft rays in most of
the Teleostia. In many cases, the edges of the caudal fin, and the
anterior margins of the other fins, arc covered by a series of
7i6
THE GANOID FISHES.
small bony pieces, called fulcra, which are often so acutely
pointed as to give the edge of the fin a strongly serrated appear-
ance.
In number and position, the fins resemble those of many of the
Bony Fishes. Tlie pectorals are always present, as are the ventrals,
with a few doubtful exceptions ; the latter are always placed on the
abdomen ; and, from this circumstance, the living Ganoid Fishes
were arranged by Cuvier and other naturalists with the abdominal
Physostumaia. The dorsal and anal fins present much the same
differences of size and position as the corresponding organs in the
Teleostia ; but the arrangement of the caudal fin is frequently very
different. In some cases the spinal column terminates at the middle
of the caudal fin, which thus occupies the extremity of the body, as
in the Fishes of the preceding order ; whilst, in others, the extremity
of the spine is continued in the form of a pointed process, beneath
which the rays of the caudal fin are attached. Of these two forms of
the caudal extremity, the former, which is denominated homocercal,
is characteristic of the Teleostia ; the latter, called heterocercal, of
the Selaclua ; and the Ganoid Fishes exhibit a tolerably gradual
passage from the one to the other.
In their internal anatomy, the Ganoidea present the same peculiar
combination of the characters of the other two great orders of Fishes.
Thus the arterial bulb— as that portion of the branchial artery, which
is situated immediately in front of the heart, is called— instead of
being formed merely by a thickening of the walls of the vessel, as in
the Bony Fishes, is furnished with a distinct muscular coat (Figs.
IVQO and 1780), (by which it is enabled to act as a sort of
supplementary heart, or elongated ventricle, in the propulsion
of the blood through the branchial vessels ; and, to fit it more
completely for the performance of this oflSce, it is furnished
internally with a great number of valves (Fig. 1780), to pre-
vent the return of the blood. This conformation is exhibited also
by the Selacliia, although the number of valves contained in the
arterial bulb is much smaller in them than in \}a(iGanoidea ; but
the Teleostia are only furnished with a single pair of valves at the
aperture leading from the heart into the artery ; and the latter is
quite destitute of the muscular coat.
In the structure of the branchias, the Ganoidea agree with the true
Bony Fishes. They have all free, pectinated gills, contained in a
cavity which is protected by an operculum, and closed beneath
by a branchiostegal membrane, which is frequently furnished with
branchiostegal rays. In addition to the regular branchia;, there is
frequently a supplementary branchial organ (the opercular bra>icliia)
attached to the interior of each operculum ; and below this is a false
gill or pseudobranchia, which receives only arterialised blood. In
some cases the top of the head is furnished with a pair of spiracles,
a structure which occurs amongst the Selachia, but is never met with
in the Bony Fishes. An air-bladder is always present ; it communi-
cates with the pharynx by a duct, as in the Physostomata.
Fig.
1779. — Heart and arterial bulb
of Lepidosteus,
a, ventricle ; b, auricle ; <-, arterial
bulb ; d, branchial artery ; ece,
branches leading to the branchiae ;
/, continuation of the artery ; g,
branches leading to the opercular
branchiae.
Fig. 17S0. — The arterial bulb cut
open.
a, ventricle ; b, valve of the aper-
ture leading from the auricle ; c,
muscular coat of the arterial bulb ;
d, opening for the posterior
branch from which ece, the
branches leading to branchiae rise.
The intestine is often furnished with a spiral valve, as in the Sharks
and Rays. The arrangement of the optic nerves is also very different
from that which prevails amongst the Bony Fishes. In the latter,
these nerves cross, so that each nerve runs to the eye of the side
opposite to that from which it takes its rise. In the Ganoidea, on the
contrary, the optic nerve runs to the eye of its own side, and the two
nerves meet and unite at some little distance from their origin.
Sub-divisions. — Professor.Miiller divides the living Ganoid Fishes
into two great groups — the Holostea, with a perfectly bony skeleton,
and the Cho)idrostca, with the skeleton cartilaginous, and the centre
of the vertebral column composed of a continuous soft chorda. The
application of this rule to the Fossil Fishes of this order is, however,
attended with considerable difficulties, as, according to Agassiz,
species agreeing closely in their general characters with the former
section, exhibit, in the structure of their skeleton, an approach to the
second. Professor Vogt, deriving his classification from the forms
of the dermal skeleton, divides the Ga?widea into three principal
groups or sub-orders — the Cyclifera, in which the scales or plates
covering the body are rounded, and lie over each other in the same
manner as those of the true Bony Fishes ; the Rhombifera, which
have the body clothed with quadrangular bony plates ; and the
Loricata, which are either entirely naked, or have the head, and
often the anterior part of the body, more or less covered with irregular
plates of bone. The last of these groups corresponds with the
Chondrostca of Professor Miiller; and the two others maybe re-
garded as equivalent to his Holostea. As they appear to be more
nearly related to each other than to the Chondrostea, and may very
well be included in a single group, we shall retain Professor Miiller's
sections, especially as the principal characters, upon which they are
founded, are exactly applicable to all the living species, the only
examples to which we can satisfactorily appeal.
Sub-order I. — Holostea.
General Characters.— The Fishes belonging to this sub-order,
both Recent and Fossil, are distinguished by having the entire sur-
face covered either with scales or bony plates. In the //iv/V/^ species,
the skeleton acquires a bony consistence : and, in some cases, the
ossification of the bodies of the vertebrae even proceeds to such an
extent, as to depart entirely from the ordinary piscine type, and to
present no small resemblance to the structure prevailing in many
Reptiles. In the form of the body, and the structure of the head,
these Fishes resemble those of the preceding order ; the head, in
particular, is never covered with a system of dermal bones.
SUB^DIVISIONS.— The differences in the structure of the dermal
covering, exhibited by the Fishes of
this sub-order, enable us to divide
them readily into two principal
groups. In one of these, the Cycli-
fera of Vogt, the body of the Fish
is covered with rounded overlying
scales (Fig. 1781 b), presenting a
considerable resemblance, both in
form and disposition, to those of the
ordinary Bony Fishes. In some in-
stances they are even of the same
horny texture ; and this is the case
in the only living representative
of the group, the species of the
genus Amia (Fig. 1782), which, in fact, have generally been regarded
as true Teleostia. Others have similar horny scales, covered with a
layer of enamel ; whilst others, again, are furnished with scale-like
bony plates.
The character of the dermal covering is not, however, the only
point in which the Cyclifera depart somewhat from the normal
Ganoid type, and approach the True Bony Fishes ; the fins are
entirely destitute t^i fulcra, and, in other respects, exactly resemble
those of the Teleostia; the arterial bulb (Figs. 1779 and 1880) has
but a scanty muscular coat ; contains only two rows of small valves ;
and the spiral valve in the intestine becomes exceedingly small.
None of these Fishes have opercular branchis.
The nearest approach to the Teleostia, is made by the family
Amiidcs, the only family of this group of which we have living repre-
sentatives (Fig. 1782.) They are clothed with small horny scales
Fig. 1781. — Scales of Ganoid Fishes.
a, of Lepidotus ; b, of Glyptolepis.
Fig, 17S2.— The Amia
maniuvata.
usually covered with a layer of enamel, as are also the bones of the
skull, over which a very thin skin is extended. They are nearly
homocercal (the caudal fin occupying the whole posterior extremity
of the body) ; but the spinal column turns up slightly at its
extremity, so that the larger portion of the fin is situated below
its termination, giving it, as it were, an indication of the heterocercal
structure, which prevails amongst many of the other members of the
order. The species of the genus Amia inhabit the rivers of the
THE GANOID FISHES.
warmer parts of America, where they feed on minute Crustacea.
They are of small size, and but little valued as food.
In the Fossil Cyclifera, the scales are of a bony consistence.
They form two families, of which one, the Ccclacaiifhidcu, is charac-
terized by havina^ the scales rather small, and the perpendicular tins
of extraordinary size, all placed upon the hinder extremity of the
body, so as to present the appearance of a single enormous fin.
There are always two dorsal and anal fins, and the caudal is gener-
ally symmetrical; although one genus {GlyJ>toleJi!s Fig. 1781 b) is
heterocercal.
In the Holoptychiidcc, the scales are much larger and thicker than
in the preceding family, and the whole surface, both of the bony
scales and head, is covered with a layer of enamel, and often adorned
with elegant raised patterns. They were Heterocercal Fishes, often
of large size, and furnished with a formidable apparatus of conical
teeth, which proves them to have been of a most predaceous disposi-
tion. The arrangement of the dentine and enamel, in these teeth, is
exceedingly curious and complicated.
In the second section of the Holostea, the i?/i(?;«5y^ra of Vogt,
which may be regarded as the types of the Ganoid Fishes, the bony
scales are always of a more or less quadrangular form, usually rhom-
boidal (Fig. 1781a.) They are arranged in oblique rows, and the
edges are generally so bevelled that each side slightly overlaps the
one beneath it ; whilst the plates in each row are usually connected
with those in the ne.xt by means of peculiar processes. These plates
are composed of true bony matter, and covered with a beautiful layer
of glassy enamel. The fins in the Rhombifera are always well
developed, and, generally, furnished with fulcra ; the ventral fins are
abdominal in position, and the caudal extremity exhibits either the
Homocercal or Heterocercal character.
'J'he Fossil remains of Fishes of this group are distributed through
almost all the strata of the earth ; but, in our present world, it has
but few representatives belonging to two genera. The group may
be divided into two sections, characterised by the presence or absence
of fulcra on the fins ; and each of these sections possesses one living
genus.
Of the group in which the fulcra are deficient, the only living repre-
sentatives belong to the family Po/yp/cri'dcc. These Fishes are
distinguished by the peculiar structure of the dorsal fin, which is
broken up into a number of separate spines, occupying nearly the
whole length of the back, and each furnished with a soft fin, attached
to its posterior surface. The pectoral fins are broad, rounded, and
fan-like, supported upon a sort of short, scaly arm ; the ventrals are
placed very far back ; the anal fin is single, and the tail slightly
heterocercal. The body is very elongated and cylindrical ; the head
depressed, and furnished with a pair of spiracles, which can be closed
by a bony valve. The opercular branchiie and pseudo-branchiffi are
wanting ; and the branchiostegal rays are replaced by a singular
large triangular bony plate.
The only known species of this family inhabit the African rivers.
One {Polypterus bi'chir), which is found in the Nile, has sixteen
dorsal fins, whilst another {P. senega/us), with twelve dorsal fins,
inhabits the Senegal. The Nilotic species attains a length of about
eighteen inches. It keeps in the muddy bottom of the river, and
is only occasionally taken ; it is regarded as an excellent Fish for the
table.
Nearly allied to the Polyptcridcs are the Dipteridcs, a family of
Fossil Fishes which have hitherto occurred only in the Old Red-
sandstone. The Dipfcrida: are decidedly Heterocercal : the upper
lobe of the caudal fin being much larger than the lower, and the tail
running almost to its extremity. The upper surface of the tail is
bordered, like the lower surface, with a rayed fin, but there are no
traces of spines or fulcra, either on this or on any of the other fins ;
the pectorals are of considerable size ; the ventrals are small ; and
there are two large dorsal and anal fins, situated opposite to each
other, near the hinder extremity of the body.
The Acanfhodidce were also Heterocercal Fishes, in which the
upper surface of the tail was furnished with a small rayed fin, but
quite destitute of spines or fulcra ; whilst the remaining fins were all
iurnished with a single strong spinous ray. The dorsal and anal fins
were single.
The Fishes of this family were of small size, and covered with very
small bony plates. They are found entirely in some of the oldest
fossiliferous strata, the Old Red-sandstone and Carboniferous groups;
and they are remarkable amongst the Fishes of these early periods
from having the skeleton more distinctly ossified.
The family Pycitodoiitidcs is composed of Homocercal Fishes, of a
broad, compressed form, which are distinguished from the other
Ganoidce by the absence of ventral fins. They are small Fishes,
which probably derived their nourishment from INIolluscous Animals ;
all the teeth of the jaws and palate, with the exception of the
front teeth in the jaws, which resemble the human incisors, being
broad and flat, so as to adapt them especially for crushing the hard
shells of these Animals. Their remains are found in several strata,
but disappear after the Tertiary period.
Of the species in which the fins are furnished with fulcra, some are
distinguished by having a double row of those organs along the edge
7'7
of the tail, whilst others have only a single row. The only livine
forms belong to the former series, and constitute, with several fossil
genera the family Lepidosteida:. These are elongated Pike-like
i-ishes (iMg. 1785), which were formerly associated with \.\-^c Esocidcc,
and are generally known under the name of Bony Pikes. Thcv are
Heterocercal, and both edges of the caudal fin are furnished with a
double series of fulcra, as are also the anterior margins of the other
fins. The jaws are usually produced into a long narrow snout pre-
senting a great resemblance to that of tlie Gangetic Crocodile' and
armed with a double series of formidable conical teeth, the internal
structure of which is very remarkable. The nostrils are situated quite
at the extremity of the upper jaw, which is composed of several
pieces, bearing teeth ; the lower jaw, in like manner, consists of
Fig. 17S3.— The Bony Pike {Lepidostetcs osseus),
several portions, presenting, in this respect, a close resemblance to
that of many Reptiles. The vertebral colnmn also presents a struc-
ture such as we meet with in no other Fishes, the bodies of the verte-
bra being regularly articulated together. The Lepidosteida are
furnished with opercular branchia; and pseudo-branchiae ; the bran-
chiostegal membrane contains rays, and the air-bladder is of large
size, and divided into numerous cells.
The Fishes of the genus Lcpidosfeus inhabit the rivers and lakes
of America, especially in tlie warmer regions. Several species have
been described by American authors as inhabiting the fresh waters
of the United States ; but, of tnese, some are, no doubt, mere
varieties. They attain a considerable size, many of them being be-
tween two and three feet in length, and their flesh is said to be very
good.
The LepidotidcB — a nearly allied family, with two rows of fulcral
scales on the margins of the fins — are distinguished from the preced-
ing family by their Homocercal structure and smaller teeth, which
never exhibit the peculiar folded arrangement of their constituent
parts, which is characteristic oithQ Lepidosteidce. The species of
this family are all Fossil.
The Ganoid Fishes, with a single row of fulcral scales on the fins,
are also known to us only by their Fossil remains. Like the forms
with double fulcra, they may be divided into two families, in accord-
ance with the structure of the caudal extremity. The Heterocercal
species constitute the family of Pal cconisc idee, examples ot which are
found only in the older formations up to the Oolitic period. They
have a single dorsal fin placed about the middle of the body, and the
anal fin is also single, and situated near the caudal. The Homocer-
cal forms, forming the family DapediidcB, resemble the preceding in
the number and position of their fins ; but the bodies of the vertebraj
are ossified. They make their appearance in the Oolite.
Sub-order II.— Chondrostea, or Loricata.
General Characters. — The Fishes belonging to this sub-order
were arranged by most of the earlier naturalists amongst the Carti-
laginous Fishes, of which they formed, with Cuvier, a peculiar order,
characterised by having the free branchia; and opercular apparatus
of the ordinary Bony Fishes. They are, in fact, distinguished from
the other liviiig species of the order Ga7ioidea by the nature of
their skeleton, in which the centre of the vertebral column is repre-
sented by a simple, soft chorda dorsalis, without any indication of
a division into separate vertebral bodies. The processes of the
vertebra; are, however, generally distinctly ossified. The character
of the dermal skeleton is also diiferent. It consists of large,
cellular bony plates, which are usually collected together so as to
form a strong covering for the head, where they are firmly united to
the cartilaginous skull ; whilst the remainder of the body is either
entirely naked, or furnished with a few bony plates, separated by
intervals of skin of greater or less extent. In a few species the skin
is completely naked. In the recent forms, the mouth is always
placed on the lower surface of the head, at some little distance from
the tip of the snout ; but in some of the Fossil species, which agree
with this group in the general characters of the skeleton, and the
arrangement of the dermal plates, it is situated, as in the ordinary
Fishes, at the front of the head.
The greater part of the Fossil species belong to the family Cep/ia-
la':pid(r, in which not only the head, but even a considerable portion
of the body, was covered with bony plates, giving these creatures a
most singular aspect. So anomalous is the appearance of some of
the species, in fact, that for a considerable time after the discovery
of their remains, palaeontologists were much divi.led in opinion with
ret'ard to their nature ; and some of them were said to be gigantic
Water Beetles ; whilst others (such as the Pterichihys, Fig. 1784)
f
7i8
THE SELACIIIA, OR SHARK TRIBE.
were considered to be allied to the King-crabs {Limicli), or to the
Trilobites. The fins in these Fishes were very imperfectly developed,
and some of them appear to have been often entirely wanting.
Thus, in the Pterichtliys, the only representatives of the fins appear
to be the singular jointed organs, which project on each side of the
anterior part of the body, and are undoubtedly the pectoral fins,
although certainly under a very curious form. The perpendicular fins
are also very slightly developed, and the caudal fin appears to have
been always deficient.
Fig. 17S4.— The Pterlchthys.
The remains of these Fishes are found only in the most ancient
fossiliferous strata of the earth's crust ; they occur in the greatest
abundance in the Old Red-sandstone, and entirely disappear in the
strata above the Carboniferous rocks.
Sub-divisions. — -The recent Cho?idrosiea form two families,
which, however, agree very closely in their general form and organi-
sation, and differ principally in the character of the dermal covering.
In the family of the Sturgeons, or Acipe7iserid(B, the body is
elongated and fusiform ; the head depressed, produced into a trian-
gular snout, and covered with bony plates, and the body furnished
with rows of large tubercular plates. The mouth is funnel-shaped
and protrusible ; placed on the under surface of the head ; and in
front of it a few barbulcs depend from the snout. They possess
opercular branchiae, pseudo-branchia;, and spiracles ; the opercula
are large, the fins well developed, the tail heterocercal, and furnished
with fulcra along its upper margin.
The Sturgeons are generally of large size, and inhabit the seas of
different parts of the world ; but often ascend particular rivers, in
great abundance, for the purpose of spawning. It is only during
their progress towards, and their abode in, the fresh water that the
fishery for Sturgeons can be carried on ; as, during their sojourn in
the sea, they appear to frequent such deep water, as to keep out of
the reach of the nets. Mr. Yarrell states that he has never heard
of an instance of a Sturgeon being taken by line.
Two species are found on the British coasts; the Acipenser
sliirio, or Common Sturgeon, is the best known of these. Its usual
length is from five to six feet ; but a specimen has been taken in
Scotland, measuring eight feet six inches in length, and weighing
two hundred and three pounds ; and Pennant mentions the capture
of a Fish of this species, which weighed four hundred and sixty
pounds. The flesh of the Sturgeon is regarded as a great delicacy,
its flavour being compared to that of veal ; and so highly was it
esteemed in former days, that our Henry I. is said to have prohibited
its being eaten at any other table than his own. Formerly, any Stur-
geon taken in the Thames, within the jurisdiction of the Lord Mayor,
was denominated a Royal Fish, from an old custom that such Fish
should be presented to the sovereign. It is now commonly sold in
London at a low price.
The Common Stnrgeon is far more abundant in the seas of the
north of Europe than on our coasts ; it also exists in the Caspian
and Black Seas in great quantities, associated with other species, of
which one, the Beluga [Acipcfiser huso. Fig. 1785), attains an
enormous size. This Fish often measures twelve or fifteen feet in
length, and weighs more than twelve hundred pounds; and Cuvier
states that specimens have been seen weighing no less than three
thousand pounds. It ascends the great rivers which empty them-
selves into the seas above-mentioned, in company with the Common
Sturgeon, and with two smaller species, the A. Jiclops 3.n^ A. riith-
enus, of which the former attains the length of about four, and the
latter of two or three, feet. The Acipciiscr rufhcnus, or Sterlet,
which abounds especially in the Caspian Sea, and ascends the Volga
in great numbers, is regarded as the most delicate species of the genus ;
but the flesh of the Beluga and of the Scherg [A . lielops) is of inferior
quality ; and that of the former is even said to be occasionally un-
wholesome.
Nevertheless, this Fish is, perhaps, the most important of its
family ; as, from its sound, or air-bladder, the most abundant supply
of fine isinglass is prepared. The other species also furnish this
substance ; and, to procure it, vast quantities of them are captured
in the rivers of Russia. Another article, prepared from the different
species of Sturgeon, is the substance called caviare, which forms an
important article of commerce in the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean. It consists of the roe of the female Fish, which
is cleaned, washed with vinegar, and dried, when it is either pressed
into small cakes, or packed in kegs. The roe in these Fishes occu-
pies a very great proportion of the body, occasionally constituting
more than one-third of its total weight. It sometimes weighs as
much as eight hundred pounds. The caviare prepared from the roe
of the Sterlet is said to be far superior to that obtained from any other
species. The skin of the Beluga is employed by the Russians for
harness leather ; and the cliorda dorsal is of several species is
cut in pieces, dried, and used as food in some countries. The
Baltic and the American seas also abound in Sturgeons, the species
found in the latter locality being distinct from those of Europe.
They are taken in considerable quantities, and their flesh is often
pickled and exported to other countries.
The Spafularidcs, forming the last family of the Ganoid Fishes,
resemble the True Sturgeons in their general form ; but their skin is
quite naked, and destitute of the bony plates which, in the Fishes of
the preceding family, cover the head and part of the body. They
are also distinguished by having the snout enormously prolonged
and compressed, so as to form a thin elongated leaf-like organ,
which is sometimes nearly as long as the rest of the body. The
opercular apertures are very large, and the hinder margins of the
opercula are produced backwards into a membranous point, which
attains nearly the middle of the body. The mouth is wide, and very
different in its form from that of the Sturgeons ; it is armed with
numerous minute teeth whilst the Animal is young ; but these are
lost as it increases in age. The species of this curious family are
found only in the great rivers of North America ; the first described
was the Spatidaria folium, from the Mississippi.
Order V.— Selachia.
General Characters. — The great order of the Selachia, includ-
ing the Sharks and Rays, may be considered to correspond with the
typical portion of the Chondropterygious, or Cartilaginous Fishes of
Cuvier. That author, however, included amongst his Cartilaginous
Fish, the Sturgeons, which we have seen to belong to the Ganoid
order ; and the Lampreys and their allies, which, except in the soft
texture of their skeletons, and the arrangement of the branchial
openings, have certainly nothing in common with the highly-organised
Fig. 17S5.— The Beluga,
Fig. 1786.— The Mouth of the Shark.
THE SHARK TRIBE.
719
Fishes arranged in the present order. The Sclachia have generally-
been placed nearly at the bottom of the scale in the classification of
Fishes ; but this opinion of their inferiority has arisen entirely from
the imperfect ossification of their skeleton. In the perfection of their
general organisation they certainly e.xceed all the other members of
the class, and, in many respects, approach the classes immediately
above them so closely, that Linnxus even removed them altogether
from the class of Fishes, and placed them amongst the RcJ>tilia, as
a peculiar order, to which he gave the name of Nantes.
The skeleton, in the Selachia, is entirely of a cartilaginous nature.
The skull consists of a cartilaginous capsule, composed of a single
piece, without any indications of sutures. The structure of the jaws
varies considerably. In the Oiiinaridic, the upper teeth are sup-
ported upon the front of the lower surface of the skull, which also
takes the place of the palate ; but in the Sharks and Rays there is a
true movable upper jaw, bearing the teeth ; and between this and the
base of the skull are the rudiments of a true palate. The lower jaw
always consists of a single cartilaginous arch. (See Fig. 1786).
The teeth are very variable in their form. In the Sharks, the most
active and predaceous members of the order, the teeth are exceedingly
sharp, compressed, and occasionally serrated at the edges. In the
Rays, the teeth also sometimes e.xhibit the same trenchant character ;
but in many cases they are arranged in mosaic ; and these different
forms appear, occasionally, to be only sexual peculiarities. In some
cases, the teeth form broad, pavement-like plates, covering the sur-
face of the jaws. The teeth are never inserted into the jaws, but are
simply retained in their position by the strong skin of the gums.
They are arranged in numerous rows upon the rounded edge of the
jaws, those of the outermost row standing perpendicularly, and being
the only ones in use ; whilst those of the inner rows are inclined
inwards, and only acquire the perpendicular position when they move
forward, to take the place of one of their fellows that has been worn
out by long use. The spinal column is sometimes a simple choi'da
dorsalis, which occasionally exhibits indications of segmentation ;
and sometimes composed of a regular series of cartilaginous vertebrae,
furnished with the same conical cavities as in the Bony Fishes. The
arches of the vertebrae are, however, generally cartilaginous, even in
the forms with a continuous dorsal chord ; and in those which have
the bodies of the vertebrae cartilaginous, the bases of the processes
are usually inserted into peculiar sockets of those bones.
The pectoral fins are attached to a strong cartilaginous arch,
which usually, as in the Bony Fishes, depends from the hinder part
of the skull. The ventral fins are always situated at the hinder part
of the abdomen, on each side of the anus ; and in the males they are
furnished with curious cylindrical appendages, which are probably
organs of adhesion. The perpendicular fins vary considerably in
number and position, as in the preceding groups of Fishes, and some
of them are frequently wanting. The tail is usually heterocercal.
The fin rays are exceedingly numerous, and of a horny texture, very
different from that of the rays of the Fishes of any other group ; but
the fins are also frequently provided with a strong hollow spine, com-
posed of dentine, and usually serrated behind ; this is supported
upon a movable cartilaginous piece, and often constitutes a formid-
able weapon.
The skin is sometimes quite naked, but usually bears a number of
larger or smaller fragments of dentine, which are occasionally in the
form of scattered spines, separated by intervals of naked skin ; but
in other cases are distributed in minute grains over the whole
surface.
The Selachia are especially distinguished from the other Fishes
by the structure of their branchiae. The branchial arches are fixed,
and the branchial lamina:, besides being attached by their bases to
the arches, are also fixed by the whole of one margin to a series of
partitions, which thus bear a series of laminae on each side of them.
In this manner a series of branchial sacs is formed, which open into
the pharynx by separate slits, and also usually possess separate
external apertures, to allow the water employed in respiration to pass
off. The usual number of these openings is five on each side ; but
in some cases there are six, and even seven of them. In the
ChiniCBridcB there is, however, only a single external opening ; and
this character induced Cuvier to place these singular Fishes with the
Sturgeons, in his order of Choiidroptei-ygii with free branchia;,
although the internal structure of the branchial apparatus is the same
as that of the typical Sclachia.
The arterial bulb in the Selachia exhibits the same muscular coat
and apparatus of internal valves that we have already described as
existing in the Ganoid Fishes; but the valves are generally less
numerous than in the recent species of that order. The intestine is
also furnished with a spiral valve, which often attains an extraor-
dinary degree of development. There are no pyloric coeca ; but the
pancreas is in a glandular form. The nervous system exhibits a
marked superiority over that of the ordinary Fishes, the volume of
the cerebral hemispheres being much greater ; and the optic nerves
present the same arrangement as in the Ganoid Fishes! The Selachia
are also the only Fishes in which the auditory cavity is in communi-
cation with the outer world ; the eyes are in some cases furnished
with nictitating membranes, and the nasal sacs are of very compli-
cated construction.
The reproduction of these Animals presents several remarkable
peculiarities, and differs considerably from that of most Fishes.
Thus most of them produce living young, which are developed in an
enlarged portion of the oviduct, where they lie free, and surrounded
by an albuminous liquid, which appears to assist in their nutrition
during the period of development. It is even said that in one species,
at least, the yelk-sac attaches itself by means of little appendages to
the walls of the oviduct, thus forming a connection with the parent,
such as we only meet with elsewhere amongst the Mammalia.
Some species, on the other hand, produce ova, which arc inclosed in
hard, horny, quadrangular shells, usually furnished with a pair of
filamentous processes at each extremity (Fig. 1787). These egg-cases
_5,)
Fig. 1787. — Egg-case and Young of the Dogfish.
are furnished with slits to allow the passage of water to the embryo,
which lies coiled up in their interior until its development is suffi-
ciently advanced, when it makes its escape through an opening at the
extremity, towards which its head is situated. The filamentous
processes of these egg-cases are said to serve for their attachment
to sea-weeds, so as to prevent the young Animal from being the
sport of the waves ; the empty cases are constantly to be found
thrown up on the beach, and they are well known at the sea-side
under the name of Mermaid's-purses, Sea-purses, &c.
The embryo exhibits one remarkable peculiarity, which appears
greatly to justify the position of this order in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the Batrachia. Before its exclusion, the young Fish
is furnished with external filamentous branchiae, like those which
exist in the Tadpoles, or larvae of the Batrachia, a character which
we meet with in no other group of Fishes.
The Selachia are all inhabitants of the sea, although some of them
occasionally frequent the estuaries of large rivers. They are all of
large or moderate size, some species attaining gigantic proportions,
when their voracity renders them objects of terror to the inhabitants
of the coasts on which they occur.
Sub-divisions. — They may be divided into two primary groups or
sub-orders — the Holocephala, which may be recognised by their
single branchial apertures on each side, and the Plagiostomata, in
which each branchial sac has a separate opening.
Sub-order I.— Holocephala.
The Holocephala make the nearest approach to the Sturgeons,
and were, in fact, included in the same order with them by Cuvier.
They have a continuous choi'da dorsalis, with cartilaginous neural
arches, and transverse processes. The skull is short and rounded,
and its anterior margin takes the place of the upper jaw, and sup-
ports the teeth, which consist of broad plates ; of these the upper
jaw bears four, the lower one only two. The eyes are very large, but
without eyelids. The nasal cavities are very large and convoluted ;
they open on the lower part of the snout, in front of the mouth, which
is of small size. On each side of the neck there is a single branchial
aperture, which is furnished with a sort of rudimentary cartilaginous
operculum, and which leads down to five distinct branchial sacs, with
separate openings into the pharynx.
There are two dorsal fins, of which the anterior is rather short,
triangular, furnished in front with a very large spine, and situated
immediately over the large, powerful pectoral fins ; the anal fin is
small, and the tail heterocercal. The skin is perfectly naked.
The Holocephala are all Oviparous, and their eggs, like those of
the Sharks and Rays, are inclosed in a strong, horny capsule. They
form a single family, the Chimcerida; Linna;us having applied^ the
name ChimcBra to them from their singular appearance, especially
when badly stuffed.
The best known species is the Northern Chima^ra {Chimcsra
monstrosa), which is called the Sea-cat, and the King of the
Herrings, in different localities. It is three or four feet long, of a
silvery colour, spotted with brown ; the snout is obtusely conical, and
the extremity of the tail is produced into a very long tapering fila-
ment. It is a native of the northern seas, and usually follows the
shoals of Herrings, during their periodical migrations towards the
shore, feeding upon these and other small Fishes ; it is also said to
feed on Medusa and Crustacea. The males arc furnished witn bony
appendages at the base of the ventral fins, and also with a singular
plate, terminated by a spinous disc, on the crown of the head, in
720
THE SHARKS.
front of the eyes ; the possession of this appendage, coupled with its
habit of following the Herrings, has, no doubt, given rise to the
fanciful appellation already referred to. This Fish occurs occasion-
ally on the British coasts ; its flesh is coarse, and very indifferent as
food ; but the oil furnished by its liver is said to be employed by the
Nonvegians in diseases of the eyes.
Fig. 17SS. — SoutI.em Chimcera.
In the seas of the southern hemisphere, the place of the ChhniEya
monstrosa is taken by another species, the Callorhynchus australis
(Fig. 1788), so called from its having the snout produced into a car-
tilaginous process, which is bent backwards at the extremity, so as
to acquire no small resemblance to a hoe. It is of about the same
size as the Northern Chima^ra, and is of a silvery colour, tinged with
yellowish-brown. The tail is not produced into a filament.
Sub-order II.— Plagiostomata.
General Characters. — In the Plagiosfoinata, the centre of the
vertebral column is usually more or less ossified, and divided into
separate vertebrs ; and even where it still forms a continuous f/^or<2'<i
dorsalis, the boundaries of the vertebrie are indicated by transverse
partitions. The union of the vertebral column with the skull is
effected by means of a joint, which contains a conical cavity. The
skull, as in the preceding sub-order, forms a simple cartilaginous
capsule ; but its anterior margin no longer performs the office of a
jaw, the upper jaw being formed of a separate cartilaginous arch.
The mouth is very wide, and placed quite on the lower surface of the
body, at some distance from the extremity of the snout, which is
greatly inflated to give room for the enormous nasal capsules. The
mouth is always of an arched form, and contains numerous rows of
teeth, of which the inner are continually coming up to replace those
which have been long in use. The branchial sacs are completely
separated, and furnished with distinct apertures for the passage of
the water which has been employed in respiration ; these, in the
Sharks, are placed at the sides of the neck, but in the flattened Rays
they are situated on the lower surface of the body, a little behind the
mouth. On the upper surface of the head, behind the eyes, is a pair
of spiracles, which communicate with the pharynx. The skin is
almost always furnished with the hard bodies already described,
either in the form of scattered spines, or of minute grains covering
the whole skin.
Sub-divisions. — These Fishes are divided by Professor Miiller
into numerous families, which, however, may all be referred to one
of two groups, the Sharks {Squaliiia), and the Rays [Rauna).
The Sharks are at once distinguished by their elongated, spindle-
shaped bodies, their branchial apertures placed on the sides of the
neck, and their pectoral fins of the ordinary form and position. The
symmetrical tail is large and fleshy, furnished with powerful fins,
which render it a most effective agent in progression ; the nose is
usually conical and pointed, the mouth large, and armed with most
formidable cutting teeth, and the upper surface of the head is fre-
quently furnished with a pair of spiracles, although these apertures
are often wanting. This group includes the numerous species of
Sharks and Dog-fishes, which may be distributed into the following
families.
The ScylliidcB, or Dog-fishes, have a short, blunt snout, an anal
fin, two dorsal fins, placed further back than the ventrals, and small
branchial apertures, of which a part stand over the base of the
pectoral fins. The top of the head possesses spiracles, and the
teeth are sharp and tongue-shaped, with three points, a large one in
the middle, and a small one on each side ; but some of the teeth,
which appear to be specially intended for cutting, are finely serrated
along both their edges. The Dog-fishes are also distinguished from
the other Sharks by their oviparous reproduction ; the egg-case, with
its little inmate, has already been figured{Fig. 1787 ante). The Dog-
fishes are amongst the smallest of the Sharks, the largest British
species measuring no more than two or three feet in length. Three
species inhabit the British seas, where one of them occurs in great
abundance, and is often caught by lines intended for other Fish.
Fig. 1789 represents the Small-spotted Dog-fish, which is very
common on our shores._ These Fishes are a source of great loss to
the fishermen on the Eastern coasts of Great Britain. We have seen
Cod and Haddock lines which, when drawn into the boat, were only
loaded with the heads ot Cod and Haddock, the bodies having been
completely eaten away by the Dog-fish. It is, however, of little or
no value. Both species are of a reddish tint, mottled in the one with
small black spots, and adorned in the other with a smaller
number of large round black and white spots. The skin of these
Fishes is commonly used by cabinet-makers as a fine rasp ; it is
known to them by the name of " fish-skin."
Fig. 1789.— The Small-spotted Dog-fish.
The Cai-charida:, or true Sharks, have acute triangular teeth of
very large size, two spineless dorsal fins, of which the anterior is
situated above the space between the pectorals and ventrals, and a
more or less forked tail (Fig. 1789). The spiracles are wanting. To
this family belong the large Sharks of hot climates, of the ferocity
of which, in attacking even human beings when swimming, such
wonderful stories are often related by travellers. Of these the most
celebrated is the White Shark {Carcliarias vulgaris, Fig. 1790),
which appears to occur in almost all seas, is tolerably abundant in
the Mediterranean, and, according to some naturalists, has even
been taken near our own coasts. This terrible Fish attains a length
of twenty-five or thirty feet ; its mouth is very wide, and armed with
Fig. 1790. — Thresher, or Fox Shark.
acute, serrated, cutting teeth, with which, if some of the accounts of
travellers are to be believed, it can readily bite through the body of
a man. It constantly follows ships in warm climates, apparently for
the sake of the garbage and other matters which are thrown over-
board ; but sailors are generally averse to such a formidable neigh-
bour, and means are soon taken to get rid of him. The Shark bites
boldly at almost any bait of sufficient size to suit his enormous
throat, and may generally be taken easily by putting a piece of pork
upon a large hook attached to a chain, and trailing this tempting
bait at the stem of the ship. When hauled on board, the first opera-
tion is usually to cut off the tail, as its great strength renders its
blows exceedingly dangerous.
Another species, which, although an inhabitant of the Mediter-
ranean, is not unfrequently met with on our south coasts, is the Blue
%\iZ.x\^{Carcliarias glaitcits). It sometimes reaches the length of eight
feet ; is an exceedingly bold and voracious Animal, and is regarded
by the fishermen as one of their greatest enemies. The Blue Sharks
live almost entirely upon Fish, of which they must devour a great
number ; and they often annoy the fishermen greatly by hanging
about the boats, seizing the Fish that are being drawn up, and not
only biting through the lines for the legitimate purpose of getting
off with their prey, but even sometimes, apparently, for the mere
pleasure of the mischief. Frequently, however, they get hooked
when thus engaged, when, if they cannot bite through the line, they
immediately roll themselves round so as to wind the line upon their
bodies ; and Mr. Couch states that " this is sometimes done in such
a complicated manner, that he has known a fisherman give up any
attempt to unroll it as a hopeless task." To the drift nets employed
in the Pilchard fishery, on the Cornish coast, it is an equally dan-
gerous enemy, passing along the whole length of the net, and
picking out the Pilchards by biting them away, togetlier with a por-
THE SHARKS.
721
tion of the net in which they are entangled. Many of the old writers
on Natural History celebrate the affection of the Blue Shark for its
young- ; and even in the present day it is a comnnon belief among
sea-faring people, that at the approach of danger, the young Sharks
enter the mouth of their parent, and take shelter in its belly.
Another British species is the Fox Shark {Carcharias vulpes),
which is also known as the Sea Fox, the Sea Ape, and the Thresher ;
the latter name is said to be applied to it from its habit of defending
itself by blows with its tail. It is said to attain a length of fifteen
feet, and specimens have been taken in the British seas thirteen
feet long. Its appearance is rendered very remarkable by the great
length of the upper lobe of the tail.
Fig. 1790.— The White Shark.
The Zygcsnidcs , or Hammer-headed Sharks, are very closely allied
to the CarcJiarida, and differ principally in the singular form of the
head (Fig. 1791), which is very broad, forming a projection on each
side of the front of the body, at the extremity of which the eyes are
situated. The head bears a considerable resemblance to the head
of a hammer, whence the name commonly applied to these crea-
tures. Several species of these curious Fish occur in various parts
of the world ; the common species, Zygcsna -malletis, is found in the
Mediterranean, and also in the warm parts of the ocean. It attains
a length of about twelve feet ; is very ferocious, and is even said to
attack men when bathing.
Fig. 1791.— The Hammer-headed Shark.
In the Lamnida, the two dorsal fins are destitute of spines, the
spiracles are large, and the branchial apertures, which are of very
large size, are all situated in front of the base of the pectoral fins.
There is an anal fin ; the nose is usually long and pyramidal, the
mouth very wide, and the teeth lingulate, not serrated, but some-
times furnished with small lateral points.
In these Sharks, the caudal fin is broadly forked, and the two lobes
are nearly symmetrical. Three species are found in the British seas.
Of these, the Porbeagle {Lamtia cor?iub!Ca), and the Beaumaris
Shark (Z. monensis), rarely attain a length of nine feet ; whilst the
third species, the Basking Shark {Se'lachiis maximus), is the
largest of the whole group of Sharks, measuring occasionally no less
than thirty-six feet. Notwithstanding its great size, .this Fish ap-
pears to be the least ferocious of the Sharks, and its teeth are smaller
in proportion than those of any other species. It appears to be sluo--
gish in Its habits, frequently lying motionless, sunning itself at the
surface of the water, from which circumstance the name of Sun-fish
IS given to it on the north coast of Ireland. When thus engaged, it
will sometimes allow a boat to touch it before moving. It does not
appear to feed on Fishes ; the stomach, when examined, containing
a pulpy mass, apparently consisting of the remains of Invertebrate
Animals : Lmnaus states that it feeds on Medusa-, whilst Pennant
attributes to it a vegetable diet. The branchial apertures are very
large, surrounding the greater part of the neck. It is taken occa-
sionally for the sake of the liver, which yields a large quantity of
oil. The usual way in which it is captured is by the liarpoon ; but
when struck with this instrument, it is said to plunge down into the
water with such force and rapidity as to render it rather a dangerous
prize. In the British Museum is a specimen of this species, which
was caught off the Isle of Wight in 1875. Its length is twenty-eight
feet, circumference thirteen feet, and its liver yielded over a ton of
oil. ..•
The Galeidca have an anal fin and spiracles ; their two dorsal fins
arc destitute of spines, the caudal exceedingly unsymmetrical, and
the spiracles are very small. Two species occur commonly in our
seas. One of these, the Common Tope {Galcus -..■n/garis), known
on some parts of the coast as the Penny Dog and the Miller's Do"-,
attains a length of about six feet, and is very injurious to the fisli-
eries. Its teeth are triangular, sharp, and serrated externally ; and,
like the Blue Shark, when caught on a line, it frequently bites
through, and thus gets away ; but if it fail in this, it has recourse to
the same expedient of twisting the line round the body. Its liver
furnishes an oil, and this is the only use that is made of it when
caught. The other British species, the Smooth Hound [Muste/iis
/avis), although resembling the preceding in its form and general
characters, is remarkably distinguished by the structure of its teeth,
which are fiat, and cover the jaws with a sort of mosaic, similar to
that which prevails amongst the Rays. From this circumstance it
is called the Kay-mouthed Dog in Cornwall. This FTsh is
one of the smallest of the Sharks, and feeds principally upon Crus-
tacea,^ which its pavement-like teeth are admirably adapted for
crushing.
The Notidajiidce resemble the LamiiidiZ in many respects ; but
they have only a single dorsal fin, and the branchial apertures are
six or seven in number. These are comparatively small Fishes,
measuring about three feet in length ; two of them are common in
the Mediterranean.
The Cestrac!ontid<2, of which we have only a single living repre-
sentative, although their Fossil remains are tolerably numerous in
some of the older formations, are distinguished by the form of their
teeth, which are arranged upon the jaws in a pavement-like form,
those in front being pointed, whilst the hinder ones are converted
into broad flat grinders. The form of the body is short and stout ;
the head is large, with prominent eyes ; and the mouth is placed at
the front of the head. There are two dorsal fins, each furnished with
a short, stout spine, a single anal fin, and a pair of spiracles. The
only species, the Cestracion philiipsii, is found in the Eastern seas,
especially on the coast of Australia. In the Spijiacida, the general
form of the body resembles that of the Galcidcs ; and, as in those
Fishes, there are two dorsal fins, but the anal fin is wanting. The
teeth are small and acute ; the spiracles are distinct ; and both the
dorsal fins are furnished with a strong spine. A very common Euro-
pean species is the Picked Dog-fish {Spinax acanthias), which is
found in the European seas, and attains a length of about three feet.
They are said to afford the best food of any of the Sharks, and are
commonly brought to the markets of sea-side towns. The flesh is
often dried ; the liver yields a large quantity of oil ; and when they
occur, as they sometimes do, in vast quantities, their intestines are
employed as manure. Mr. Couch states that he has heard of 20,000
of them being taken in a sean at one time. It is, however, as a
general rule, rather a nuisance to the fishermen, often biting off
great numbers of their hooks. The spines of the dorsal fins are
employed by the Picked Dog-fish as weapons of offence ; it bends
itself into the form of a bow, and then, by a sudden motion, strikes
out with great force ; and so accurate is its aim said to be, that if it
be touched upon the head, it will inflict a wound upon the aggressor
without the least injury to its own skin.
The Scymnida: resemble the Spuiacida in most of their characters,
including the absence of the anal fin, but the dorsals are destitute of
the strong spines characteristic of the preceding family. The
Scym?zid(S arc also shorter and thicker in the body.and the lobes of
the caudal fin are more equal. Some species of this family attain a
considerable size, the Greenland Shark [Scym/ii/s burcalis) some-
times measuring upwards of fourteen feet in length. It is occasion-
ally found on the northern coasts of this country, but generally in-
habits the Arctic seas, where it is one of the greatest enemies of the
Whales, attacking and biting those enormous creatures with the
greatest pertinacity. When it meets with a dead Whale, it scoops
hemispherical pieces out of the body with its enormous jaws, which
border a mouth of from twenty to twenty-four inches in breadth ;
but although the Sharks are constant attendants upon the Whale-
fishers, when they are engaged in cutting the blubber from their
captures, and the men not unfrequently slip into the water amongst
them, Mr. Scoresby states that he never heard of an instance of
4Z
722
THE RA YS.
their being attacked. It is exceedingly tenacious of life, and so
indifferent to wounds, that it will return again to its banquet after
having been driven off by the stab of a knife, which might have been
supposed quite sufficient for its destruction. When cut up, also, the
ditferent parts of the body appear to retain a certain amount of life
for some hours ; and even after decapitation it is said not to be safe
to trust the hand between its formidable jaws. Whales, however,
are not the only food of the Greenland Shark ; it condescends also
to devour small Fishes and Crabs. It appears to be particularly
liable to the attacks of a Parasitic Crustaceous Animal, one or two
inches in length (the Leriiaa clongata of Grant), belonging to the
family Lernceida:, which attaches itself to the eyes, and occurs so
constantly in this situation that it was formerly regarded as a pecu-
liar natural appendage of the eye. This parasite, no doubt, has a
very injurious effect upon the sight of the Animal ; and the sailors
commonly believe that the Greenland Shark is totally blind, as it
never exhibits any desire to escape, even when threatened with a
blow from a knife or lance. Several other species of this family are
found in the seas of different parts of the world.
The Squati?iidcB, at the first glance, exhibit a considerable resem-
blance to the Fishes of the following group, the body being much
depressed, and the pectoral and ventral fins large and broad, giving
them a discoid form. Like the Fishes of the preceding families,
they are destitute of an anal fin, and have a pair of spiracles on the
top of the head, which is very broad, and bears the eyes on its upper
surface instead of on the sides. The mouth is very wide, and sit-
uated quite at the front of the head ; and the branchial orifices are
long, and placed in a cleft, which separates the large pectoral fins
from the head. Both the pectoral and ventral fins are broad, and
extended laterally ; there are two dorsal fins placed upon the caudal
portion of the body, behind the ventrals ; the anal fin is wanting,
and the caudal is nearly, or quite, symmetrical.
The typical species of this family, the Squafina angclus, is not
uncommon in our seas ; it is known both in England, and in several
other countries, by the name of the Angel, which certainly, as hinted
by Mr. Yarrell, was never given to it for its beauty. It is also called
the IVIonk-fish in some places, probably from the hooded appearance
of its head ; and Mr. Donovan states that its form has also attained
for it the name of the Fiddle-fish. It is said sometimes to attain a
length of seven or eight feet, and is an exceedingly voracious Fish,
swimming close to the bottom of the water, and feeding principally
on the common Flat Fishes which are to be met with in abundance
in such situations. Its flesh was formerly held in some esteem, but
it is now considered coarse, and seldom eaten. The skin, however,
is much used for polishing cabinet work, and also affords a fine sort
of shagreen. A species found in the Mediterranean, the Squatina
aculcata, is distinguished by having a row of strong spines along the
back.
The second group of the Plagiosfotnafa, the Raiina, including
the Fishes commonly known as Rays, are distinguished at the first
glance by the singular flattened discoid form of their bodies. The
greater part of this disc is made up of the pectoral fins, which are
extremely large, and supported upon a remarkable modification of
the bones of the anterior members. The scapular arch is firmly
attached to the hinder part of the head, and its two sides are also
united above the vertebrse (of what may be called the cervical region),
which are amalgamated together so as to form a continuous cylinder.
The two sides of the scapular arch also unite below, so that they
form a complete ring, from each side of which long curved cartilages
are given off, serving to support the rays of the pectoral fins. These
cartilaginous supports not only pass backwards from the scapular
arch, along the sides of the body, but also extend in front of it to the
sides of the head, where they unite with other cartilages springing
from the apex to the skull. They also support fin rays, so that the
whole of both sides of the body, from the point of the snout to the
base of the tail, is usually margined with a broad fin. The rays sup-
porting these fins are composed of numerous small cartilaginous
joints, and the fins themselves are usually formed by a thick layer of
muscles. At the extremity of the body, close to the anus, the ventral
fins are situated ; in the males they are furnished with peculiar ap-
pendages, like those of the Sharks. The perpendicular fins are very
variable in their development, but always of small size ; the caudal
fin is olten wanting ; and the dorsal and anal fins, when present, are
always placed upon the tail, often close to its extremity. The former
are frequently furnished with long spines, similar to those of many
Sharks existing without a fin, and form a most formidable weapon,
with which the Fishes are said to inflict dangerous wounds.
The eyes are situated on the upper surface ; but it must be borne
in mind that this is the back of the Animal, and not the side, as in
the ordinary Flat Fishes ; behind the eyes are a pair of large
spiracles. The lower, or ventral surface, is very flat, and upon it are
situated the orifices of the nose and the mouth, the branchial aper-
tures (five on each side), and the anus. The mouth is smaller in
proportion than in the Sharks, and the jaws are covered either with
numerous rows of small pointed teeth, or with a sort of mosaic
flattened molars, which sometimes take the form of broad bony
plates. It is remarkable that, in some species, the adult males
possess teeth of the former description, whilst the young males and
the females are furnished with grinding teeth. The skin is naked,
but in most cases beset with a considerable number of spines, or
thorns, which are sometimes scattered over the surface of the body,
or arranged in rows, especially along the tail. The structure of
these spines is very peculiar. They consist of a sort of cartilaginous
cup imbedded in the skin, from the concavity of which springs an
acute spine, formed entirely of dentine, and in many cases exactly
resembling a true tooth in its structure. They are of very various
sizes, sometimes mere prickles ; whilst in other cases they constitute
most formidable offensive weapons.
The Rays are all Oviparous, and their eggs are inclosed in brown
leathery capsules, of a quadrangular form, like those of the Dog-
fishes, and furnished, like them, with elongated processes at their
angles. They are all marine, and many of them attain a very large
size. Some of them, in fact, acquire almost gigantic proportions,
and weigh several hundredweights. We are told by some writers,
that in Marseilles they may occasionally be seen so large, that when
they are hung from the second floor of a house, the tail will still
touch the ground ; and there is a record of the capture of a gigantic
Ray on the coast of New Jersey, which required the united efforts of
six oxen, two horses, and two-and-twenty men, to get it safely
landed ! This Fish was described as measuring eighteen feet in
diameter, and its weight is said to have been five tons. Another
enormous species is said to be an object of great terror to the pearl
divers, as it occasionally passes over them, and holds them down till
they are drowned ; but the degree of dependence to be placed on
these statements is very doubtful. Their habits are very predacious ;
they keep close to the bottom, moving about with a peculiar sliding
action in pursuit of the small Fishes, JSIollusca and Crustacea, which
constitute their ordinary food.
Sub-divisions. — Professor Miiller divides the Rays into six
families. Of these, the Rhinobatidtz appear to unite the characters of
the Sharks and Rays in the greatest degree, resembling the former
in the general conformation of the body ; and, even to a great extent,
in the position of the fins, the pectoral fins being even smaller than
those of the Angel Sharks. The first dorsal fin is situated above the
ventrals ; the caudal is well developed and unsymmetrical ; and their
teeth are in the form of mosaic.
The Fishes of this family inhabit the ssas of most parts of the
world, but none have been taken on the British coasts. A Brazilian
species, Rhiiiobafus electricus, is said to possess electrical proper-
ties; but this statement requires confirmation. The most singular
form, and the one which exhibits the closest resemblance to the
Sharks, is the Saw-fish [Pristis antiquoruin, Fig. 1792), which has
Fig. 1792. — The Saw-fish.
been associated with the Sharks by some authors ; and might, per-
haps, be regarded with justice as the type of a distinct family. The
most remarkable character presented by this Fish, consists in the
prolongation of the point of the snout into a sword-like organ, which
is armed along its edges with strong, tooth-like spines. With this
formidable weapon, the Saw-fish attacks even the largest Cetaceous
Animals, upon which it often inflicts very serious injuries. The true
teeth are very small. The species of Saw-fish, of which it is pro-
bable there are several, are distributed in the seas of most parts of
the world ; but they rarely approach the shores. They often attain
a length of twelve or flfteen feet.
From the RhinobatidcB, we pass to the family of Torpedinida, or
Electric Rays, distinguished by their rounded smooth bodies, and
by the possession of an electrical apparatus. The latter is disposed
in two masses, one on each side of the skull, occupymg the space
between that capsule and the base of the pectoral fin. It is com-
posed of a multitude of perpendicular gelatinous columns, separated
by membranous partitions, which receive an immense number of fine
nervous threads, derived from the eighth pair of nerves {ncrin vagi).
Neariy twenty species of this singular family are known ; they m-
habit the seas of all parts of the world ; and all, probably, possess
electrical powers. Two or three species are found m the European
seas especially in the Mediterranean, and one or two of these have
occurred on the British coasts ; but there appears to be some doubt
as to the actual species taken by our fishermen. The electrical
powers of the Torpedo were well known to the ancients ; and as
font- asro as the time of Dioscorides, the shock communicated by
this^'fish was recommended for medical purposes, and especially for
pains of the head. This may be considered as the earliest record ot
THE RAYS.
723
the application of electricity to medicine. In later times it was
applied to the cure of gout, the patient being- directed to keep his
foot on the fish until the numbness extended to the knees."
(Yarrell). The real object of the electrical powers with which this
and a few other Fishes are endowed, is not yet very clearly ascer-
tained ; and we can only judge from probability that this property is
given them partly for their protection from danger, and partly to
enable them to obtain food. This latter office is probably one of
great importance to the Torpedo, which is e.^:ceedingly slow in its
movements:. Mr. Couch also thinks that the electricity of this
Animal may have some influence upon the digestibility of the crea-
tures killed by it, rendering them " more readily disposed to pass
into a state of decomposition, in which condition the digestive powers
more speedily and effectually act upon them." He adds — " If any
creature more than others might seem to require such a preparation
of its food, it is the Cramp-ray, the whole canal of whoso intestine is
not more than half as long as the stomach." (Fig. 1793.)
a i c d
F'g- 1 793- — Anatomy of the Torpedo. The anterior part of the dorsal skin
is removed, showing the electrical organs, brain, and nerves.
a, brain ; I), skin, with its glands ; c, eye, with spiracle behind it ; d, electrical
organ ; <% branchiae ; f, nerves running to the pectoral fin ; g, spinal chord ;
h, branches of the ncrvus vagus passing to the electrical organ ; i, lateral
nerve.
The True Rays, or Raiidw, have the snout more or less pointed,
frequently produced, and the disc formed by the body and pectoral
fins is usually of a rhomboidal figure. The tail is slender, and bears
two small dorsal fins near the extremity ; the caudal fin is also some-
times present. To this family belong all the best known species,
including the Skate and Thornback, so common in our markets.
The British seas are inhabited by eight or nine species, several of
which are very common, and some of them attain a large size ;
Pennant mentions a Skate that weighed two hundred pounds.
The most abundant species is the Thornback {Raja clavafa, Fig.
1794) ; and this and the Homelyn Ray {R. niaculata) are the species
most commonly brought to the London market, where they are both
sold as Skate. The females are usually denominated maids. The
Sharp-nosed Ray (7?. oxyrhynchiis) is said by Mr. Yarrell to be the
favourite species with the French. The Raridce are exceeding
voracious Animals, devouring great numbers of small Fishes, Crus-
tacea and Mollusca ; and the strength of their jaws is so great that
they crush the hard shells of the latter Animals without difficulty.
They are taken both by net and line ; and, when hooked, some of
them struggle violently.
In the family TrygonidcB, or the Sting-Raj's, the tail is armed
with a long, denticulated spine, but bears no dorsal fin ; the pectoral
fins are large, and unite in front of the head, and the teeth are of
small size. The Sting-Ray is not uncommon in the Mediterranean ;
it was well known to the ancients, who attributed the most extra-
ordinary venomous powers to its spine, which, no doubt, from its
barbed structure, must inflict an exceedingly painful wound. It
seems probable, from the observations of some writers, that this
spine is deciduous, as specimens have been seen with a second small
spine close to the base of the first. The spines of some species of
Trygonidcs are often used by the natives of savage countries to form
barbed spear and arrow-heads.
According to Mr. Couch, the Common Sting- Ray (TV^.^VJW j<aj-
tinacd) of the Mediterranean, wliich occurs pretty frequently on our
south coast, defends itself in a manner that " shows its conscious-
ness of the formidable weapon it carries on its tail. When seized or
terrified, its habit is to twist its long, slender, and flexible tail round
the object of attack, and, with the serrated spine, tear the surface,
lacerating it in a manner calculated to produce vio!e;it inflamma-
tion." It is also said occasionally to strike its prey fijrst with the
spine, and afterwards to secure it by twisting the tail round it. Its
flesh is said to be very bad.
Nearly allied to the Sting-Rays is the curious family of the
Cephalopterid(B, which agree with the former in having the jaws
armed with numerous small teeth, and the tail with a long, barbed
spine ; but differ in the form of the pectoral fins, and in having a
small dorsal fin. The head in these Fishes projects a little beyond
FJg. 1794. — The Thornback.
the anterior margin of the pectoral fins, and is furnished with a pair
of curious little fins, which stand out in front of it like horns. The
pectoral fins are very wide and pointed. An enormous species, the
Cephaloptera giorna, is found in the Mediterranean ; and it seems
probable, that if there be any truth in the statements already referred
to, regarding the gigantic enemy of the pearl fishers, the Ray in
question would belong to this group. A specimen of a Cephaloptera
has been taken upon the Irish coast, but Mr. Yarrell was unable to
determine the species ; it measured forty-five inches across the pec-
toral fins.
The MyliobatidcB, or Eagle Rays, resemble the preceding Fishes
in most of their characters ; they are, however, destitute of the small
horn-like fins on the front of the head, and the jaws are covered
with broad hexagonal plates instead of teeth. The tail, like that of
the Cephalopterides, is very long and slender, armed with a strong
spine, and furnished with a small dorsal fin, and the pectorals are
very broad, and do not meet in front of the head. These Fishes are
commonly known as Eagle Rays, from the great size of the pectoral
fins, which present a considerable resemblance to a pair of wings ;
they are also called Whip Rays, on account of the form of the
tail.
The Eagle Ray {Myliobatls aquila) is not uncommon m the
Mediterranean, where the wounds inflicted by its spine are so much
dreaded by the fishermen that they always cut off the tail as soon as
the Fish comes within reach. Several other species are found in the
seas of warm climates.
The collection of the British Museum has numerous preserved
specimens of Fishes. Amongst the Selachia is a fine one of the
Basking Shark {Selache maxi/?ia), already referred to. It was caught
offShanklin, Isle of Wight, on March 2nd, 1875, measured twenty-
eight feet in length, with a maximum circumference of 13 feet.
Among others of the Selachia are the following, which may be seen
in the Museum : —
724
THE SHARK TRIBE.
SELACHIA, &C,
Sturgeon
Greenland Shark
Round Nosed Sturgeon
Broad Do.
Sharp Do.
Giildenstadt's Sturgeon
Spoonbill Sturgeon . ,
Shovel Fish
Sharp-nosed Jaurus . .
Southern Chirna2ra
Sharks (various)
Blue Shark
Hound Fish
Tiger Tope
Hammer Headed Shark
Black Mouthed Shark
Tope
Smith's Lcptocharias. .
Edward's Shark
Glaucous Siburon
Zebra Shark
Cirrus Noted Shark .
Bearded Nebrius
Large Spotted Dog Fish
Small Do.
African Dog Fish
Spinet Dog Fish \ . .
Port Jackson Shark . .
Tentaculated Saw Fish
Angel Fish
Curve-mouthed Rhina
Rhina (various)
Sharp-nosed Ray
Notched Electric Ray
Halavi Rhinobatum . ,
Sandy Ray
Thornback, or Skate .
Homelyn Ray . .
Ray, large-nosed
Spotted Sting Ray
Pearled Ray . .
Lamprey
Saw Fish
Acipcnscrsiurio
Seym mis borealis
A cijienscr brcvirostris
do. sturio
do. maculosus
do. gilldenstadfii
Polyodon spaitila
Scap/u'rhynchus platurhynchtts
Squalus oxyrhyncJucs
Chimccra antarctica . .
Carcharias obscurus
do. bleskeri . .
do. gangeticus
Squahis glaucus
Miistchcs IcBvis
Galeoccrdo tigrinus ..
Zygoma malleus
Pristiurus melanostomas . .
Giileus cam's . .
Lcptocharias smithii
Scyllmm capetise
Oxyrhinus glauctis ..
Stcgostoma fasiatiim
Chiloscylium cirratum
Nebrius cirratum
Scyllium stellare
do. canicula
do. africanum . .
Acaiitliias blai7ivilii \ . .
do. do. I . .
Ceiitrophorus ccelolepis ) . .
Heterodotitus philippi
Pristiophorus japoiiicus
Squatina vulgaris . .
Rhina aticyiosto?nus . .
Rhinobatus gramclatus
do. columne . .
do. blochii . .
Urogymmis asperrimus
Raja nomer . .
do. oxyrhynchus
Torpedo tiobilia?ia
Rhinobatus halari ..
Raja circular is
do. clavata ..
do. maculata
Raja inacrorhy7ichus
Trygon uarnak
Hypolophus septen . .
Pctromy~o!t marinus
Prist is pectinatus
Doggerbank.
Anstruther, iSth March, 1878.
North America.
Berwick-on-Tweed.
Gulf of Florida.
Russia.
Mississippi, North America.
River Ohio.
West Indies and South Australia.
South Africa and South Australia.
Madeira.
Zanzibar.
Isle of Viti-Levu.
Gibraltar.
Cape Seas.
Indian Seas.
South Australia.
Zanzibar.
Cape Seas.
Cubenda Bay.
Cape of Good Hope.
Cape Seas.
India.
West India Islands.
Do.
Mediterranean.
English Coast.
Cape Seas.
Juan Fernandez.
Australia.
North West coast of Portugal.
South Australia.
Japan.
Tasmania.
China.
India.
Zanzibar.
Cape Seas.
West Africa.
Sweden.
Sweden.
Plymouth.
Red Sea.
Madeira.
Sweden.
Madeira.
Madeira.
Red Sea.
Indian Ocean.
England.
San Fernando, Trinid.nl.
THE MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.
m
CHAPTER XXXIX.
DIVISION II.— INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS— THE MOLLUSCS.
Ol^IE of our readers, but especially those of
younger growth, will, perhaps, appreciate
the department of Natural History on which
we here enter more than any of those which
have been previously dealt with. Among its
objects are the shells of the sea-shore, which
are of interest to young and old. There are,
too, some of our most favourite articles of
food — such as the Oyster, the Mussel, the
Crab, &c. From some of them the precious
Pearl is drawn. But in dealing with them
we entirely forsake what are called Vcrte-
Iratc .<4«/wrt/j, which have a bony and articulated
structure within their bodies. All that we have yet
described have a skeleton. The Molluscous Animals
'have none. Although not exactly true, in the unre-
stricted sense of the foUow'ing statement, they are
characterised by having their bones outside of their
bodies, while those Animals already described have
them internally.
The Molluscous division of Animals consists of
creatures whose bodies are universally of a soft con-
sistence. They are inclosed within a soft, flexible
skin, called the mantel, which possesses great con-
tractile power ; and their motions are principally
performed by the extension and contraction of a part
of their substance. The symmetrical arrangement of all the organs
on each side of a central line, so remarkable in the preceding Xy\\\-
sionotfertedrata, here almost disappears, or is only recognisable in
the position of the organs of sense attached to the head. The nervous
system consists either of a single Ganglmi, giving off filaments to
the various organs of the body, or of several ganglia, placed some-
Vi'hat irregularly in different parts of the body, communicating by
nervous threads with a larger mass placed in the head, or in the
neighbourhood of the ossophagus. The mass consists of several
ganglia, of which the more important, constituting the brain, are
placed above the cesophagus. These are generally accompanied by
other ganglia placed below that organ, which are united by filaments
with the supraoesophageal ganglia, or brain ; thus forming a ring
surrounding the cesophagus. The supraa;sophageal ganglia furnish
the nerves to the special organs of sense placed upon the head. The
ganglia belonging to the different organs of the body communicate
with the ring surrounding the cesophagus.
Most of the Molliisca possess special organs of touch, in the
shape of tentacles, arms, or lobes, situated ou the head, or in the
neighbourhood of the mouth, or of cirri upon other parts of the body.
In addition to these organs, the skin, which is always soft, appears
to possess great sensibility. The tentacles of the Mollusca are
either two or four in number ; they are capable of being completely
retracted into the head by a process very similar to the turning in of
the finger of a glove, and are again exserted by reversing the pro-
cess. The eyes, when present, are two in number, sometimes placed
immediately on the head, sometimes supported at the extremity, or
on the sides, of the tentacles. In the highest class, the visual organs
attain a perfection equal to that exhibited by the Fishes — the lowest
class of Vertebrated Animals.
In some of the lower Mollusca, small coloured points are met with,
sometimes singly in the neighbourhood of the brain, and occasion-
ally in considerable numbers on the edges of the mantle. These,
from their structure and appearance, have received the denomination
of ocelli, and have been regarded as rudimentary eyes — a determina-
tion which, although it may be correct in some instances, is very
doubtful in others. It is remarkable, also, that many species, which
are quite destitute of eyes when arrived at their mature form, are
furnished with those organs at their first issuing from the egg.
Auditory, or hearing, organs appear to be possessed by nearly all
the Molhisca. They usually consist of small vesicles, placed close
to the cephalic ganglia, containing a clear fluid and a small calcar-
eous concretion (otolithe), which is sometimes of a roundish, at
others of a crystalline, figure, and is in a perpetual state of vibration.
The senses of smell and taste also appear to be e.xercised, to a certain
extent, by most of these animals ; but whether any organs specially
devoted to these functions really exist, must still be considered
doubtful.
The movements of the Mollusca are generally executed by means
of a muscular organ, called the foot, which varies greatly in its form,
in accordance with the habits of the creature. The foot consists of
a mass of muscular fibres, running in various directions, by the con-
traction of which its movements are effected. In a great number of
Mollusca the foot forms aflat disc (Fig. 1795), which adheres to any
substance to which it may be applied ; and thus,
by the alternate contraction and dilatation of its
different parts, enables its possessor to crawl
slowly along. In others, the foot is bent upon
itself, so that its sudden extension causes the
animal to perform a considerable leap. The foot
is also the agent by means of which the burrowing
species bury themselves in the sand or mud ; and
in the species whose instinct leads them to bore
into the solid rock, it is also called into requisition ;
its surface in these cases being covered with minute
silicious particles, which assist greatly in the en-
largement of its owner's stony dwelling. But
although most Mollusca possess a greater or less
power of motion, others are confined to a single spot,
during all but the earliest period of their existence.
These have no occasion for a foot ; and in them
this organ is either wholly undeveloped (as in the
Oyster), or serves merely to support a glandular organ, from which
a silky matter (called the hyssus) is secreted, which serves to attach
the animal to submarine objects. This modification occurs in the
common Mussel {Mytilus edulis) ; but it is still more remarkable in
the PhiJKT: (Fig. 1796), in which the silky matter is of a very fine
texture, and so abundant that it is woven into small articles of wear-
ing apparel, such as gloves and stockings.
In the highest class of Mollusca, the Cephalopoda, the mouth is
surrounded by a variable number of arms (Fig. 1797), which not
only serve as organs of motion, but for the capture of prey. To
render these prehensile organs efficient, they are covered, on the
inner surface, with numerous cup-like sucking organs.
rig. 1795. — Conus
hebraicus.
Fig. 1796. — Pinna, with its byssus.
The intestinal canal in the Mollusca presents almost every variety
of form, from a simple cavity to a complicated intestine. It is, how-
ever, always furnished with two openings, a mouth and an anus, the
latter being frequently situated on the side, of the body, not far from
the anterior extremity. The liver is always of great size, generally
enveloping all the other intestines.
The circulation of the blood is effected by means of a distinct
heart, which usually communicates with a regular vascular system ;
but, in some instances, the circulation takes place in a system of
sinuses or cavities amongst the organs of the body. In the former
case, the heart is often composed of two or more chambers, from
which large arteries arise to convey the blood to the various organs.
It is again collected in the veins, through which it passes to the
neighbourhood of the respiratory organs, where it is aerated by
contact with the surrounding medium, and then passes to the heart.
As most Mollusca are aquatic in their habits, their respiration is
almost always effected by means of branchia; (Fig. 1798). These
are usually composed of a series of minute lamina:, or of broad plates,
over which the water flows. They are sometimes attached to the
surface of the body, but generaly inclosed within the mantle, or
placed in a cavity in its interior, called the branchial or respiratory
chamber. The water necessary for respiration is sometimes drawn
into this cavity, and again expelled by muscular contraction. In this
case its recoil frequently serves to drive the animal slowly through the
water; and some species swim with great rapidity in this manner.
In other cases, the inner walls of the canals, through which the
water passes, are lined with cilia, by the action of which a constant
current is kept up. Not unfrequcntly these canals are drawn out
into tubes (Fig. 1799), called siphons, which are often of great
length in the burrowing species.
The air breathing species, of which the Common Snails and Slugs
are well-known examples, are furnished with a pulmonary sac or
/26
CHARACTERS OP THE MOLLUSCS.
lung, into which the air penetrates ; and where it comes in contact
with the blood contained in the numerous vessels with which the
walls of the sac are supplied. Many of these animals live in water ;
but they are compelled to come to the surface to breathe ; and all of
them ai)pear to require a moist surface.
Fig. 1797. — Octopus hawaunsis.
Most of the Mollucsd are protected by a hard calcareous covering,
or shell, which is secreted by the mantle, and is gradually increased
in size, in proportion to the growth of the animal. In many this is
composed of a single piece (Fig. 1800, Trochus), which is usually a
spiral tube, gradually increasing in size towards the open extremity
from which the animal protrudes itself when in action. Shells of this
description are called Univalves. In others the shell is composed
of two pieces or Valves (Fig. 1801, Feciunculus), attached to each
Fig. 179S.— Organs of circulation and respiration in the Cuttle Fish (Sepia).
c, heart ; as, superior artery ; a, ventral artery, with its branches azi ; vc,
principal vein, or vena cava ; cb, branchial hearts ; /';-, branchise • vb
branchial vein ; bu, bulb of branchial vein ; ab, branchial arteries ; vv,
ventral veins.
other at one point by a hinge, which is usually furnished with an
elastic ligament, serving to open the valves, when the tension of
peculiar muscles whose office it is to keep the shell close, is re-
moved. This is denominated a Bivalve shell. These differences in
the structure of the shell correspond with differences in the con-
formation of the animals. The Bivalve Alolliisca exhibit no traces of
any distinct head ; whilst in the Univalves, this part of the body is
well-marked, and usually furnished with special organs of sense
(tentacula, eyes, &c).
Fig. 1799. — Psaminobm, with long siphons.
The older naturalists also recognised a group of multivalve shells,
or shells composed of several valves. The majority of these be-
longed to the Cirrhopod order of Crjistacea, which were regarded
as Mollusca by the earlier observers. The Pholades, however,
which in other respects are true Bivalve Mollusca, are furnished
with a pair of accessory plates in the neighbourhood of the hinge,
whilst in the Chitons (Fig. 1802 ), a small, but singular group of
Mollusca, near allied to the Univalve Limpets, have an oval shell
composed of eight movable plates, which give them a great re-
semblance to enormous Woodlice ; and they have been regarded
as forming a sort of transition towards the Articulated Division.
Fig. 1800. — Univalve Shell.
( Trochus').
Fig. iSoi.— Bivalve Shell.
i^fcciuiuulus).
Many Mollusca are not furnished with a shell, or have only a
small calcareous plate inclosed within the mantle. These are
called Awaked Mollusca ; but it is remarkable that most of them are
provided with a small shell at their first quitting the eg^. In the
shell-bearing or Testaceous Mollusca, this embryonic shell, which
often differs greatly in shape and texture from the shell of the
mature animal, forms the commencement of the latter, additions
being constantly made to its free edge by the secretion of calcareous
matter at the edge of the mantle.
Fig. 1S02. — Chiton (side view).
The shell consists mostly of carbonate of lime, with a small quan-
tity of animal matter. The calcareous matter is deposited in the
cells of the edge of the mantle, which are in contact with the free
margin of the shell. In these it gradually increases in quantity
until they harden, and become attached to the previous shell forma-
tion. In this manner, as the animal continues growing, these
attached portions of the mantle are thrown off, and left behind ; and
it is usually only at the margin of the shell that the deposition of
new shelly matter is effected. The delicate membranous part of the
mantle, which lines the interior of that part of the shell inhabited by
the animal, has, however, the power of secreting a thin layer of
shelly matter upon the inner surface. This is frequently of a pearly
lustre ; and, in many bivalves, a new layer of this substance is de-
posited at the same time that the size of the shell is increased by
additions to its margins ; for, it must be observed, that the formation
of new shell is not constantly going on, but appears to be subject to
<r3
DIVISIONS OF THE MOLLUSCS.
•727
periodical interruptions, indicated by lines on the surface of the
shell ; these are called lines of growth. In many cases, the margin
of the mantle, instead of being even, presents lobes or tubercles,
which produce corresponding irregularities, ribs, tubercles, or
spines, on the surface of the shell (Fig. 1803, the Miircx.) In this
manner, as the spines and other projections are usually formed at
the mouth of the shell, at the close of each period of growtli the
surface of the shell becomes more or less covered with a series of
these prominences, each of which indicates the conclusion of a
period of increase. When these spines stand in the way of the
further growth of the shell the creature is able to remove them, pro-
bably by the action of some solvent fluid.
The shell is almost alw.iys coated with a layer of animal matter (the
cj>!dcrmts), of greater or less tliickncss. It is of a horny consistence,
and serves to protect the shell from the action of the carbonic acid,
which is often dissolved in great quantity, especially in fresh water.
It is in fresh-water shells that this layer of epidermis attains its
greatest development, and the colours of these are generally due to it.
in many places, however, the epidermis is an insufficient protection
against the corroding action of the water, which often cats deeply
into the substance of the shells of the Mollusca, making it their
habitation.
Fig. 1S03.— Tlie Miiirx.
Sexual reproduction prevails amongst the I\L}I!nsca , and it is
only in the lowest forms that we meet with gemmiparous propaga-
tion. The se.xes are generally on separate individuals; but herma-
phrodism is not uncommon. Nearly all these animals are also truly
Oviparous, although a few produce living offspring ; the ova being
retained in the oviduct until the exclusion of the young animals.
The eggs vary greatly in form. They are sometimes, as in the Land-
snails, laid separately, each inclosed in a shell of variable consist-
ence ; but in most cases they are agglutinated together into a mass,
which sometimes takes the form of a ribbon, attached by one of its
edges to some submarine body. In some Marine species the eggs
are inclosed in leathery capsules, which are often
united to form a large mass. Each capsule con-
E< \\\ tains numerous eggs.
The young Mollusc, whilst still in the ^gg, is
almost always furnished with a delicate, pellucid
shell, even when it is ultimately to be naked. In
this case the embryonic shell is cast soon after the
Fig.1804. — Egg young animal makes its escape from the egg. The
o{ Lym)teus\N\\\\ young of the sedentary species, also, are active at
the embryo, this stage of their existence swimming freely about
in the water, until they select some spot in which to
take up their permanent abode.
Before concluding our remarks on the Shell-kind of Molluscs, wo
may address a few familiar words to the young reader. One of the
greatest charms to youth when on a visit to the seaside is the plea-
sure of searching for shells. The study of shells has given rise to a
branch of science called " Conchology," or Shell-science. We have
already in part defined a shell, as distinguished from the bones of
vertebrated animals. When, however, we turn to the Molluscs, we
find that Nature has specially arranged for their protection against
their enemies by giving them an external covering, which also pre-
vents them from accident, when, as in the case of Lobsters, they
take to leaping from an eminence. In certain respects they resemble
the Tortoise, Turtle, and others of that kind, whose outside shell or
carapace affords similar protection. Meeting with a foe, the outside
shell of certain of the Mollusca presents a formidable resistance, and
is thus frequently the means of their escape. Then, again, the
form of the shell is such as to give the greatest strength with the
least possible expenditure of material. If we try to crush a square
figure, having the same weight, area, &c.,as one of a circular form, we
shall find that the former will easily give way to the force we employ,
while the latter resists our attempt. In this we find the evidence of
Creative design, highly blending circumstances to specific objects ;
the material or dead matter being made conducive to the comforts
and necessities of the existence of the Animal.
In treating of the Mollusca we do not propose to enter into the
various scientific details involved in the subject, which would be of
interest to the professed Natur.alist, yet but little appreciated by
the general reader. After briefiy describing some forms which are not
generally known, we shall select some of the most interesting species,
&c., of the Mollusca Proper for more extended description and
illustration, especially as the shells of many of these are highly
admired, while, in numerous instances, the bodies afford a delicious
and nourishing article of food.
General divisions. — Although these arc the general character-
istics of the Animals belonging to the Molluscous division, those form-
ing the two first classes, the Bryozod CGreek, Bryoii, moss, and zoon,
an animal), and the Timicata (Latin, Tu}jica, a tunic), and
especially the former, differ from the other Mollusca in so many
respects that they have been formed into a separate sub-division,
the Molluscoids. (Like-Molluscs.) They are distinguished from
the true Mollusca by the very low development of the nervous system ,
which is composed only of a single ganglion, placed in the neigh-
bourhood of the oesophagus, and giving off nerves in various
directions. Of these two classes, the Bryozoa are characterised by
the presence of tentacular organs in the neighbourhood of the mouth,
while the Tunicata are destitute of such organs.
SUB-DIVISION I.— MOLLUSCOIDA.
Class I.— Bryozoa.
General Characters. — The class of ^ryosoa is composed of
Animals which always grow together upon a common stock, in the
same manner as the compound Polypes, with which they were for-
merly arranged. Each Animal resides in a separate cell, within
which it can usually retract itself entirely ; the cells are sometimes
soft and flexible, sometimes horny, and sometimes calcareous. They
frequently stand upon short footstalks, rising from a tubular stock,
which creeps over the surface of stones and aquatic plants, in the
same way as the horny stems of many of the Hydroid Polypes. In
some cases the cells are sessile, forming a crust upon submarine
objects ; whilst in others the colony is attached only by its base, with
the opposite extremity floating freely in the water. In these the
stock is more or less branched, and often leaf-like.
The cells are in general partially free ; but in some of the stony
species they form a calcareous mass, presenting some resemblance
to the true Corals, from which, however, they may always be distin-
guished by the absence of the calcareous partitions which the latter
invariably exhibit. In some species, the cells arc closed by a cover
when the animal is withdrawn ; but this protection is generally
wanting ; and in the species with flexible cells, the complete re-
traction of the Animal draws in the edges of the cell, which then
closes the aperture entirely. The interior of the cell is lined by the
skin of the Animal, and the cavity of the body is filled with fluid, in
which the intestinal canal floats freely. It also contains the muscles
by which the Animal protrudes and retracts itself.
The fluid, which is perfectly clear and transparent, is kept in con-
stant motion by the action of cilia, with which the inner surface of
the cavity, and the outer surface of the intestine, are covered ; and
this movement, which extends into the tube of the common stock,
is interesting to the Naturalist, as it is apparently equivalent to a
true circulation of the blood.
The most characteristic peculiarity of the Bryozoa is their posses-
sion of ciliated tentacula placed at the anterior extremity of the
body. By the action of the cilia a sort of vortex, or whirlpool, is
produced in the water, by which the minute Animals that constitute
the food of the creature are carried down into the mouth, which is
placed between them.
These tentacles proTjably serve also as respiratory organs, as they
communicate at their bases with the general cavity ; and the fluid,
with which this is filled, appears to circulate in the tentacles by
ciliary action. The mouth leads into a muscular oesophagus, below
which, nearly at the bottom of the cavity of the body, the stomach is
situated. The intestine springs from the upper part of the stomach,
near the point where the oesophagus enters, and leads to an anal
opening, situated just below the tentacula. These parts are well
shown in the engraving (Fig. 1805), which affords a good illustration
of the subject.
The colonics of the Bryozoa are, of course, increased by gemmi-
parous budding reproduction ; but the establishment of new colonics
takes place by the ordinary mode of propagation by ova ; and it is
728
MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS— THE TUNIC ATA.
somewhat singular that, in these sedentary animals, the sexes are
frequently, if not always, on separate individuals. The sexual organs
are attached either to the surface of the intestine, or to the inner wall
of the cavity of the body. They are seen at the bottom of the
stomach in the central individual of the group figured (Fig. I805).
The contents of these organs (ova and spermatozoa) appear to be
set free in the cavity of the body, where they are carried from place
to place by the currents of the nutritive fluid, and in this manner
come in contact. The impregnated eggs escape into the water
through a minute aperture pierced close to the anus. The embryo
breaks out of the a-g'g in the form of a ciliated animalcule, which
swims about for some time without change. It then becomes cup-
shaped, and, by degrees, tentacles make their appearance at its
upper margin, when the little creature fixes itself by its lower ex-
Fig. 1605. — The Plumatella.
a, a group of the natural size ; b, three individuals magnified ; c, anus.
The individual on the left is completely retracted within its cell ; that in the
middle is seen from behind ; and that on the right from the side,
tremity, and becomes a simple Bryozoon. The changes which the
Bryozoon undergoes are curious. It soon begins to form buds at
its base, or gives off a creeping stem from which these arise at
intervals ; and in this manner a new colony is formed. In some
cases the development of the embryo presents very remarkable
phenomena. A ciliated embryo is produced in each &g^ ; and in the
interior of this, whilst still enclosed in the &gg, two little Bryozoa,
furnished with tentacula, make their appearance. The embryo then
makes its escape, swims about for a time, and then attaches itself,
when the little creatures enclosed in it breakout, and lay the founda-
tion of a new colony.
Sub-divisions. — The Bryozoa form two very distinct orders. In
the Infuiidibulata, the animals, which are all marine, are cha-
racterised by having the tentacles placed in a
circle round the mouth (Fig. 1806); whilst in the
Lophopoda, which inhabit fresh water, these
organs are situated upon two arms given off from
the sides of the body (Fig. 1805).
Order I.— Infundibulata.
The common Flustrce or Sea-mats, so abundant
on ourshores, are well-known examplesof thisorder.
They are flat and foliaceous, or leaf-like, in form,
presenting a considerable resemblance in appear-
ance to pale brown sea-weeds, with which they are,
in fact, generally confounded by sea-side visitors.
But, when carefully examined, these leaf-like
bodies will be found to consist of a multitude of
small horny cells, opening at the surface ; and
from each of these, when the polypidom is placed
alive in a vessel of sea-water, the little creatures
may be seen protruding their tentacles. Many
nearly allied species grow upon the fronds of sea-
weeds, over which they spread like a thin coating
of gauze, composed of similar cells, opening, of
course, only on one side. Others are found in-
crusting stones and other submarine bodies with a
a, oesophagus ; c, sto- cellular calcareous mass. In many species
mach; </, anus, the cells are arranged so as to form a more
or less thread-like, branching polypidom ; whilst
others are furnished with a creeping root, from which the cells rise
by stems of greater or less strength.
Some of the Marine Bryozoa possess singular organs, the use of
which has not yet been satisfactorily made out. These are attached to
the polypidom, and from their close resemblance in form to the head
of a bird have received the name oi Avicularia. They consist of a
Fig.
1S06. — Bowcr-
bankia.
larger upper and a smaller lower piece ; the latter being movably
articulated to its fellow ; and the whole is frequently attached to the
polypidom by a short footstalk. These organs are constantly in
motion, and at the same time the two pieces frequently separate and
close again, with a snapping movement, exactly like that of a Bird's
bill.
Order II.— Lophopoda.
In this order, composed of inhabitants of fresh water, the tentacles,
which are more numerous than in the preceding, are placed upon a
pair of long arms, which spring from the sides of the upper ex-
tremity of the animal, and usually describe somewhat the form of a
horse-shoe (Fig. 1805). Their cells are usually of a leathery texture,
nearly transparent, and usually spring from a rootstock of similar
consistence, which creeps along upon the surface of stones or
aquatic plants, in which situations these animals are not uncom-
mon. In some species, however, the polypidom floats freely in the
water {Cristatella), and is of a gelatinous consistency; in these,
the Animals composing each colony are usually three or four in
number.
Class II.— Tunicata.
General Characters. — The animals forming the class Tuni-
cata, generally present the appearance of shapeless gelatinous
masses. They are composed of two tunics ; an outer, the mantle,
and an inner tunic, which lines a large respiratory cavity. These
tunics are continuous at the extremities of the body, where there are
large openings ; and the animal thus constitutes a tube, furnished
with double walls, which are usually separated by a considerable
space (Fig. 1807). In the numerous Compound Tunicata, we find a
modification of this structure. The Animals forming one of these
colonies are usually united by their mantles, which afford a more or
less gelatinous mass, in which the individual Animals appear to be
imbedded. In many of these, the body, or at all events the respira-
tory chamber, is bent round ; so that the in-current and ex-current
orifices are brought to the same extremity of the body. In others,
the posterior apertures of several animals lead into a common canal.
The outer tunic, which is composed wholly, or in great part, of a
substance apparently identical with the woody fibre of plants, is
usually of a tough or somewhat cartilaginous texture. The inner
tunic is frequently furnished with a variable number of muscular
bands, by means of which the internal cavity is contracted so as to
expel the water which has entered for the purpose of respiration.
The space between these tunics is occupied by a system of sinuses,
through which the blood circulates.
The water usually enters the respiratory chamber by the anterior
orifice, and is then expelled by the posterior. In the free-swimming
species, this expulsion of the water constitutes the only means of
locomotion possessed by the Animal, which progresses slowly in the
direction opposed to the stream of water. The respiratory function
appears to be performed to a great extent by the lining membrane
of the respiratory chamber ; but the Animals are also furnished with
true branchia;, which present two different forms. In the Salpcc
(Fig. 1807), the branchia constitutes a flat or roundish band, running
through the respiratory chamber, furnished with cilia on its sides ;
in the other Tunicata, the branchial cavity contains a loose network
formed of ciliated filaments, crossing each other at right angles.
The intestinal canal is situated near the posterior part of the
cavity of the body, opening by a simple mouth from the upper part
of that cavity. The mouth leads into a winding intestine, which
again opens, by another aperture, in the respiratory chamber.
The heart is usually placed in the neighbourhood of the digestive
organs; it is of a somewhat tubular form, and the blood is set in
Fig, 1S07.— Salpa.
(7 anterior orifice ; f, posterior orifice ; /, intestinal sac ; <-, heart ; l>r, bran-
' chial chamber ; ni, muscular bands ; n, ganglion.
motion by a gradual contraction of its walls from one end to the
other. In their circulation, if circulation it maybe called, the Turn-
MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS— THE ASCIDI^.
729
cata exhibit a remarkable difference from all other animals. 1 he
blood does not circulate always in the same direction ; but after a
certain number of pulsations in one direction, the heart rests for a
time, when its contractions commence anew in the opposite direc-
tion, so that the blood really ebbs and flows.
The nervous system consists of a single large ganglion, placed
towards the anterior part of the animal, at its lower surface. Close
to this is placed a vesicle, containing otolithes, and therefore prob-
ably an auditory organ ; although, from the presence of pigment
spots upon the otolithes, it has been regarded as an eye by many
observers.
The Tu7iicata are all hermaphrodites ; and it appears probable
that some of them at any rate, are self-impregnating. The male and
female organs have been detected in many species at the posterior
extremity of the body, near the digestive system ; but the former
have been described as a liver. Besides sexual reproduction, how-
ever, many of these animals propagate by gemmation, or budding,
some forming compound colonies ; whilst others exhibit a regular
"alternation of generations."
Sub-divisions.— The Tiinicata have been divided into two orders,
characterised by differences in the form of their respiratory apparatus.
The AscidicB have the branchial organ composed of a network of
square meshes ; whilst in the BiJ>hora it consists of a band running
through the branchial chamber.
Order 1.— Ascidi^.
General Characters. — This order consists entirely of Animals
which are either attached by the base to submarine objects, such as
rocks and stones, or united together in various ways ; sometimes by
the coalescence of their mantles, so as to form a gelatinous mass,
and sometimes by means of a sort of common stalk, very similar to
the polypidom of the Bryozoa. The efferent orifice of the branchial
chamber, accordingly, in almost every case, opens in the same direc-
tion as the ihhalent orifice, either by the canal being bent round
within the body of each Animal, or by its communicating internally
with a common canal of a larger size, serving for several individuals.
The young of the Fixed Ascidians, when first produced from the %%%,
are furnished with a long tail, which gives them very much the
appearance of minute Tadpoles. Fig. 1808 represents the young of
the Amaroucium ^roliferum, highly magnified; a, the tegumen-
Fig. iSoS. — TsLi'pole ol \.he Avtaroncium froliferum magnified.
tary body of the trunk, which is seen within ; b, the pouch or tunic
enclosing the body of the yoimg Animal, which is surrounded by a
nutritive vitelline fluid; b" , appendages terminating in suckers, and
enabling the animal to fix itself; a*," the tail, formed by a prolonga-
tion of the tegumentary investment, and enclosing a tubular appen-
dage of the vitelline sac. By means of this they swim about freely
in the water, until the time arrives for them to attach themselves.
The tail then gradually disappears ; the internal organs make their
appearance, and the animal soon acquires the form of its parent.
In some of the Compound Ascidians, however, a somewhat different
process has been observed. The tail embryo is formed in the eg<,
but this loses the tail whilst still enclosed. Several embryos, f ir
rounding a common canal, are then formed in the substance of the
original embryo, which thus constitutes the nucleus from which a
new colony is produced by gemmation.
Divisions. — The Ascidians form four great groups, or large
families. In the Compound Ascidmni, or Bofryllicke (Fig. 1809),
the Animals are united together by the coalescence of their mantles,
so as to form a leatherly or gelatinous mass, usually attached to
stones or sea-weeds. In this the separate Animals are imbedded,
Fig. 1S09. — Bolrylliis stellalits, upon Ascidia intestinalis,
generally arranged in a more or less distinctly stellate form, round .a
common efferent canal. Many of them are adorned with beautiful
colours.
The second family, the Clavellinidfs, contains the Social Ascidians,
or those in which the bodies of the animals are united, not by tlie
mutual adherence of their outer tunics, but by means of a sort of
creeping stem which runs along the surface of submarine objects,
and gives rise at intervals to short footstalks, at the extremity of
which the animals are supported (Fig. 1810). The separate animals
are produced by gemmation from the creeping stems, which run in
various directions from the base of the original founder of the
colony.
The family of Simple Ascidians, Ascidiida;, is composed of Animals
which live separately attached by the base to submarine bodies.
Fig. 1810. — Perophora,
/, common stem ; e, stomach ; i, intestines ; b, inhalent orifice ;
a, efferent orifice.
They usually form shapeless masses of a cartilaginous texture, often
of considerable size, which occur in great abundance in shallow
water. A few species are eaten in some countries. The in-current
and ex-current apertures are both situated on the upper surface of the
Animal, and the former is fringed with tentacles, which appear to
prevent the ingress of injurious matters into the respiratory cavity.
The fourth family, the Pyroso?naitd(s, appears to form a distinct
transition from the Ascidia to the following order. In the structure
of the respiratory organs they agree with the former ; and, like the
majority of these, they are compound animals; but the branchial
chamber runs straight through the body, with the openings at oppo-
site extremities ; as in the 5a//<z?, with which they also agree closely
in the general arrangement of their organs. Fig 181 1 represents the
Pyrosoma gigantciim ; a shows a magnified portion.
The colonies of these singular creatures are in the form of a car-
tilaginous tube, open at one end. In the walls of this tube, formed
by the coalescence of the mantles of the animals composing it, the
bodies of the Ascidians are separately imbedded ; the branchi.il
chamber of each passing completely through the wall from its outer
to its inner surface. These Animals are found in the seas of warm
5 -V
730
MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS— THE SALPJE.
climates, where they float along- in an uprisjht position, but ap-
parently possess no actual locomotive power. Like all the Timicata
they are luminous in the dark, and, in fact, appear to possess this
faculty in a greater degree than any other members of the class.
Their cylindrical form, upright position, and considerable size (they
often attain more than a foot in leng-th), render them exceedingly
beautiful objects at night ; and they have been described as resem-
bling little columns of tire. After death the splendour of the
Pyrosoma vanishes, and gives place to a dull yellowish white.
Fig. iSll. — The Pyrosoma giganteum.
Order II. — Biphora.
This order includes a group of free-swimming Animals, usually of
a glassy transparency, the bodies of which may be compared to a
tube, furnished with two openings, one for the entrance and the other
for the exit of water. The walls of this tube are composed of a dis-
tinct outer and inner tunic, the latter being furnished with bands of
muscles, by the contraction of which the water is forced out of the
cavity of the body, producing a recoil, and driving the creature in
the opposite direction. The internal structure of these Animals has
already been described. They are distinguished from those of the
other order by the bandlike form of the branchia. The intestines
form a small mass above the posterior portion of the branchial cavity ;
this is usually of a reddish or yellowish colour, and emits a phos-
phorescent light in the dark ; it is called the nucleus.
The reproduction of these Animals is attended with some very
remarkable circumstances, which were, indeed, the first facts accu-
rately observed in favour of what, for want of a better term, we must
still denominate "the alternation of generations." Two forms of
Fig. 1S12. — Salpa fusifonnis.
SalfcB have long been known and regarded as, at all events, speci-
fically distinct from each other. In one of these the individual
Animals are united together by their sides into a sort of chain, the
movement of which, through the water, is effected by the simul-
taneous expulsion of water from the respiratory chambers of all the
Animals of which it is composed. In the other form, the Animals
arc always solitary ; and those differ so much in their external ap-
pearance, and even in some points of internal anatomy — such as the
number of muscular bands in the inner tunic — from isolated indi-
viduals of the social forms, that it is not at all surprising tliey were
long considered as a distinct species. Accurate observations,
however, commencing with those of Chamisso, published in 1819,
have shown that each species of Salpa possesses individuals of
these two forms. The associated forms are furnished with genuine re-
productive organs, and produce a single young Salpa of the solitary
form ; and this again prc«3uces, by internal gemmation, a chain of
series of young Animals of the form of its parent. The processes by
which these different results are produced are exceedingly curious
and interesting. The solitary Salpa exhibit at the hinder extremity,
close to the heart, and connected with that organ, a single vessel
divided down the middle by a longitudinal partition. Through this
the blood circulates, passing up on one side of the partition and
down on the other. Upon the outer surface of this, which is called
the gemmiferous tube by Professor Huxley, the associated Salpa;
are produced, making their appearance at first as mere buds, but
gradually increasing in development with age ; and those at the
Fig. 1S13. — Salpa Jlroloidea.
Fig. 1814.— Salfa zoitaria.
hinder extremity of the tube being much further advanced than
those nearer the heart. When mature, these young Animals quit
the body of the parent by an aperture in the posterior extremity of
the outer tunic, sometimes singly, at others in a united chain, in
which the Animals adhere to each other with a very variable degree
of force. Each of these possesses both male and female organs, the
latter furnishing, apparently, but a single ovum. It seems very
doubtful, however, whether the animals are self-impregnating; as
Professor Huxley remarks that, in the species examined by him, the
male organs did not appear to have arrived at their full development
when the formation of the embryo had commenced, which, indeed,
takes place before the associated Salpa leaves the body of its parent.
It is singular that they are not Oviparous, but truly Viviparous ; the
embryo being suspended within the
branchial cavity of its parent, and con-
nected with the circulatory system of
the latter by a distinct vessel, through
which the blood may be seen to pass,
the embryo also exhibiting a distinct
circulation of its own ; phenomena so
Fig. 1815. — Salfafolymorpha. closely in accordance with those pre-
sented by the Mammalia, or truly
Viviparous Vertehrata, that naturalists have applied the name
of placetita to the vascular connection between the parent Salpa
and its young. As the young Salpa increases in size and perfec-
tion, its connection with its parent is gradually narrowed, until at
last it breaks away altogether, and swims off as a free and perfect
being.
The SalpeB are found in all seas, but most plentifully in those of
Tropical climates, which are often filled with them in such numbers
that the voyager sails for days through masses of these little gela-
tinous creatures. At night they are exceedingly luminous ; and the
chains of the associated forms, especially, are said to present a
beautiful appearance.
THE MOLLUSCS-PROPER.
731
CHAPTER XL.
SUB-DIVISION II.— MOLLUSCA PROPER.
M^ .:. ., .V JL A S'.olfl"*-' ^-^E sub-division now before us affords
numerous interesting objects of study. It
includes most of our favourite shells ; but
especially some of the most important of
the so-called "Shell-fish," a term, which
although by no means agreeable to zoolo-
gical classification, is so well known, as
that we shall adopt it in the general
description of some of the Animals.
Numerous have been the arrangements
of classification that have been adopted
in respect to these animals ; but we shall
adopt the following plan as perhaps being the best
yet arrived at in respect to these Molluscs.
Divisions. — In the great sub-division of the True
Molluscn, of which the general structure has already
been sufficiently explained, we may distinguish five
great classes, of which two are unprovided with any
distinct head (^Accphala), whilst the remainder pre-
sent a head furnished with organs of sense (eyes,
tentacles, &c.) Of the former, which are always fur-
nished with a bi-valve or double shell, the Pallio-
braiichiata are distinguished by having no special
breathing apparatus or gill, and by the presence of a
pair of ciliated, and usually spiral arms attached to
the sides of the mouth (Fig. 1816), the action of
which carries the particles of food towards that aperture ; whilst in
the Laincllibranchiata, or ordinary Bivalve MoUusca, such as the
Oyster, &c., these arms are wanting, and the respiratory function is
performed by lamina; gills.
The Cephalophorous MoUusca are divided into classes, by cha-
racters derived in a great measure from the form and position of the
organs of motion. Thus the Pfcropoda are small Molluscs, which
swim freely on the high sea, by means of a pair of tin-like expan-
sions attached to the sides of the body, at or near the head (Fig.
1817.) The Gasteropoda are furnished with a fleshy foot, by the
agency of which they creep slowly along ; whilst the Cephalopoda
have a circle of arms surrounding the head, with which they not
only crawl upon submarine objects, but also seize their prey. Each
of these will be more particularly described as we proceed.
Class III.— Lamellibranchiata.
General Characters. — The Lamellibranchiate, or ordinary
Bivalve JMollusca, are usually inclosed within a bi-lobed mantle,
which, however, in some instances, is entirely closed, with the ex-
ception of apertures left for the admis-
sion of the water required for the respi-
ratory process, and for the protrusion of
the foot (Fig. 1818). In all cases, how-
ever, the two sides of the mantle pro-
duce a calcareous or chalky shell, which
is always composed essentially of two
valves ; although, in some instances,
they undergo such modifications as to
render the recognition of their original
structure almost unrecognisable. The
two lobes of the mantle are always united
at the upper part, where they are also
attached to the sac inclosing the body of
the Mollusc. At this part, also, the two
valves of the shell are attached to each
other by a sort of hinge, almost always
furnished with teeth, which fit into cor-
responding cavities in the opposite valve,
and are usually provided with an elas-
tic ligament, uniting the two valves
along the hinge-margin, and with an internal cartilage, as seen in
the Oyster, Mussel, &c. The office of these elastic bodies is to
open the shell, when the tension of certain muscles, hereafter to
be described, is relaxed. The external ligament, being placed in
such a manner that when the shell is closed its elastic fibres are
doubled, always tends to recover a more extended position ; whilst
the internal cartilage, which is lodged in pits within the hinge-
margin, is compressed by the closing of the shell, and of course
assists in opening the valves, as soon as the pressure, under which it
is confined, is reduced below its clastic force.
Each valve of the shell is usually of a very oblique, broadly-conical
Fijj. jBi6. —Lmgida annfinn,
showing the ciliated arms.
form, running up to an obtuse point, called the umbo or beak (Fi/.
1819). This is the first formed part of the shell ; and as the principal
additions to the size of the valves are made by the free margins of
the mantle, it always retains its position close to the hinge. The
shell often assumes a somewhat spiral appearance, especially at this
part ; and, in some cases, one or both valves exhibit the tendency to
form a spire still more distinctly. The position of the umboncs gene-
rally indicates that of the different
parts of the shell in relation to
those of the Animal Thus the
umboncs almost invariably reach
the hinge-margin in front of the
ligament, so that the portion of the
shell towards which they tend is
the anterior ; the opposite portion,
the posterior region. The latter is
generally the largest. The interior
of the shell is marked by impres-
sions indicating the points of in-
sertion of the muscles (Fig. 1820).
Of these, the principal are the im-
pression of the abductor muscles
(Fig. 1818 below, showing the ana-
tomy of a Bivalve), which are two
in number, one placed in the poste-
rior, the other in the anterior part
of the shell, the former being gene-
rally the largest. These muscles
are attached to the interior of both
valves, which they close by their
contraction. A linear impres-
sion, running from one of these
impressions to the other, and
called the pallial line, marks the position of the muscular
margin of the mantle. It is generally more or less parallel to
the margin of the shell ; but in those species which possess
retractile respiratory siphons, it is more or less indented at its
posterior portion, forming what is called Xhc pallial suius ; and the
depth of this indentation indicates the length of the retractile siphons.
Fig. 1817. — Criseis siilidatn.
Fig. iSiS.— Anatomy of a Divalvc Mollusc (Mulra).
. shell muscles ; b, ganglia ; c, heart ; il, liver ; e, mouth ; f, labial tentacles ;
g, foot; /;, stomach; i, intestine; /■, anus; m, mantle; K, branchiffi ;
o, base of inhalent siphon ; f, base of exhalent sipbon.
732
STVAL VE MOLL USCS
The margins of the shells often fit each other exactly, so that when
the valves are closed no space is left ; but in many cases the valves
are separated at one or both ends. The shell is then said to gape.
As the ordinary conformation of the shells of the Bivalve Mollusca
is of general interest, before proceeding we may here give a brief
e.xplanation of the external characters of a Bivalve shell, and for this
purpose let us consult the Figs. 1821, 1822, and 1823. The form
varies, — that of Cythersa we select as an example. The semi-
circular lines on the upper surface at Fig. 1821 indicate the stages of
progressive increase, by deposition from the mantle or pallium,
Fig. 1S19. — Pholadomya alba.
which covers the animal. The line from A to P gives the longitudinal
measurement of the shell ; the cross line indicates its height. The
rounded and more or less elevated apical portion is termed the
Umbo, and anteriorly but below this is a depressed space, very
conspicuous in some shells, called the Lunule ; on the other side is
the elastic ligament. The lunule, umbo, and ligament, are included
within the dorsal or superior border ; the opposite edge is termed
the ventral or inferior border.
Fig. 1S20.— Right and left valves of Amphidesma, showing the impressions of
the adductor muscles, the pallial line, and the pallial sinus.
Fig. 1822 is the same shell, its dorsal aspect displaj'ed, showing
the lunule, the umbo, the ligament, and the thickness.
Fig. 1823 exhibits the inside of the shell, showing the lunule, the
umbo, the hinge, or cardo, and the ligament — the anterior muscular
impression or mark of attachment — the posterior muscular impres-
sion, and the impression made by the edge of the mantle, or pallial
impression.
It will thus be seen, that low as these animals appear in the scale
of creation, their construction is fully adapted to the purpose of their
existence, and here, therefore, we see another of the innumerable
instances which the study of Natural History aifords us of the won-
derful economy of Animal Life, and of the Omniscience of its
Creator.
When we look at the Animal inclosed in this shell, we find that,
although it certainly possesses no distinct head, its mouth is easily
discernible (Fig. i8i8 a7ite, showing the anatomy of a Bivalve), and
is always turned towards that part of the shell which we have des-
cribed as the front. This being the anterior portion of the body, it
follows that the mantle lobes and valves are placed upon its sides ;
whilst we shall find that the contrary prevails amongst the Pallio-
branchiafa, in which the valves are placed upon the upper and
lower surfaces of the Anima..
Of the greatest importance to its existence is the power of intro-
ducing a stream of water into the cavity of the mantle. This not
only serves for the respiratory process, but also conveys to the
creature those minute particles of organic matter of which its food
consists. In the species with a closed mantle, two apertures are
seen at the posterior portion ; of these, one serves for the admission,
the other for the expulsion of the water. In a great number of
Molluscs the margins of the apertures are continued into tubes or
siphons (Fig. 1818, p. 731 ante, showing the anatomy of a Bivalve),
which in the burrowing species are often of great length. In some
cases the two siphons are united, so as to appear like a double tube.
The branchiae usually consist of a pair of laminae placed on each side
of the body, and permeated from edge to edge by minute tubes.
The walls of these tubes are composed of minutely reticulated blood-
vessels, which produce a texture resembling that of a sieve, through
which the water passes into the tubes by which the gill-laminae are
permeated. These communicate at the base of the gill with an anal
chamber placed at the base of the exhalent siphon, through which
the water, which has passed over the gills, and served for the pur-
pose of respiration, is conveyed out of the body. The interior of the
siphons, the surface of the gills, and that of the mantle, are all
covered with cilia ; and it is by the action of these microscopic
organs that this important current of water is produced. But the
sieve-like structure of the gill-laminae, assisted by the cilia with
which they are clothed, has another ofBce to perform besides that of
respiration : they filter the water, collecting in grooves upon their
surface all the minute floating particles which it contained. These
are carried by the ciliary action to the edge of the branchial laminae,
which is grooved, and thence conveyed to the mouth.
Dor.iJ or .upoHo, J,
"•tf.,.
Fig. 1S21. — Shell of the Cyther^a.
Fig. 1822.— The Cyther^a.
Fig. 1S23. — The Cythersea.
The mouth is furnished with one or two pair of labial tentacles
(Fig. 1818, p. 731 ante, anatomy of a Bivalve), but is not armed
with' teeth. The intestine is convoluted, and passes through the
heart. The anus opens into the base of the exhalent siphon. The
liver is always voluminous. The foot, when present, is usually of a
tongue-like form ; it varies greatly in size, and is often \yanting,
especially in attached shells. In some cases it gives rise to a
byssus, by which the Animal fixes itself.
THE OYSTERS.
Most of the Bivalve Moliusca are furnished with auditory vesicles,
inclosing otolithes. They are generally placed close to the ganglion
of the foot. A few also possess eye-like organs, placed round the
margins of the mantle. They are sometimes very numerous. The
sexes are separate ; the eggs are received amongst the branchia; of
the parent, and retained there until the young have attained a con-
siderable development.
The Lamcllibranchiafa are all aquatic Animals, and by far the
greater part of them inhabit the sea. A few, however, are found in
fresh water.
Sub-divisions. — The classification of the Bivalve Molhtsca, here
adopted, is founded partly upon that given by Dr. Gray, in the
Antials of Natural History. That gentleman divides the Lamelli-
branchiate Mollusca into two principal groups or orders (sub-
classes. Gray), distinguished by the presence or absence of respira-
tory siphons. In the Asiphonata {Asiphonophora, Gray), the
mantle lobes are free for the greater part of their extent, or only
united at the back so as to inclose a separate exhalent aperture. In
the SipJioiiata [Sipkojwp/wra, Gray), on the contrary, the mantle
lobes are more or less united ; and the respiratory orifices are both
distinctly separated, and frequently produced into long siphons.
Order I. — Asiphonata.
The Asiphonate order of Bivalve Mollusca includes some of the
most important of these Animals ; the Common Oyster and the
Edible Mussel, as also the Pearl Oyster, belonging to it. The first
is the type of the tribe Ostracca, characterised by having a more or
less orbicular shell, of which the valves are unequal. The Animal
reposes on, or adheres by, the more convex of its valves. The
mantle of the Animal is open throughout. The foot is sometimes
entirely absent ; when present, it is small, and usually furnished with
a byssus. There is only a single adductor muscle.
The Common Oyster {Ostrea edulis), which has always been a
great favourite with epicures, both ancient and modern, is found in
much abundance in many parts of our seas. They live in vast com-
munities, called " oyster banks," each individual being attached, by
its left or convex valve, to rocks, oft" other submarine objects. They
spawn in May and June. The fry, called " spat " by the fishermen,
consists of whitish gelatinous masses, in which the young Oysters
Fig. 1824. — The Cock's-comb Oyster.
may be discerned. These soon fix themselves by the shell to some
object. They then grow rapidly ; but they are said to occupy four
years in attaining their full growth. The "native" Oysters are
obtained from artificial oyster banks, formed by transporting the fry
to shallow tanks, where their food being present in great abundance,
7.ri
they thrive and acquire a tine flavour. Many other species of the
genus Ostrea arc eaten in different parts of the world. In some
places. Oysters grow in such abundance, attached to one another in
masses, that they have been found as effectual in preventing the
inroads of the sea as the coral reefs of the Pacific Islands. One of
the most singular species is the Ostrea crista-galli, or Cock's-comb
Oyster (Fig. 1824), inhabiting the Indian Ocean.
The Oyster is of great importance as an article of commerce and
food. Of late years their price has enormously increased. In 1840,
the best " Natives" were sold retail at fourpence per dozen, and in
1879 the lowest price for them ranged from two shillings to three
shillings per dozen. In the latter year large quantities were im-
ported fresh from Portugal and other parts of Europe, and attempts
were made to send them alive to England from the United States.
These were successful at last, and immense quaniuns preserved in
tins were also sent to us from that country.
The breeding months of the Oyster are May, June, and July, and
during this season they are unfit for food. When the spat is' ripe
for being deposited, it becomes attached to stones, rocks, sliclls
&c., and myriads of young become developed at the same time',
forming immense beds, for the supply of man.
It is, however, from artificial rather than from natural beds that
the vast quantities are obtained which supply our markets. Brood
or young Oysters of small size are collected and transplanted into
favourable spots, which are strictly protected, and become a pro-
ductive source of profit both to the dredgers and the public. In
parts of the coast where no particular rights exist, the beds become
much thinned, and the brood is often carried away and planted in
beds under protection, where they multiply in abundance. Newly-
formed beds are generally kept untouched for two or three years, to
allow for the growth of the young. Of the age attained by the
Oyster little is known ; some suppose it to be about ten years. In
three days after the spawn is deposited, the young Oysters are
enclosed in a shell three lines broad ; in six months the shell is nearly
as large as a half-crown piece ; at the end of a year it equals a
dollar. After a certain period the Mollusc ceases to grow, the shell
is large in proportion to the bulk of the animal, which' becomes
thin, gradually diminishes in size, and is unfit for food. Oysters,
when put to fatten into small pits in the saline marshes, with the
water about three feet deep, and abounding with marine vegetable
matter and animalcules, assume a green tinge in three or four days,
and are excellent. The Oysters taken at Dieppe are of a greenish
hue. In Spain they have a reddish tinge.
The most celebrated beds for Native Oysters are those at Milton in
Kent, at Colchester, Maldon, Whitstable, Faversham, and Queens-
borough. Those in the Swale and Medway are in high repute. In
Scotland the beds in the Firth of Forth and in Musselburgh Bay
afford good Oysters. In France the Oysters from Brittany have been
long famous ; those from Dieppe are very excellent, but the Oysters
obtained near Cancalle, a town not far from St, Malo, have the
highest reputation. Dredging for Oysters is carried on generally in
fleets, as the beds lie within a comparatively small space. The
boats are about fifteen feet long, and usually carry two men and a
boy.^ The dredge is about eighteen pounds' weight, but it is
required to be heavier on a hard that a soft bottom. Each boat is
provided with two dredges ; but the fishermen complain that in the
early part of the season too great a number of dredges, and those of
too heavy a kind, are used, which injure the beds, so that the latter
part of the season is rendered less profitable than the commence-
ment.
A fleet of Oyster-boats putting out early in the morning, crossing
and intersecting each other's course as they advance to the fishing-
ground, their white sails glancing in the sun, and anon as the boats
tack about becoming shadowed, and again brightly glancing, is a
most interesting spectacle.
In the well-known and often elegant Pecfens, or Scallop-shells,
the foot is distinct but small, and is sometimes furnished with a
byssus. These animals are very abundant in some localities, espe-
cially on our southern shores, as at Hastings, &c., and some of
the larger species, such as the Pecteti via.xiinus and P. opercularis
(Fig. 1825) of our own shores, are regarded as excellent eating.
Another species, the Common Scallop, or St. James's Cockle, which
derives its last name from having been adopted in the middle ages,
as the distinctive emblem of St. James of Spain, was the well-known
badge of the pilgrim from the Holy Land. It is common in the seas
of Europe and along our southern coasts. The shell is unequivalve —
the upper or left valve being flat, the under or right valve concave
internally. Each valve has from fourteen to sixteen angulated rays ;
those of the lower valve are sulcated longitudinally. It occurs in a
Fossil state in Tertiary deposits in Italy.
There are several other species of Pectcns, and many are found in
a fossil state in the Chalk and other formations in England and
France.
The Pearl Oyster. — The tribe of Aviculacca is rendered im-
portant by its including the Pearl Oyster amongst its members.
The foot in this tribe is small, and produces a byssus, by which the
Animal attaches itself firmly to submarine objects. The mantle
734
THE MUSSEL FAMIL Y.
lobes are free ; the shell usually oblique and somewhat triangular,
with the valves unequal, and the hinge usually without teeth.
Most of the shells of this tribe are pearly in the interior ; and as
the true pearls are merely morbid growths, they may all produce
pearls of various qualities. The formation of pearis is caused by the
introduction of irritating substances, such as grains of sand, between
the mantle and the shell. ">The irritation causes the animal to cover
the obnoxious object with layers of peari, which generally attach
the foreign body to the interior of the shell. The Chinese produce
Fig. 1S25. — The Pcc.en opitculans.
pearls artificially, by placing substances in the position just described,
and we have seen some shells, to the interior of which small metal
images were attached in this manner by the pearly secretion. The
Pearl Oyster {Melcagrina mai-garitifera, Fig. 1826) furnishes the
finest pearls ; and the shells are also imported in vast quantities ;
the inner layers, known as " IMother-of-Peari," being used for a
great number of ornamental purposes. The Pearl Oyster is found in
various parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, at a depth of about
'V^'
Fig. 1S26.— The Pearl Oyster : Young.
twelve fathoms, whence they are taken by divers. The most cele-
brated fisheries known to the ancients were those of the Persian
Gulf and Ceylon, The umbones of the Avkiilacea are furnished
with dilated lateral plates, called ears ; these are comparatively
small in the Pearl Oyster; but in the curious "Hammer Oyster"
{Malleus vulgaris, Fig. 1827), an inhabitant of the Indian Ocean
and the shores of Australia, these appendages attain a great length
and give the shell very much the appearance of a hammer or pick-
axe. In the engraving, a represents the valves of this Oyster ; b is
an inside view, showing the hinge and muscular impression. ' The
Pinna, already referred to. also belong to this tribe.
In the Arcacea the valves of the shell are nearly equal, U'iually
thick, and furnished with a long row of similar teeth at the hinge
(Fig. 1828). The adductor muscles are two in number, and the foot
is large, and often furnished with a byssus, and the mantle lobes are
free all round. The Trigonlacca, which are closely allied to these,
have the foot long and bent, serving for leaping, and the hinge fur-
nished w^ith but few teeth.
The Mussel FAi^uLY—Myl/lacea.
In the Mylilacea, of which the Common Mussel {Mytilus edulis)
is a well-known type, the mantle lobes are more or less united,
having two siphonal apertures. The foot is furnished with a byssus,
by which the Animal attaches itself, and the shell is closed by two
adductor muscles, of which the anterior is very small. The valves of
the shell are equal, generally of an elongated oval form, covered
Fig. 1S27. — The Hammer-headed Oyster,
with a thick epidermis, and usually pearly inside. Most of the
Mylilacea conceal themselves by burrowing into various substances.
The Lithodoini perforate solid rock, corals, and shells. Some
species make use of the byssus to spin themselves a sort of nest.
They are generally marine ; but the Common Mussel may be found
in fresh water ; and a singular shell, the Dreisse/ia j)olymorJ>ha,
which has recently been introduced into this country from the neigh-
bourhood of the Black Sea, is always an inhabitant of fresh water.
The following is a more particular description of the Common
Mussel, the most important of the tribe.
Fig. 1S2S. — The Area aiirkiilata.
The Common mussel.— The genus Myiilus is abundant on
most rocky coasts, where facilities are afforded for the species
mooring themselves to reefs, stones, and other substances covered at
high water, but left dry by the ebbing of the tide. To the byssus we
have already alluded, and explained its uses, &c. : when the Mussel
is once moored, it does not, in the opinion of Mr. G. B. Sowcrby,
habitually disengage itself ; though he admits that when torn from'
its anchorage by the force of the waves, it may live for some time
without being in any manner aflixed. It is not only on rocky shores
that the Mussel abounds ; we have seen beds of Mussels on low, fl.Tt
THE MUSSEL FAMILY.
sandy, or pebbly shores ; numbers, as we observed, were totally free ;
others had their byssus attached to small shells, little pebbles, or
fragrnents of shells mixed with sand, small stones, and the like ; and
certainly whole strata of these shells must in such situations suffer a
greater or less change of place with an ever-flowing and retiring-
tide on a low flat shore left dry periodically over a wide extent of
surface.
735
Fig. 1S29. — The Mussel, partly dissected.
Of the figure and colour of the shell of the Common Mussel no-
thing need be said ; but, with respect to the Mollusc, few of the
thousands who have eaten it know anything beyond its flavour. In
form this Mussel resembles that of its shell : the lobes of the mantle,
adherent at their edge to the edge of the shell, are continued dor-
sally and open in front, but are united posteriorly in a single point,
so as to form a short siphon, or orifice, for the passage of the egesta.
The mouth, in a sort; of hood near the apex of the shell, is rather
large, and furnished with two pair of soft palps, pointed, and fixed
by their summit only. The foot is slender, carrying at its base and
posteriorly to it a byssus, known as the "beard." There are two
adductor muscles : one at the apical part of the valves, small ; the
other situated posteriorly, large and rounded. Fig. 1829 exhibits
the posterior part of the body of the Common Mussel, displaying
some of the principal organs : A, right lobe of the mantle ; D, por-
tion of intestinal tube ; G, branchia; ; H, foot ; J, posterior muscle ;
L, superior tube ; O, heart ; P, ventricle ; Q, auricle ; X, peri-
cardium ; b, tentacles ; d, byssus ; e, gland of the byssus ; g, re-
tractile muscle of the foot ; h, valves of the mantle ; i, &g^ duct ; j,
excretory orifice ; k, internal ditto.
Fig. 1830 shows the form of the eggs of the Mussel, magnified.
Fig. 1831 shows the Mussel lying in a detached valve with the
byssus ; the lobe of the mantle covering the exposed surface is
slightly contracted, showing the branchiae.
Fig. 1832 exhibits the Mussel, as seen
when the shell is partially open ; the byssus
may be observed rising from the root of the
foot posteriorly ; the commissure of the
mantle bounds the view behind, and in the
space intermediate are the t^^ and excre-
tory ducts, pointing to the short siphon pro-
duced by the commissure, where the great
adductor muscle is also apparent. The
# Common Mussel is known to produce minute
pearls, called seed-pearls; and we have
found two or three not unfrequently in a
single shell. Recently, large quantities of
pearls have been obtained from Mussels on
the east coast of Scotland.
We need not say tliat the Mussel is gre-
garious, occurring in beds which cover rocks
and stones, generally between high and low
water-mark, but often, also, at a greater depth. We have seen shells
clustered over by these Molluscs, and some time since had under
our immediate notice a large live Lobster, the back of which was
densely covered by a phalanx of Mussels in serried array.
The Mussel is extensively used as food, and by some exceedingly
relished. It is, however, eaten by many persons with certain mis-
givings, arising from its supposed poisonous properties ; some re-
garding the byssus as deleterious, while others have supposed that
a little Crustacean (Pea-crab), which, at particular seasons, shelters
itself in the shell of the Mussel, is the source of mischief. The fact
is the Mussel is by no means digestible, and that with some consti-
tutions, or some temporary conditions of the digestive organs, it
cannot be eaten with impunity. Several persons may partake of the
same dish, and yet only one or two may suffer ill effects — which
Fig. 1S30.— The Ova of
the Mussel.
manifest themselves m flushings of the face, nausea, derangement
of the system, often followed by blotches, rashes, swellingsT spas-
modic asthma and other unpleasant symptoms. Similar effects
occasionally follow a hearty meal upon Crab, or even upon Lobster :
a phosphorescent Lobster is poison.
There is a fine species of Mussel {Mytilus choros, Molina) par-
ticular y noticed by Captain King among the Shell-fish of the island
of Chiloc. Molina, he says, has described the Choro (mussel) of
Conception, which is not different from that of Chiloe. It is often
found seven or eight inches long. The Fish is as large as a Goose's
Fig. 1S31. — Mussel-shell fully opened.
cg^, and of a very rich flavour ; there are two kinds ; one is dark
brown, the other of a yellow colour ; but the last is mo.st esteemed.
There is another sort also, much larger than the Choro, but
equally delicate and good ; the Fish of which is as large as a Swan's
itgg : it is called Cholgua, but as the shells seem to be of the same
species, perhaps the distinction can be only owing to size. The
manner in which the natives of these islands, both Indians and dc-
scendents of foreigners, cook Shell-fish is similar to that used for
baking in the South Sea Islands, and in some parts of the coast of
Australia. A hole is dug in the ground, in which large smooth
stones are laid, and upon them a fire is kindled. When they are
Fig. 1S32. — The Mussel partly opened.
sufiSciently heated, the ashes are cleared away, the Shell-fish heaped
upon the stones, and covered first with leaves or straw, and then
with earth. The Fish thus baked are exceedingly tender and good,
and this mode of cooking them is superior to any other, as they
retain within the shell all their own juiciness.
Some of the Mytili have the shell striated longitudinally ; as the
following : —
The Magellanic Mytilus {Mytilus magenanicus). In this
species the shell is violet purple above, with long thick undulated
furrows ; inside whitish ;jlength four or five inches. The shells of old
individuals when polished are very brilliant, and deeply tinted with
purple, passing into rich violet. This Mussel is found in the Strait
of Magalhaens, at Chiloe, &c. Its flesh is exceedingly flavoured
and nutritious. The specimen is represented as attached to a rock
by its strong byssus. (See Fig. 1833).
The next genus to be noticed is that to which Dr. Vanbeneden
has given the title of Dreissina (from M. Dreissins of Mazeyk), of
which the type is the Mytilus polyinorphus of Pallas and Gmelin.
To this genus we have already briefly alluded when describing
the general characters of the AlytilacccB.
In this genus the Mollusc differs from that of Mytilus, the mantle
being far more extensively closed, with three apertures, one anterior
and two posterior ; of the latter the terminal aperture is larger than
the other, and prolongs itself into a short siphon, destined to con-
duct the water over the branchia; ; the other aperture is placed more
dorsally for the rejection of effete matters : the anterior aperture is
for the passage of the byssus and the foot.
The shell exhibits three muscular impressions, and a septum in-
ternally at the umbo. The shell is oi a more recurved form than we
736
THE UNIO—THE CLAM-SHELLS.
find g-enerally in Mytihis; the Mytilus recurvus, however, of
America, is regarded by Dr. Vanbeneden as its analogue.
Dr. Vanbeneden records two recent species, Drcissina -poly-
morpha, and Dreissina Africa?! a. In their habits these species
resemble the Marine Mussels ; they form beds at the bottom of the
water, adhering to stones, shells, rocks, &c. ; numbers are often
agglomerated together by means of their byssus in bunches, or to a
stone or shell, which they entirely shroud. Their extent of range is
considerable, their dispersion resulting from the circumstance of
their attaching themselves to logs of wood, or the keels of vessels,
by means of which they are transported from sea to sea.
Fig. 1833. — The Magellanic Mytilus,
Fig. 1834 represents the Drcissina polymorpha. A, the shell
and animal of the natural size, with the siphon, a, e.xerted ; and the
more dorsal orifice also to be seen at b ; c, the posterior row of
papilte. E, a view of the ventral side : «, the siphon ; i?i, the anterior
row of papillse ; c, the languette. C, animal in the left valve : a, the
abdomen ; b, the languette in situ ; c, the branchia; ; d, the dorsal
orifice ; e, the aperture of the byssus; f, the byssus turned back.
The languette, it is stated, does not appear to be the true foot
Fig. 1834. — The Dreissina polymer pha,
(which is muscular, and serves as an organ of progression), but
forms a part of the retractor muscle ; and possesses no character in
common with the foot except its mobility ; at the base of this organ
is the byssus — such is Dr. Vanbeneden's opinion. If this be not the
foot modified, then the Mollusc is destitute of such an organ ; but
the admission that it seems to explore bodies with this languette,
would lead us to think that it was at least a substitute for that organ,
which in the Mussel is more developed.
Fig. 1835 represents the Shell of Dreissina folymorpha ; a, the
inside view of the valve, showing the septum at the umbo ; b, the
valve viewed externally, so as to afford a good idea of the general
outline.
The Dreissi?ia -polyfnorpha is spread extensively through Europe
and Asia. It inhabits seas, lakes, rivers, and marshes, all being
alike congenial abodes. It is found in the Caspian Sea, the Black
Sea, the Baltic, the rivers Danube, Wolga, and Rhine (abundantly),
the marshes of Syrmia, the canal of Belgium (Canal Guillaume), the
lakes of Holland, the Thames, the Lea, the Commercial Docks,
Fig. 1835. — Shell of the Dreissina polymorpha.
London, and many other localities. Mr. J. D. C. Sowerby, we are
informed, was the first to notice the occurrence of this species in the
Commercial Docks in the Thames., and he is of opinion that it was
originally introduced adherent to shipping, logs of timber, &c.
Family. — U'?tionacea.
The Unionacea are all inhabitants of fresh water. They have an
Equivalve shell, covered with a smooth epidermis, and lined with
pearly matter. The margins of the mantle are free for the greater
part of their extent, united between the respiratory apertures. The
foot is very large, and the adductor muscles are two in number.
Several species of this tribe are found in this country ; one of the
commonest being the Uiiio pictorum (Fig. 1836), so called from its
Fig. 1836. — The Painters' Mussel (Unio pictortim),
shell having been formerly much used by painters for holding their
colours. All the species furnish pearls of inferior quality ; and one
species, the U. 7nargaritiferics, an inhabitant of the mountain
streams of this country, is still collected for the sake of the pearls
which it contains. The American species are very numerous.
Order II.— Siphonata.
The first tribe, the Chamacea, includes some of the largest of
Molluscous Animals ; the animal of the Tridacna gigas (or Clam-
shell) weighing sometimes as much as twenty pounds, whilst its
valves occasionally attain the enormous weight of five hundred
pounds. Smaller specimens are very common as garden ornaments.
Another well-known species in the Hippopus niaculatiis (Fig. 1837),
which is-*frequently employed in the manufacture of ornamental
articles. The shell in the Chamacea is very thick, usually attached,
and the hinge has one or two teeth. The mantle is closed, with
separate siphonal openings, but with the siphons obsolete ; the foot
very small ; and there are two adductor muscles. In some fossil
species the valves are spiral. The recent species inhabit the seas of
warm climates. The following affords a more particular description
of the Tridac?ta species.
The Giant Tridacna {Tridacna gigas). Giant Clam ; la
Tuilee, or le Benitier, of the French. The shell is of huge size,
transversely oval, with great imbricato-squamous ribs ; the scales
short, arched, and lying near together ; the interstices of the ribs
not striated.
This noble species, which is a native of the Indian seas, attains
frequently to enormous dimensions, and often weighs from three to
four hundred pounds. Linnffius mentions a specimen four hundred
and ninety-eight pounds in weight.
A MS. in the library of Sir Joseph Banks gives the dimensions of
a specimen brought from Sumatra, the weight of which amounted
to five hundred and seven pounds. We have seen a sliell of large
size in the church of St. Sulpice, Paris, the valves of which are used
THE COCKLE FAMILY.
737
as vessels for containing holy water ; it was presented to Francis
I., by the republic of Venice. An immense specimen of this shell
was for many years exhibited at a fish-shop in London, weighing four
hundred pounds.
Of the strength of the cable, or byssus, by which a shell of the
weight of four hundred pounds moors itself to the rock or coral reef,
we may easily form some idea, and also of the force with which the
Fig. 1S37. — The Ilippopus macidatus.
Animal closes its valves on the least alarm. Cuvier, speaking of
the byssus, says, " it is very sensibly of a tendinous quality, and is
continued uninterruptedly by muscular fibres."
The Tridacna gigas, independently of its magnitude and weight,
is a very beautiful shell. Its inside is of glossy whiteness, and its
general form is very picturesque : hence it is sought for as an orna-
ment for grottoes, for flower-gardens, and as a basin for garden
fountains, or for the reception of rills, or little jets d'eau, which
sparkle in its stainless hollow.
Fig. 1838. — The Giant Tridacna ; a, inside ; b, outside.
The naturalists of the Astrolabe found this species at Carteret
Harbour, New Ireland. The natives brought many very large speci-
mens on board, and ate the Molluscs, which were abandoned to
them, with the utmost relish, and without being previously cooked.
They found the species again at Tongataboo, at the Moluccas, at
Timor, and at Wagiou. It appeared to prefer rather shallow water.
It would seem that there are several species, and some of large size,
which have been confounded with Tridaciia gigas : certain small
species, moreover, have been regarded as the young.
The Spotted Tridacna [Tr/dacua hippo j)us). Hippopus
macula fits, Lamarck; Tridacna tnaculata, Quoy ; Chama
hippopiis, Linnajus. This beautiful shell, often used for ornamental
purposes, is a native of the Indian Ocean. It was found by the
naturalists of the Astrolabe at Carteret Harbour, New Ireland ; and
also at Vanikoro, where they collected specimens left dry on the
reefs. It is solid and heav)', irregularly ribbed, and subsquamous.
Externally it is white, spotted with purplish red, especially about the
middle of the valves and towards the umbones ; the luriulo is cordate
and oblique, of a yellow tint, with its edge on each valve toothed.
The valves internally are of the purest white.
It appears to be very doubtful whether any fossil species of
Tridacna exists. M. Deshayes, in his Tables, records two fossil
and seven recent ; in his last edition of Lamarck he reduces the
number of fossil species toone Mr. G. B. Sowerby, in his "Genera,"
Fig. 1839. — The Spoiled Tridacna.
states that Tridactia is only found recent, and in Tropical seas, viz.,
those of India and Australia.
The Cockle VKWiiN.—Cardiacea.
The Cardiacea have a thick, closed, Equivalve shell, with the
umbones usually bent round, so that the shell, when seen from either
extremity, presents a more or less cordate appearance (Fig. 1840).
The hinge teeth are strong, from one to three in each valve ; and
there are usually one or two smaller teeth on each side of the hinge.
The mantle lobes are closed, the foot large and strong, and the
siphons usually short, although in some species they are as long as
in the following tribe, and the pallial in these cases presents a slight
sinuosity. The Animal possesses two adductor muscles.
Fig. 1S40. — The Carditim jiinoiiis.
Many of these shells (of which the Common Cockle, Cardiinn
ediclc, is a well-known example) are elegantly marked with radiating
ribs, running from the umbones to the free margins ; and in some
cases the ribs are ornamented with spines of various and singular
forms. They are generally active Animals, springing to a consider-
able height by means of the strong, bent foot. They usually con-
ceal themselves by burrowing in the sand or mud. In a few species,
the foot forms a creeping disc. The Common Cockle is eaten, .and
in some localities forms an important article of food ; but it has but
little to recommend it. Fig. 1841 shows the characters of Uie valves
and hinge of the Cardium elongatuin.
SB
738
THE COCKLE FAMILY.
The Vcncracea.
The Vcj7eracca, forming the i5rst tribe of the Bivalve Molluscs,
with elongated siphons and a distinct pallial sinus, resemble the
t-aratacea in the form of the shell and general structure. The foot
IS usual y compressed, broad, and somewhat triangular, servin<y
principally as an instrument for burrowing. The Vencracea are
distinguished from the following tribe by having the respiratory
siphons separate ; at all events, for the greater part of their length.
Fig. 1841. — The Cardiiim don^a/tim.
This_ group includes many exceedingly elegant shells, the exotic
species especially being often adorned with a most charming variety
01 colour. Some species are also ornamented with spines (Fig. 184-')
They generally conceal themselves by burrowing, sometimes into the
Fig. 1842.— The Spined Cytherea.
sand and mud of the sea-bottom, and sometimes into solid rock
The principal agent in these operations is the foot.
The Pholadacea.
The Pholadacea are distinguished from the precedin.o- tribe by
having the siphonal tubes united through the whole or the greater
part of their length (Fig. 1843). Like the Vaieracca, they are all
burrowing Animals ; and the majority select hard substances, such
as rock, wood, &c., for the construction of their burrows. The'shells
are usually of an elongated form, gaping at one or both ends. They
are closed by two adductor muscles. The foot is large and powerful
and the mantle is closed. The type ofthe group is the genus ^//o/«v'
specimens of which are common in the chalk rocks of the south of
England. They are furnished with accessory plates on the back for
the protection of the dorsal muscles. Another shell belonging to
this tribe is the Solen, or Razor-shell, which burrows to a consider-
able depth in the sand. They are drawn from their burrows by
means ofa bent iron, and are very good eating. One of the most
celebrated species is the Tcycdo navalis, or Ship-worm, an animal
which attains a length of one or two feet, and often does immense
damage by burrowing into timber. In the years 1731 and 1732 it
excited great alarm in Holland, by borinc into the pi'les which ass'ist
m protecting that country from the inroads of the sea. It is a soft
cylindrical, and somewhat worm-like animal, furnished with a pair
of small shells at its anterior extremity. A still more sin^rular
animal, belonging to this tribe, is the AsJ>crginii7n, ox\Ma.\txm'r.
pot shell (Fig. 1844, a), which is inclosed in a calcareous tube, in the
Fig. 1843. — The Panopaa austral is.
anterior part of which the two minute valves are imbedded. The
anterior extremity of the tube is closed by a singular perforated disc
(Fig. 1844, l>), and the opposite end is usually ornamented with
several ruffle-like bands.
The following gives a more detailed description of this tribe •
which, to builders of piers and other wooden works, as well as of
wooden ships, will be of interest.
Fig. 1S44. — The Watering-pot shell ; a, the shell complete ; i, the
perforated disc.
The family Pholada: comprises a group of Molluscs, the boring
habits of which have been long known ; they penetrate wood, hard
clay, chalk, and rocks, and devastate the labours of man ; they
attack the hulls of ships, submarine piles, the foundations of piers
and breakwaters, and consequently become objects of anxious inte-
rest ; they force themselves upon our attention by their insidious but
extensive depredations, the results of which not only involve the loss
of property, but often also of life.
In the genus Pholas the shell is delicate, white, rather transparent,
sometimes covered with a thin epidermis, of an oval elongated
figure, and gaping at both extremities ; the umbones are hidden by
a callosity ; the hinge is toothless and without a true ligament ; a
flat re-curved spoon-shape process, enlarged at its extremity, ele-
vates itself within each valve below the umbo. The muscular
impressions are very distant, the posterior one is large and distinct,
the anterior small, and often scarcely apparent ; the pallial mark is
deeply furrowed posteriorly. To the shell thus characterised are
often added certain accessory pieces ; sometimes a calcareous tube
envelopes all the parts, leaving an aperture posteriorly.
The Mollusc, thus protected, is generally elongated, with the
mantle reflected on the dorsal part, for the purpose of tying together
the valves and the accessory pieces. The foot is short, oblong, and
flattened. The siphons are elongated and united into a single very
extensible and dilatable tube. The mouth is small, with trifling
labial appenflages. The branchice are elongated and narrow, and
prolonged into the inferior siphon.
The number and disposition of the accessory pieces in the shell of
THE BORING MOLLUSCS.
739
Pholas vary considerably ; and it would appear that the Animal, as
it bores its way, sometimes deposits a calcareous tubular lining- on
the internal wall of the cavity it inhabits. A more clear idea of the
forms of the animal and shell of Fholus will be conceived by referring
to the following illustrations.
Fig. 1845 represents the Animal and shell of Pholas dactylus ;
the lower or ventral part is presented to the spectator, showing the
gape of the valves — a is the mantle, open anteriorly for the protru-
sion of the foot ; b, the foot ; c, the double siphon, emerging from
the posterior aperture of the shell, d d.
Fig. 1845. — The Pholas dactylus.
Fig. 1846 represents the shell of Pholas dactylus, with its acces-
sory valves visible. A, the accessory valves ; a, the anterior pair ;
b, the central piece ; c, the posterior piece. B is an exterior lateral
view of the shell, with the accessory valves in situ. C is an internal
view of one of the valves ; a, the internal spoon-shaped process,
under the umbo.
Fig. 1S46.— The riwlas dactylus.
Mr. Sowerby, in reference to the genus Pholas, says, "We
believe that all the thells of this genus are furnished with a greater
or less number of accessory valves, which appear to be caused by the
deposition of shelly matter (within the epidermis and connected with
the valves by that membrane), wherever such valves were necessary
for the security of the inmate.
,. " '^'^^y ^'"'^ consequently very various in form, and placed in
different situations in the different species, though in most cases
they are placed near the hinge, and have even been considered to be
substitutes, in these shells, for the permanent ligament of other
bivalves. We must, for the present, withhold our assent from this
opinion, because, on account of the situation in which they live the
animals inhabiting these shells can have very little occasion to open
their valves ; whether or not there is any permanent ligament in this
genus, as we have never observed the animal alive, we cannot under-
take to determine. Turton says it has none ; Lamarck, on the con-
trary, speaks of the accessory valves covering and hiding the liga-
ment. As far as we can form an opinion from dried specimens, we
cannot consider the substance to which these valves arc attached as
the ligament, but as part of the adductor muscle ; nevertheless, we
think we can, in some species, perceive a very small internal liga-
ment, attached to two unequally-sized small curved teeth, one in
each valve, placed in the same situation as the hinge-teeth of com-
mon bivalves." He adds, " The principal differences between
Pholas and Teredo consist in the latter forming a shelly tube behind
its valves, and in its being destitute of accessory valves ; moreover,
the two valves of the latter, when closed, are nearly globular."
The same Conchologist makes the following valuable remarks, in
an introduction to the description of eleven new species brought by
Mr. Cuming, chiefly from the western parts of South America and
the islands of the South Pacific Ocean: — " The utmost caution," he
says, " is necessary in the examination and description of the various
sorts of Pholadcs, on account of the extraordinary difference in the
form of the same species, in different stages of growth. The addi-
tion of accessory valves, also, as they increase in age, must be care-
fully observed, in order to guard against too implicit a confidence in
their number and form. And though I might be considered guilty
of asserting a truism by stating that the difference in size of diii'ercnt
individuals of the same species may, and sometimes does, mislead
the tyro in the science of Malacology, lest such difference should
mislead the adept also, let him, too, proceed cautiously ; and when
he finds a full-grown shell of half an inch in length, agreeing per-
fectly in proportions and characters with another of two inches long,
let him not conclude that it is a distinct species ; but if he can find no
other difterence except that which exists in their dimensions, let him
consider the one a giant, the other a dwarf. Let it be remembered
that among the Cyprczcc it is not uncommon to observe young shells
of three inches in length, and fully grown ones of the same sort only
an inch in length. Likewise of the British Pholades there are indi-
viduals quite in a young state of two inches in length, and perfectly
formed shells of the same species not more than half an inch long.
For instance, in demonstration I need only refer to the Pholas
fapyraceus, so abundant at Torquay, of which the young shells have
been considered by many as a distinct species, and have been named
by Dr. Turton Ph. lamcllosus. This varies in size exceedingly, so
that it may be obtained both in an incomplete and young state, and
in a fully grown condition, from half an inch to nearly two inches in
length. The circumstance of its having rarely occurred in an in-
termediate state of growth, when the anterior opening is only partly
closed, and the accessory valves only partly formed, led Dr. Turton
and others to persist in regarding the young and old as two distinct
species."
The genus Pholas is very widely distributed ; and all the species
manifest the same boring habits as those in our own, and in the
adjacent coasts. Pieces of hard chalk, completely mined in all
directions with Pholades, may be picked up near Ramsgate, on the
coast of Kent, where other masses of the same character are seen in
abundance, and filled with the empty and dead shells of the borers.
Some of Mr. Cuming's specimens were in soft stone, others in hard
stones, others again in limestone, hard clay, decayed wood, and the
trunks of trees at low water. With respect to the means by which
these creatures effect their boring operations, many opinions have
been entertained. Some have attributed the perforations to a rota-
tory motion of the shell, by which the stone or chalk is, as it were,
rasped away. But as the shells fit the cavities in which they are
lodged, this opinion has no support ; besides, one would think that
the extremely delicate valves of Pholas would themselves become
worn down by such a process sooner than rock. Others, again, have
attributed it to the action of currents of water produced by the vibra-
tile cilia of the animal, and directed so as to act anteriorly to the
animal, which presses onwards as the currents wear down the stone.
It is possible to conceive that such currents may take an effect on
soft materials of which the particles become readily disintegrated ;
but when we see solid blocks of timber, as oak, riddled in every
direction, we cannot but hesitate as to the part which ciliary currents
take in such perforations. The constituent particles of oak are, one
would think, too adherent to yield to minute ciliary currents of water,
the force of which must be very trifling. Others, again, have
attributed the whole to the agency of some chemical solvent poured
out by the Mollusc. To say nothing of the danger to which its own
shell would be exposed, this theory is discountenanced by the cir-
cumstance that the rocks or stones bored are of different natures, as
limestone, clays, sandstones, &c. , to say nothing of wood. Now
we can scarcely suppose that the same chemical agent will dissolve
one and all of these substances ; unless, indeed, w-e are to suppose
that each species bores only into one given material, a circumstance
which we do not know there is any ground for supposing, though
perhaps some, as the delicate Pholas cono'idcs may be oftener found
in hard wood than in stone.
740
THE BORING MOLLUSCS.
Mr. Sowerby, in his notice of the Pholas aaiminata, found at
Panama in argillaceous limestone, at low water, says, " This species
demonstrates a fact of considerable importance to geologists. It is
in argillaceous limestone, very much resembling lias, and in forming
the cavity in which it resides, it has, by such a chemical process as
frequently takes place, absorbed a much greater quantity of the rock
than could be retained or converted. This is again deposited at the
upper part of the cavky, and thus the rock is recomposed." We
think this fact equally as valuable to the zoologist as to the geologist.
It seems to indicate that it is by absorption that the tunnel is bored.
May not the broad foot, we would ask, be a powerful organ of
absorption, and be in constant application, like a sucker to the end
of the tunnel, throwing into the system the matter taken up, and
which is again thrown out tlirough the upper of the two siphons ; or,
as in the instance oi Pholas aciinu'nata, redeposited at the upper part
of the cavity, so as to recompose the rock as the Mollusc pushes,
onwards ? And further, may not the tube lining the internal wall of
the cavity, as observed by M. des Moulins in the'instance of the Fossil
Pholades from Merignac, have been produced by the excreted
materials previously absorbed ? According to this view, the foot
would serve a double purpose ; adherent to the extremity of the
tunnel, it would carry on the excavation by absorption, and draw the
Animal forwards, in accordance with the rapidity of the process.
A better idea than mere words will convey of the destructive
labours of the Pholas, may be conceived by the annexed illustrations.
Fig. 1847 represents the Pho/as striatus, in wood ; the mass is
Fig. 1S47. — The Pholas striatus, in wood.
completely riddled by the animals, to the shape of which it will be
seen the cavities are precisely fitted. Fig. 1848 shows a block of
stone perforated by the Pholas dactylus.
The Fossil species of Pholas 3.x&xzx& ; they occur in strata below
the chalk, and also in Tertiary formations.
Fig. 1S48. — The Pholas dactylus, in stone.
Fig. 1849 represents the animal of Teredo fiavalls out of the shell.
A. In this the opercula are wanting and the tubes retracted ; B. In
this specimen the opercula are in their situation : a a, the boring-
shells ; b, the proboscis ; c, the mouth ; d d, the contents of the
abdomen, seen through the transparent external covering ; e e, the
DranchiiE, seen in the same manner.
Fig. 1850 represents the tube aiid shell of 'Teredo navalis : a, the
tube with the valves in their natural position at its anterior extremity •
i and c, two views of valves; d, the two tubular siphons of the animal
protruded.
Fig. 1851 represents a block of wood perforated by the Teredo
navalis.
Fig. 1849.— The Teredo navalis, out of shell.
The Teredo navalis has been found at depths varying from the
surface to ten fathoms ; though unfortunately now so common in our
seas, this terrible scourge is said to have been originally brou^-ht by
ships from warmer climates. All sub-marine wo'od-work, su'ch as
the piles of piers, flood-gates, and the like, are soon riddled by it,
often in spite of every precaution.
The rapidity with which it commits its ravages is astonishing- • a
piece of deal after forty days submersion has been found completely
Fig. 1S50. — Shell and Tube of Teredo navalis.
riddled by these Animals, some of which had attained to a con-
siderable size even in that short space of time. Montagu obtained
a number of these animals in piles from the Dockyard at Plymouth,
which were taken up to be replaced with new, although they had not
been above four or five years under water, and were sound solid oak
Fig- 1851. — Wood perforated by Teredo navalis.
when driven. The most effectual way to preserve wood fiom the
attacks of these " worms " is to cover the whole of the surface ex-
posed to their depredations with short broad-headed nails, set as
closely together as possible. The action of the salt-water on the
iron produces a coating of rust, which is said to be superior in
durability and effect to the copper sheathing with which the hulls
of vessels ate covered underneath. But the substitution of ii"on for
THE BORING MOLLUSCS.
74t
building vessels, piers, &c., has to a large extent rendered the evil
effects of the Tcrcdi) nugatory.
It has been a question whether the Teredo navalis derives nutri-
ment from the particles of the wood in which it drives it galleries, or
the contrary. Probably it docs not, and perhaps the object of its
boring is only to secure a proper habitation. It is, we believe, ascer-
tained that an impalpable vegetable sawdust is found in the intes-
tines, but unchanged by the process of digestion ; and besides, at a
certain period of existence, the Animal closes the tube and valves
anteriorly, and ceases to bore, deriving its nutriment through one of
the open siphons, from the animal matters with which the sea-water
is replete. Sir E. Home suggests that, as the alimentary canal is
straight and simple, the sawdust may be needful in order to retard
the progress of the food, that the complete digestion of the latter
may be effected. This, however, is a mere theory.
A gigantic Teredo, Teredo gigaiifea, is found in the Indian Seas,
but fortunately it does not bore into wood, its habitation being per-
forated in deep beds of hardened mud. This species, which attains
the length of six feet, and perhaps much more, was first figured by
Rumphius. His specimens were found in shallow water among
mangrove-trees. In 1805, Captain Maxwell, of the Calcutta, East
Indiaman, gave to Sir Everard Home a specimen of this singular
shell or tubular envelope, five feet long, though imperfect at both
extremities. By some scientific men this was considered as a hollow
stalactite, but Sir Joseph Banks regarded it as a shell, and chemical
analysis confirmed the correctness of his opinion.
Mr. Grifliths relates that a short time after a very violent earth-
quake which occurred in the year 1797, at Sumatra, and produced a
most tremendous inundation of the sea, spreading desolation around
and causing the loss of many lives, these shells were procured in a
small bay with a muddy bottom, surrounded by coral reefs, on the
island of Battoo. On the recession of the sea after the extraordinary
inundation, they were observed protruding from a bank of slightly in-
durated mud, and two or three specimens were brought to Mr.
Griffiths, by the master of a trading boat. Mr. Griffiths then sent
one of his ser\'ants, a Papooa Coffree, who was an excellent diver,
to procure others. This man stated that he had found the shells in
the bay already mentioned, and also in an inlet of the sea, sticking
out of hard mud mixed with sand and small stones; they protruded
to the extent of eight or ten inches, and were from one to three
fathoms under water.
Mr. Griffiths was assured that the Animal throws out tentacula
from the two apertures of the apex of the shell, resembling small
Acthiics (Sea Anemones), and that the
shell was filled with soft gelatinous flesh,
similar to that of the Teredo tiavalis ;
this, however, being putrid, was washed
out by the men who collected the speci-
mens. All the shells were more or less
mutilated, probably by the action of the
waves, which had torn up large masses
of Coral and Madrepore, during the
continuance of the earthquake. The
longest Mr. Griffiths procured was five
feet four inches ; some had the anterior
extremity, others the posterior extremity
broken. Most of the shells had the
small Cock's-comb Oyster and various
Serpute adhering to their posterior ex-
tremity for more than a foot, proving
that during their existence this part of
the shell had protruded above the mud
if^ in which the remainder was buried.
fci^^ The specimens were milk-white extern-
' ^ ally, and tinged with yellow within ; and
the large or buried end was completely
closed, and had a rounded appearance.
The substance of the shell was com-
posed of layers having a fibrous and
radiated appearance, covered externally
with a pure white crust. Many speci-
mens were nearly straight, others
more or less contorted. Fig. 1852 is
the Teredo gigantca, as figured by
Mr. Grifliths. A, the small or upper
end, protruding from the mud ; the ex-
ternal covering is broken away, showing
the termination of the tubes, one of
which is broken ; B, a longitudinal sec-
tion of that part of the shgU where the
double tubes are formed ; C, the shell
complete, or nearly so, the upper ex-
1S52.— The Teredo tremity only being imperfect.
gigantea. :„ respect to the Solens, or Razor-
shells, which have already been referred
to, it may be remarked that several species are natives of our
shores, and of the Continent. We have picked up large quan-
I''in
titles of these empty shells between Margate and Dover, on the
coast of Kent. These Molluscs live on extensive sandy beaches, or
at the mouths of rivers where a deep bed of silt affords them the
facility of burrowing; they bury themselves in a vertical position,
with the foot downwards and the siphons upwards, the apertures of
the latter just projecting above the surface of the bed. Here they
quietly remain, taking in food and water through the larger siphonic
tube as the tide flows over them ; when disturbed, down'they plunge
into the oozy sand, disappearing with astonishing celerity, often
baflling the most active endeavours to capture them, and making
their way to the depth of several feet.' When the danger is past,
they gradually re-ascend, by the extension and contraction of the
powerful foot, but are ready in an instant to disappear. The whole
of their active existence is thus passed in descending to the depths
of their burrows and in re-ascending to the surface. The foot is
cylindrical, but alters its shape according to need in the process of
burrowing.
The inhabitants of the coasts on which the Solens are found,
search for them, sometimes as food for the poorest of the community,
but generally as baits for catching Fish. The most favourable time
for taking them is after high tides; they then often appear just
emerging from their burrows in great numbers. The ordinary plan is
to throw into their burrows as they withdraw themselves a small
quantity of salt, which so irritates the animals that they immediately
ascend out of their holes, in order to get rid of it. They are then
seized, but some address is required lest the animal should re-enter
as rapidly as it came forth. Another plan of taking these Shell-fish
is by means of a long iron hook, which the fisherman plunges deeply
into the sand, and drawing it out obliquely with a jerk, carries away
sand and Solen also. But with all the dexterity of the lishennan he
frequently loses the object of his search.
Fig. 1853. — The Soien, or Razor-shell.
Fig. 1853 shows the valves oi SoIe?i oisis : «■, an external view
with the valves closed ; b. an internal view of one of the valves, as
seen in the opened shell.
Class IV.— Palliobranchiata.
General Characters.— The Animals of this class are distin-
guished from the Lamellibranchiate Molhisca by the absence of any
special branchial apparatus, the respiratory function being per-
formed by the mantle, which is traversed by numerous blood-vessels.
They are also characterised by the possession of a pair of long,
ciliated, and usually spiral arms, the analogues of the labial tentacles
of the ordinary bi-valves. The action of the cilia with-which these
are clothed, produces a current in the water, that carries the particles
of food to the mouth, which is situated close to their base. From
the presence of these organs the class is often termed Brachiopoda.
The valves, instead of being placed on each side of the body of
the Animal, are situated above and below it ; so that they are called
dorsal and ventral, instead of right and left, valves. The central
valve is usually larger than the dorsal, and projects beyond it at the
beak, where it is generally per-
forated to allow the passage of a
muscular or tendinous peduncle,
by which the Animal attaches
itself (Fig. 1854 ")■ In some cases
the peduncle is wanting, and the
shell is then fixed by the beak.
The connection of the valves is
effected by a pair of teeth, spring-
ing from the ventral valve, and
locking into corresponding cavities
in the dorsal valve. There is no
ligament, and the valves of the
shell are opened and closed by ap-
propriate muscles.
The arms are frequently supported upon a calcareous framework
or skeleton (Fig. 1854 b), attached to the interior of the dorsal valve ;
this usually forms two loops, springing from the neighbourhood of
the hinge. The arms appear to be extensible in some instances ;
but in others they are attached to the internal framework, and only
the extremity is free.
Fig. 1S54. — The Tereiraltda auslralis.
a, shell closed, showing aperture ; /',
dorsal valve, with framework.
742
THE PTEROPODOUS MOLLUSCS.
Tlie body of the Animal only occupies a small portion of the cavity
of the shell, close to the hinge ; it is inclosed within a strong mem-
branous partition, in the centre of which the mouth is seen. The in-
testine is convoluted, and the liver is large and granular. All the
Palliohranchiata appear to possess two hearts, each composed of
an auricle and a ventricle, situated in the neighbourhood of the
oesophagus ; they are also furnished with a complex system of
vessels, which conveys the blood to the organs of the body, and to
the mantle, where it is exposed to the influence of the water.
The structure of the shell is very peculiar. It consists of flattened
prismatic colls, arranged in an oblique direction as regards the
surfaces of the shell ; the substance of the shell is traversed by small
canals, through which little processes of the outer layer of the mantle
pass.
These animals are all Marine ; they are found attached by the
peduncle, which passes through the aperture in the ventral valve,
suspended from rocks, corals, and other submarine objects. The
Fossil species are exceedingly numerous, especially in the older
strata, in some of which they are the principal representatives of the
Molluscous type of structure.
Sub-divisions. — The greater number of the species of this class
are Fossil ; but a good many are still found in our seas. We may
distinguish three principal groups or families. In the first, the
Craiiiidcv., the ventral valve of the shell is usually adherent, without
the intervention of a peduncle, and the hinge is destitute of teeth.
The interior of the valve has a broad granulated border, and the
disc is marked with four deep muscular impressions (Fig. 1855).
In the second group, the Terebratulidcs,
the beak of the ventral valve is pierced
with a hole for the passage of the peduncle,
and the valves are united by a hinge. This
family includes the greater part of the
species, both of Recent and Fossil Pallia-
brajichiata.
In the third group, that of the Lingulida;,
the Animal is attached by a peduncle ; but
this, instead of passing through an aper-
ture in one of the valves, issues from the
interior of the shell between the umbones.
The valves are nearly equal, horny, and flexible ; and the peduncle
is very long. The best known species, the Li)igula anatina (Fig.
1856), is found in the Eastern Ocean.
Fig. 1S55. — Crania per-
sonata.
Fig. 1S56. — The Lingida anatina.
Class V.— Pteropoda, or Wing-footed Molluscs.
General-<;haracters. — The singular little Animals included
in this group present many points of resemblance with those of the
following class, especially in their young state. Hence, several
naturalists have united these animals with the Gasteropoda in a
single class, denominated Cephalophora, or Jicad-bcarci'S ; but as
the Pteropods differ greatly from the other Cephalophorous Mollusca,
we have preferred leaving them as an independent group.
They are all of small size, and furnished with a pair of broad
flattened fins at the sides of the head, by means of which they swim
with tolerable rapidity through the open sea. They are inhabitants
of the ocean, and rarely venture near the shore, except when driven
from their favourite haunts by high winds ; on the high sea, they
often abound in such profusion, as to colour the surface for miles
together.
The claim of many of these Animals to the distinction of possess-
ing a head, is, perhaps, a debateable point ; for a considerable
number present scarcely any traces either of eyes or tentacles on the
anterior extremity of the body. In other cases, however, these
organs, especially the latter, are perceptible. The ganglia are
placed below the oesophagus, the supra-oesophagral ganglia being
represented by a slender ring ; they all possess auditory vesicles,
containing otolithes. The mouth is generally unarmed, sometimes
furnished with sucking tentacles ; but the oesophagus is muscular,
and the tongue frequently armed with teeth. The intestine is con-
voluted, and the anus usually opens on the right side near the neck.
The circulatory system is very incomplete ; the heart is composed of
two cavities, and the respiratory organs are either external or
inclosed within a cavity of the mantle. The foot, which is such an
important organ in the following class, is here either entirely
wanting, or, if present, forms only a little lobe between the bases of
the fins.
Sub-divisions. — We distinguish two orders of the Pteropoda,
characterised by the presence or absence of a shell.
Order I. — GYiiNOSoMArA.
The Animals of this order are distinguished by the absence of a
shell, and the distinct separation of the head from the body. The
skin is of a firmer te.xture than in the following order, where it is
protected by a shell. The species of the genus Clio (Fig. 1857),
belonging to this order, are found principally in the Arctic and
Antarctic Seas, where they occur in prodigious numbers. So great,
in fact, is their abundance, that although they do not exceed an inch
in length, they furnish one of the principal sources
of the nourishment of the gigantic Whales. They
are usually of a beautiful blue or violet colour,
tinged with red. The following is a more par-
ticular description of the Arctic species : —
The Polar Clio (OYo borcalis). The Clio
borealis may be described as a sort of Marine
slug with a pair of winglike fins or oars attached
to each side of the neck, by means of which
the Animal rows itself merrily along, and sports
amidst the waters of the Polar Sea, rising and de-
scending at pleasure.
These oars are made up of muscular fibres,
which pass through the neck from one expanded
appendage to the other, so that the organ is in
fact single, and may be compared to the double
Fig. 1857 The paddled oar with which the Greenlander propels
Clio australis. and steers his kajak in the very seas which the
Clio itself navigates.
The outer covering of the Clio is a delicate semi-transparent soft
skin which covers a second tunic. This last is thicker, and presents
longitudinal and very sensible muscular fibres, which come from two
principal bundles attached to the sides of the neck. The effect of
these fibres must be to shorten the general envelop of the body, and
to approximate its form to a spherical shape. Cuvier, who gives the
above destription, adds, that he knows not with what the interval
between this fleshy tunic and the mass of the viscera is filled in the
living state ; but observes that it is certain that these do not occupy
the half of the area which the tunic incloses ; and conjectures
that there may be a liquor diffused there, or, perhaps, only a
quantity of air, which the Animal can compress at pleasure
when it would sink in the water, and dilate when it would rise.
The head of the Clio is enveloped in a sort of hood, which
can be opened and retracted at pleasure, so as to expose
the mouth surrounded by three conical appendages on each
bide, like little fleshy tentacula. Examined by means of a
microscope, each of these appendages is seen to be regularly
and numerously covered with red points, which, when in-
spected through a lens of great power, are found to be
distinct transparent cylinders, each sheathing about twenty
minute suckers, which are capable of being protruded, and
acting as organs of firm prehension. It has been calculated that
the total number of these suckers upon the conical appendages of a
single Clio amount to 360,000.
Besides these oval appendages, the Clio can protrude from its
head, through a perforation in the centre of each valve of the hood,
two slender horns, or feelers, in order to ascertain the presence of
food.
The mouth of this little creature is a triangular orifice armed,
according to Eschricht, with two jaws with sharp horny pectinations
fixed on a fleshy base. These pectinations are of unequal length,
but their points are nearly on the same level, and they can be pro-
truded for the purpose of seizing prey. Within the mouth is a
tongue with its tip and upper surface covered with minute cui-ved
hooks in regular rows, evidently serving to assist in the act of de-
glutition.
With respect to eyes, Cuvier says, " some naturalists attribute
these organs to them," and De Blainville has expressly described
them. They are two in number, placed on the back of the neck,
and, though excessively minute, appear to have a very complete
structure.
Cuvier regarded the oars of this Animal as its aerating as well as
locomotive organs, but the correctness of this opinion is denied by
Eschricht ; in fact we are not only in ignorance as to the laboratory
in which the circulating fluid undergoes its requisite purification,
but also with respect to several other details in the economy of this
Mollusc.
The digestive apparatus is simple ; there is a large liver ; and
there are also long slender salivary glands.
The Clio borealis, though not more than an inch in length, forms
the chief part of the food of the huge Greenland whale, — and under
the name of " whales-food" is well known to the sailors who chase
this huge tenant of the ocean. The Clio dwells in shoals so count-
THE GASTEROPODOUS MOLLUSCS.
743
less and extensive, that the surface of the water for a vast distance
often seems alive with them, as they sport and gambol heedless of
their destroyer, who, as he passes throujjh their ranks, "thick as
autumnal leaves in Valombrosa," opens his mouth and ingulfs thou-
sands at a snap. ^
Sir E. Parry found the Clio in astonishing abundance in all parts
of Baffin's Bay and Davis's Strait in the neighbourhood of ico. Sir
James Ross observed it very numerous in most parts of the Arctic
Ocean, but less abundant in Regent's Inlet and the Gulf of Boothia.
When the weather is calm these Animals come in myriads to the
surface for the purpose of respiration, but scarcely have they reached
it when they again precipitate themselves towards the bottom.
Fig. 1858.— The Polar Clio.
A, Clio lorealts (see Fig. 1858), view of the back ; a, the body ;
b, the viscera, seen through the common integuments ; r, the
tubercles of the head, and the holes wherein the three tentacula on
each side are withdrawn ; d, d, gills and fins. B, the same, view of
the belly ; a, c, d, indicate the same parts as in A ; e, the two ten-
tacula placed before the mouth. 0, the same laid open ; c, d,
indicate the same parts as in the two former figures ; y, _/", the ex-
ternal tunic or skin ; g, g, the internal tunic or fleshy pannicle ; h,
h, the principal bundles of its fibres ; i, the mass of viscera ; m, the
principal vein of the fins.
Order II. — Thecosomata.
The Thecosomata are always inclosed in a shell, which is usually
very delicate, and of a glassy transparency. It varies greatly in
shape, its simplest form being triangular (Fig. 1859), °'' rather pyra-
.f^
Fig. 1859.— The Shell of Chodora
pyramidata.
Fig. 1S60.— The Ilyalea.
midal ; but the basal portion is often somewhat globular, and
adorned with two or three projecting angles or spines (Fig. i860).
The head is less distinctly separated from the body than in the
Gym?iosomata ; the foot is obsolete, and the respiratory organs are
inclosed within a cavity of the mantle.
Some of the rftost beautiful and best known known species belong
to the genus Hyalca (Fig. i860), so called from the glassy texture
of their shells. In the Eiirybia (Fig. i86i) the Animal and shell are
sub-globular in shape, without points proceeding from the latter.
In a few genera the shells acquire a spiral form ; thus in Liiuacina
(Fig. 1862), a genus of minute Molluscs found in the Arctic and
Antarctic Seas, the shell resembles that of a little Nautilus in its
form ; whilst in Spiralis, it forms a little pointed spire, furnished
with a minute glassy operclum.
We next have to draw attention to a very interesting class of
Molliisca with which all of our readers must be very familiar. They
are called G.istcropods, or Belly-footed, for reasons that will be pre-
sently explained.
Class VI.— Gasteropoda.
General Characters. — The most striking characteristic of the
Gasteropoda consists in the structure of the locomotive organ. This,
which is well shown in the Common Snails, consists of a broad,
muscular, disc-like foot attached to the ventral surface (whence the
name), upon which the Animal creeps slowly along witli a sort of
gliding motion. This form of foot is presented by nearly all the
Animals referred to this class ; although, in a few species, it is so
greatly modified that at the first glance it would not be taken for
the same organ.
The head is always distinct, usually furnished with tentacles and
eyes. The opening of the mouth is placed in its lower surface ; it is
often furnished with a protrusible
proboscis, and armed with one or
two teeth or jaws inserted in its
upper part. The lower part of the
mouth and oesophagus is occupied
by the tongue, a long ribbon-
shaped organ sometimes longer
than the whole body, covered on
its upper surface with an immense
number of minute silicious teeth,
which are employed, with the
assistance of the upper jaws, in
dividing the food. The arrange-
ment and form of these lingual
teeth, as they are called, are very constant in the different groups ;
they have been lately employed as valuable characters in the classifi-
cation of these Animals. The lingual ribbon is rolled up posteriorly ;
and it is supposed that it is unrolled and brought forward by
degrees, in order that new teeth may take the place of those tliat
have been abraded by use.
Fig. 1S61.— The Eurybut
gaudichatidii.
Fig. 1862. — The Limatina rostralis.
The intestinal canal is usually simple and membranous. In some
species, however, the stomach has thickened walls, furnished inter-
nally with horny ridges or teeth. The intestine winds amongst the
other viscera, and the anus is situated on the right side of the anterior
part of the body. The liver is voluminous, and usually envelops the
other intestines ; and nearly all the Gasteropoda possess salivary
glands in the neighbourhood of the mouth.
Respiration is generally effected by means of branchiae, placed
sometimes on the surface of the body, but more commonly in a special
cavity in the back of the mantle, the aperture of which is situated
over the neck. The margins of this aperture are often produced
into a siphon, which projects over the head of the Animal ; the
water, after traversing the gills, passes off by a separate aperture,
situated on the right side of the body ; and this is also siphonate in
some instances. The branchiffi are plumose or branch organs.
As a general rule, only those of the right side are developed ; bat in
some cases the Animals are symmetrical in this respect. In the
Land-snails, and a few fresh-water Molluscs, the respiratory function
is performed by a pulmonary sac hollowed out in the right side of the
body near the neck, and opening externally at that point, by an aper-
ture which the Animal can open or close at pleasure.
The heart consists of two chambers, and is generally placed in the
neighbourhood of the branchia;. The blood leaves the heart by a
large artery, which generally soon divides into two branches, one
running to the head and anterior part of the body, the other to the
posterior organs. On its return, the blood does not appear to be
confined within true veins ; it flows through the interstices of the
organs, and is at last collected into particular canals, by which it is
conveyed to the respiratory organs, whence it passes again to the
heart.
The nervous system varies greatly in development, and in the
arrangement of its parts ; but in all, the centre is formed by an oeso-
phageal ring or collar, composed of several ganglia united by nervous
filaments. The supra-cesophageal ganglia are sometimes distinct.
744
THE GASTEROPODOUS MOLLUSCS.
sometimes fused into a mass ; they alwaj's give off the nerves of the
organs of sensation situated on the head. The ganglia which
supply nerves to the foot, the mantle, the intestines, and other organs
of the body, are connected, by means of nervous filaments, with the
ganglia placed below the cfisophagus. The organs of the senses
consist of tentacles of very various forms ; of a pair of eyes, placed
sometimes on the head itself, sometimes on the sides of the tentacles,
or supported upon separate stalks ; and of a pair of auditory vesicles,
containing otolithes, generally placed near the base of the tentacles,
and either immediately in contact with the brain, or connected with
it by a short nerve. No special organs of smell or taste have been
detected in the Gdsfcropoda, although we may infer, from the dis-
crimination exercised by the Animals in the choice of their food, that
they are not destitute of these senses.
vh ah b on
Fig. 1S63. — Anatomy of the Tiirho fica.
f, foot ; 0, operculum ; /, proboscis ; ta, tentacula ; y, eyes ; m, mantle
opened longitudinally, to show the disposition of the respiratory cavity ;
/, anterior border of the mantle, which, in its natural position, covers the
back of the animal, leaving a wide slit by which the water enters the bran-
chial cavity ; b, the gills ; vb, branchial vein, returning to the heart, c ; ab,
branchial artery ; a, anus ; i, intestines ; e, stomach and liver ; en.', oviduct.
On the upper side of the neck are seen the cephalic ganglion, and the
salivary glands ; and at d is shown a fringed membrane, which forms the
lower border of the left side of the opening that leads to the respiratory
cavities.
The general form of the body, in the Gasteropoda, is very charac-
teristic of the class. From the great preponderance of one side of
the body over the other, the whole acquires, during growth, a spiral
form ; and it is only in some naked species, and in those which have
branchiae equally developed on both sides, that we find the body
symmetrical. The shell with which the Animals are furnished, and
which, as in the other Molhisca, is secreted by the edge of the
mantle, partakes of this form. It is almost always composed of a
single piece (univalve), and usually forms a conical tube, twisted
spirally. This tube, however, is rarely perfect, the inner wall of each
■whorl (as the convolutions of the spire are termed) being usually
Fig. 1S64.— The Pirena.
Fig. 1865. — The Ampullaria.
formed by the surface of the preceding whorl, which the Animal
covers with a thin coating of shelly matter. In the majority of these
shells the spire takes an oblique direction, so that the shell has a
pointed apex, and goes on increasing in breadth towards the lower
extremity (Fig. 1864). In some, however, the whorls are rolled one
upon another in the same plane, producing a discoid shell (Fig. 1 865) ;
and we meet with every possible gradation of form between the
extremes of obliquity and flatness. In the Scalaria, the tube of the
shell is perfect, although the whorls are closely applied to each
other ; but in Vermetus, and some others, the shell forms a simple,
but more or less contorted tube. The same thing occurs in monstrous
varieties of regularly spiral shells ; and a few species which inhabit
a spiral shell until they attain a certain size, afterwards add to it by
forming a straight tube of the diameter of the aperture. As the
right side of the Gasteropoda is almost always the largest, the con-
vexity of the spire is, of course, turned in this direction, and the
shells follow the same rule. These normal shells are called dcxtrai
in a few species, however, and in some monstrosities of dcxtrai
species, the spire turns in the opposite direction ; these are called
sinistral sheMs. In the truly spiral shells, the progressive winding
of the tube produces a more or less distinct central axis, or pillar,
called the columella, which runs from the base to the apex of the
shell, and forms the inner margin of the aperture from which the
animal protrudes when in motion. This pillar is usually hollow, and
terminates at the base of the shell by a small opening, called the
umbilicus. The margins of the aperture are called the lips ; the
outer lip {labrum) forms the convexity of the shell ; the inner lip
{labium) is usually formed by the columella, and is hence denomi-
nated the columcllar lip. The two lips are sometimes continuous,
but more commonly separated by a notch, which is often, in the
siphonated species, produced into a canal. The junction of the
outer lip with the preceding whorl is also frequently marked with a
notch, for the reception of the ex-current siphon. The outer lip is
frequently reflexed, or furnished with spines or tubercles ; its margin
is sometimes turned inwards ; and both lips are not unfrequently
furnished with teeth or other projections on the inside. The last
whorl of the shell is called the body whorl, from its receiving the
body of the Animal when retracted. The remaining whorls form the
spire; and the impressed line which separates the whorls is the
suture,
A great number of the Gasteropoda close the aperture of their
shell with a small horny or calcareous plate, called the opcrciiliiin,
which is attached to the hinder part of the foot, and is drawn into
the mouth of the shell by the contraction of the animal. It is seen
in the young Animal whilst still in the ^.^ig ; and this forms the
nucleus of all subsequent growth. It varies greatly in its form,
being sometimes composed of concentric layers, sometimes spiral,
sometimes oval or sub-circular, with the nucleus placed at one side,
or at the extremity ; sometimes irregular in form, or furnished with
appendages (see Fig. 1866).
Fig. 1S66. — Forms of opercula.
a, spiral (Turbo); l>, lamellar, with marginal nucleus (Miirex) ; c, appendl-
culate (Ncrita).
Most of the Gasteropoda are strictly Oviparous Animals ; but a
few are Ovoviparous ; the eggs being retained in the oviducts
until the exclusion of the young, and even until these have attained
a considerable development. The sexes are generally on separate
individuals, but a considerable number are hermaphrodites ; these,
however, require mutual impregnation to fertilise the ova. The
orifices of the generative organs are usually situated on the right
side of the body, in the neighbourhood of the anus. The mode in
which the ova are deposited, and their arrangement, have already
been briefly referred to in our introductory remarks on the Alollusca.
The young ISIoUusc is always provided with a shell whilst in the ^?.^'<
this however, is cast off, soon after hatching, by most of the naked
species. The young of the air-breathing species resemble their
parents in every respect except size ; but those of the branchiferous
species are furnished with a pair of fin-like expansions, resembling
those of the Pteropoda, by means of which they swim freely through
the water .. . , ^ . ^ ^ ,
Sub-divisions. — The Gasteropoda may be divided into two sub-
classes, the Heteropoda and the Gasteropoda proper ; the former
includino- only a single order, whilst the latter are divided into two
great orders, called Branchifera 3.n6.Pulinonifera, from the nature
of their respective respiratory organs.
Sub-class and Order I.— Heteropoda.
General Characters.— The Animals of this group, the A^e-
cleobranchiata of some authors, are all inhabitants of the ocean,
where they swim about rapidly, the whole structure of their bodies
THE GASTEROPODOUS MOLLUSCS.
r4S
being adapted particularly to this mode of existence. The foot,
when present, is converted into a broad, flattened, fin-like organ
(Fig. 1867), furnished with a small sucker, by which the Animals
adhere to floating sea-weeds. The whole body is usually com-
pressed : and it is by the fin-like action of the tail that the creatures
swim. The head is distinct, and usually furnished with a pair of
Fig. 1S67. — The Carinaria.
tentacles and eyes ; the mouth is generally furnished with a long
proboscis. In the typical forms, the intestines, with the heart and
generative organs, are collected into a mass on the back of the
Animal ; this is enclosed in a shell, round the interior of which the
comb-like branchise are situated. The Animals are usually of a
transparent gelatinous texture; they swim with the back downwards,
and appear to feed upon minute Marine Animals.
Sub-divisions.— In the Atlantidce (Fig. 1868), the shell is spiral,
and large enough to contain the whole
Animal when contracted ; and the gills
are contained in a regular branchial cavity.
They often possess a delicate operculum.
The FirolidcB-3.x!i either entirely naked, or
furnished with a small, conical, keeled shell,
which incloses the intestinal nucleus. The
FirolcB are destitute of a shell.
The SagittidcB form a third small family,
whose title to this postion is, however, by
no means certain. They are little, fish,
like animals, furnished with one or two
pairs of fin-like organs on the body, and
usually bi-lobed caudal fin (Fig. 1869).
and the mouth armed with several pairs of
They are of small size, and swim with great
Fig. 1S68.— The Atlanta
keraiidTCm.
with a broad and
The head is distinct,
lateral hook-like jaws.
Fig. 1S69. — The Sagilta.
rapidity. They have hitherto been found principally in the North
Sea and in the Mediterranean. The name of Sagitta, given to
these Animals, refers to their arrow-like appearance.
Sub-class II.— Gasteropoda proper.
In the True Gasteropoda, which exhibit the structure of the foot,
and the general structure of the body, already described as charac-
teristic of the class, we distinguish two great orders — the Branchi-
fera, furnished with gills, and the Pulmonifc?-a, which respire by
pulmonary sacs. Besides this important difference in structure, the
Branchiferous Gasfo'opoda pass through a distinct larval state ;
usually issuing from the egg in a very different form from that they
are ultimately to assume. The Pulmoniferous species undergo no
metamorphosis.
Order II.— Branchifera.
The general characters of this group are given above. It is
divided into two sub-orders, characterised by the positions of the
branchiae.
Sub-order I.— Opisthobranchiata,
General Characters. — In the Animals forming this sub-order,
the branchise are not generally inclosed within a cavity of the mantle,
but more or less exposed on the back or sides of the Animal, gene-
rally towards the posterior portion ; and the auricle of the heart,
which receives the blood from the gills, is placed behind the
ventricle. All these Animals are hermaphrodites ; few of them are
inclosed in a shell ; some have an internal shell, but the majority
are naked.
Sub-divisions.— This sub-order includes two principal groups.
Itithe first, the Tcctihranchiafa, the Animals are generally furnishci'
with a shell, and the branchias are covered either by the shell or t'.e
mantle. The Bitllidcc, or bubble-shells, have a delicate cylindrical,
or globose shell, which is more or loss inclosed within the mantle-
the head is flat, with broad tentacular lobes; the foot is large ard
often furnished with lateral lobes, which the Animal is said to us . in
swimming ; the gill is single, placed on the right side of the back
and concealed by tlie shell. They are carnivorous in their habits'
and are furnished with a gizzard, in the walls of which several cal-
careous plants are imbedded.
In the Ap/ysiada, the shell is either absent or rudimentary The
Animal is slug-like in its form ; the head is distinct, and furnished
with tentacles and eyes, and the sides of the mantle are very large
and reflected upwards, so as to cover the back and branchial plume!
The tentacles are turned back like ears, whence the name of Sea-
hares, commonly applied to these Animals. They live upon sea-
weeds, from which they derive their principal nourishment, althou-h
they also feed upon Animal substances. When alarmed or molested,
they emit a violet or reddish-fluid from the mantle, which was long
supposed to be of a poisonous nature ; although, according to recent
observations, it is quite harmless.
The Pleiirobra7ichideB are also usually furnished with a shell,
which, however, is often concealed by the mantle ; the foot is usually
very large, and the feather-like gill is concealed between a fold of
the mantle and the foot. The shell is sometimes Limpet-like in its
shape ; one of them, inhabiting the Indian and Chinese Seas, is
commonly known as the Uiiibrclla shell. The Phyllidida; are
nearly allied to these, but have no shell, and the branchia are
placed on both sides of the body, beneath a fold of the mantle.
In the second great group, the Niidibrayichiata, the Animals are
shell-less, and the branchise are placed on the back or along the
sides of the body, without any covering. These Animals are also
hermaphrodites. These elegant and delicate little creatures, which
are often adorned with the most pleasing colours, are generally found
near the coasts, crawling upon sea-weeds. They are very carni-
vorous in their habits, feeding principally upon Zoophytes. A most
admirable monograph of the British species, by Messrs. Alder and
Fig. 1S70.— The ^oUs.
Hancock, has been published by the Ray Society. The Nudi-
branchiate Molluscs are distributed into three families. In the
^olididcv, the branchis are arranged along each side of the back,
which is also furnished with peculiar appendages, into which pro-
cesses of the liver and stomach pass, and the tentacles are not
retractile. These Animals generally resemble
little slugs, with tufts of filaments along the sides
(Fig. 1870) ; but some species present a very sin-
gular appearance, having the body very slender,
and the gill-tufts supported at the extremities
of lateral foot-stalks (Fig. 1871). The TritoiiiidcB
often resemble the preceding in appearance, but
they are destitute of the ccecal prolongations of
the intestines, and have the tentacles sheathed
and retractile. The Doridcs are generally of
a broader form and larger size than the Animals
of the preceding families, from which they are
distinguished by having the branchia; placed in
a circle on the back, generally towards the
hinder parts. The branchiae are elegant, arborescent organs ; the
foot is much smaller than the mantle.
Fig. 1S71.— The
Giaiiciis forsici'i.
Sub-order II.— Prosobranchiata.
General Characters.— This sub-order is far more extensive
than the preceding, and the characters by which it is circumscribed
are far more distinct. All the Animals referred to in this group
possess a shell, within which they can usually retract themselves
entirely at pleasure, and this is al-
most always of a spiral form ; the
mantle forms an arched chamber,
immediately over the neck, in
which the branchia; are situated,
together with the orifices of the
alimentary and generative organs ;
and, as a necessary consequence
of this anterior position of the gills, the blood flows back towards
the heart, and the auricle of the latter organ is placed in front of
the ventricle. The sexes are almost always distinct, and nearly all
the species are Marine.
S c
The Doris.
746
THE GASTEROPODOUS MOLLUSCS.
Sub-divisions.— The Prosobranchiata may be divided into three
principal jjroups. In the first, the Cirrhohranclu'afa, includin<^
only a single family, the DentaliidcB, or Tooth-shells, the Animal il
so anomalous in its form that it was placed by Cuvier and otlier
observers amongst the Annelides. The shell is tubular, gradually
tapering from one end to the other, and gently curved throuo-hout
its whole length, so as to have the appearance of a minfature
Elephant's tusk; hence the commonest species [^Denlalitiincntalls)
IS popularly denominated the Elephant's-tooth. It has an aperture
at each end, that at the narrower side of it are the symmetrical
cirrus-like branchiae. The anus opens at the posterior part of the
body. The Denlaliida; are carnivorous, feeding upon minute Marine
Animals. They live in sand or mud, in which they bury themselves
by means of the foot. A good many species are known, of which
several inhabit the British seas.
The Dentalium is of a conical elongated form, the dorsal surface
corresponding with the convexity of the shell, the ventral surface
with the concavity. The whole anterior part of the Animal is
invested by a fine membrane, which is fixed posteriorly to the origin
of the foot, and is free in front where its circumference is thickened.
It is perforated in the centre ; the thickened portion is muscular.
Dividing this mantle down the middle surface of the back, the foot,
head, and branchiaj are brought to view. The foot is elongated^
subcylindrical, slightly conical, and tleshy. The head consists of a
mouth only, and is situated superiorly at the hinder extremity of the
foot. The respiratory system consists of two branchia; symmetrically
situated on the lateral and posterior parts of the neck, and sup-
ported on a divided peduncle. They are composed of many very
fine, soft, flexible, tentacular filaments, with cUib-shaped termina-
tions, and appear from their position to be equally adapted for
directing nutriment towards the mouth, and for fulfilling the task of
aerating the blood.
Fig. 1873 represents the shell and Animal oi Dentalium cntalis ;
A, the shell o\ Den tall inn entails, of the natural size ; n, the shell
magnified and broken longitudinally, showing the Animal in a con-
tracted state ; a, the posterior extremity prolonging itself into a
small accidental tube ; c, the shell magnified, with the Animal at
the moment of its advancing out in order to obtain food; a and b,
the foot, the lobes of which are developed in the form of a corolla :
c, a part of the collar of the mantle.
Fig. 1S73. — The shell of the Dentalium.
Fig. 1874 represents the animal extricated from the shell, in
different views : D, the animal magnified, the abdominal aspect ; a,
the extremity of the foot ; b, the collar of the mantle ; d d, the
liver ; e, the intestinal tube ; /, the egg-sack ; g, the muscle of in-
sertion ; /and /', the expanded expansion, which is funnel-shaped,
and called by Deshayes the pavilion ; i, egestive orifice ; F, the
same, dorsal aspect, magnified; a, extremity of the foot; b, the
collar ; c c, the mouth ; d, a slight projection produced by the head
and the branchiae ; e e, internal retractile muscles ; f /, external
retractile muscles ; g, the neck of the pavilion ; h, the pavilion ; E,
the same, with the mantle slit along the dorsal and medial line, de-
tached in part from its posterior insertion, and turned aside, so as
to show the parts enclosed ; a, the extremity of the foot, which
closes the aperture, _/', of the collar, / vi, of the mantle, n op ; b b,
lobes of the foot; c, the foot itself, presenting a depression, or a
channel, running its whole length ; d, the head ; e, the cerebral
ganglion ; f /, the two jaws ; g g, the peduncles of the branchis ;
h h, i i, the branchia; ', p j>, q ^t the retractor muscles ; j-, the
the muscle of insertion ; /, the pavilion ; G, the animal, one-fourth
of natural size ; H, the same, one sixth of natural size.
The genus Dentalium is very widely distributed, few seas bein?
destitute of some species. Generally these shells are found on
sandy shores, in rather shallow water, but sometimes at considerable
depth.
In the Cyclobranchiata the branchiae are usually placed all round
the body, in the space between the margin of the foot and the
mantle, although in some species they are'situated in a cavity over
Fig. 1874. — The Animal of the Dentalium.
the netk. The PatellldcB, or Limpets, may be considered as the
types of this group ; they are inclosed in a conical shell, the interior
of which is entirely occupied by the Animal ; the foot is very large,
and by means of it the Limpet fixes its little residence so firmly to
rocks and other objects that it is not to be detached without great
difficulty.
Those who have been in the habit of observing Limpets on the
rocks of our own coast cannot fail to have observed that in many
instances the shell is, as it were, let into the rock to some depth,
and that evidently by the operation of the Mollusc in excavating a
cavity which is adapted precisely to the form and size of the shell.
It is not very easy to explain, in a satisfactory manner, the mode by
which this wearing of the rock is accomplished. Some are inclined
to attribute it to the effect of absorption ; others to the perpetual
action of a current of water, caused by the action of the branchial
fringe around the mantle ; and others to the agency of some secre-
tion by which the structure of the rock is decomposed. Some
species adhere to shells, and the same effect is produced as on the
rock.
In an admirable paper in the " Philosophical Transactions " for
1833, on the economy of molluscous animals, Mr. Gray, speaking of
a foreign species (the Patella cochlea), often found at the Cape of
Good Hope, states that it lives " almost exclusively attached to a
large species of the same genus, on the surface of which it forms a
flat disc exactly the size of its mouth. To form these flat discs (of
which there are generally two — one on each side of the apex of the
larger Patella, so as almost to form a character of the species), and
to assist in the increase of its size, the Animal appears also to
absorb the Coralline or other similar substances with which the
larger shells are abundantly covered. The Common Patella of our
own coast, when long adherent to another shell of its own species,
to chalk, or to old red sandstone, or limestone, also forms for itself a
deep cavity of the same form as its shell, and evidently produced by
the dissolution of the surface to which it is affixed."
It is a remarkable fact that the Limpet adapts the rim of its shell
to the shape or irregularities of the substance to which it adheres.
This has been often" noticed, and is dwelt upon by Mr. Gray. He
observes, that, " when a Patella or a Crepidula has attached itself
to the flat surface of a rock, or the leaf of a large fucus, the base of
its shell is flat, and its mouth roundish ; when it adheres to a concave
surface, such as the cavity of an old shell, the base becomes
flattened, and convex internally ; and when it fixes itself on the
round stalk of a fucus, the sides become compressed so as in some
THE GASTEROPODOUS MOLLUSCS.
747
measure to clasp the stem, and the lateral portions of llic base pro-
ject beyond the front and hinder parts to such an extent that \vhcn
placed on a flat surface it rocks backwards and forwards. Several
nominal species of tliese and allied genera depend on variations in
the shape of the shell, caused by the adhesion of the animal to
surfaces of different forms : thus the Patella pcllucida oi Montagu
is synonymous with the P. cariilca of the same author, the former
having been founded on specimens taken from the stalk, and the
latter on individuals obtained from the flattened frond of the fucus,
on which the species usually takes up its abode. It is, indeed, by
no means rare to find specimens in which the Animal has moved
from one of these positions to the other, and in such cases the shell
represents P. ccvi'tilca, and the base P. ficllucida, or vice vcrstl. The
same change takes place with regard to P. miniafa and P. com-
fressa 1 have in my collection a specimen of this latter shell,
which is P. nifniafa at the top, it having' in its youth lived on the
frond of a large Cape fucus ; it afterwards removed to the stem, and
became compressed, and consequently is in this part the P. cojn-
^rcssa ; but by some accident it was again induced to change its
situation, and, removing to a flat surface, the edge of the mouth
e.xpanded, and it became a second time P. miniafa, or, perhaps,
v.'hat may be called by some authors P. sacc/uiriiia, as this also
appears to be a conical variety of the same species. Lamarck has
described a similar specimen ; and JVIr. Sowerby, in his 'Genera of
Shells,' has figured an example of this species, showing the two
states. In like manner the Crepiditla ;po}-ccllana, when applied to
a flat surface, has an expanded base and a flattened inner lip; but
when adherent to a convex body, such as the stem of a sea-weed, or,
as frequently happens, to the back of another shell of the same
species, the animal being pressed into the cavity, the inner lip be-
comes concave, and the sides of the aperture are contracted. In
this state the shell is called by some authors Cfornicata.
" When the shells of this family are adherent to irregular surfaces,
they adapt their margins to the irregularities with which they meet.
I have several specimens from the coast of Devonshire, having one
or more processes on their sides which fitted into holes in the rock
to which I found them attached ; and such changes are the more
remarkable, as some specimens are seen constantly moving from
place to place, whilst others appear to remain for a long time
fixed to one spot, and even those that are stationary in the young
state constantly elevate the margins of their shells when the tide is
low."
The Common Limpet (see Fig. 1875 ), [Patella vulgata), is
abundant on the coasts of Europe, and few have visited the rocky
shores of our island without having noticed it, if, indeed, they have
at all attended to the living productions of the sea, which many who
Fig. 1S75. — The Common Limpet.
visit what are termed watering-places never even dreamt of. Many an
hour which drags heavily with the ennuye would pass agreeably were
such objects sought after and observed ; but sorry are we to say that
to some Nature has little attractiveness, little to interest or delight.
Such a man exists as though he existed not — he loses half the
pleasures allotted to human enjoyment.
The Chitonidce resemble the Limpets in the situation of their
branchiae ; but these organs only run round the posterior part of the
body. The shell in the Chitons is composed of eight calcareous
plates, overlapping one another at the edges, and united by a strong
leathery mantle, which forms a border all round the shell. They
adhere to rocks like the Limpets. Our British species are all small ;
but many Tropical species attain a considerable size, and of these
the muscular foot is often eaten by the natives of the countries in
which they occur.
The Chilian Chiton {Cliiton chilensis). This Chiton has the
shell oblong-ovate, opaque, and thick, of a dark-brown colour,
smooth and dull ; the inside is white, with pink markings on the
first, second, and last plates. The plates are marked by longitudinal
stria;, and crossed by irregular concentric ridges. The anterior and
posterior plates are semilunate, and slightly punctated ; the second
plate is subcarinated, with the front margin obtusely angled, the
lateral margins arcuate ; and the posterior margin with a prominent
beak, on each side of which diverges a rather elevated granulated
ridge ; the next five valves are alike bow-shaped, with a granulate
ridge on each side. The border is smooth, coriaceous, or leathery,
tough, thick, and of a darker colour than the shell ; it is semipellu-
cid, broad at the sides, and narrow anteriorly and posteriorly. Tliis
species is found on the shores of Valparaiso, in the crevices of rocks,
and under stones. (See Fig. 1876).
Fig. 1876.— The Chilian Chiton. Fig. 1S77.— De Bbiiiville's Chiton.
De Blainville's Chiton {Chiton blainvilllii). In this curious
species the border of the mantle is greatly enlarged anteriorly and
contracted posteriorly ; it is of an orange red, and fringed here and
there, not with hairs, but with little coriaceous filaments. The shell
is roundish, the anterior plate is obscurely ranged, the posterior one
small and abrupt, the others are concentrically lineated. The
general colour is roseate, varied with white, brown, and greenish ;
inner surface white. This Chiton is found on the shores of the
Inner Lobos Island, coast of Peru. (See Fig. 1877).
The Tufted Chiton {Chiton fascicularis). This is a small
species found on the southern coast of our island, and also in the
Mediterranean. Specimens from the Barbary coast are stated by
Montagu to measure not unfrequently an inch
in length. British specimens measure about
five-eights of an inch in length, and rather
more than two-eights of an inch in breadth.
The shell is apparently smooth, but, when ex-
amined by a glass, presents a rough shagreened
surface, except along the elevated dorsal ridge ;
around the margin, at the junction of each
plate, is a tuft of whitish hair; besides two
tiifts in front, making altogether eighteen. The colour is brown or
cinereous. (See Fig. 1878).
The Peruvian Chiton {Chiton pcruvianiis). The Peruvian
Chiton has the border of the mantle narrow and coriaceous, and
thickly covered with long coarse black hairs. The shell is oblong-
ovate, opaque, of a dirty yellowish green, or yellowish brown ; the
inside is white. The plates are thin and slightly elevated, having
the posterior compartments a little raised ; they are minutely
striated. From between each emerges a series of short black hairs,
which lie on the back of the shell. This species is found under
stones at low water, on the shores of Valparaiso Bay. Its length is
two inches, its breadth one inch and a-half. (See Fig. 1879).
The Spinose Chiton. {Chiton spinosus). In the Spinose
Fig. 1S7S.— The
Tufted Chiton.
Fig. iS79.-The Peruvian Chiton. Fig. 1S80.— The Spinoss Chiiou.
748
THE GASTEROPODOUS iMOLLUSCS.
Chiton the shell is brownish black ; the plates are opaque, those an-
teriorly placed are granulated over the entire surface, those
posteriorly are granulated at the sides. The border of the mantle is
wide, and beset with long aculeated blackish spines, closely resem-
bling those of certain jE'c///«/. Total length three inches. This is
a very rare species, and, according to Peron, is a native of the
South Seas. (See Fig. 1880).
The Spiniferous Chiton {Chiton spinifcrus). Ckifo?i aculea-
t!(s, Barnes, not Linna;us. This is a large species, with the shell
opaque, oblong-ovate, reddish brown, and glossy ; the inside is
reddish white. The posterior angles of the plates do not overlap
the anterior edges of the succeeding. The first plate has generally
nine rows of raised dots diverging trom the ape.x, but the number
appears to vary with age ; the second plate is rather acutely beaked
and carinated, longer than the five following, which are striated and
shaped alike, carinated, with an acute beak, and presenting a row
of elevated dots. The last plate is striated and beaked, with a row
of raised dots under the beak. The border is coriaceous, thick,
broad, rough, and of a greenish or orange colour. In young speci-
mens it is thickly covered with blunt spines, but in old shells the
spines are short and scanty, and generally covered with corallines.
This species attains to the length of five or six inches, but it is then
destitute of beauty, the sharpness of the pattern on the shell being
lost, and the spines covered with a dirty coat of calcareous matter,
so often observed encrusting old shells and other submarine bodies,
the result of precipitation.
This species is found on the rocky coasts of Valparaiso and Chili.
It frequents exposed situations, and is often found adhering to the
rocks over which the sea breaks with great violence, where there is
no little danger, as well as difficulty, in obtaining them ; they are
generally covered with sea-weed. (See Fig. 1881.)
rig. 18S1.— The Spiniferous Chiton. Fig. 18S2.— The Coquimbo Chiton.
The Coquimbo Chiton {Chifoyi coguimbensi's). The shell of
this species is ovate, narrow, and opaque ; — while young, its colour
is of a glossy greenish-brown ; the inside blackish. The anterior
plate is marked with numerous undulated concentric ridges, and all
except the first are rather acutely keeled and beaked ; a ridge
diverges on each side from the beak, forming a sagittate figure,
below which are longitudinal striae. The border is thick, moderately
broad, and covered with coarse seed-like scales, which are attached
laterally. As the Animal advances in age, the middle of the plates,
which are very solid, become eroded, "and covered with Limpets^
Balani, &c. The only locality, Mr. Frembley says, in which he
found this species, was on the south side of the coast of Coquimbo
Bay. In its habits it resembles the preceding species, excepting,
as he states, that it appears to be more gregarious. (See Fio-.'
1882. )
The Magnificent Chiton [Chiton magnificus). It is very
difficult to give, by mere words, an idea of the patterns which the
shells of the Chitons present, and of the form of the separate plates.
Mr. Frembley, whose details we follow, characterises the shell as
dull, opaque, olivaceous, and dotted with lighter-coloured spots, with
the inside glaucous. The first plate has regularly radiatino- strije,
crossed by concentric ridges ; the posterior margin is nearly s?raio-ht!
The other plates are obtusely beaked, and divided laterally into ^two
compartments, the anterior having regular longitudinal stria, crossed
by others very minute and concentric ; from under the beaks diverge
to the lateral margins of ll.c plates coar:-c an J more irrcijular striic
which raise the posterior compartment above the other. The last
plate has a well-defined apex leaning towards the posterior margin.
The border is thin, moderately broad, and covered with fine shining
bead-like granulations of the same colour as the shells.
The Pecti)iibra7icliiata exhibit the characters of the sub-order in
their greatest perfection ; the branchiaj are usually single, and in-
closed in a cavity over the neck of the Animal.
The Calypircsidce have a Limpet-like shell, which is usually some-
what spiral at the apex, and frequently furnished with a sort of shelf
of shelly rnatter in the interior. They appear to pass a perfectly
sedentary life, attached to stones and rocks, to the irregularities in
the surface of which their shells usually adapt themselves. In the
Fig. 1883.— The Magnificent Chiton.
HalioiidcB the spiral conformation of the shell goes a little further ;
and there is a perforation or notch for the passage of the anal
siphon at the posterior margin. In the Common Ear-shells these
perforations are arranged in a row along the back of the shell. The
Animal has a short muzzle and two branchial plumes. The Fis-
siirellida;, which are nearly allied to these, have a shell closely
resembling that of the Limpet in form, but perforated at the apex for
the passage of the anal current.
The family lantliinidce contains a few species of Oceanic
Mollusca, which possess a shell almost exactly resembling that of a
Common Land-snail ; it is of a delicate texture, deep violet at the
base, and with the spire white. The Animal has two branchial
plumes, a muzzle-shaped head, with tentacles, but without eyes, and
a very small foot, which, however, secretes a remarkable structure,
considered to be the analogue of the operculum. It consists of a
large raft, composed of numerous horny vesicles filled with air, to
the under-surface of which the Animal attaches its eggs, and thus
swims about the surface of the water, being supported by the buoy-
ancy of the float. The lanihinida are Carnivorous Animals ; they
often occur in vast numbers in the Atlantic, and are sometimes
driven, by stress of weather, upon the southern shores of our
island.
In the NaticidcB, the shell, which is globular, composed of few
whorls, and opening with an entire aperture, is partially inclosed in
the mantle ; the foot is very large ; furnished in front with a broad
lobe, which conceals the head, and behind which the tentacles rise.
The mouth has a long retractile proboscis, and the Animals are car-
nivorous in their habits. They are all marine. In the Turbitiidw,
the shell is more or less conical or pyramidal, generally with a
distinct umbilicus, and the aperture is closed by a spiral operculum.
The Animal has a short muzzle ; the tentacles are long and slender,
with the eyes supported upon short foot-stalks at their bases ; the
sides are frequently furnished with tentacular cirri, and the branchial
plume is single. The shells are generally pearly in the interior.
These Animals are very numerous, and widely distributed ; they are
all marine, and feed on vegetable substances. The pyramidal
Trochi, or top-shells, are very common on all our coasts.
Nearly allied to the TnrbiJiidcB are the Nei-ittdce, a small family of
Molluscs, furnished with a thick and somewhat globose shell, with
a small spire, and the margins of the aperture turned in and
toothed. The columellar lip has a projecting plate, behmd
which the inner walls of the spire are removed ; so that the anterior
of the shell presents a simple cavity. The animals have a broad
foot, a broad muzzle, and very long tentacles, at the base of which
the eyes are placed upon short foot-stalks. Most of them are
marine ; but one genus, the Neritina, inhabits fresh water. The
mouth of the shell is closed by an appcndiculate operculum.
THE AMPULLARIJE.
749
In the large family of Turrtfellidm, the shell exhibits a great
variety of form, being sometimes semi-globular, with a short spire,
or even discoid, and sometimes much elongated and tapering
gradually to the apex. The aperture is entire, and closed by an
operculum, which is usually horny and spiral. The animal has long
Ceratodesfasciatus, Guilding. A represents the Animal creeping ; n,
the Animal in a supine position ; a, the operculum ; ' b, the right
siphon ; c, the respiratory siphon ; C, the head tentacles, eyes at
their base, and expansions at the side of the neck. (Fig. 1887).
Fig. 1SS4. — The Nerita foHta.
slender tentacles, which usually bear the eyes on their outer surface,
at or near the base. The head is generally short and broad, without
a proboscis, and the two rows of teeth on the lingual ribbon are ar-
ranged in rows of seven. (See Fig. 1884.)
Fig. 18S5.— The Awl-shaped Turritella.
Most of these Animals are marine, but several genera are found
in fresh water ; of these, the Pahidiiia vivipara, which is common
in Britain, is, as its name implies, viviparous, the young being
hatched and retained within the oviduct until they have attained a
considerable development. The AmpullaricB are furnished with a
long siphon. They also inhabit fresh waters, and often possess
beautiful shells. The Common Periwinkle {Lif/oruia littorea) also
belongs to this family. In the genus Vermetus and its allies, the
whorls of the spire are separated for the greater part of their length,
giving the shell the appearance of a twisted tube ; from this circum-
stance they were referred to \.\\i. Aniielides\>&ioxt. the Animal was
known.
The following is a more particular description of some of the A»i-
pullaria:.
The Doubtful Ampullaria {Ampullaria dubia). The
Animal is represented creeping: a is the operculum; <5, the right
siphon ; c, the left siphon. The same species is represented at Fig.
1886, so as to show the lower side of the foot; the Animal appears
in the act of ascending to breathe, and with the respiratory siphon
protruded, a is the operculum ; b, the right siphon ; c, the left
siphon.
TuJi RuVM's Horn Ampullaria {Ampullaria coriiii arielis).
Fig. 1886.— The Doubtful Ampullaria.
The Globose Ampullaria {Ampullaria globoso). This species
is said by Mr. Swainson to be an inhabitant of the rivers of India.
The shell is represented as having the mouth closed by the opercu-
lum. In this species the margin of the aperture is thick and
grooved. (See Fig. 1888).
Ampullarias have at various times been brought alive to Europe.
An able naturalist informs us that the first, as it would seem, were
sent to Paris, by INI. Caillaud, from the Nile. We learn that that
naturalist, during his voyage to Meroe, collected several Egyptian
Molluscs, which he distributed generously among collectors. One
correspondent had been anxious for the Fluviatile Molluscs found in
the Nile. The person employed to collect these, after having
gathered a large quantity of river Molliisca, among which were some
Uving AmpuUariss, put them all into a box of bran (son). This box
was delayed on its road by the operation of the quarantine laws for
four months, and, when it reached M. Caillaud, was in such a state,
from the putrefaction of the greater part of its animal contents, that
he hastened to throw the whole into the water. To his no small
surprise, he found, a few hours after, the greater part of the
Ampullaria:, which had been shut up with this mass of putrefaction,
quietly creeping about upon the mud. He gave many individuals
to M. Deshayes, who kept them alive from four to five months. The
latter zoologist remarks that, since that communication, Mr.
Sowerby, in tire "Zoological Journal," and M. Quoy, in the
" Zoology of the Astrolabe," have given the figures of many other
species of AmpuUarise, several of which have been brought alive to
Europe.
On the 2gth of October, 1833, Mr. Cuming, so well known for the
great additions which he has contributed to our knowledge of the
Alollusca by his collections from the west, and who had since been
employed in the same laudable pursuit in the east, to the great
enrichment of this department of zoology, brought to Mr. Broderip
a specimen of Ampullaria globoso, expressing his opinion that it
might be alive. Mr. Broderip immediately placed the specimen in
a deep dish with some earth at the bottom, which was covered with
New River water, and set it before the fire. On the 29th the Animal
gave no sign ; but on the 30th it came forth, and soon showed tokens
of vigorous life. It was afterwards removed in a globular glass vase
such as is used for Gold and Silver Fish, with a good layer of earth
at the bottom. The water and earth were changed periodically, and
the Animal continued to live in apparently good health for many
weeks. Its death was probably occasioned by the difficulty of
resisting the low temperature of the long cold winter nights, where
there were no stoves, in short nothing beyond the ordinary fires of a
dwelling-house. The specimen was sent to the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons.
M. Deshayes proceeds to observe that it became an object of
inquiry how Aquatic Animals, unable to respire except by means of
a pectinated brand. ;n, roukl remain alive so long out of the element
750
THE CERITHIIDJE, life.
apparently necessary to their existence. Nearly all the persons, he
remarks, who occupied themselves with this phenomenon, thought
that the Animal on retiring into its shell carried with it a certain
quantity of water, which could not escape, owing to the retention of
the operculum, which closes the aperture with great exactness.
Others thouglit that the humid air carried upon the branchije was
sufficient to keep up the respiratory action. " Wishing to know,"
Fig. 1SS7. The Ram's Horn Ampullaria.
continues M. Deshayes, "whether there were anything in the struc-
ture of the animal which could explain the singularity, we soon
perceived that the upper wall of the branchial cavity was double,
and formed a great pouch, the aperture of which was placed back-
wards, above the origin of the branchije. Plunged in the water,
the animal has this pouch constantly filled with the ambient liquid,
and, on retiring into its shell, and shutting itself up under its oper-
culum, this bag still remains filled with water, and thus furnishes
the necessary materials for the function of respiration. Everything
leads us to believe that this is the only cause which permits the
A}npu!larice, Pectinibranchiated Aquatic Animals, to remain a long
time out of the water without perishing, and this explains also how
it happens that in certain lakes which are annually dry, AmpHUaricB
are always to be found. When the great heats approach, and they
plunge themselves into the mud or sand, they preserve in their
branchial sacs the quantity of water necessary for them during the
whole time of drought."
This, as a writer obser\'es, is one of those beautiful provisions
which meet the naturalist everywhere. The Tropical torrent and
lake may yield to the dry season and burning sun, but the Ampullaria,
secure in the possession of his water-bag, can afford, like the Camel
in the desert, to wait till the rains furnish a fresh supply, and again
fill the parched channel.
With respect to Fossil species of this genus, Mr. G. B. Sowerby
states that he is not certain of the existence of any ; several, he adds,
\ are mentioned by Lamarck, in the " Annales du Museum," among
j the Fossil Shells of the environs of Paris ; others, which are thought
I to be genuine, are found in the London clay at Hordwell, and in the
j mixed stratum between the two Fresh-water beds at Headen Hill, in
i the Isle of Wight. M. Deshayes is of opinion that many Fossil
i species, referred to Natica, ought to find a place in the genus
Anipullaj-im.
M. Deshayes goes on to state that up to the time when he wrote
(1838), there have hardly been found any fossil species of Ampullaria
about which there is not some doubt. Those Shells which he has
retained in the genus, from the character of the aperture and the
small thickness of the shell, are, he says, never met with except in
marine formations, and one may always suspect that the animals which
produced them were different from those of the A ttipuUaricB properly
so called. As these species have the characters of Aiiipul/arics, and
we have no means of ascertaining the analogy of the Animals, we are
obliged to have recourse to the characters of the shells, and to
determine from them alone. But a little time since, he remarks, the
belief was general that Fossil ^«/^«//a/-/iS belonged exclusively to
the Tertiary beds ; but it is now known that this genus occurs
through all the "terrains de sediment," for Mr. Sowerby has
recorded a fine species in the transition beds, and M. Deshayes says
that he knows many others in the Oolitic series, and even in the
Lower Chalk.
The number of Fossil species recorded by ]\L Deshayes in his
tables is fourteen (Tertiary). In an edition of Lamarck the number
is sixteen.
The genus occurs in the list of the fossils of Lower Styria given by
Professor Sedgwick and Mr. Murchison in their valuable paper " On
the Structure of the Eastern Alps " (" Geol. Trans ," vol. iii. second
series), and in Dr. Mantell's " Tabular Arrangement of the Organic
Remains of the County of Sussex " (ibid.).
The Ccritliiida have an elongated spiral shell, with the outer
margin of the aperture more or less dilated, and the base produced
into a slight siphonal canal (Fig. 1889). The aperture is closed by
Fig. iSSS.— The Globose Ampullaria.
Fig. 1SS9. — The Ceriihium gramilosum,
a horny, spiral operculum. The Animal has a short muzzle, and
long, slender tentacles, having the ej'es on the outside, at a short dis-
tance from the base. The Aporrha'is pes pelccani, the margin of
the aperture is much dilated, and the siphonal canal very distinct,
forming a transition to the next family.
The Animals of the following families are all carnivorous in their
habits ; they have spiral shells, with the aperture notched, or pro-
duced into a canal at the anterior extremity. They are all furnished
with a retractile proboscis.
The Siroinbidce have the outer lip of the shell much expanded, and
notched in the neighbourhood of the siphonal canal ; the operculum
is elongated, and toothed along the outer margin. The foot is
narrow, and ill adapted for creeping ; but the Animals are active,
and leap well. The proboscis is long and thick, the eyes large, and
supported upon long stout footstalks, from the sides of which the
short tentacles take their rise. The operculum is borne upon a
curious process of the foot (see Fig-. 1890). The dilated margin of
the aperture is often singularly toothed, or furnished with large
spines, as in the well-known scorpion-shells {Pteroceras). The
StrombidcB feed principally upon carrion, and many are of large size.
THE MUREX FAMILY.
751
Fig. 1891 represents a species of Stronibus {Fteroceras latnbi's),
extricated from the shell and dissected (female) : a, the foot seen at
its anterior part with its groove; b, the operculum fixed at its pos-
terior division ; c, tlie ocular peduncles or tubes with the slender
tentacles ; d, the proboscis open to show the tongue ; e, the cerebral
ganglion, behind which are two long salivary glands; /, the
Fig. 1890. — The Strombus,
oesophagus entering a large stomach ; g; the stomach partially
opened, and showing the entrance of the cesophagus ; h, the
intestinal canal ; i, k, I, and w, other internal organs ; 7i, the respira-
tory siphon ; o, the large branchia with its vein which goes to the
heart; f, small and rudimentary branchia; q, the heart; r, the
liver.
Fig. 1S91. — Animal of the Strombus.
In the vast family of Mtiricidce, the outer margin of the shell is
rot notched near the canal ; the canal itself is sometimes produced
in a line with the axis of the shell, and sometimes reflexed. The
animal has a long proboscis, with which it bores through the shells
of other MoUusca; shortish tentacles, which sometimes bear the
eyes, and a broad foot adapted for crawling. The Muricidce are all
marine, predatory animals. Their shells are generally ornamented
with spines, which often assume the most singular forms. Many of
the exotic species are of exceedingly beautiful colours, and some are of
considerable value. The large Helmet-shells {Cassis) are much
employed in the manufacture of cameos ; some of the species, such
as the Whelks {Buccmu»t), are eaten ; and it is supposed that the
celebrated purple dye of the ancients was obtained from some
Molluscs belonging to this family. In the nearly-allied family,
Vohttidce, which also contains many elegantly-marked shells (Fig.
1892), the outer margin of the aperture is not rellexed, the canal is
reduced to a notch, and the inner lip is plaited. The shell is more
or less enveloped in the mantle ; tlie foot is broad, and bears no
operculum. These animals resemble the lluricidce in their habits;
they are found principally in the Tropical seas.
The following is a description of one of the most beautiful shells,
&c. , of the Muricidce : —
The Royal Murex {Murex regius). This splendid shell is
found along the western coast of Central and South America. It is
one of the ornaments of the cabinet
of the conchologist ; nor can words
convey an adequate idea of its
gorgeous colouring.
In Lamarck's day, sixty-six re-
cent species of Murex, and fifteen
Fossil species w-ere recorded. M.
Deshayes gives the number of
recent species, including those of
the genus Typhis (De Montfort),
as seventy-five, but this is very far
below the mark ; he enumerates
eighty-nine Fossil species in the
Tertiary deposits.
Mr. Broderip, in the " Proceeds
Zool. Soc," describes twenty-six
new species of Murex from the
western coast of South America,
and the islands of the South Paci-
fic, and also five species of Typliis,
all in the collection of Vix. Cum-
ing.
The Muricidce {Siphonosio-
mata, De Blainville), and the
BuccinidcB {Entoinostomata, De
Blainville), appear to be the two
principal groups of marine Gastro-
pods (or Trachelipods,* as some
prefer to term them), destined to
keep down the overabundance of
the Bivalve Molluscs and Herbi-
vorous Gastropods ; they are the
destroyers among the races of their class, and prowl about in quest
of prey. They drill the shells which enclose their victim, and drain
out its juices, adhering till it is almost utterly consumed. Nor is
this destruction carried forward on a limited scale. When we con-
sider the number of species included within the two families in
question, and the countless thousands of individuals of each of these
species, and reflect upon their voracity, we may form some slight
idea of the extent of their operations, and of the consequent influence
they must exert in maintaining the balance of creation. Throuo-hout
Fig. 1892.— The Valuta undutata.
Fig. 1893. — The Royal Murex.
all seas are these Carnivorous Molluscs carrying on their appointed
work: in ministering to their own necessities, they fulfil the great
part in the vast scheme of creation to which they are appointed.
* Trachellpod, from rpax'Aof i the neck ; and wovf , iroJof, a foot ; the foot
in these Molluscs appearing as if under the head and neck.
752
THE COWRIES.
We have before us a miscellaneous assemblag-e of shells picked up
upon our own shores, and few are undrilled ; some of these Carnivora
have battened on their tenants, and the waves have washed them on
the beach. In other ages, as we have abundant proofs, the plan of
destruction, in order to" counterbalance increase among these marine
shell-clad Molluscs, was in operation. Dr. Buckland, in his admir-
able " Bridgewater Treatise," gives the following details connected
with Fossil shells, once the living inhabitants of other seas, when
the surface of our planet exhibited a different arrangement of land
and water.
" Most collectors," says the Professor, "have seen upon the sea-
shore numbers of dead shells, in which small circular holes have
been bored by the predaceous tribes, for the purpose of feeding upon
the bodies of the animals contained within them ; similar holes
occur in many fossil shells of the Tertiary strata, wherein the shells
of carnivorous trachelipods also abound ; but perforations of this
kind are extremely rare in the Fossil shells of any older formation.
In the greensand and oolite they have been noticed only in those
few cases where they are accompanied by the shells of equally rare
carnivorous molluscs ; and in the lias and strata below it there are
neither perforations nor any shells having the notched mouth
peculiar to perforated carnivorous species. It should seem from
these facts that, in the economy of submarine life, the great family of
carnivorous trachelipods performed the same necessary office during
the Tertiary period which is allotted to them in the present ocean.
We have farther evidence to show that in times anterior to and
during the deposition of the chalk, the same important functions
were consigned to other carnivorous Molluscs, viz., the testaceous
cephalopods : these are of comparatively rare occurrence in the
Tertiary strata and in our modern seas ; but throughout the
secondary and transition formations, where carnivorous trachelipods
are either wholly wanting or extremely scarce, we find abundant
remains of carnivorous cephalopods. consisting of the chambered
shells of nautili and ammonities, and many kindred extinct genera of
polythalamous shells of extraordinary beauty. The Molluscous
inhabitants of all these chambered shells probably possessed the
voracious habits of the modern cuttle-fish ; and by feeding like
them upon young testacea and Crustacea, restricted the excessive
increase of animal life at the bottom of the more ancient seas. Their
sudden and nearly total disappearance at the commencement of the
Ternary era would have caused a blank in the 'police of nature,'
allowing the herbivorous tribes to increase to an excess that would
ultimately have been destructive of marine vegetation, as well as of
themselves, had they not been replaced by a different order of carni-
vorous creatures, destined to perform in another manner the office
which the inhabitants of the ammonites and various extinct genera
of chambered shells then ceased to discharge. From that time on-
wards we have evidence of the abundance of carnivorous tracheli-
pods, and we see good reason to adopt the conclusion of Mr.
Dillwyn, that in the formation above the chalk the vast and sudden
decrease of one predaceous tribe has been provided for by the
creation of many new genera and species possessed of similar
appetencies, and yet formed for obtaining their prey by habits
entirely different from those of the cephalopods. The design of the
Creator sems at all times to have been to fill the waters of the seas
and cover the surface of the earth with the greatest possible amount
of organised beings enjoying life ; and the same expedient of adapt-
ing the vegetable kingdom to become the basis of the life of animals
and of multiplying largely the amount of animal existence by the
addition of carnivora to the herbivora, appears to have prevailed
from tlie first commencement of organic life to the present hour."
(" Bridgewater Treatise.")
The beautiful animals, forming the family ConidcB, are nearly
allied to the preceding. Their shells are of a reverse conical form,
becoming broader towards the apex, the spire being often quite flat ;
the aperture is long and narrow, and the operculum is very small.
The teeth on the lingual ribbon are arranged in pairs. These are
exceedingly predatory animals, and are said to bite severely when
Kig. 1S94. — T"he Ordinary Cone.
touched. Many of the slu lis are exceed! ngly elegant, and some of the
rare species have realised almost fabulous prices. (.See Fig. 1894,
which illustrates the ordinary Cone, Conus generalis). In the
CyprcBidcB, one species of which, the Cyjiraa tigris (Fig. 1895), is so
common that it must be familiar to every one, the shell presents a
very different appearance at different ages. In the young state it is
distinctly spiral, with a plain outer lip ; but as it increases in age,
the whorls are brought into the same plane, and in course of time
the spire is usually entirely concealed. At the same time the outer
lip becomes thickened, turned in and dentated, producing the ap-
Fii
1S96,— The Adult
Cowry.
Fig. 1S95. — The Cyprica tigris.
pearance shown at Fig. 1896. The animal greatly resembles that
of the Volutida ; but the mantle usuadly covers nearly the whole of
the shell, and deposits upon its surface the enamel which contributes
so much to the beautiful appearance of these shells.
From the polish of their surface and the beauty of their marking's,
the Cowries are in considerable request in our island as chimney
ornaments, and indeed, as a writer well ob-
serves, they " have been in demand among
civilized and uncivilized nations time out of
memory." There is, in fact, a circumstance
connected with the history of these shells
which proves the general interest taken in
them, and the value (formerly greater than at
present) in which they were estimated ; we
allude to the circumstance of their being used
as coin, or, in other words, of their consiiiuting
a portion at least of the currency of several
countries. In many parts of India, in the
Burmese empire, in Siam, &c., as well as on
the coast of Guinea, and in Dahomy, they pass
as money, though of course their value is
trifling compared with that of gold or silver,
and from their multiplication this value is
on the decrease. We learn that in 1740
a rupee in Bengal was worth two thousand four
hundred Cowries ; in 1760, two thousand five
hundred and sixty Cowries ; and at the present
time, upwards of three thousand two hundred.
According to Kelly, four Cowries make one gunda, twenty gundas
one punn, four punns one anna, four annas one cahaun, and four
cahauns one current rupee ; but the last proportion is variable.
The Cowries used as current coin are obtained principally about
the Philippine Islands, the Maldive Islands, and the coast of Congo ;
at these different localities they constitute an article of export.
After the high tides, the women are occupied for three days in
filling baskets with the sand with which the Cowry shells are mixed ;
these are afterwards separated from the sand, and heaped on the
shore, when the Molluscs soon die; they are then ready for the
market. The species is the CypJ'cea 7noneta of Linnaeus.
The general characters of the adult shells of the CyJ»-cea may be
thus summed up : — texture highly porcellaneous ; form oval or
oblong, more or less rounded or cylindrical, with a small and
imbedded spire ; outer lip involute ; aperture longitudinal, nearly
straight, toothed or plaited on each side, with a channel or groove
at each end. Very different, however, as we have previously
remarked, is the young shell from the adult, and decided are the
changes which it undergoes in its progress to maturity. Mr. Gray
thus describes the change : — " The shell alters its appearance con-
siderably, according to the age of the individual, and e.xhibits three
very distinct stages. In the young or first stages, which are figured
in the " Encycl. Method.," t. 349, f. a, b ; the " Mus. Gotwald,"
viii. t. 53, b, e ; 65, a, f; 66, a, c, the shell is generally smooth, of
a plain greyish colour, or with three transverse bands, and the upper
part of the inner lip is smooth and convex, the lower part flat or
concave ; the outer lip is thin. In the second stage the shell
begins to assume more the character of the genus, as the outer lip
begins to be inflected, or rather thickened, and approaches nearer
the perfect appearance of the species as the second coat of colour is
deposited ; but it differs from the perfect shell in the want of thick-
ness, in the spire being more distinct, and in the want of the dorsal
line which is usually distinct in the third or perfect state, when the
last coat has been deposited (by the reflected mantle), and the
aperture is more plaited on both sides. The colouring, or, at least,
the disposition of colourings in the Cowries, is a much more certain
characteristic of species than either the general outline of form or
size, the latter of which is exceedingly various. In this family I
have often observed full-grown specimens of C. arabica from one
THE COWRIES.
753
to three inches long. This peculiarity is attempted to be explained
by Lamarck and others, who assert that when the animal has formed
a complete shell, as it has not the faculty of enlarging its size, it is
obliged to quit its shell and form a new one, in the same manner as
the Anntclosa cast their skins, and by that means the same animal
forms many shells ; but I believe there is not the slightest ground for
this notion." Figs. 1997 and 1998 display the Cypiwa exa?i-
thcma in various stages. Fig. 997 is the Young in the first stage :
a, the back ; b, the front view of
the same, showing the columella
and the thin edge of the outer lip.
Fig. 1998, the same at more ad-
vanced periods : c exhibits the
back ; the apex is already sinking,
and the thickened lips are formed ;
d shows the shell still more ad-
vanced, the mantle has begun to
secrete the enamelled spotted
layer on the side, but the trans-
verse stripes are still visible. At
Fig. 1999, e shows the perfect
shell, back view ; all traces of the
transverse stripes are lost under
the enamelling of the thickened spotted coat : f represents the
opposite view of the same, from which the alteration in the character
of the aperture may be appreciated.
The growth of the shell, however, in the Cowry, so as to accord
with the growth of the Mollusc, is a subject of some difficulty, and
has engaged the attention of many naturalists. Dr. Fleming, in his
"Philosophy of Zoology" (vol. ii. p. 403), after observing that the
formation of porcellaneous shells must take place in a different man-
Fig. 1997. — The Young Cowry.
Fig. 199S. — The Young Cowry.
/
Fig. 1999. — The Adult Cowry.
ner from those which evidently increase in size by the application of
fresh layers of slielly matter to the margin of the mouth, goes on to
say: "If we attend to the form of a young' shell belonging to the
genus Cypraa of Linnaeus, we may perceive that an addition of
shelly matter to the margin of the aperture, in the manner in which
it is applied to other shells, would not cnhargc the cavity, but com-
pletely close the aperture. The increase of the shell (accompanied
by a corresponding increase of its inhabitant) must take place,
therefore, either by absorption of the accumulated shelly matter of
the mouth, and an elongation in the direction of the greatest curva-
ture of the shell, or the old shell must be thrown off, and a new one
produced suited to the size of the animal. The former supposition
has not been entertained ; the latter is now generally received by
naturalists. The inner coat of such shells appears to be a transuda-
tion from the body of the animal, and the outer one to be laid on
the surface by the loose reflected lobes of the cloak (mantle). In
many other shells, portions of matter more compact than the other
parts may be observed spread on the pillar, and applied to the mar-
gin of the mouth by a similar process." Mr. Piatt, in support of
Reaumur's opinion that shells are formed by juxtaposition, against
the objections of Mr. Poupart (" Phil. Trans.," vol. liv. p. 43), erron-
eously considers the different sizes of the Cyp7-cBa as depending on
the thickness of the shell increasing according to age, without ad-
mitting a corresponding increase of the contained animal, or of the
cavity of its reception. If we turn to Figs. 1997, 1998, 1999, illus-
trative of the young and adult of Cyprcea exanthema, we shall find
an increase of size in every direction, nor do we clearly see how any
addition to the outer edge of the shell (at b) will bring it to the
volume of the whorl seen aty.
Again, if we turn to the Money Cowry (Fig. 2000), it would seem
as if the outer lip of the young, in order to assume the figure pre-
sented by the same part in the adult shell, must be first absorbed
and then remodelled, for a mere addition to its margin would only
tend to close the aperture ; and besides this, we have then to
account for the increase of the shell in every direction, for it will be
observed that the proportions of the young shell viewed on the back,
and the figure of the columellar portion of the front of the young
shell, are but little dissimilar from those of the adult shell, only upon
a smaller scale. The convexity of the back in the adult is not only
apparently larger, that is from increased external depositions adding
to the thickness of the shell, but really so, corresponding to the
room required internally for the accommodation of the increased
Mollusc. Now we cannot account for the increase of the boss of
this shell excepting on the supposition of a gradual internal absorp-
tion on the one hand, and a co-ordinate secretion and deposition of
fresh matter on the other; or, on the circumstance of tlie young
Animal quitting its shell when straitened for room, and investing
itself afresh.
These observations, however, must be understood only as bearing
upon young shells which closely resemble those of the adult in figure,
with the exception of the involution of the outer lip, but yet as far
inferior in size ; at a very early stage the whorls of the Cyprcea
evidently increase in size in the ordinary way, as in the Olive-shells,
Volutes, &c., by additions of shelly matter to the outer lip, and at
this period the shell of the Cyprcea closely resembles that of the
Olive ; but this resemblance by degrees disappears, and that before
the full growth of the shell is accomplished. We learn thut Mr.
Gray has observed that sometimes, though rarely, the young shells
of Cyprcea, especially Cyprcea arabica, have the inner edge of the
outer lip thickened, and furnished with a compressed sharp-edged
series of teeth. It is in such a case that we must look for some
other explanation of the mode of growth than by mere additions to
this lip.
With regard to the Mollusc of Cyprced, it may be described as
unisexual, of an elongated figure, having the head distinct, with
two conical or subulate tentacula of some length, at the external
base or which are the two eyes, sessile on small projections. _ The
mouth is vertical at the bottom of a small cavity, and contains a
lingual riband beset with tentacles, and prolonged into the
interior of the body. Tlie mantle is bilobed, the lobes being very
large, with extended aliform edges in the adult, capable of being
reflected over the back of the shell so as to meet on the mesial
line. The foot is oval, thin, and destitute of an operculum.
The Cyprceidce are very widely spread, being found in the
seas both of the old and of the new world ; it is, however, in the
hotter latitudes that they are most numerous, and display the
greatest development in point of size and the richest colouring, A
few species occur in our European seas. In their habits the
CyprceidcB Sive littoral, tenanting bods of sand, or creeping under
large stones or rolled masses of coral.
In the " Zoological Journal " will be found a monograph of the
Cowries, by Mr. Gray, which, together with the seventeenth number
of Mr. Sowerby's " Genera of Shells," may be consulted with ad-
vantage.
The Cowries are divided into several genera and subgenera, ac-
cording to minor peculiarities in the form and characters of the
shell ; and these genera and subgenera in Mr. Gray's arrangement
are again subdivided into minor sections. Fig. 2000 represents
the Money Cowry, C. inoncta or Arkia moneia, already relerred to
5D
754
THE SNAIL TRIBE.
as being used as coin, a, a, represents the adult, and b, b, the
young shell in two aspects.
Order III.— Pulmonifera.
The Pulmoniferous, or air-breathing- MoUiisca, including the
Land Snails and their allies, are distinguished, as we have already
stated, not only by the structure of their respiratory organs, but also
by their young being hatched in a form closely resembling that of
the parents.
Fig. 2000. — The Money Cowry.
the
SUB-DIVISONS. — They are divided into two great groups,
Operculatcd and the hiopey-citlafcd Pulmonifa-a.
The Operculated species form only a single family, the Cyclosto-
midcF, composed of Snail-like animals, with thin spiral shells, of
which the margins are usually refiexed all round. They have only
two tentacles, with the eyes inserted in their basal portion. The
CyclosfuinidcE, also, differ from the majority of the Pulmonifera, in
being unisexual.
Of the Inoperculated section, the Common Land Snails may be
taken as the type. They form the family Helicidce, characterised
by their ample external shell, within which the Animal can retract
it'self entirely, and by their possession of four tentacles, upon the
summits of the longest of which the eyes are situated. This is a
very extensive family of Herbivorous Molluscs, which are found in
great abundance in all parts of the world. One of the most interest-
ing species is described as follows : —
The Large Garden Snail. (Helix aspersa). — As the fisher-
man hates the Otter, so does the gardener this voracious, destructive
pest, the ravages of which, in the garden and orchard, are often
really annoying. If the species be identical, this Snail has a most
extensive range. It is found, for instance, over a great part of
Europe ; Asia, and Africa, at the foot of Chimborazo, and in the
forests of Guiana and Brazil. In our own island it abounds in the
southern and midland counties ; yet we do not recollect ever to
have seen it in Derbyshire, or in the portions of Staffordshire,
Cheshire, and Lancashire with which we are well acquainted; and
we doubt its existence in the north. In these counties the beautiful
Belted Snail {Helix nemoralis) is abundant.
The Helix aspersa often attains to a very large size : we have
specimens in which the mouth of the shell measures transversely
seven-eights of an inch. In winter this snail becomes torpid, and
closes the opening of the shell with a tough membrane {E;pi-
phragma). (See Fig. 2001).
Fig. 2001. — The Large Garden Snail.
An allied, but larger species, le grand Escargot of the French
[Helix pormfia], abundant in the warmer parts of the continent,
has been naturalized in Surrey, and some other counties of our
island. It is eaten on many parts of the continent, where, says
Cuvier, it is " nourriture assez recherchee. " This, and perhaps
other species, formed a favourite dish with the Romans, who had
their Cochlcaria, or Snailleries (Escargotoires), where they were
fattened upon meal and new wine, boiled down, and were some-
times brought to an enormous size. We cannot, however, help
fancying that some error must have been committed in the text of a
passage in the work of Pliny, who, on the authority of Varro, says,
" cujusartis (?'.e.,of fattening snails) gloria in eandem magnitudinem
perducta sit, ut octoginta quadrantes caperent singularum calyces."
Now if the " quadrans " means a measure of three ounces (which is
not very clear), we have an assertion, that the shells would hold two
hundred and forty ounces, or ten quarts, which is positively beyond
belief. Referring to this passage, and to Varro (de re Rustica),
Pennant says, "People need not admire the temperance of the
supper of the younger Pliny, which consisted of only a lettuce a-piece,
three snails, two eggs, a barley-cake, sweet wine and snow, in case
his snails bore any proportion to those of Hirpinus."
Snails are fattened at the present day in many parts of the conti-
nent, in Escargotoires or Snailleries, which may be described as
pens boarded in and abundantly supplied with herbs, with which the
floor is covered to the depth of a foot.
Some curious circumstances attend the hybernation of the Helix
pomatia, which have been detailed by M. Gaspard. He remarks
that in our temperate climate, as soon as the first autumnal chills
are felt, generally about the commencement of October, this species
becomes indolent, loses its appetite, and associates in considerable
numbers on hillocks, the banks of ditches, thickets, hedges, and
similar places. In a short time they cease feedmg, and then hide
themselves under moss, grass, dead leaves, and the like. Here
each forms for itself with the anterior part of its muscular foot a
cavity sufficiently large to contain at least its shell ; this cavity it
enlarges and excavates by turning itself round on every side, then
raising itself against the sides of the cavity, and at last against the
roof formed of moss or leaves, or a small quantity of earth brought
there by its motions. When it has succeeded in bringing the
aperture of the shell to nearly a horizontal position, it stops. The
foot is soon contracted within the shell, the snail then expands, so
as completely to cover it, the collar of the mantle, which is at this
period very white ; and then inspires a quantity of air, after which it
closes the respiratory hole. When this is done, a fine transparent
membrane is formed with its mucus, and interposed between the
mantle and any extraneous substances lying above. The mantle
then secrets a quantity of very white fluid over its whole surface,
which sets uniformly, like Plaster of Paris, and instantly forming a
continuous covering about half a line thick. When this is hardened,
the animal separates its mantle from it by another and stronger
mucous secretion ; and after a few hours, expelling a portion of the
air it had previously inspired, it is enabled to shrink a little farther
into the shell. It now forms another lamina of mucus, expires more
air, and thus retires farther into the shell. In this way sometimes a
fourth, fifth, and even a sixth partition is formed, with intermediate
cells filled with air. Such is M. Gaspard's account ; but Mr. Bell
remarks that it does not completely explain the manner in which the
excavation is formed. " It is not by the pressure of the foot," says
the last-named zoologist, "and the turning round of the shell, that
this is principally effected. A large quantity of very viscid mucus is
secreted on the under surface of the foot, to which a layer of earth or
dead leaves adheres ; this is turned on one side, and, a fresh
secretion being thrown out, the layer of earth mixed with mucus is
left. The animal then takes another layer of earth on the bottom of
the foot, turns it also to the part where he intends to form the wall
of his habitation, and leaves it in the same manner, repeating the
process until the cavity is sufficiently large, and thus making the
sides smooth, even, and compact. In forming the dome or arch of
the chamber a similiar method is used, the foot collecting on its
under surface a quantity of earth ; and the animal, turning it up-
wards, leaves it by throwing out fresh mucus, and this is repeated until
a perfect roof is formed. As I have very often watched this curious
process, I am certain of the facts. On removing very carefully a
portion of the roof soon after its completion, I was enabled to see
the formation of the operculum. In about an hour, or even less,
after the hybernaculum is covered in, the whole surface of the collar
of the mantle instantaneously pours out the calcareous secretion in
considerable quantity. This is at first as fluid as thick cream, but
very soon acquires exactly the consistence of bird-lime, being ex-
cessively adhesive and tenacious ; and in about an hour after it is
poured out it is perfectly solid."
M. Gaspard states that the labour of each individual continues
for about two or three days; but that the whole of the month of October
is occupied by the general closing of the shells of the species. He
adds that about the beginning of April the hybernation ceases.
" The mode by which their escape from confinement is effected is
simple and easily comprehended. The air which is contained in
THE SLUG TRIBE.
755
the different cells, and which had been expired on the animal with-
drawing itself farther and farther into the shell after the formation
of the operculum, is again inspired, and each separate membranous
partition broken by the pressure of the hinder parts of the foot pro-
jected through the mantle. When it arrives at the calcareous
operculum, the Animal, making a last effort, bursts and detaches
its most obtuse angle. Then insinuating by little and little the edge
of the foot between the shell and operculum, it forces the latter off
or breaks it away." (See the Abstract of M. Gaspard's Memoir,
with notes, by T. Bell, F.L.S. "Zoological, Journal," vol. i.)
The LimacidcB, or Slugs, resemble the Snail in the form of the
body, in the number and structure of the tentacles, and in their
habits ; but their shell is very small or rudimentary, and usually
concealed in the interior of the mantle. The little
i^m\\y. Oncidiidce consists of small, slug-like animals
(Fig. 2002), covered with a leathery mantle, but
quite destitute of a shell. The head is furnished
with either two or four tentacles. They are generally
found in marshy places, upon Aquatic plants ; but
some of them inhabit the sea-coast, within reach of
the waves. They are mostly inhabitants of warm
climates.
These destructive pests in gardens and cultivated
fields are too well known to need a detailed account
of their external characters. Almost all have four
tentacles, but Cuvier states that in two or three small
species the lower pair are wanting ; the mantle
which is generally seen on the anterior portion of the back,
behind the head, often contains a thin shell; sometimes only
calcareous grains.
The Red Slug {Arion rufus). Lttnnx rufus, Linn. — In this
genus the orifice of respiration is towards the anterior part of the
mantle, and in the substance of the latter are small calcareous con-
cretions ; a mucous pore at the end of the tail. The Red Slug is
very common, and abounds in some gardens almost as much as the
small Grey Slug, which it greatly exceeds in size. Its general
colour is rufous, sometimes deepening almost to black. It is this
species of which Cuvier says that in France a decoction (bouillon) is
used in diseases of the chest : in some parts of England we have
known the small grey garden slugs swallowed in numbers by weak
or consumptive persons. (See Fig. 2003).
Fig. 2002. — On-
c id ill in.
Fig. 2003.— The Red Slug.
The Great Grey Slug {Litnax anfiqtiortim, Feruss). — Limax
maxnjiHS, Linn. In the subgenus Limax, as established by
M. Ferussac, the respiratory orifice is situated more backwards
than in Arion ; and the mantle is marked with fine concentric stria;,
and contains a minute shelly plate. At Fig. 2004, a represents
the internal shell of the Great Grey Slug; b, the same enlarged; c,
the under view of the shell from another individual. There is no
terminal mucous pore.
Fig. 2004.— The Great Grey Slug.
This is the largest British species ; it is rugose above, of a
greyish colour, with longitudinal dashes and lines of black. It
frequents damp places, and often invades humid cellars or out-
houses. Another large species, the Black Slug {Limax ater), is
v/ell known, and is abundant along the banks of hedgerows, and
amidst the grass of meadows, during the summer. It feeds on the
leaves and roots or vegetables.
Certain Slugs of the East and West Indies, constituting the genus
Vaginulus of Ferussac, are remarkable for having the mantle
extended over the whole of the upper surface of the 'body, or even
extending beyond it, and forming in front a sort of hood, beneath
which the head can be withdrawn ; there is no rudimentary shell,
nor any calcareous concretions in the mantle, nor is there any
terminal pore. When extended these Slugs are very slender, and it
has been stated that they are both terrestrial and aquatic in their
habits, but M. Rang observes that he never met with them in
Bourbon and Martinique, except in the woods and gardens, under
old fallen trunks.
The Testacella {Testacella sciduliiin).—K^V) the Teneriffe
TeSTACELLA {Testacella maugei).—T\\it TcsfaiCllccTLxc Slugs, with
a contracted mantle, placed over the hinder part of the back, and
supporting a small external plate or shell, somewhat spiral in its
contour, and of an oval outline. The tentacles are four ; the orifice
of the pulmonary cavity is placed under the right side of the
posterior apex of the shell. Referring to Fig. 2005, a shows the
shell externally, b internally, of T. sactulnm; and turning to
Fig. 2006, a and b exhibit the shell of T. maugei. Three species
are described and figured by Mr. Sowerby, viz., T. haltotideiis, a
native of France ; scittulutn, considered by Mr. Sowerby to be a
native of England ; and 7>iat/gei, an inhabitant of Tcnerifle, but now
naturalized around Bristol.
Fig. 2005.— The Testacella. Fig. 2006. — The Teneriffe Testacella.
The Testacella appears to have been first noticed by M. Dugu6,
in a garden at Dieppe in 1740; but it does not seem to have at-
tracted much attention till M. Mauge, some j'ears since, brought
home specimens from the island of Teneriffe. " It has also been
found," says Mr. Sowerby, " in several parts of France, and in
Spain, and more lately in a garden at Bristol. Some specimens
from the last-mentioned place have been handed to us by Mr. Miller
of that city. It feeds upon earth-worms, having the power of
elongating its body to such a degree, that it is able to follow them
in all their subterranean windings : we have observed them atten-
tively, and were rather surprised that an animal generally so ex-
tremely sluggish in its motions, after discovering its prey by means
of its tentacula, thrusting from its large mouth its white crenulated
revolute tongue, should instantly seize upon, with extraordinary
rapidity, and firmly retain, an earth-worm of much greater size and
apparent force than itself, but which by its utmost exertion is un-
able to escape." Mr. Sowerby adds, that De Ferussac and Cuvier
consider this to be the only Carnivorous Terrestrial Mollusc. Slugs,
however, as we have observed, are Carnivorous.
De Ferussac remarked that the simple, gelatinous, contractile
mantle of the Animal, hidden habitually under the shell, is divided
into many lobes capable of enveloping the whole body by an extra-
ordinary development, when the Animal finds it necessary to protect
itself from the consequences of too great dryness.
To this we may add, that in the gardens around Bristol the
Testacella or Shelled Slug is now so common as to prove a nuisance.
It has been also found in a garden in Gloucestershire. Mr. Sowerby
found the Testacella scutulum in a garden at Lambeth ; and in
our own garden at Hammersmith this species (at least so we suppose
it to be) is tolerably abundant ; several specimens, some of consider-
able size, are before us ; the colour is yellow, more or less deep,
sometimes of a straw tint with a white line along each side. In
crawling, these Slugs greatly extend the anterior part of the body,
to an acute point, and insinuate themselves with the utmost ease
into the soil. Their texture is very firm, almost cartilaginous to the
feel, and the mucus of the skin is extremely tenacious. They are
most commonly to be found in cool and dewy or wet weather ; and
they appear abroad late in the season.
In the Lim}ia:idce, or Pond Snails, the shell is ample ; but the
tentacles are only two in number, with the eyes sessile near their
bases. The shell is thin and horny, with the aperture simple ;
whilst in the Aiirictilida;,^\\\z\^ frequently inhabit the sea-shore,
the shell is much stronger, with the margins of the aperture
thickened and notched. In these the tentacles are also two ; butthe
eyes are situated on the head.
The Common Limn^a {Linncsa sfagtiaiilts). — In the genus
Limntsa ihe a.r\\m3.\ IS oi a.-a oval form, more or less spiral; head
furnished with two flattened triangular tentacles, carrj'ing theeyesat
their base, on the internal side ; mouth furnished with an upper
piece for mastication, surmounted by a sort of very short veil ; foot
756
THE CEPHALOPODS.
oval, bilobated anteriorly, narrowed posteriorly ; orifice of the
pulmonary cavity on the right side, on the collar, in form of a
furrow, and capable of being covered by a fleshy appendage which
borders it below. (See Fig. 2007.)
Shell delicate, fragile, of an oval oblong, with a spire more or less
sharp and elongated, and an aperture longer than it is wide, oval,
sometimes very large, with a sharp edge, not continuous, on account
of the convexity of the preceding whorl ; on the columella an oblique
plait.
Fig. 2007. — The Common Limnsea.
M. Deshayes observes that the Animal of LimncBa presents
peculiar characters. On the head are two triangular tentacles very
much enlarged at the base, and having the eyes rather projecting
on the upper and internal part of that ijase. The head is large and
flattened, separated from the foot by a shallow furrow. The foot
inclines to oval, terminated in a point posteriorly, and is delicate
and flattened on the sides. The mantle, closed anteriorly and
narrow, forms a sort of collar, as in the Helices. There is a great
cavity behind its border. The upper wall of this cavity, delicate and
transparent, is covered on its internal surface by a very well
developed vascular net-work destined for respiration.
The LimncBa is abundant in still or sluggish fresh waters, where
it feeds on aquatic plants, up the stems of which it creeps, coming
up to the surface for the purpose of respiration. We have often seen
them floating in the reversed position like the Physa ; they have, in
fact, when so situated, the power of locomotion, and may be observed
moving their ventral disc, as if crawling along some solid surface,
whereas it only acts on the water, of which the surface ofters
sufficient resistance to the vermiform movements of the disc, to
enable the Mollusc to work its way. The eggs are very numerous,
and enveloped in a mass of glairy gelatine of an elongated form ; they
are deposited on stones, or on the leaves or stems of vegetables.
The shell is very delicate, and pellucid ; the spire is produced and
conical. The external colour is brown, but the shell is often covered
with a sort of greenish or greyish green calcareous deposit, varying
in thickness ; the cause of this deposit we are unable to e.xplain.
The same occurs on LimncBa auricidaria. Fig. 2008 represents the
Animal and Eggs of Limncca stagnatilis : a, the Animal and
Shell ; b, the mass of Eggs magnified.
Fig. 200S. — The Common Limnsea and Eggs.
As an illustration of the Auriciilidcs the following is given : —
MiDAs'S Ear {Auricula niidcs). The genus A uricte/a differs
from those of the preceding aquatic air-breathing Molluscs in the
columella of the shell being marked with decided oblique channels
(canelures). The figure of the shell is oval or oblong ; the mouth
longitudinal, with a reflected lip, or simple. Cuvier says, " we are
not certain if these animals live in marshes, as the LiviticEa, or only
on their borders, as the Succinece" [Helix pufris, Linn.). One
species exists in France along the borders of the Mediterranean
(A. viyosolis). A writer on conchology observes, " The probability
is that the Auricula lives in the neighbourhood of rivers, lakes, or
morasses, and that its respiratory system, though formed for breathing
Fig. 2009. — The Midas's Ear.
air, is so framed as to enable it to sustain any vicissitudes which
such a locality might render likely to occur." The Auricula
midcB is said to be a native of the East Indies ; Lamarck names the
Moluccas as also among its localities. It is a handsome shell, and
well known to collectors under the name of Midas's Ear.
Class VII. — Cephalopoda.
This class of the Mollusca presents some of the most curious of the
tribe. Their name is an indication of their specific character,
derived from Kepehale, a head, and podes, feet, or Head-footed
Animal. The following is a description of the leading characters of
the order : —
General Characters. — In their structure and habits, the
Animals forming this class present a considerable advance upon the
other Mullusca — an advance so great, in fact, that by several
zoologists they have been regarded as forming a distinct primary
division of the Animal Kingdom. This view is supported by the
presence of a rudimentary cartilaginous cephalic skeleton in these
animals, and also by a peculiarity in the development of the embryo,
which is not effected as in the other Mollusca.
The most striking character is afforded by the locomotive organs,
which consist of a circle of tentacles, or arms, arranged round the
head, and furnished on their inner surface with numerous sucking-
cups, which enable the Animal to take a firm grasp of any object.
By means of these arms the Cephalopoda creep along the bottom of
the sea with the head and mouth downwards ; they also serve for
the capture of prey — these Animals being very carnivorous in their
habits. They also swim rapidly by the expulsion of the water from
the branchial chamber.
The branchia: in the Cephalopoda are placed on both sides of the
body, which is short, thick, symmetrical, and not rolled in a spiral
form. The shell is often spiral ; but the portion inhabited by the
Animal is divided from the rest by a transverse partition ; so that,
by the successive growth of the Animal, the shell acquires a
chambered structure. The body is inclosed in a sac-like mantle,
which is open in front on the ventral surface for the passage of water
into the branchial chamber ; this is again expelled, by muscular
action, through a separate siphon, placed a little in advance of the
incurrent orifice. The gills are plumose organs, formed of numerous
laminse attached to the sides of a central stalk, through which the
blood passes to them. At the base of each gill is a pulsating cavity,
which drives the blood through these organs ; and this fluid is
received in another cavity on its return from the gills, and, by the
contraction of this, is driven into the central heart.
The mouth is armed with a pair of powerful horny jaws, present-
ing a considerable resemblance to the beak of a Parrot, within which
is a fleshy tongue, part of which is covered with recurved spines.
The intestines are convoluted, and the anus opens into the exhalent
siphon ; the liver and salivary glands are very large.
In the development of the nervous system, the Cephalopoda
exhibit a great advance upon the other Mollusca. The cephalic
portion is very large, and composed of several ganglia, closely united
together ; the cesophagus, as usual, passes through the ring formed
by the sub-cesophageal ganglia. The brain is surrounded by a
cartilaginous ring, the first indication of an internal skeleton, which
also usually gives off processes for the support of the eyes. The
latter organs are of large size, placed on the sides of the head, and
resemble those of Fishes, in many respects. The auditory vesicles
THE NAUTILUS TRIBE.
757
with their otholites, are also imbedded in the cartilaginous ring.
Two small cavities, in the neighbourhood of the eyes, are supposed
to be organs of smell ; and, as wc have already seen that the tongue
is a fleshy organ, it is probable that the Cephalopoda possess all the
senses in a state of considerable perfection.
The skin is generally thick and leathery, but covered with a deli-
cate cuticle, in which numerous cells of different colours [chroinato-
phora) are inclosed. The Animal possesses the power of altering
the position of these cells ; so that the tint of the skin is constantly
changing ; this effect continues even for some hours after death,
and furnishes the inhabitants of those countries, where the Cuttle-
fishes are eaten, an excellent means of judging of the freshness of
the fishmonger's commodities.
A peculiar organ possessed by many Cephalopoda is the ink-bag,
a small pyriform sac inclosed in the visceral cavity, which secretes a
dark-brown fluid ; it communicates by a duct with the exhalent
siphon, and through this, its contents may be discharged into the
water, which is thus discoloured for a considerable extent. When
attacked, the Animals constantly employ this artifice to facilitate
their escape, the inky secretion producing a thick cloud in the water,
under cover of which the Cuttle-fisli rapidly retreats to a safe dis-
tance from the object which has excited his apprehensions. This
fluid was formerly employed in the arts, and gives its name to the
well-known colour denominated sepia {Sepia, a Cuttle-fish) ; but a
considerable portion, if not the whole, of the article sold under this
name, is now derived from other sources. It is remarkable that the
ink-bags of Cuttle-fishes are often found preserved in a fossil state,
although the remainder of the animal is reduced to an almost unre-
cognisable form. This will be more particularly referred to in the
description of the Cuttle-fish.
The Cephalopoda are all unisexual animals ; their ova are usually
of large size. The sexes are generally very similar in appearance ;
but in some species, males of a very peculiar form have been
observed, which, at their first discovery, were
regarded as parisitic Worms, and described under
the generic name of Hectocotyhis. They are
Worm-like creatures, furnished with a double row
of sucking-cups, which give them a close resem-
blance to a detached arm of a perfect Animal.
On the surface opposite to these suckers they are
provided with filamentous branchiaj in some
Fig. 20I0. — Em- species ; but these are wanting in others. They
bryo of a Cephalo- are generally found adhering to the siphon of the
pod with yelk sac. female, but sometimes attach themselves to the
arms of their partner, upon which they creep about
rapidly by the assistance of their suckers.
We have already stated that a difference exists between the
Cephalopoda and the other Hlollusca in the mode of development
of the embryo. In the latter, the entire yelk becomes converted into
an embryo ; in the Cephalopoda, on the contrary, the first rudiments
of the young Animal make their appearance at a particular portion
of the surface of the yelk, so that the development of the embryo
takes place exterior to this body, which gradually disappears as the
young Cephalopod approaches maturity. (See Fig. 20io.)
Sub-divisions. — The Cephalopoda are divided into two orders,
characterised by the number of their branchial plumes, of which
there are either one or two on each side.
Order I. — Tetrabr4nchiata.
General Characters. — This order, which includes a vast
number of Fossil forms {Ammonites, &'C.\, is represented in our seas
Fig. 201 1. — Section of Nautilus, with the Animal,
a, portion of a tentacle.
only by the Nautili, of which a few species still inhabit the seas
of Tropical regions. They are all inclosed in a shell, divided by
transverse partitions into a number of chambers (Fig. 201 1), gradu-
ally increasing in size towards the mouth of the shell, where a con-
siderable space is left for the habitation of the Animal. As the
latter grows, and increases the size of its shell in the usual manner,
by additions to the mouth, it, at the same time, cuts o(T a portion of
the space it formerly occupied by a fresh partition ; thus adding
another chamber to its residence. The partitions are traversed,
either in the centre or close to the wall of the shell, by apertures,
through which passes a vascular siphuncle, communicating with
the chamber in which the heart lies. The remainder of the cham-
bers is filled with air. In the Recent Nautili, and in many Fossil
species, more or less allied to these, the partitions are of a plain,
cuplike form, with the concavity directed towards the mouth of the
shell ; but in many Fossil forms (such as the Ammonites, Fig. 2012,
and their allies) the partitions are folded towards the edges into
various singular forms ; and as the thin shells of these creatures are
often entirely abraded, so that the Fossil is merely a cast of the in-
terior, these patterns are frequently very distinctly visible, and their
variations thus afford excellent characters for the discrimination of
the species.
The Animal, inhabiting this curious and beautiful shell, was long
almost unknown, and our knowledge of its structure has only been
very recently obtained. It is completely retractile witliin the
mantle ; its head is surrounded by a great number of tentacles,
which are retractile within sheathes ; and instead of being furnished,
as in the ordinary Cephalopoda, with sucking-cups, are slightly an-
nulated. The branchiae are four in number, placed two on each
side of the body.
The Animal of the Nautilus, the only one with which we can now
Fig. 2012. — The Ammotiiles nodosus.
be acquainted, usually creeps, mouth downwards, along the bottom
of the sea ; it is sometimes, however, dislodged from this situation
by storms, when it has been seen to float on the surface in a reverse
position, with the tentacles expanded. An opinion has very gene-
rally prevailed that this was, in reality, the favourite position of the
Nautilus, and that its chambered shell was intended to give it the
buoyancy necessary for this purpose. This, however, is contradicted
by observation ; and it appears that the empty chambers only serve to
approximate the specific gravity of the animal as nearly as possible
to that of the medium it inhabits. The question will subsequently
be further dilated on.
Sub-divisions. — The Tetrabranchiate Cephalopoda form two
families — the NautilidcB and the Ani7no7iitidcs. The former, which
includes the only living representatives of the order, is distinguished
by the simple structure of the partitions of the shell, and by the
central position of the siphuncle. The shell is sometimes spiral, as
in X\\e Nautilus ; but it always consists of few turns; sometimes
perfectly straight {Orlhoceras), or merely twisted at the apex in a
crosier-like form {Lituites, Fig. 2013). In the Ammoiiilidis the par-
titions are bent or folded into various forms, and the siphuncle runs
along the outer wall of the shell, which is usually spiral, and com-
posed of numerous whorls. Of the genus Ammonites, M-pwTirAs of
five hundred species are known, and many of these are of great size.
In some cases, these shells, although spirally twisted, have the
whorls separate ; in other instances {Baculites) they are perfectly
straight. The genus Ptychoceras has a straight shell, doubled in
the middle, with the two parts closely applied ; whilst in the Turri-
litcs (Fig. 2014), we have a regular screw-like shell, resembling that
of the lurritella, amongst the Gasteropoda.
The following is a more particular description of some of the
species thus generically described.
758
THE NAUTILUS TRIBE.
The Pearly Nautilus {Nautilus ^ompilius). The shell
(See Fig. 2015).
The Umbilicated Nautilus {Nautilus scrabiculatus). The
shell. (See Fig-. 2016).
Thoug-h known to the ancients and described by Aristotle, it is
only comparatively recently that the structure of the Nautilus has
been demonstrated ; it is to Professor Owen, whose labours in the
field of science are beyond praise, that we owe our
knowledge of the organisation of this singular
being, which from the time of the father of Natural
History to the present had remained uninvestigated.
That Aristotle was acquainted with the Nautilus
is very clear; after well describing the Naked
Chephalopods {naKawi) he says: — -"There are
also two polypi in shells ; one is called by some
nautilus, and by others nauticus. It is like the
polypus, but its shell resembles a hollow comb or
pecten, and is not attached. The polypus ordi-
narily feeds near the sea-shore ; sometimes it is
thrown by the waves on the dry land, and the shell
falling from it, is caught, and there dies." "The
other is in a shell like a snail, and this does not go
out of its shell, but remains in it like a snail, and
sometimes stretches forth its cirrhi {-KXiKravao)
externally." The first of these animals is evidently
the Argonaut, or Paper Nautilus ; the latter the
True Nautilus. Rumphius, in 1705. gave a figure
and description of the Nautilus, but the figure,
which is intended to represent the Animal disen-
gaged from the shell, is indefinite, and its details
fig. 2013.— The both erroneous and confused. Denys de Mont-
Litmtes breynn. ford, in "Hist. Nat. des Moll." (suite au Buffon
de Sonnini, Paris, 1802), gives a pretended and
most absurd figure of the Nautilus, which has been copied by
Shaw.
Fig. 2014.— Turrilites.
The specimen which was dissected by Professor Owen was' a
female, and was captured by G. Bennett, Esq., F.L.S., who thus
describes the occurrence :—" It was on the 24th of August, 1829,
(calm and fine weather, thermometer at noon 79°), in the evening,
when the ship Sophia was lying at anchor in Marakini Bay, on the
south-west side of the island of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides
group, Southern Pacific Ocean, that something was seen floating
Fig. 2015.— Shell of the Pearly Nautilus.
on the surface of the water at some distance from the ship ; to many
It appeared like a small dead tortoiseshell cat. which would have
been such an unusual object to be seen in this part of the world, that
the boat which was alongside the ship at the time was sent for the
purpose of ascertaining the nature of the floating object. On
approaching near it was observed to be the shell-fish commonly
known by the name of the Pearly Nautilus {Nautilus *omJ>ilius)
already illustrated by Fig. 2015; it was captured and brought on
board, but the shell was shattered, from having been struck'by the
boat-hook in capturing it, as the animal was sinking when the boat
approached, and had it not been so damaged it would have
escaped. I e.xtracted the fish in a perfect state, which was firmly
attached to each side of the upper cavity of the sheU. On beino-
brought on board, I observed it retract the tentacula still closer
th.an before, and this was the only sensation of vitality it gave after
being caught ; I preserved the soft parts immediately 'in spirits,
after making a rude pen-and-ink sketch of its form. On breaking
the lower part of the shell, the chambers or cavities were found filled
with water. The hood has been stated by Dr. Shaw (Lectures, vol.
li. p. 165) as being of a pale reddish purple colour, with deeper spots
and variegations ; the colour, however, as it appeared in this recent
specimen, was of a dark reddish brown, in fact, resembling the colour
produced by the Koka on the stained cloth of the Tongatabu
natives, intermingled with white. We had fine weather; light
winds and calms a day or two previous to this animal being caught. ' '
After noticing the incorrectness of Shaw's figure (which, as we'^have
already observed, was copied from those given by Denys de Mont-
Fig. 2016. — Shell of the Umbilicated Nautilus.
ford), and the greater general accuracy of that of Rumphius, Mr.
Bennett informs us that this species is called Kika, Lapia, and
Krang Modang by the natives of Amboyna ; and Bia papeda, Bia
cojin by the Malays. He then adverts to another instance of the
capture of this animal, by an officer of H.M.S. Ariadne, on a reef at
the Island of Pemba, near Zanzibar, on the east coast of Africa, in
1824. The Animal was not floating upon the water, but was in a
hole on the reef, and the officer did not recollect which part of the
shell was uppermost. The mantle, like a thin membrane, covered
the shell, and was drawn in as soon as it was touched, when the
shell was displayed. " I and others," said this officer to Mr. Bennett,
" when it was first seen did not notice it, regarding the animal, as
the membrane enveloped the shell, merely as a piece of blubber ;
but having touched it by accident, the membranous covering was
withdrawn, and we soon secured our beautiful prize. The fish was
a large mass attached to the shell, which we soon extracted and
threw away, as we only wanted to collect shells." The same officer
compared the mantle to what he had subsequently seen covering the
shells of the Harps {Entomostomata), and Cowries {Cypnzidce),
already described. Mr. Bennett states that a section of the shell
captured by him was afterwards made on board, but none of the
appearances, nor whether air or water was contained within, could
be recollected. A mate of a whaler, who had been shipwrecked
upon the Feejee Islands in the South Pacific, and had resided among
that group for nearly three years, told Mr. Bennett that he had seen
the shell of the Pearly Nautilus, containing the living Animal, floating
on the water near one of the islands. He had only seen two living,
although the empty shells were very numerous among the islands.
The first he saw when in a canoe with some other shipwrecked
Europeans ; it was then floating on the surface of the water with
the mouth of the shell uppermost. It was enveloped in the mantle,
which extended some distance upwards and over the whole of the
shell ; and it had such an appearance as to cause one of the men to
say, "There is a large piece of blubber upon the water." On
approaching it, the animal, retracting the mantle, displayed the
beautiful striped shell, and sank before they could captuie it. (G.
Bennett, " Wanderings, ' vol. ii.)
With respect to the general form of this Animal, a reference to
Fig. 2017 will convey a better idea than words; a section of the
THE NA UTIL US TRIBE.
759
shell in outline is given, showing;- the siphon, t t; the chambers of
camerated shell x x ; the septal tubes, which give passage to the
membranous siphon : and the chamber of occupation, -. We may
here observe that from a scries of twenty processes or digitations on
each side of the head, arise the true tentacula or arms, which are
Fig. 2017. — The Pearly Nautilus.
round, tapering and annulated ; indeed each of these processes is
hollow, and constitutes a sheath, into which the arm attached to it
may be completely withdrawn. Besides these there are labial pro-
cesses, and laminated appendages at the entrance of the mouth
abundantly supplied with nerves. There are no organs of hearing.
Fig. 2018. — Structure of the Nautilus.
Fig. 20t8 represents the Nautilus and part of the shell in outline,
explanatory of its structure.
a a, the mantle : d, its dorsal fold applied to the involute con-
vexity of the shell ; c, its free anterior margin ; d, the orifice for the
passage of the funnel; e, the convexity produced by the ovarian
gland ; _/_/, the horny girdle for the adhesion of the mantle to the
shell ; £, the horny laminae covering the extremity of the left shell
muscle ; /i, a portion of the shell, which was left adhering to this
muscle; !, the membranous tube or siphon, which traverses the
testaceous tubes in the camerated portion of the ^hell ; ^, the funnel ;
/, the left lateral process of the funnel ; m, the left crus, or pillar of
the funnel ; «, the hood or ligamento-muscular disc that surmounts
the head ; o o, the exterior digitations on the left side ; o', the larger
one, with a papillose surface like that of the hood ; /, the digitated
tentacles, protruded from their sheaths; (7, the groove which sepa-
rates the hood from the papillose digitation ; r r, the opthalmic re-
ceptacles ; J, the eye ; /, its peduncle ; //, the inferior ridge or
rudimentary eyelid; v, the ridge running from this to w, the pupil •
XXX, the partitions of the chambers ; 'yyy, the septal tubes which
give passage to the membranous siphon ; z, the chamber of occu-
pation.
Fig. 2019 represents the Nautilus removed from its shell in a
prone position, with the labial processes and tentacles, the mandibles
and the digestive organs displayed.
Fig. 2019. — Slructure of the Nautilus.
a a, the hood, or upper part of the oval sheath longitudinally
divided ; b b, the posterior lobes or angles of the hood ; c c, the
posterior concavity of the hood ; d d, the ridge in the same ; e e, the
cut surfaces of the above parts ; yj^, the internal surface of the oval
sheath ; £'£', the external labial processes ; /i h, the external labial
tentacles ; i i, the internal labial processes ; k k, the internal labial
tentacles ; /, the olfactory laminae ; m in, the circular fringed lip
longitudinally divided ; n, the superior mandible ; o, the inferior
mandible ; p, the muscular basis upon which the mandibles are
fixed ; q g, the superior pair of muscles which retract the
jaws ; r r, the semicircular muscle which protrudes the jaws,
divided longitudinally ; s, the cesophagus ; t, the crop ; u, the
narrow canal leading to v, the gizzard ; lu, the intestines ; n ', the
terminal fold of intestine drawn out of its situation ; x, the ejective
orifice ; y, the laminated pancreatic bag ; 2, the liver; 15, a branch
of the anterior aorta, which ramifies in the membrane connecting the
two portions of the terminal fold of the intestine ; 19, the continua-
tion of the posterior aorta along the dorsal aspect of the crop ; 20,
its bifurcation at the oesophagus, to form a vascular circle corres-
ponding to the nervous circle round that tube; 21 and 22, arteries
of the crop, gizzard, &c.
The extent to which the Nautilus is covered by its shell, and its close
attachment to it, caused Aristotle to compare it to a snail ; and, says
Professor Owen, " the general resemblance must be sufficiently
striking when, with his house above him and in the supine position,
he makes his way along the sand with a moderate degree of
rapidity." This indeed seems to be the Animal's habitual mode of
progression ; yet it not unfrequently rises to the surface and floats,
but the navigation is " in all probability of a passive kind, or influ-
enced only by the action of the respiring currents, when expelled by the
funnel, through the surrounding medium ; and at all events it can
no longer be supposed to have been aided by the fabled sails and
oars of the argonaut." The mode of sailing with outspread tenta-
cles is described by Rumphius, who says that in fine weather, after
a storm, they are seen in troops thus navigating the seas, like a fleet
of pigmy vessels, and that as soon as they wish, they take in their
tentacles, upset their boat, and so return to the bottom.
76o
THE ARGONAUTS.
We may here observe, that the tube or siphuncle prolonged
through the compartments of the camerated shell of the Nautilus is
continued from the great venous cavity or pericardium, which freely
communicates vifith the branchial cavities, and which, receiving the
water from these cavities, can thus by its contraction transmit it
through the siphuncle into the chambers of the shell. These cham-
bers naturally contain air, or some gaseous element, and being thus
filled with a fluid more buoyant than water, endow the Animal with the
means of floating, notwithstanding the density of the shell itself.
Now, when the Animal wishes to sink, it forces water through the
tube, thereby compressing the air, and thus it immediately becomes
heavier than the surrounding medium. It would appear that the
retraction of the head and tentacles into the shell involves the con-
traction of the pericardium, and consequently the forcing of water
through the tube ; while the protrusion of the head and tentacles, by
relieving the pericardium from pressure, permits it to expand, when
the air of the chambers necessarily drives back the water, and the
buoyancy of the Animal returns accordingly. Surely no comments
are needed to enforce upon the mind a perception of the beauty and
fitness of such a contrivance, a contrivance which enables the Pearly
Nautilus to float on the surface of the deep, luxuriating in the light
and warmth of the sun ; and then, in a moment, when danger
threatens, to sink to the bottom, and there find a harbour of security.
For want of space we are compelled to omit further description
of many interesting species of the Nautilus. The Argonaut, how-
ever, is of much interest, especially as its mode of progression
through the water has been the subject of much discussion. It has
had assigned to it the possession of wing-like sails, which, propelled
by the wind, serve to drive the Animal through the water. Its pro-
gress really is caused by the ejection of water. Fig. 2020 represents
the Animal as swimming. The arrow indicates the direction of the
Animal's progress; the siphon throwing out successive gushes of
■water, is seen under the extended arms.
species are identical. Dr. Gerard found in the Himalaya Mountains,
at an elevation of 16,000 feet, Atuinoiiiies zvalcotii and Ammonites
communis. Fossils that are found in the Lias of Lyme Regis. M.
Menard met with one in the Maritime Alps at an elevation of 1,500
toises. Their numbers must have been great : M. Dufresne informed
Lamarck that the road from Auxerre to Avalon in Burgundy was
absolutely paved with them. The individual agency, too, of some of
these Carnivorous instruments for preserving the balance of marine
animal power must have been of no small importance. Lamarck
says that he has seen Ammonites of two feet (French) in diameter.
Mr. James Sowerby and Mr. Mantell record Ammonites in the
Chalk with a diameter of three feet ; and Dr. Buckland states that
Sir T. Harvey and Mr. Keith measured Ammonites in the Chalk
near Margate which exceeded four feet in diameter ; and this in
cases where the diameter could have been in a very small degree
enlarged by pressure.
Dr. Buckland is of opinion that the Rhyncholites, or Beakstones,
which occur so abundantly in the Oolite of Stonesfield, in the Lias at
Lyme Regis and Bath, in the Muschelkalk of Luneville, &c., were
the mandibles of Ammonites as well as of Fossil Nautili, and there
can be no reasonable doubt of the fact. It would appear that the
Ammonites, or rather the Cephalopods inhabiting these shells, had
no ink-bags ; but for much information on this and other points we
refer to Dr. Buckland's " Bridgewater Treatise," in which their his-
tory is copiously described.
Order II. — Dibranchiata.
General Characters. — This order, which includes a great
number of Recent as well as Fossil species, is distinguished from
the preceding, not only by the possession of only two branchiae, but
also by the general structure or the body, which is adapted especially
for swimming rapidly through the water, although the Animals are
Fig. 2020. — The Argonaut swimming.
The extinct species of Ammonites are exceedingly numerous.
According to Dr. Buckland the family of the Ammonites extends
through the entire series of the Fossiliferous formations from the
Transition strata to the Chalk, inclusive. Cuvier appeared to con-
sider the Ammonites as internal shells, like Spirtda; and found one
reason in the smallness of the outer chamber of lodgement ; but in
the opinion of Professors Owen and Buckland, they were external
shells, in the outer chamber of which the animal resided. The
latter thus writes : — "The smallness of the outer chamber or place
of lodgement for the animal is advanced by Cuvier in favour of his
opinion that Ammonites, like the Spirula, were internal shells. This
reason is probably founded on observations made upon imperfect
specimens. The outer chamber of the Ammonites is very seldom
preserved in a perfect state ; but when this happens, it is found to
bear at least as large a proportion to the chambered part of the
shell, as the outer cell of the Nautilus Pompilius bears to the
chambered interior of that shell. It often occupies more than half,
and in some cases the whole circumference, of the outer whorl.
This open chamber is not thin and feeble like the long anterior
chamber of the Spirula, which is placed within the body of the
animal, producing this shell, but is nearly of equal thickness with
the close chambers of the Ammonite."
As the Ammonites, of which about two hundred and fifty species
are distinguished, were evidently principal agents for keeping within
bounds the Molluscs, &c., the Crustaceans, and, perhaps, Fishes of
the periods prior to the Chalk formation, and belonging to the latter
epoch, we should expect to find them widely distributed. Accord-
ingly,'they occur in Europe, Asia, and America, in strata apparently
of the same date. In some instances, the genera and even the
also able to creep, with the head downwards, upon the bottom of
the sea. ,
The shell is almost always internal, frequently rudimentary ; and,
when external, is never chambered. The arms are only eight or ten
in number, furnished with sucking discs ; and the body is usually
provided with a pair of fins. .
SUH-DivisiONS.— The Dibranchiata are
divided into two principal sections, charac-
terised by the number of their arms.
The Decapoda (ten-feet) have ten of these
organs, of which two (called tentac/es) are
usually much longer than their fellows, re-
tractile, of a cylindrical form, flattened and
provided with suckers at the extremity. Of
these, the SpiralidcB appear to make the
nearest approach to the Animals of the pre-
ceding order, as they are furnished with a
chambered shell (Fig. 2021 ), which how-
Pig. 2021.— The Spirala ever, is almost entirely concealed within the
peronii, with its shell, body. These Animals inhabit the seas of the
warm parts of the world, apparently in great
abundance, as their shells are cast upon the shore in profusion ;
nevertheless, the structure and habits of the Animal are almost
unknown.
In the remaining families the shell is entirely inclosed. In the
Sepiida it forms a broad calcareous plate, terminating in an imper-
fectly chambered apex. The shell of one species, the Sepia offici-
nalis, is the well-known Cuttle-fish bone of the shops ; it was
formerly employed in medicine, but is now principally used as
THE CUTTLE FISH.
761
jounce. The bodies of these animals are usually of a somewhat
ovate form, and the fins run along the whole length of the sides of the
body (Fig. 2022).
In the Lo/igi'dm [Calamaries or Sqm'ds), which are nearly allied
to the preceding, the body is almost always of an elongated form,
and the fins are broad, and confined to the apex of the body. The
shell is represented by a horny plate (Fig. 2023), which from its con-
sisting of a central shaft, and two lateral expansions, has received
the name of the pen. These animals are exceedingly active, and
Fig. 2022. — The Sepia hieredda.
Fig. 2023. — The Pen of
Onyehotcitthts.
swim well. Their arms are frequently of considerable length, the
tentacular arms especially, which in the genus Chiroteuthis (Fig.
2024), attain no less than six times the length of the body. They
are found frequently in all seas. The common British species
Fig. 2024^ — The Chiroteuthis bonelUi.
{Loligo vulgaris) is often thrown upon the beach after high winds ;
and this and other species are much employed as baits in various
fisheries.
In the Fossil family Belemniiidce, the structure of the internal
shell is far more complicated. In its general form (Fig. 2025) it
resembles the pen of the Calamaries, forming a broad corneous
plate, which terminates posteriorly in a regularly chambered conical
shell (the phragmocoiie), which is furnished with a distinct siphuncle.
At its lower extremity, the phragmocone is inserted into the base of
a firm, solid, cylindrical sheath, which evidently serves to protect
the phragmocone from injury when swimming backwards. From
this provision it has been concluded that the Belemnites lived in the
neighbourhood of the shores, where they would be in constant
danger of coming into collision with fixed objects. From impres-
sions of these soft Animals, which have been preserved in some fine-
grained strata, it appears that they closely resembled the Loligidce
in form ; their arms were lurnished with rows of sharp hooks.
The Ochipoda (eight-feet), are distinguished by- the possession
of only eight .irms, without the retractile Tentacular arms of the
True Cuttle-fishes. But they are rarely furnished with fins. The
Octojiodidce, are naked Animals, with scarcely any trace of an inter-
nal shell. To this family belongs the Common Poulpe, of which the
following affords a detailed description.
The Co.mmon Cuttle-fish, or Polypus. {Oclofms vult^aris.)
— Pouple or Preke There is something strange and uncouth in
the aspect of this creature : its long, flexible arms moving and curl-
ing in all directions, and its large eyes, which stare
with a fixed gaze, rendering it even repulsive. (See
I jtEj^ Fig. 2026).
A cursory observer would predict it ferocious and carni-
vorous : it is indeed one of the tyrants of the waters,
making Fishes and Crustacea: its prey. When crawling at
the bottom of the water, the globose body is elevated ; the
arms or tentacula are spread out, and supported by them it
travels along as they seem to bend beneath it. These
arms are eight in number, long, narrowing to a point,
and in the present species united at their base by a thick
web : each of these flexible but vigorous arms is crowded
with suckers along its inner aspect to the number of two
hundred and upwards. Woe to" the Fish that is enfolded
in their strenuous grasp. Vain is resistance ; the suckers
adhere with such tenacity that they may be sooner
wrenched off than unfixed. Closer and closer to the
mouth is the victim brought ; it is secured as in a vice.
Fig. 2025. and the work of demolition commences. In some species.
The lielem- as we shall hereafter find, the efficacy of these suckers for
nite. holding slippery prey is increased by the addition of a
hook, which acts like a grappling iron.
If we look at the suckers of the Cuttle-fish, (Fig. 2027), we shall
see that each consists of an adhesive disc, composed of muscular
membrane, with a thick fleshy circumference, presenting when ex-
panded a number of radii, converging around the circular orifice of
of an inner cavity; in this cavity is a movable muscular piston,
which, when the sucker is not in action, appears level with the
circular aperture ; but which, when the disc is closely applied to
any object, is drawn strongly back, the cavity it filled being now a
large vacuum ; the whole is, in fact, an air-pump of most precise and
beautiful construction. When the Animal releases its hold, it re-
laxes the contractor muscles of the piston, which, returning, fills the
vacuum, and the suction ceases.
In our seas none of the Cephalopods are large enough to be for-
midable to man. In the hotter latitudes, however, species of
gigantic size have twined their dreaded grasp round human victims
and dragged them to destruction. According to Deny de Mont-
ford, Dens, a navigator, avowed that in the African seas, while three
of his men were employed during a calm in scraping the sides of
his vessel, they were attacked by a monster of this kind, which sud-
denly appeared, seized them in its arms, and drew two of them
under water in spite of every effort to save them ; and that tlie
thickness of one of the creature's arms, which was cut off in the
contest, was at its base equal to that of a fore-yard, whilst the
suckers were of the size of ladles. The man who was rescued died
delirious during the night. We read also of another crew who
were similarly attacked off the coast of Angola : a gigantic Cuttle-
fish threw its arms across the vessel, and was on the point of drag-
ging it down, when the crew succeeded in cutting off its arms with
swords and hatchets. When their danger was most imminent they
prayed to St. Thomas for aid, and in gratitude for their deliverance
dedicated on their return home a picture representing their perilous
encounter to the Saint in his chapel at St. Malo. Pennant states
that in the Indian seas, a friend of his, long resident in the Indian
Islands, and a diligent observer of nature, assured him, the Indians
affirm that Cuttle-fish are often seen two fathoms broad over their
centre, with arms nine fathoms long ; and that when they go out in
boats they are in dread of them, and never sail without an axe for
protection. Even on the shores of Sicily, Mr. Swainson saw Cuttle-
fish taken, two of which would be a good load, their arms being as
thick as those of a man.
It was probably a species of Octopus that Mr. Beale encountered
while searching for shells upon the rocks of the Benin Islands. He
was much astonished at seeing at his feet a most extraordinary-
looking Animal crawling towards the surf, which it had only just
left. It was creeping on its eight legs, which, from their soft and
flexible nature, bent considerably under the weight of its body ; so
that it was lifted by the efforts of its tentacula only a small distance
from the rocks. It appeared much alarmed at seeing him, and
made every effort to escape. Mr. Beale endeavoured to stop it by
pressing on one of his legs with his foot ; but although he used
considerable force for that purpose, its strength was so great that it
several times liberated its member, in spite of all the efforts he could
employ on the wet and slippery rocks. He then laid hold of one of
the tentacles with his hand, and held it firmly, so that the limb ap-
peared as if it would be torn asunder by the united efforts of himself
and the creature. He then gave it a powerful jerk, wishing to dis-
engage it from the rocks to which it clung so forcibly by its suckers.
This effort it effectually resisted ; but the moment after, the appar-
ently enraged Animal lifted its he.id with its large projecting eyes,
and loosing- its hold of the rocks, suddenly sprang upon Mr. Beale's
?62
THE CUTTLE-FISH.
arm which he had previously bared to the shoulder for the purpose
ofThr^stintr it into holes in the rocks after shells, and clung xvith its
suckers to\ with great power, endeavouring to get its beak, wh.ch
Mr Beale could now see between the roots of its arms, in a posit on
to bite! Mr. Beale declares that a sensation of horror pervaded his
whole frame when he found out this monstrous Ammal had fixed
i^se° so firmly on his arm. He describes its cold, slimy grasp as
extremely sickening, and he loudly called to the captain w-ho vv^s
a^so searching for shells at some distance, to come and release him
from hfs dislusting assailant. The captain quickly came and
takTn" Mr. Beale "down to the boat, during which time he latter
was employed in keeping the beak of the cuttle away from his hand,
quickij^released him%y destroying his tormentor w-th the boat-
knife, when he disengaged it by portions at a time. Mr. Beale
states that this Cephalopod must have measured across its expanded
arms about four feet, whilst its body was not bigger than a large
clenched hand. It was the species called by the whalers rock-
sQuid" (•'■ Natural History and Fishery of the Sperm Whale. )
In i87Q the following incident occurred in the presence of several
persons^at the Scarborough Aquarium, Yo^l^^^'^^^fVle "ankf con'
attendants was busily engaged m cleaning out one of the tankb con-
taining small and large sized Octopi. The man took no heed of the
easilv enabled to transmit the food into the gullet, which passes
toou-h a ring in the cranial cartilage, dilates into a spacious crop
with glandular walls, whence a short canal leads to a strong muscu-
lar gizzard lined with a leathery skin. In this gizzard the food is
ground to pulp. At the root of the tongue there are large salivary
^ The^'branchiffi are situated in a distinct chamber on each side of
the body, separated from the viscera by a membranous partition :
the branchiafare very beautiful, consisting each of a single stem
with foliated appendages. These appendages which, like the gills
of fishes, are exquisitely vascular, are laved by the water admitted
into each chamber, through a valvular aperture, and drawn m by
the dilatation of the muscular investment of the body. Now the
forcible contraction of this investment cannot force the water out
through the same aperture; it therefore is urged smartly through
the funnel or siphon ; thus is respiration effected, but as by simple
mechanism two ends are often gained m the economy of Organic
beings, so in this instance the respiratory organs are most efiicien^t
means of locomotion ; it is by the_ discharge
of the water through
the" sfphon That" "the 'Cuttle propels itself along in swimming. As
the siphon points to the head, and the water is thrown out in that
direction, these Animals, as must be evident, swim w
' backwards, their eyes
Fig. 2026. — The Common Cuttle-fish.
other occupants of the tank, but worked away industriously with his
broom, when, all of a sudden he found one of his legs in the firm
clutch of the tentacles of an Octopus, and he endeavoured to release
himself. The creature, small as it was, clung so tenaciously that
the man could not shake it off. Luckily for him he was enabled to
slip out of the boot, which he left in the grasp of the enemy, and
thereby effected his escape.
It has already been said that the mouth of the Cuttle-fish is placed
in the centre of the space enclosed by the arms ; it consists ex-
ternally of a thick circular lip around an orifice : beneath this lip,
and partially appearing through the orifice, is a beak like that of a
Parrot, excepting that the short mandible is the uppermost ; these
mandibles do not cover bone, but their interior is filled with a fibrous
substance of great strength and solidity. In the Nautilus these
mandibles are blunt, of a calcareous texture, and calculated to crush
the shells of molluscs. The muscles in which the jaws of the Cuttle-
fish are imbedded, and by which they are worked, are extremely
powerful. In the ordinary Octopus they are capable of stripping off
the armour from Crabs and Lobsters, and of cutting up the flesh of
Fishes. Within the mandibles is a fleshy tongue invested with a
papillose membrane of delicate texture, and also armed with re-
curved horny papilte, so that the tongue, by its vermiform action, is
ater 1
ith the head
being
always on the enemy from
whom they are escaping ; the
arms are either closed to-
gether and projected so as
not to impede them, or act as
oars in unison with the action
of the branchial cavities. Such
species as have paddles or
fin-like expansions of the man-
tle, as the Sepia officinalis,
the Calaniary,or Flying-squid,
are aided by them in their
aquatic movements ; but in
Octopus, which has the limbs
united by basal webs, the arms
by their flapping take an im-
portant part in the act of
swimming. Thus the Cuttle-
fish: shoots rapidly along,
makes sudden darts and leaps;
and many species at least, as
the Calamary,can throw them-
selves out of the water and
take sweeping leaps resemb-
ling those of the Flying-fish ;
a circumstance not unknown
to Pliny. A learned writer
says, "We well remember in
our youth going far out with
an old fisherman of Dawlish
to visit his floating nets which
he had laid for the pilchards.
As we looked down into the
clear blue water we could see
that the number of fish en-
tangled was great ; but to the
great discomfiture of the fish-
erman, who was eloquent on
the occasion, almost every
other fish was locked in the
embraces of a cuttle-fish ply-
ing his parrot-like mandibles
to some purpose. The fish-
erman, who seemed to regard these unbidden guests as an in-
carnation of all evil, carried a capacious landing-net, but so quick
was the sight of these Cephalopods, so ready were they in letting go,
and agile in darting back or sideways clear of the net, that, th. ugh
the greedy creatures held on to the last moment, the fisherman did
not secure above three out of the crowds that had spoiled his haul."
All have heard of the ink of the Cuttle-fish, which forms an ad-
mirable tint for painting. It is of a rather dense consistence, and
mixes readily with water, a circumstance important to the Animal
itself, as it is to the discoloration of the surrounding fluid by its
admixture that the creature trusts for concealment when threatened
with danger. Cuvier drew his figure of the Cuttle-fish with ink ex-
tracted from its own body. It appears besides that in Fossil speci-
mens of extinct species the ink will often retain its character and
qualities. Dr. Buckland gave to the late Sir Francis Chantrey a
a portion of some taken from a Fossil specimen, requesting him to
try its power as a pigment, and he executed a drawing with a portion
of it. The drawing was shown to a celebrated artist, who immedi-
ately declared it to be tinted with sepia of excellent quality, and
begged to know by what colourman it was prepared : the sepia
used in drawing is from the ink-bag of an Indian species of Cuttle-
fish, whence its name.
THE ONYCHOTEUTHIS.
763
Dr. Buckland had the drawings of extinct species executed in
their own ink, and from the perfection and repletion of the ink-bag,
he infered tlie sudden destruction and rapid petrifaction of these
beings. Tlie ink-bag is differently seated in different species, and
is filled up with a spongy cellulosity saturated with the inky matter,
which is thrown out in great abundance. In the Octopus the ink-
bag is enfolded in the mass of the liver ; in the Oalamary it is placed
near the funnel ; in the Sepia near the bottom of the visceral cavity.
Fig. 2027. — Suckers of the Cuttle-fish.
Wherever it is seated a duct leads from it into the siphon, through
which the ink is ejected at the will of the Animal. Among the
modes of self-preservation with which various creatures are endowed,
this is one of the most singular. Cuttle-fish, voracious and strong as
they are, have their destroyers, as the Grampus, the Cachalot, &c.
No sooner do their quick eyes behold an advancing enemy, than they
dart away under the obscurity of a dark train which they leave in their
course ; they seek the bottom of the water, and, remaining quiet and
still, bury themselves in the sand under cover of a murky cloud, or
sei k refuge in some hole or fissure in a rock, and there wait till their
enemy retires. Most, if not all the naked species, have the power
of changing their tints more quickly than the Chameleon, and also
of ejecting water upon their assailant.
" While looking for marine animals (says Mr. Darwin) with my
head about two feet above the rocky shore (of St. Jago), I was more
than once saluted by a jet of water accompanied by a slight grating
noise. At first I did not know what it was, but afterwards I found
out that it was the Cuttle-fish, which though concealed in a hole
thus often led me to its discovery. That it possesses the power of
ejecting water there is no doubt, and it appeared to me certain that
it could moreover take good aim, by directing the tube or siphon on
the under side of its body. I observed that one which I kept in the
cabin was slightly phosphorescent after dark." The Common
Polypus is said to be luminous at night, and Linnaeus refers to a
statement by Bartholinus that one gave out so much light when the
candle was taken away, that the whole building seemed on fire (ut
totum palatiura ardere videretur), a palpable exaggeration.
It is not only water that the Cuttle-fish ejects as a means of
annoyance, but also its ink ; and a story is related of an officer who
was collecting shells in a pair of immaculate white trousers, and
who inadvertently disturbed one of these animals snugly harboured
in a recess of the rock : — " They looked at each other, and the cuttle-
fish, who had his eyes about him, seeing the advance of his enemy,
took good aim, and shot so true that he covered the snowy inexpres-
sibles with the contents of his ink-bag, and rendered them unpre-
sentable either in the drawing-room or dining-room." This black
fluid was used by the ancients as ink, and the flesh of these animals
was highly esteemed by them as delicate food ; it is still eaten in
Italy and other parts of the continent. Mr. F. D. Bennett states it
is considered a luxury by all the classes of the Sandwich islanders,
and that when fresh and well cooked it is very good, resembling in
flavour and consistence the flesh of a Lobster's claw.
There are numerous species of the Octopi which we have not space
to describe. The following is a more detailed account of the Ony-
choteuthis and the Calamary already refered to in the introductory
remarks on the CepJialopoda.
Banks' Onychoteuthis. {Otiychoteidhis banksu).—!^ this
genus the body and fins are as in the genus Loligo ; ventro-latcral
cartilages of the mantle long and narrow ; horny hoops of the tenta-
cular, and sometimes of the brachial acetabula produced into the
forms of hooks or claws. Gladius or internal support long, broadest
in the middle.
Professor Owen, after dwelling on Dr. Roget's accurate descrip-
tion of the mechanism by which the suckers of the Octopus are
worked, obscr\-es that still there arc circumstances in which even
this remarkable apparatus would be insufficient to enable the
Cephalopod to fulfil all the ofTices in the economy of nature for
which it was created ; and that in those species which have to
contend with the agile, slippery, and mucus-clad Fishes, more
powerful organs of prehension arc superadded to the suckers.
Thus in the Calamary the base of the piston is, he remarks, inclosed
by a horny hoop, the outer and anterior margin of which is developed
into a series of sharp-pointed curved teeth. These, as he states, can
be firmly pressed into the flesh of a struggling prey by the con-
traction of the surrounding transverse fibres, and can be withdrawn
by the action of the retractor fibres of the piston. " Let the reader,"
adds the Professor, "picture to himself the projecting margin of the
horny hoop developed into a long, curved, sharp-pointed claw, and
these weapons clustered at the expanded terminations of the tenta-
cles, and arranged in a double alternate series along the whole
internal surface of the eight muscular feet, and he will have some
idea of the formidable nature of the Carnivorous Onychoteuthis."
"Banks and Solander," says Professor, Owen, in continuation,
Fig. 2027. — Banks' Onychoteuthis.
"in Cook's first '"oyage, found the dead carcass of a gigantic
species of this kind, floating in the sea, between Cape Horn and the
Polynesian Islands, in 30'' 44' S. lat., 110° n' W. long. It was
surrounded by aquatic birds, which were feeding on its remains.
From the parts of this specimen, which are still preserved in the
Hunterian Collection, and which have always strongly excited the
attention of naturalists, it must have
measured at least six feet from the
end of the tail to the end of the ten-
tacles. The natives of the Polyne-
sian Islands who dive for shell-fish,
have a well-founded dread and abhor-
rence of these formidable Cephalo-
pods, and one cannot feel suprised
their fears should have perhaps ex-
aggerated their dimensions and des-
tructive attributes."
Professor Owen then notices ano-
ther structure, W'hich adds greatly to
the prehensile powers of the Unci-
nated Calamaries : — "At the extremi-
ties of the long tentacles, besides the
uncinated acetabula, a cluster of small, simple, unarmed suckers may
be observed at the base of the expanded part. When these latter
suckers are applied to one another, the tentacles are firmly locked
together at that part, and the united strength of both the elongated
peduncles can be applied to drag towards the mouth any resisting
object which has been grappled by the terminal hooks. There is no
mechanical contrivance which surpasses this structure." The letter
a, (Fig. 2027), represents the gladius. Fig. 2028 represents the
hooked suckers.
Fig. 202S. — Suckers of the
Onychoteuthis.
7^4
THE CALAMARY—THE ARGOI^AUTS.
The Common Calamary. {LoUgo vulgaris).— In this group
the body is elongated, cylindrical, provided with a pair of rhoni-
boidal or triangular fins, shorter than the body, and terminal, their
apices generally converging to a point, and united to the end of the
mantle ; anterior margin of the mantle free. Horny hoops of the
acetabula denticulated. Gladius {a) long and narrow. (See Fig.
2029).
Pennant, under the name of Se;pia media, describes this species,
which is the Common Calamary or Pen-fish (the latter name being
derived from the form of its transparent gladius or support), as hav-
ing an almost transparent body (which is green but convertible
into a dirty brown, confirming the remark of Pliny, that they change
their colour, adapting it, Chameleon-like, to that of the place
they are in), and large smaragdine eyes. It is common upon
our coasts. This species is rapid in its movements, and can take
leaps analogous to flights, like the Flying-fish ; an allied species
indeed has received the specific appellation of Sagitta (arrow) from
the rapidity of its sweeping movements.
Mr. F. D. Bennett, who describes the sea as peculiarly animated
between the latitudes 28° and 31° N, and the longitudes 154° and
Fig. 2029. — The Common Calamary.
160° W., observes that the ship was constantly attended by such
vast numbers of the Albacore, that when swimming, as is their
custom, on the surface of the water, they could be seen as a dense
shoal extending several hundred yards on every side of the ship,
about which Sword Fishes fXiphias) frequently came, "making
destructive onslaughts " on the Albacore. More rarely he noticed
the Barracuda, and transient shoals of Bonita. " Flying fish and
(nearly allied to these in their movements) flying-squid {Loligo) were
also numerous. During a calm in lat. 30° N., the flying-squid
appeared in larger flights than we had ever before witnessed ; per-
secuted probably by the Albacore (which selects this tranquil time to
descend deep in the water, and to rove far from the ship in quest of
food), they rose from the sea in large flocks, leaping over its smooth
surface, much in the same manner, and to the same height and
distance as the Flying-fish. Many of them were captured by birds
during their leaps ; and one individual in making a desperate effort
to escape some aquatic pursuer, sprang to a considerable height
above the bulwarks of the ship, and fell with violence upon the
deck."
One kind of Loligo, captured in the Pacific Ocean, in lat. 34° N.,
which measured si-x inches in its entire length, must, from the des-
cription of its hooks, have been Onychoteuthis. This individual
leaped from the sea over the high bulwarks of the ship, and alighted
on the deck at a time when vast flocks of the same species were
seen leaping around, and often striking with violence against the
bows of the vessel, the sea being comparatively smooth. It was
much injured by the violence with which it struck the deck. Another
species, with its two long tentacles furnished at the extremities with
rows of suckers (acetabula) instead of horny, hooked appendages,
resembling the above in size and form, was obtained in the Pacific.
The prevailing colours were silver-white and steel-blue, spread with
red spots and' tints of violet and purple, a brilliant and very beautiful
spot of emerald-green being placed immediately above each eye.
Mr. Bennett concludes by stating that they noticed examples of this
family of Cephalopoda from the equator to lats. 34" N. and 16 S. in
the Pacific Ocean. ,•
The Officinal Cuttle-fish {Sepia officmalis). In the genus
Sepia the body is oblong, and depressed with two narrow lateral
fins extending its whole length ; mantle free at its anterior margin ;
sucker supported by horny loops, with the margin entire or very
minutely denticulated. The internal support is calcareous, lami-
nated, the laminae supported by columns ; it has an internal horny
layer, corresponding to the anterior horny sheath in the Belemnites.
The Ofiicinal Cuttle-fish is about a foot in length, and is common in
the European seas. Its skin is smooth, whitish, and spotted with
brown. The empty eggs of the Cuttle-fish, a, in clusters, are often
thrown upon the beach ; b is the disc of one of the suckers of this
species ; c, that of Eledone. (Fig. 2030).
Fig. 2031, the internal shell of Sepia officinalis ; a, the back view;
b, the side view ; c, the under side.
Fig. 2030.— The Officinal Cuttle-fish.
The ArgonautidcB are furnished with an external shell, the tex-
ture of which has obtained for it the name of the Paper nautilus.
These Animals are remarkable for having two of the arms dilated
into broad plates, by the expansion of which, when floating at the
Fig. 2031.— Internal Shell of the Cuttle-fish.
surface with its shell reversed, the ancients, and many of the
moderns, have supposed that the Argonaut sailed gently along in
his fragile boat, on the surface of the summer sea. This notion,
consecrated as it is by poetical usage, proves to be entirely incor-
Fij^. 2032. — The Aigonauta argo swimming.
FOSSIL MOLLUSCS.
765
rect. The Argonaut uses its dilated arms to grasp its shell, whilst
swimming backwards, like the other Cephalopods, by the expulsion
of water from its branchial chamber (Fig. 2033); these organs also
appear to secrete or hide the shell, which is not attached to the body
of the Animal. The male Argonaut is not provided with a shell.
In the annexed illustration (Fig. 2033), the shell of the young is re-
presented, marked a.
Many of our readers may have access to the British
Museum in London ; and to such, the following table,
which we have compiled from personal examination, as
carefully as possible, will be of considerable use. It con-
tains the names of the various families comprised in the
classes Cephalopoda, Pteropoda, Gasteropoda, &c. ; speci-
mens of the shells of which are found, in great variety, in the
British Museum. With this list as a guide, and the article
on Moi/usca as a text-book, the earnest student may easily
and profitably combine the study of Conchology with that
of Zoology. He will also be enabled to name and classify
any newly-found specimens, and so to make his pursuits
both practical and useful.
In doing this, however, some care is required, as many of
the species greatly resemble each other. But this difBculty
will be rather an advantage than otherwise to the student,
as it will call on the exercise of his powers of observation,
and subsequent judgment, and consequently become not only
a pleasing, but valuable and interesting source of intellectual
pursuit.
Fig. 2033.— Shell of the Argonaut.
NAMES OF THE FAMILIES OF MOLLUSCA, OF WHICH SPECIMENS OF SHELLS MAY BE FOUND IN THE
BRITISH MUSEUM.
Acteonidae.
Amphibolidffi.
Amphiperasidae.
Amphisphyridae.
Amplustridse.
AmpuUariidffi.
Anatinidje.
Anomiidae.
Aplysiidae.
Aporrhaidae.
Arcadffi.
Architectomidae.
Arionidae.
Astartidae.
Atlantidffi.
Auriculidae.
Aviculidae.
Barleeidae.
Buccinidae.
Bullidaj.
Cfficidas.
Calyptrjeidae.
Cancellariadae.
Capulidae.
Cardiidae.
Carditidae.
Cerithiidae.
Cerithiopsidae.
Chamidae.
Chitonidse.
Conidas.
Corbiculidae.
Corbulidae.
Cranchiadae.
Craniadae.
Crassatellidae.
Cryptellidae.
Cyclasidae.
Cyclophoridae.
Cyclostomidae.
Cymbuliadae.
Cypraadae.
Cyprinidae.
Dentaliadae.
Discinidae.
Etheriadas.
Fissurellidffi.
Gadiniadae.
Galeommidae.
Gastrochaenadae.
Glauconomidae.
Haliotidae.
Helcinidae.
Helicidae.
lanellidae.
lanthinadae.
Iridinidae.
Isocardiadae.
Lacunidae.
Lamellariadas.
Lasiadas.
Ledadae.
Lepetadae.
Limacinidae.
Limnasadae.
I.ingulidae.
Liotiadae.
Littorinidae.
Lituidac.
Loligidae.
Lophocercidae.
Lottiadae.
Lucinidae.
Mactridae.
Melaniadae.
Mesodesmidae.
Montacutidae.
Muricidae.
Myadae.
Mytilidae.
Naticidae.
Neritidae.
Octopidae.
Olividae.
Onychoteuthidae.
Ostreidffi.
Pandoridae.
Patellidae.
Pectinidas.
Pediculariadae.
Philinidas.
Pholadae.
Phoridae.
Pinnidae.
Placunidae.
Planaxiadae.
Pleurobranchidae.
Pleurotomidse.
Productidae.
Proserpinadae.
Pteriadae.
Pterotracheidas.
Pyramidellidae.
Rhychonellidae.
Rissoadae.
Rissoellidas.
Rotelladae.
Runcinadae.
Saxicavidae.
Scalariads.
Scissurellidffi.
Scrobiculariadae.
Sepiadas.
Siphonariadae.
Solenidae.
Solenomyadae.
Spondylidae.
Strombidae.
Stomatellidffi.
Tecturidffi.
Tellinidae.
Terebratulidae.
Testacellida;.
Thecideadae.
Tridacnidae.
Trigonidae.
Tripteridas.
Trochidae.
Truncatellidae.
Turbinida;.
Turritellidae.
Turritidae.
Tylodinadae
Umbrelladae.
Unionidae.
Valvatidas.
Vanicoridae
Vclutinidae.
Veneridai.
Vermetidae.
Viviparidas
Volutidae,
In regard to Fossil Mollusca, their name is legion. The animals,
after death, generally settle into soft lacustrine or sea strata, in
which their most minute outlines have been preserved. The British
species alone present an enormous number, the description of which
occupies a large portion of Mr. Morriss's work on British Fossils.
In the British Museum a large collection of Molluscous Fossils may
be found, together with those of the Radiata, Corals, &c. Com-
mencing with the lowest forms of animal life, descriptions of which
will be found at 824 ei seq.. we may notice some fine specimens of
Stone Lilies [Crinoidea) ; in that collection they are represented by
some from the Silurian, Carboniferous, Liassic, Oolitic, and Creta-
ceous formations. Sea-urchins [Echiiiidce) are arranged in four
principal groups, ist. These form the Tertiary strata, of which
the most remarkable are the large Clypeasters, from Malta. 2nd.
The Chalk F.chinidcB, among which are the Helmet-urchins,
Anauchytes, popularly known as "Fairy Loayes ; " "the Heart
Urchins" {Spatangidce), called commonly " Fairy Hearts;" and
numerous species of Cidaris, provincially termed " Shepherd's-
crowns." 3rd. The Jurassie, or Oolitic Echitiid^, and the Sea-
urchins from the Trias, and older rocks, which include many sin-
gular forms of the spines or locomotive organs."
Among the Crustacea the Crab and Lobster Fossils are abun-
dantly represented, including the gigantic King-Crabs. There are
also numerous specimens of the Trilobita, Isopoda, &c. Fossil
Lobsters are found to extend from the Coal-measures to the present
age, while True Crabs first appear in the Upper Oolite. Specimens
from the Lias of Lyme, the Oolite of Solenhofen, and the London
Clay of Sheppey are well deserving of attention.
The Fossil Molluscous Shells are divided into four groups — viz.,
the Lamp-shells {Brackiopoda) ; Ordinary Bivalves {Conchifera) ;
Spiral Univalves {^Gasteropoda); and Chambered Univalves {Cep-
halopoda). Tertiary Fossil Shells are represented in great abun-
dance.
Shells of the secondary strata include those got from the Chalk,
Gault, and Greensand. The characteristic shells of the Chalk are
Inoceraimi, related to the recent Pearl-oyster; Spondyli ; Scallops
[Pecten), of a peculiar form ; Cockscomb-oj'sters, and species of
Lima and Pleurotomaria. One peculiarity of the Chalk Fossils is
the constant absence oi the interior pearly layers of the shells,
which have been removed subsequent to their imbedding. In the
Greensand strata Trig07ii(S abound, together with peculiar Bivalves
of an extinct family, Hippuritida, related to the recent Chama.
Among the Jurassic or Oolitic Shells are the shells of Portland
Stone, Bath Stone, and other Oolitic rocks, and of the Lias, which
include numerous species of Trigonice, the internal casts of which
are often found, while the shells have been dissolved and removed
766
FOSSIL MOLLUSCS.
from the rock. They are called " Horse-heads " by the quarrymen,
and are sometimes silicified, and contain traces of the Shell-fish
itself. Among- the Oolitic oysters are some whose shells have been
moulded on Trigofu'cs 3in& Am?nonifes. The shells of the Triassic
system in the ]Mi:seum consist of the original specimens figured and
described by Dr. Klipstein in his work on the Fossils of the salt-
marls, and Alpine limestone of Austria.
Among the Palaeozoic shells are those from the Magnesian Lime-
stone (Permian) of Northumberland and Durham, the Carboniferous
Limestone, and Coal-measures of Britain and Belgium ; of the
Devonian system, and of the Silurian system, presented by the late
Sir R. L Murchison, who was so eminent in his investigations of
the latter geological strata. Among chambered shells, Cephalo-
poda are specimens related to the recent Nautilus and Cuttle-
fish, Ammonites, and Fossil Nautili. Those from the London Clay
of Highgate and Sheppey are well worthy of notice.
As already stated, the Fossils of Mollusca, &c., are very abundant
in this country. In some places, in other parts of the world, Fossil
shells abound to an enormous extent. As an instance of this the
following may be quoted : —
Mr. Lea, in his "Contributions to Geology," notices the Tufaceous
Lacustrine formation of Syracuse, Onandaga county, New York. He
found the substratum which lined the side of the canal to consist of a
calcareous marl of a whitish colour, bordering on that of ashes,
friable, and rather soft to the touch. A subsequent analysis jby
Professor Vanuxem proved it to be nearly pure carbonate of lime.
Numerous perfect specimens of the genera Limncsa, Physa, Palu-
dina, a.nA.A?icylus were obtained, all being analogous to the species
inhabiting at that time the fresh waters of that region ; and Mr. Lea
stated that it was evident that the deposit was caused by the drainage
of the lake. The specimens were found to be completely bleached,
and were generally in an unbroken state. "A lacustrine forma-
tion of so recent a nature," says Mr. Lea, in continuation, "as
this appears to be, is not, I believe, of frequent occurrence. It
is the result, however, of one of those causes which are now in
action ; and another instance might be mentioned, in which
the effect of this cause, though striking, has not advanced to that
period when it would make a finished deposit : I mean the small
lake, or pond, in Sussex county. New Jersey, well known by the
descriptive name of Milk Pond. Here countless myriads of bleached
shells of the families Lymna:a7ia and Peristomiana, analogous to
the species now inhabiting the adjacent waters, line and form the
shores of the whole circumference of the lake, to the depth and
breadth of many fathoms. Not having visited this interesting lake
myself, I repeat what has been communicated to me by intelligent
scientific friends who have examined it, and on whose report the
most implicit reliance may be placed. Such is the quantity of
bleached shells now remaining there, that thousands of tons of these
small species, in a state of perfect whiteness, could be obtained if
any useful purpose required the removal of them. For agricultural
purposes this mass might prove of great utility. One friend, I re-
member, mentioned to me that he had obtained a sharp pointed pole,
which he inserted ten or twelve feet perpendicularly into the mass,
on the shore, near to the edge of the water, without its having passed
through it. As far as can be ascertained, this mass seems to form
the whole basin of the lake, and it may, at some future and perhaps
not far distant period, form a tufaceous lacustrine deposit similar to
that of Syracuse."
We may here notice a group of the shells of extinct Cephalopods,
termed Goniatiies, a group of equal importance with the Ammonites
in reasoning on the succession of organic life on the globe. Between
these shells and the Ammonites there are important distinctions.
In the Ammonites the siphon, as we have seen, instead of perforating
the disc or centre of the transverse plates, dividing the chambers
(as in nautilus), touches and runs parallel to the inner surface of the
shell on the dorsal line. Another characteristic of the Ammonites,
is in the form of the sutures or intersections of the transverse internal
septa, or plates, with the inner surface of the shell ; these sutures in
Ammonites are undulated or angularly bent into lobes and sinuses,
seldom zigzag : in Nautilus they are even, or gently waved, but in
GoniatitestheTorms of the sutures are, in general, singularly waved,
zigzag, and greatly varied. Von Buch regards the sinuous edges of
the septa of the Ammonites and Goniatites to be necessarily derived
from the dorsal position of the siphuncle ; " all the other differ-
ences," he says, "are derived from this primary distinction. The
Nautilus, which passes a very large syphon through the middle of
the septa, appears sufficiently attached by this membranous basis on
which it rests. There is no need of any other support, and the septa
in general remains smooth, and concave without sinuosities on the
edges. The small dorsal syphon of the Ammonites (and Goniatites,
which Von Buch regarded as included in that group) would not
suffice to secure the Animal from displacement on the surface of its
cell." He contends that other supports are needed, and that they
are to be found in the marginal lobes, which the form of the Gonia-
tites, in particular, impresses on the partitions of the chambers, and
which are generally six in number.
The species of Goniatites are rather numerous : the late Mr.
Martin, in his Petrificata derbiensia, figured two species from the
limestone ; Mr. Sowerby, in the " Mineral Conchology of Great
Britain," added two others ; and Professor Phillips, in the " Illustra-
tion of the Geology of Yorkshire," has raised the number of British
species to thirty-six ; of these the septa are completely ascertained.
These, added to the distinct Continental species, make up a total
of seventy-one or seventy-two with which naturalists are acquainted.
With respect to their external form, the Goniatites form a sub-
globular figure, to the discoid spiral shape of the flattest Ammo-
nites. Most have rounded backs, and few have the back carinated.
In general the lines of growth externally visible are sigmoidally
waved ; sometimes, however, the striae are angular, sometimes
radiating ; occasionally the striae rise into tubercles on the inner
edge of the whorls. Altogether they form a very interesting study
in regard to extinct Molluscs.
ARTICULATED ANIMALS.
767
CHAPTER XLI.
DIVISION III.— THE ARTICULATA.
liE present division of "Animal Life"
includes a most heterogeneous concourse
of Animals. It runs from the Worms to
the Insects, and also includes the Crus-
tacea, such as the Crabs, Lobsters, &c. ;
Spiders, and Insects of all kinds, as the
Fly, the Flea, Butterflies, &c. It is
evident, therefore, that the range of the
division is of a most extensive character.
That portion or Class of it devoted to the
Iiisecta. may be considered as that which
chiefly constitutes the basis of the science of
Entomology.
So great is the diversity, in fact, that it is almost
impossible to give any common characters which
shall positively include the whole; and some of the
most eminent modem zoologists have proposed the
establishment of a separate division, to include the
lower forms. By this means, however, the diffi-
culty is lessened rather than got rid of altogether ;
for, although a tolerably coherent group may thus
be obtained for the higher forms, the lower would
still vary to such an extent, that a very loose cha-
racter is necessary to enable them to be united in
a single group. We shall, however, adopt, in their
entirety, sub-divisions, as they may tend to render
this part of our subject more intelligible. The general characters of
the division may be briefly described as follows : —
The most striking peculiarity of the animals of this division, by
which, in fact, they may generally be distinguished at the first
glance from all other creatures, is, that their bodies and limbs are
composed, more or less distinctly, of segments or rings. From this,
which is their most prominent character, they have been denomi-
nated Articulated or Annulose Animals.
The joints or segments of which their bodies are composed, are
formed essentially by a series of transverse folds in the integument
of the Animal. In many of the lower forms, the skin still remains
perfectly soft and flexible ; but in by far the greater number these
folds become transformed into a series of horny or crustaceous rings,
as in the Centipede, united to each other by a softer portion of the
integument, so as to permit a greater or less degree of flexibility.
The limbs, as well as the body, are constructed of rings of various
forms ; and these, taken together, may be regarded, to a certain
extent, as a sort of external skeleton, fulfilling, as they do, most of
the purposes of the skeleton in Man, and the Animals most related
to him. Like that, it gives support to all the soft parts of the body,
and furnishes points of attachment to the muscles ; which again, by
their action on the movable pieces composing it, give rise to the
various movements of the creature. In many cases, all the segments
composing the body, with the exception, perhaps, of those at the two
extremities, are exactly similar; each presenting the same form, and
bearing the same organs as its neighbour. An instance of this may
be seen in the Centipede, already mentioned ; and it is still more
strikingly exemplified in many Marine Worms. Generally, however,
the segments present marked differences of form and comparative
size, and in the structure of their appendages ; this is very distinctly
observable in the Insects and Crabs.
Every segment is supposed to be capable of bearing two pairs of
appendages or members, one connected with the ventral, the other
with the dorsal, portion of the segment. Both pairs of members do
in fact occur upon all, or a portion of the segments in some of these
Animals ; but, in general, the ventral members alone are developed,
and these only on certain segments. In the Insects, in addition to
three pairs of ventral members, or legs, we find generally two pairs
of dorsal appendages — the wings. Sometimes, as in the Earthworm
and Leech, the limbs are entirely deficient, or only represented by a
few bristles ; but, when present, their number is never less than six.
The nervous system of the Articulata generally exhibits the
tendency to segmentary repetition, which is characteristic of the
group, very distinctly. In its most definite form it consists of a
double nervous cord running down the middle of the ventral portion
of the body, and uniting a series of knots or ganglia which lie in its
course ; these ganglia give rise to nerves, which are distributed to
the various organs. The more elongated the body, and the more
similar the different segments of which it is composed, the more
regularly do the ganglia follow one another ; whilst, when the
segments become more or less amalgamated, the individual ganglia
fuse in a corresponding degree into larger masses. This ventral
cord originates from one or more cephalic ganglia of considerable
size, situated in the head, above the oesophagus, which give off two
filaments to join the first ventral ganglion, and thus form a nervous
ring surrounding the oesophagus. From this the ventral cord takes
its rise.
In the lowest Animals arranged in this division, we have some
difBculty in referring the nervous system to the Articulate type ; but
when these Animals present us with a distinct nervous system, it
consists of one or two ganglia situated in the neighbourhood of the
cesophagus, and giving off two thin branches which run down the
body.
The majority of the Articulata possess the senses in tolerable
perfection. The eyes, in many cases, present a highly complex
structure, consisting of a great number of hexagonal facets, each of
which may be regarded as a distinct eye ; this construction of the
eyes is especially prevalent in Insects, and is peculiar to the Annu-
lose division. When these eyes are wanting, and even when they
are present, we frequently meet with simple eyes, which agree very
closely in structure with the individual eyes, by the aggregation of
which the co^npou>2d visual organs are formed. The senses of he.ir-
ing, taste, and smell, appear also to be possessed by a great many
of these creatures ; but the organs by which these faculties are
exercised can seldom be indicated with any degree of certainty.
The sense of touch, of course, resides in the general integument ;
but special organs of touch are also frequently developed.
The mouth is nearly always furnished with several pairs of jaws,
placed one behind the other, some serving for the prehension, and
others for the mastication of food. These jaws open laterally, so
that the aperture of the mouth is vertical, or in the direction of the
axis of the body.
Most of the Articulata have whitish or colourless blood. The
only exceptions are to be met with amongst the Worms, some of
which have red blood. In these, however, the colour of the blood
is inherent in the fluid portion, and not due to the presence of red
corpuscles. (See p. 7. chap. I.) Their circulation is effected by
means of a dorsal vessel, which carries the blood from behind for-
wards ; it returns to the posterior portion of the body, either through
a proper vascular system, or by passing through interstices left in
the tissues of the body.
Sexual oviparous reproduction prevails throughout this division.
The sexes are generally separate, although, in some of the lower
forms, we meet with complete hermaphrodism.
From the preceding epitome of the characters of the Articulata,
it will be seen that enormous differences exist between them and the
Animals hitherto described. While analogy exists in regard to both
functions and organs, the degradation, if we may use such a term,
in relation to animal life in general, is very great. Indeed, the
popular estimation of these animals shows how far such a distinction
may be held. Mai^y of the classes and orders we observe with
general abhorrence, and in numerous cases the creatures themselves
are a bane to the existence of man, and even of the lower vertebrate
animals. Some of them, as we shall see hereafter, prey inside of the
frame of most of the Vertebrata, from Man downwards. And others
are external annoying animals, as the Flea, Bug, &c., beside the
Beetle and other offensive insects which trouble us by attacking our
food and clothing. But, even in such cases, these creatures have
their uses. Their presence inculcates the necessity of cleanliness
in our persons and houses, attention to which ensures their destruction
or absence. On the other hand, we have a counterbalance, in the
Lepidoptera, and others of the insect tribe, embracing the Butterflies
for beauty, the Bees for use in respect to their honey and wax,
which, with other instances of the Articulata, teach us that there is
no department of created life without its excellences and advantages.
We have already alluded to the difiiculty of arranging the members
of this division in proper groups or classes ; but the following plan
will perhaps best afford a systematic course of study, and explain in a
general manner the relations that subsist throughout the division.
Sub-division I.— Vermes,
General Characters.— The Animals of the first sub-division,
the Vermes or Hehnintha, are usually of a very elongated form ;
and in the higher groups, the division of the body into a number of
segments, is very distinct ; whilst, in some of the lower forms, this
general characteristic of the articulate series is quite unrecognisable.
The segments, when present, are generally mere repetitions one of
another ; and the appendages with which they are frequently fur»
nished follow the same rule.
768
THE VERMES, OR WORMS.
The nervous system, which, in the parasitic groups {Entozoa,
living-inside) is, as might be expected, in a very rudimentary con-
dition, gradually increases in complexity; until, in the Ajmch'da,
or True Worms, it consists, as in the most highly endowed Arfi-
culata, of a ventral series of ganglia, united by nervous cords, and
communicating with a nervous mass of considerable size (brain),
situated in the head. In proportion to this gradual elevation of the
nervous system, is the development of the different organs of the
body. This is especially remarkable in the case of the lateral
appendages, which are entirely wanting in the lower groups ; but in
the An/ielida they make their appearance often in a very compli-
cated form, such as branchial and natatory plates, and jointed
bristles serving as feet. In none, however, do they present the
peculiar structure of the limbs possessed by the other Articulata,
the construction of which will be described in the proper place.
Sub-divisions. — The Ver??ies may be divided into four classes,
which are generally distinguishable by their external appearance.
Oi these, the first two are for the most part Parasitic, livmg in the
interior of other Animals, few of which, in fact, are exempt from the
visits of those unwelcome guests. Of these, the first, the F/ai-
worms {Platyelmiii), have the body flattened, and generally more
or less ovate and leaf-like ; these present the greatest divergence
from the articulate type. In the second, the Nemafelmia, or
Romid-worms, the body is usually elongated and cylindrical, and
the division into segments is often indicated by annulations of the
skin. The other two classes are composed principally of Aquatic
Animals. A few are terrestrial in their habits, but none are inter-
nally parasitic. One of these, theHotifera, or Wheel Animalcides,
includes a number of minute creatures furnished with a pair of
ciliated organs at their anterior extremity ; whilst the A7inelida, or
True worms, have the body distinctly divided into segments, gene-
rally furnished with lateral appendages, and with a well-developed
nervous system. The blood, in this last class, is also generally of a
red colour.
Class I.— Platyelmia.
General Characters.— By far the greater number of the
Platyelmia pass the whole or the greater portion of their existence
inclosed within the bodies of other Animals, of which few are without
species of these parasites peculiar to themselves. Some species,
however, live in the water, where they swim about freely by means of
cilia. They all, however, have the body much flattened, and usually
of a more or less ovate form, without any traces of segmentation ;
the only exception to this rule being presented by the Tape-worms,
in which, as is well known, the body is of great length, and com-
posed of a multitude of similar joints. We shall see, however, that
the exception is more apparent than real ; for it appears that the
Tape-worm may be regarded as a compound Animal, each joint
bemg capable of a certain amount of independent existence.
The nervous system consists of a pair of ganglia situated in the
anterior extremity of the body, and giving off two slender filaments,
which run down each side of the body. No special organs of
sense have been found in the Parasitic species ; but those which live
free in the water have several dark spots, each containing a distinct
lens, placed close to the central ganglia ; and these are considered
to be true eyes. With the exception of the cilia of the aquatic
forms, no organs of motion are to be met with in the Platyehnia.
The Parasitic species are generally furnished with hooks or suckers
for mamtaining themselves in their position ; but their movements
are almost entirely confined to a muscular contraction and dilatation
of the body.
Sub-divisions. — The Flai-wortns are divided into three orders,
of which two are composed of Parasitic, and one of free-swimming
Animals. They may be regarded as forming two groups or sub-
classes, of which the second is distinguished by the possession of
cilia ; the others being destitute of these organs. The two parasitic
orders are the Cestoidea, or Tape-worms, with long, usually jointed
bodies ; and the Tretnaloda, with short, elliptical, or discoiti forms.
Order I.— Cestoidea,
General Characters.— The general appearance of the Cestoidea
is well shown in the following figure, which represents the common
Tape- worm of the human intestines. The body is composed of
numerous joints or segments, each exactly resembling the other;
these are often several hundreds in number, and the Animal some-
times attains a length of upwards of ten feet. The skin is exceed-
ingly soft and tender, and the muscular system possesses very little
energy ; so that the movements of the Animal are confined within
very narrow limits. Its anterior extremity is formed by a small
head, furnished with hooks and suckers, by means of which the
Animal anchors itself to the intestines of its victim ; it also contains
the rudiments of the nervous centre, the filaments given off by
which only run through a few of the first segments. The Animal
appears to possess no mouth or digestive organs ; so that it must
derive its nourishment entirely by absorption through the skin. On
each side of the body runs a long vessel, passing through all the
segments ; these are united at each articulation of the body by a
transverse vessel. Each segment contains both male and female
sexual organs ; and when these have arrived at maturity, the seg-
ment is cast off to seek a new place in which its ova may be deve-
Fig. 2034. — The Common Tape-worm,
loped. For this purpose the joints, when cast off, are endowed with
a considerable power of motion, and will live for several days when
placed in favourable circumstances. In some cases they have been
observed to develop peculiar organs, which they do not possess in
their compound condition. The orifices of the sexual organs are
placed at one side of each segment, and these apertures are placed
alternately on both sides of the body of the Animal.
The development of these Animals presents some of the most re-
markable phenomena that have yet been discovered in the natural
history of Animals. Some curious Parasitic Worms are found, not in
the intestines, but in the sold tissues of many Herbivorous Animals,
which, from the structure of the head, have always been ranged in
the neighbourhood of the Tape-worms, although their bodies,
instead of being drawn out to an enormous length and divided into
numerous segments, are composed almost entirely of a simple bag
of fluid.
Some of these parasites are simple — that is to say, the sac bears
only a single head ; in other cases they develop a multitude of these
organs, sometimes from the internal, and also from the external
surface, of their walls. These Worms were long regarded as form-
ing a distinct order of Parasitic Animals; but recent experiments
have shown, that when they are administered to particular Carni-
vorous Animals with their food, the vesicle of fluid is cast off, the
head attaches itself, and gradually develops the long-jointed body
of a true Tmnia. The observations were first made upon the Cystic
Worms which inhabit the liver of the Mouse and Rat ; these, when
given to Cats, were found to produce, in their intestines, TcenicB of
the species usually infesting those Animals. Experiments have
since been instituted upon Cystic Worms from different species of
Herbivorous Animals, and these all produce Tape-worms of different
kinds, when introduced into the bodies of Carnivorous Animals.
An exception to the general rule appears, however, to be pre-
sented b)' the Tape-worm of the human subject ; at least, it is not
easy to understand how the Cystic Worms could withstand the heat
usually employed in cooking our animal food. Recent experiments
have shown that the administration of adult proglottides of Ttenia
solium to pigs, produces a great development of the Cysticercus
celluloses. Pork, improperly cooked, has been a great cause of the
introduction of these parasites into the human system. The
Cysticercus celluloses is also found in the tissues of the human
body.
Two species of Cestoid Worms inhabit the human intestines — the
Ta:nia solium and the Bothriocephalus latus. The former is the
ordinary Tape-worm ; the second occurs only in particular countries
— in Holland, Poland, and Switzerland. In the Cystic form, some
of these Worms do great injury to Domestic Animals; one of the
most noxious is the so-called Ccetturus cerebralis, inhabiting the
brains cf sheep. Many other interesting facts are connected with
the history of these Animals.
Order II. — Trematoda.
General Characters.— These animals, which are all parasitic,
present some resemblance to the individual segments of which the
Cestoid Worms are composed. They are usually of an elliptical or
oval form, and very flat; the skin is soft, but usually contains a
number of calcareous granules. The whole body is very contractile.
At one or both of its extremities it is furnished with suckers, to
enable it to adhere firmly to its host, and, at its anterior extremity,
with a mouth. At a little distance from the mouth, the narroiv
intestinal canal usually divides into two, which mostly terminate in
blind extremities ; in some cases, however, the two intestines meet
towards the hinder part, so as to form a complete circle. All these
Animals are hermaphrodites, and the history of their development
presents many points of almost equal interest with those exhibited by
the Cestoid Worms.
PARASITIC WORMS.
769
Divisions. — They form three families. In the first, the Distomtda;,
the animals possess two suckers, of. which the anterior contains the
mouth. Of these the Fluke {Distonta hepafkuin), which infest the
livers of Sheep, is a well-known example. Other species live in the
intestines, the brain, and even the eyes, of some Animals.
The Animals of the second family, the TristomidcB, are furnished
■with three suckers ; two small ones at the anterior extremity,
between which the mouth is situated, and a larger one at the hinder
extremity. These Worms principally infest the gills of Fishes, as do
also those of the third family, the Polystomidcc, characterised by the
presence of several suckers at the hinder e.xtremity of the body;
whilst the anterior extremity is either entirely destitute of those
organs, or only possesses a small one, in which the mouth is situated.
This family includes the syagxAa^x Diphzoon paradoxum — an Animal
which appears to be compounded of two perfect individuals, each
containing precisely the same organs.
Order III.— Planarida.
This order includes most of the Free Platyelmia. These Animals
are of an oval or elliptical form, and very commonly furnished with
an extensible proboscis, springing from the ventral surface, and
leading into a large digestive cavity, which gives off numerous
ramifications into the substance of the body, but possesses no anal
opening. They are of a gelatinous consistency, and enjoy such a
power of self-contraction that they can reduce their whole substance
to the form of a lump of jelly, in which condition they occasionally
force themselves rather disagreeably upon the notice of incautious
water-cress eaters. They inhabit both salt and fresh water, where
they swim about rapidly by an undulating movement of the body, in
the manner of a Leech, and creep with great ease upon stones and
aquatic plants. They are generally of small size, but exceedingly
voracious. Like the Polypes, which they resemble in their gelatinous
nature, they appear to be capable of almost endless increase, by the
way which might be expected to lead to their destruction.
In South America, Dr. Darwin observed some Terrestrial Animals
which approach the jP/i7«ar/(f(S? very closelyin their characters ; they
lived amongst rotten wood, upon which they appeared to feed,
and were marked on the back with stripes of bright colours.
The family oi Ne77iei-tidcB, ox Ribbon-worms, must be referred to
in this place, as it probably forms the type of a fourth order of
Platyelmia. It is composed of Animals with elongated ribbon-like
bodies, possessing a protrusible proboscis, a distinct nervous system,
and a digestive canal with a distinct anus. Amongst these, one
species, the Borlasia, inhabiting the coasts of France and England,
attains a length of upwards of fifteen feet. This tremendous Worm
remains coiled up during the day, under stones, going about at night
in search of prey.
The TurbellaridcB also — a family of minute Worms, inhabiting
both salt and fresh water — appear to belong to this order. Like the
preceding Animals, they possess an intestinal canal with two
openings, and the sexes appear to be separate. The classification
of these creatures is still, however, involved in great obscurity ; and
much remains to be done before it can be brought to a satisfactory
condition.
Class II.— Nematelmia.
General Characters. — The Animals belonging to this class are
of a more or less elongated, cylindrical form, with the skin much
thicker and stronger than that of the preceding Parasitic Worms,
and generally wrinkled in such a manner as to give the body an
annulated appearance. The nervous system, in the higher forms,
consists of a pair of ganglia, situated in the anterior extremity, and
united by a slender nervous ring, which surrounds the oesophagus ;
from these two filaments take their rise, and run through the whole
length of the body. In the lower orders, no undoubted nervous
system has yet been recognised. As far as our present knowledge
goes, the Round-worms are unisexual. No such extraordinary me-
tamorphosis, as that which we have seen to prevail amongst the flat
Worms, occurs in the development of these creatures, which, how-
ever, are as yet but imperfectly known. They not only inhabit the
intestines of other Animals, but many species are also to be met
with in the interior of completely clossd organs, to which they must
have obtained access in their earliest stages.
Sub-divisions. — The Nematelmia form three very distinct
orders — the Acanthocephala, which possess a proboscis armed with
a formidable apparatus of hooks, but are apparently destitute of an
alimentary canal ; the Gordiacca, long thread-like worms, with an
intestinal canal, but without an anus ; 3in6.\.h.s Ne/natoidea, in which
a perfect intestinal canal exists.
Order I. —Acanthocephala.
This order, which includes only a single genus, is composed of
Parasitic Worms, often of considerable size, which find their habi-
tation in the intestines of various Animals, especially fishes. One
species in particular, the largest in the order, is common in the
intestmes of Swine, where it sometimes attains a length of eighteen
inches. The body is thick, and divided into rings by a sefies of
transverse wnnkles ; the head is armed with rows of reversed spines.
which not only serve to fix the animal in its abode, but also enable it to
bore through the mtestincs of its unfortunate victim, who sometimes
tails a sacrifice to this propensity of his uninvited guest These
creatures appear to possess no alimentary canal ; their nourishment
is entirely obtained by absorption through the skin, beneath which
IS a curious areolar structure, which is probably subservient to this
purpose.
Order II.— Gordiacea.
The Gordiacea, or Hair-worrns, are at once distinguishable bv
the extraordinary length of their bodies (Fig. 203s) which fre-
quently present a close resemblance to a horse-hair ; so close indeed
that in former times the popular belief ascribed their origin to the
introduction of horse-hairs into the water in which they arc found
These Animals live as Parasites in the bodies of various species
of Insects, to which their size is often so disproportionate that
when the worm is coiled up within the cavity of an Insect's body
scarcely any space is left for the internal organs of its unfortunate
host. When mature, they quit the bodies of the Insects, at whose
expense they have been nourished, and seek some piece of water or
moist situation, where they deposit their ova in long chains, 'ai
this period they sometimes suddenly make their appearance in vast
numbers in particular spots, giving rise to reports of Worm rains
Fig. 2035. — The Hair-worm ( Gordius ajuaticiis).
It seems probable that the evolution of the young proceeds to a
certain distance in the situations where the eggs are deposited ; but
when, or in what manner, they afterwards obtain access to their
destined victims, is still unknown. One of the most singular cir-
cumstances connected with their history is, that if, by any chance,
on breaking out of their Insect-home, they find that dry weather has
produced a state of things incompatible with their notions of com-
fort, they quietly allow themselves to be dried up, when they become
perfectly hard and brittle ; but, strange to say, the moment a shower
of rain comes to refresh the earth with its moisture, the dormant
Gordii immediately recover their activity, and start off in search of
a suitable place, in which the great object of their visit to solid earth
may be effected.
Order III.— Nematoidea.
With the exception of one family, all the Worms included in the
order Nematoidea, are parasitic in the bodies, and principally in
the intestines of other Animals ; they are, in fact, amongst the most
common and the most injurious of E}itozoa. In the form of their
bodies they frequently resemble the common Garden-worm, although
some are much more elongated, and often taper to a very fine point
at one end ; the skin is more or less wrinkled, giving them an an-
nulated appearance. These are unmistakeably the highest forms of
Intestinal Worms ; they present a distinct nervous system, an ali-
mentary canal, and are furnished with a mouth, an anal opening,
and distinct sexual organs. The history of the development of these
Animals is but imperfectly known. It appears probable, that in
many cases, a different situation is required for the evolution of the
young, to that inhabited by the mature Animals ; for, at certain
periods, the latter, apparently impelled by some wandering instinct,
quit the intestines, either by allowing themselves to be carried out
along with discharged matters, or by actually boring through the
walls of their habitation into the tissues beyond them. The object,
in the latter cases, appears to be the disposition of their eggs in the
blood-vessels of their host ; at least, a species found in the Frog,
deposits its ova in this situation. The young Animals appear to be
carried by the circulation to some position suitable for their develop-
ment, when they inclose themselves in a minute capsule or cyst,
amongst the tissues of the body, and remain at rest for some time.
On breaking out of this capsule they find their way to the intestines,
where they remain until their instincts prompt them to imitate the
example of their parents.
This order includes the Common Ascaris, or Round-worm, of the
human subject, as well as the little Thread-worms (Oxyur is), which
are often so troublesome to children. These are rarely injurious,
unless present in great numbers. Far different is the case, how-
ever, with the Strongylus gigas, a Worm sometimes attaining a
length of two or three feet, and the thickness of a man's little finger,
which usually inhabits the kidneys of Swine., but sometimes finds
770
THE LEECHES.
its way into the same organ in man. This tremendous Worm, by
destroying the organ in which it has taken up its abode, is said not
unfrequently to cause the death of its host.
This order also includes the dreaded Guinea-worm {Filaria medi-
nensis), which appears to occur in most parts of Tropical Africa.
This Worm lives in the cellular tissue beneath the skin, and between
the muscles of man, confining its attacks principally, though not
exclusively, to the lower extremities, where it often produces con-
siderable pain. It is said occasionally to attain a length of twenty
or thirty feet ; but its average length is five or six. It is extracted
by winding it very slowly upon some object, an operation in which
great care is said to be necessary, as, if the Worm be broken, its
fluids produce a very painful effect. When arrived at maturity, the
Filaria comes to the surface, where it breaks to pieces, and sets
free the innumerable young with which it is crammed.
In this order we also place the AnguilluUdce, the so-called Eels
of paste and vinegar. These are minute, thread-like Worms, ex-
hibiting distinct digestive and generative organs ; they occur often
in great numbers in putrefying substances.
Class III.— Annelida.
General Characters.— The Annelida, in general, present a
more complicated organisation than any of the preceding Animals ;
the division of the body into segments is usually distinctly recognis-
able, and the segments are almost universally furnished with ex-
ternal appendages, which are sometimes jointed. The majority
live in water, or in damp situations ; a very few only are parasitic in
their habits.
The head in most of these Animals is distinctly marked, and fur-
nished with organs of sense, such as eyes, tentacles, and in some
instances auditory vesicles, containing otolithes. The nervous
system, in the higher forms, exhibits the Articulate type of structure
very distinctly ; it usually consists of a series of ganglia runnmg
along the ventral portion of the Animal, and united by a pair of
slender filaments, by which they also communicate with the central
mass, or brain, which is inclosed in the head; this is composed of
two ganglia, united by a ring surrounding the oesophagus. In the
lower forms, the nervous system approaches that of the preceding
The lateral appendages, which serve principally as organs of ,
Dorsal erch. Dorsal oar.
1 I
Dorsal member.
Ventral member. Ventral aioh. Ventral oar.
Fig. 2036. — Transverse section of an Annelide (Amphinome).
motion, are very variable in their structure and arrangement, some-
times occurring on all the segments of the body, occasionally only
on the anterior or middle segments ; varied by four or two in number
on each segment. They usually consist of lobes of skin, furnished
with bundles of bristles of very various forms, and with jointed cirri
or tentacles (Fig. 2036) ; they also commonly bear the respiratory
organs or branchia; (Fig. 2037). In soxn& Annelida, as the Leeches,
no trace; of external organs is to be seen ;
wliilst in others, as the Earth-worms, they are
reduced to a few bristles, which assist the
animal in its progress through the earth. It is
to be observed, however, that even in the
highest Aii7ielida, the jointed cirri are always
easily distinguishable from the limbs of the
second section of the Articulata.
The digestive apparatus consists of a straight
intestine, running through the body from one
extremity to the other. The mouth is usually
Fig. 2037. — Foot and armed with jaws, and the opposite extremity of
branchia of the Eunice, ^hg intestinal canal always terminates in an
b, branchia ; c, cirrhus ; anal opening. The vascular system is also
t, bristle tuff ; i, ven- very distinctly developed, and the nutritive fluid
tral cirrhus. is usually of a red colour, sometimes green or
yellow,
The sexes are usually distinct, although a few — as the Leeches and
Earth-worms — -are hermaphrodites ; but, even in these, self-impreg-
nation does not take place. Some A?t?ielida appear to propagate
also by spontaneous division ; and many of them can reproduce
parts lost by accidental injury.
Sub-divisions. — The Annelida may be divided into two groups,
characterised by the presence or absence of external respiratory
organs. The Abranchiate Annelides include two orders — the
Suctoria, or Leeches, characterised by the possession of a sucking
disc at the posterior, and usually also at the anterior extremity ; and
the Scolccina, or Earth-worms, in which these suckers are wanting,
but which are furnished with a double row of bristles along the
under surface of the body. The branchiferous group is also divided
into two orders — the Tubicola, the Animals composing which form
a tube for their habitation ; and the Errantia, which enjoy no such
protection. Cuvier divided the Anttelida into three orders — the
Ab>-anchiala,\i\t\\ no branchial tufts ; Wxe. Dorsibranchiata, with
branchial appendages on the back ; and the Tubicolce, or tube-
makers.
Order I.— Suctoria.
General Characters. — The animals belonging to this order,
of which the common medicinal Leech (Fig. 2038) is a familiar
example, are characterised by the total deficiency of any lateral
appendages ; their motions being eff'ected by undulations of the
body whilst swimming, or by the alternate attachment of the sucking
discs with which the two extremities of their bodies are usually
furnished. They all appear to live by sucking the blood of other
animals ; and for this purpose, the mouth of the leech is furnished
Fig. 2039.—
Tooth of the
Leech.
Fig. 203S. — The Common Leech (Sangnisii^a officinalis).
with an apparatus of horny teeth, by which they bite through the
skin. In the Common Leech, three of these teeth exist, arranged in
a triangular, or rather triradiate form, a structure which accounts
for the peculiar appearance of leech-bites in the human skin. (Fig.
2039). Each of these teeth has a minutely serrated edge (Fig. 203,8 a),
which, when worked backwards and forwards in contact with the
skin, soon saws it through, when the teeth are retracted, and the
blood is then pumped from the wound by the alternate dilatation and
contraction of the muscular oesophagus. In the Clepsinidce this
structure disappears, giving way to a protrusible
proboscis. The intestine is of very large size, and
usually extends on each side into short blind sacs or
processes, the distension of which, during the act of
suction, must necessarily increase its capacity.
Respiration appears to be performed by a system of
aquiferous canals, lined with cilia, which open exter-
nally, by a series of minute orifices, on each side of
the body. The vascular system is well developed.
Nearly all these Animals are hermaphrodite. The
deposition of the eggs is attended with some very
singular circumstances. At the period of oviposition,
a peculiar gelatinous band is produced round the
anterior part of the body, near the orifice of the generative organs
which is situated in this part. The Leech lays its eggs in this
gelatinous matter ; and when all are deposited, it withdraws its
body from the band, which then closes up, and forms a complete
capsule, within which the eggs are inclosed.
The nervous system in the Suctoria is usually well developed ;
and the anterior sucking disc bears a row of eight or ten eyes,
which, however, appear to be of very imperfect construction.
Sub-divisions. — This order is divided into three families. The
first, the Malacobdellidce, presents many points of resemblance to
the Trematode worms , the mouth is unarmed ; the substance of
the body semi-transparent ; the nervous system composed of a single
ganglion and filament on each side of the body ; and there is a
single sucking disc at the posterior extremity. These Worms live
parasitically, within the mantle of various marine bivalve MoUusca.
In the ClcJ>sinidce, the body is of a Leech-like form, but very
much narrowed in front, and the mouth is furnished with a pro-
trusible proboscis. These Animals live in fresh w ater, where they
may often be seen creeping upon aquatic plants. They prey upon
the water snails {Lymneai).
To the third family, the True "Leeches [Hii-iidinidir), the common
medicinal Leeches belong. Two species of Leech are commonly
used in medicine — the San^uisuga officinalis, 3. native of the
South of Europe, and the 6". medicitialis, which is found principally
in the northern countries of the same continent, and occurs, but
rarely, in England. Most of the Leeches used in England are
imported from Hamburgh ; but the pools and marshes in which
THE EARTH WORMS.
■77^
the animals are collected, are situated at a great distance from
that emporium of the trade, in the thinly populated countries of
Eastern Europe — Hungary, Bohemia, and the East of Europe. The
animals are caught by means of baits put into the water, or by
the fishermen wading into the pools with naked logs. The import-
ance of the Leech in medicine is well known ; but few, perhaps,
are aware of the enormous consumption of these Annelides that
really takes place, which amounts to many millions annually.
But if the Medicinal Leech put forward a strong claim to our
attention, on the ground of the services which it renders to mankind,
there are others which force themselves upon oxir notice from the
very opposite consideration. ,' These are principally confined to hot
countries, where, however, they are often great pests. In Egypt,
during the invasion of that country by Napoleon, the French
soldiers were often exposed to great torment from the numbers of
Leeches infesting the pools. A still more remarkable instance is
afforded by the small Leeches which infest Ceylon. These Animals
are about an inch and a-half in length. They live principally in the
forests, among the dead leaves, in damp places ; but often make
their appearance in other parts of the island during wet weather.
Wherever they occur, however, they seem always to be on the look-
cut for blood ; and some instinct tells them that, even under the
clothes of Europeans, this wished-for delicacy is to be obtained.
Some species of this family, forming the genus Piscicola, live as
Parasites upon various Fresh-water Fishes ; whilst those of the
genus Dranchiobdella, which are quite destitute of eyes, inhabit
the branchia; of some Crustacea.
This appears to be the proper place to allude to some singular
Marine Animals, which have been placed, by several zoologists,
amongst the Echinoderinafa ; by others, amongst the .^ /^;^e//<2'a.
These are the species of the genus Si;punciclus and its allies, which
constitute an order of Animals for which the name of Ge^hyrea has
been proposed, in allusion to the apparent connection which they
establish between the Echinodermata and the Articulate series.
Their bodies are cylindrical, and rather thick, covered with a tough
skin, in which a few bristles are sometimes inserted, but which
neither contains calcareous particles nor the tubular sucking-feet of
the True Echinoderms. Their habits are very similar to those of the
Common Lob-worms ; and, like these, they are much sought after
as baits by the fisherman. They live in
the sand, where they move about much
in the same way that the Common Gar-
den-worm does in moist soil ; they are
destitute of eyes and other organs of
sense, and the mouth is armed with a
curious proboscis. Some species, as the
Sipunculus bernhardiis here represen-
ted (Fig. 2040), seek protection by in-
closing their bodies in the abandoned
dwelling of some Univalve Mollusc ;
whilst others, for the same purpose, actu-
ally hollow themselves caves in the sub-
stances of stones and corals. One of
these, to which M. Valenciennes has
given the name of Sipunciihis cochlea-
ri'us, is remarkable for a habit of form-
ing a small spiral cell in the stony sub-
stance of two very different species of
coral. This Animal is probably troubled
with a tender skin, and, in order to pre-
vent abrasion by the rough walls of his
coral home, he lines it with a smooth vitreous matter, producing
an appearance which has so deceived Zoologists, that they have
supposed that the Corals had built their structure around some small
shell, and hence, confounding the two species, described_them both
under the common name of Madre^ora cochlea.
Order IL— Scolecina.
General Characters. — Of this order we have several well-
known exam.ples in the Earth-worm so common in our gardens and
fields. The bodies of these Animals are of a cylindrical form, some-
what pointed at the anterior extremity, and usually a little flattened
at the tail. The skin is tough, and divided into numerous seg-
ments by transverse wrinkles ; and the organs of motion are reduced
to the form of a double row of bristles, running down the lower sur-
face of the body, which, instead of being placed, as in the following
orders, upon prominent lobes of the skin, are usually capable of
being retracted within small hollows when not in use. The mouth is
unarmed, and the intestine runs straight through the body. The
vascular system consists of two longitudinal vessels running along
the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, and united by numerous
branches. The blood is red. Like the Leeches, these Worms are
furnished with ciliated canals, which have been supposed to serve
as organs of respiration ; but their real destination appears to be
still uncertain. They are all hermaphrodites.
Divisions.— This order contains two families— the Lzi77ibncida:,
Fig. 2040. — Sipunculus hern-
liardus.
or Earth-worms, and the hraidida:. The former are too well
known to require much description ; they possess no distinct head.
.^";i^f,'''^/l"'fe destitute of eyes ; their bristles are hooked, and placed
mhttle tufts in pits on tlie lower surface, whence they can be ex-
erted when the animal requires their assistance. They live in lioles
m moist earth, and are said to be predacious Animals, although
popular belief charges them with the destruction of the roots of
pitints •
It is generally supposed that the Earth-worm may be propagated
by division; but this scarcely appears to be the case. It is said,
however that if it be divided across the middle, the part bearing the
head will develop a new tail, although the tail will soon die ; and
that. If the head be cut off, the body will form a new head; but it
appears that both portions never survive this mutilation This
power of reproduction of lost parts is carried to a much greater
extent in the Naiduiaz, which even propagate by a kind of gemma-
tion. These Animals live principally in the mud of fresh-water
ponds and rivers. In their form they resemble the Common Earth-
worm ; but their bodies are furnished, besides the ventral bundles
ot bristles, with a series of long spines on each side. They Gene-
rally have two distinct eyes, and the mouth is sometimes atmed
with a long proboscis.
Order III.— Tubicola.
General Characters.— The Worms belonging to this order
which commences the series of Branchiferous Aiuielida are all
Marine, and are distinguished by their invariable habit of forming
a tube or case, within which the soft parts of the Animal can be
entirely retracted. This tube is usually attached to stones or other
submarine bodies. It is often composed of various foreitrn materials
such as sand, small stones, and the dibris of shells, lined internally
with a smooth coating of hardened mucus ; in others it is of a
leathery or horny consistency ; and in some it is composed, like the
shells of the Mollusca, of calcareous matter secreted by the Animal
These creatures frequently live together in societies, winding their
tubes into a mass, which often attains a considerable size • others
are more solitary in their habits. They retain their position' in their
habitations by means of appendages very similar to those of the
free Worms, and furnished, like these, with tufts of bristles and
spines ; the latter, in the Tubicolar Annelides, are usually hooked •
so that, by applying them to the walls of its domicile, the Animal
is enabled to oppose a considerable resistance to any effort to draw
it out of its hole.
In these, as in the preceding Annelida, no distinct head can be
recognised, and the eyes are either entirely wanting or very rudi-
mentary. The mouth also is generally unarmed. The anterior
extremity is always furnished with tentacles, which serve both as
organs of touch and for the capture of prey. The nervous system is
well-developed, although the longitudinal filaments generally run
down the sides of the body, instead of being united by ganglia in
the middle line. The branchije are usually confined to the^head,
where they appear as branched organs in the midst of the tentacles ;
they sometimes also occur on some of the segments of the body!
All these Worms are unisexual. They deposit their eggs in a mass
of mucus, which usually clings to the tube of the parent Animal.
The young TerebeUa, on the first breaking out of the &^^, is a
small globular embryo, thickly covered with cilia. By degrees, this
elongates into an oval form, and the cilia collect in a band round its
middle. The lengthening process continues, and in a little time a
pair of small eyes make their appearance in the head, whilst a new
set of cilia are developed at the caudal extremity. Still the little
Animal continues elongating ; the cilia are reduced to a little band,
like a cravat, round its neck, and a patch on the back ; whilst the
body exhibits traces of annulation, and single bristles begin to
sprout from its sides. At last the cilia disappear altogether ; the
members acquire sufficient development to enable the young Tere-
beUa to creep along the bottom of the water. It selects a spot for
its permanent abode, fixes itself, builds its house, and becomes a
quiet, home-staying denizen of the deep.
Sub-divisions.— In the best-known family of this order, the
SabellidcB, the branchiaj are placed on the head, where they form
a circle of plumes (Fig. 2041) or a tuft of branched organs. Of the
tentacles, one is usually much thickened, so as to form a sort of
plug, which closes the aperture of the tube when the Animal is re-
tracted. The SerJ>ul(Z, which form irregularly twisted calcareous
tubes, often grow together in large masses, generally attached to
shells and similar objects ; whilst those genera which, like Tcrcbe/la
(Fig. 2042), build their residences of sand and stones, appear to
prefer a life of single blessedness. The curious little spiral shells,
often seen upon the fronds of sea-weeds, are formed by an Animal
belonging to this family {SJiirorbi's).
The Hermelltdcs, some of which live amongst the Oyster-beds,
and often do much mischief by the increase of their masses of tubes,
also belong to this order.
Order IV.— Errantia.
General Characters.— We now come to the last and highest
772
VARIOUS ANNELIDA— THE ROTIFERA.
order of the Annelida, comprising tliose Animals in which the
external appendages of the body attain their highest development,
whilst the power of free locomotion indicates the possession of a
higher degree of general intelligence than would be necessary for
the sedentary Animals of the last order. It must be confessed,
however, that in their structure, and especi-
ally in their development, they display a very
close relationship to those Animals ; the
history of the development of the young in
the two orders being so very similar, that
one description will serve for both.
The head of these Worms is distinctly
marked, and the mouth is generally fur-
nished with jaws of some kind, which are
not unfrequently placed at the extremity
of a protrusible proboscis (Fig. 2043). The
general structure of the lateral appendages
and branchia; has already been explained ;
but the parts of which these are composed
frequently exhibit the most extraordinary
forms. Like the Tubicola, all these Worms
are unisexual ; the ova are usually deposi-
ted upon stones or aquatic plants ; but, in
some instances, the mother carries them
about enveloped in a slimy matter.
Divisions. — Amongst the numerous
The Fig. 2041. — A Group families into which this order has been divi-
of SerpuliE. (Jed, the one which approaches most closely,
both in structure and habits, with the lower
Worms, is that of the ArcnicolidcB, including the common Lob-
wornt, so much used by sea-fishermen as a bait. This Animal is
found on all sandy parts of the coast, where it bores into the sand
left wet by the retiring tide ; its head is large and rounded, quite
destitute of eyes or tentacula, and furnished with a short unarmed
proboscis. The feet are very small, and confined to the anterior
part of the body ; whilst the branchial tufts, which are of considerable
size, are placed on each side of the middle segments. (Fig. 2044)
Fig. 2042.— The Terebella.
The family oi Aphrodi'ftdcs, some species of which are known as
Sea-mice, includes some Marine Animals of great beauty. In these
Worms, the body is generally broad, or ovate ; the head small, and
furnished with very short tentacula ; the feet large, with immense
tufts of bristles and spines, often of the most remarkable forms, and
exhibiting the most brilliant metallic colours. Each of these hairs
(Fig. 2045) is retractile within a horny
sheath, which serves to protect the soft
parts of the Animal from injury by its
own weapons. The most remarkable
peculiarity of these Animals is, that
their dorsal surface is entirely or parti-
ally covered by a double series of large
_. ,^ , . _ , membranous scales attached to the alter-
Fig. 2043.-Head and Trunk n^jg segments, between which the beau-
ot the Giycens. ^jf^j bristles of the feet make their ap-
c, anterior portion of the body; pearance. These Animals generally in-
/, head ; tr, trunk ; /', open- habit deepish water ; but numbers of
mg of the mouth; «?«,jaws. them are often thrown upon our coasts
after a storm.
The family of Nereides includes some elongated and distinctly
annulated Worms which possess a well-developed head (Fig. 2046),
furnished with tentacles and eyes, and a mouth with a proboscis,
which is sometimes unarmed, but occasionally furnished with two or
"^^iW^isfe
Fig. 2044, — The Lob- worm (Arenicola fiscal ormn.')
four teeth. The cirri or tentacles attached to the feet are often of
considerable length, and sometimes even annulated (Fig. 2046).
The Animals frequently resemble the more elongated Myriapoda.
In this family there is one species which is luminous, the Nereis
i>hosphoresce7is. The branchial tufts are but slightly developed.
In the next family, the Eunicida:, on the contrary, these organs
are of considerable size, and the mouth is armed with from seven to
nine toothed jaws. This family includes some species of large size :
the .fi'/cwz'ce^/^'aw/'t'rt', which inhabits the West Indian seas, grows
to four or five feet in length ; and others found in the Southern
Ocean, are said to attain double that size.
Fig. 2045. — The Sea-mouse {Aphrodita hispida.)
Zoologists also place in this order a curious terrestrial Annelide,
found in the West Indies by the Rev. Lansdown Guilding, and
described by him under the name of Peripatus (Fig. 2048). In its
general appearance it exhibits a most striking resemblance to the
well-known luli, or Millepedes ; the body is distinctly annulated,
the head well marked, and furnished with two jointed tentacle sand
eyes. Along each side of the body runs a series of soft feet, which,
however, exhibit traces of annulation ; and these, as in the other
Fig. 2046. — The Nereis, with its head and some of the anterior segments.
free Annelida, are terminated by tufts of bristles. This curious
genus forms the family PeripatidcB.
The order of An?ielida errantia also includes another family,
which appears to possess a striking affinity to the following class,
the Roll/era. This is the family of the Folyophthalmidce, consist-
Fig. 2047. — The Syllis monilaris, with one of its locomotive organs and setige-
rous appendage attached thereto.
ing of cylindrical Worms, furnished with bristle-like feet, some-
what resembling those of the Scolecina. Each segment of the
body is said to bear a pair of eyes, whence the name given to the
genus and family to which these creatures belong. The most re-
markable character presented by these Animals is the structure of
Fig. 2048. — The Peripatus.
the head, which bears a pair of lobes covered with cilia ; these, like
the similar organs of the Rotifera, can be retracted and protruded
at pleasure. We now pass naturally to the last class of this subdi-
vision of the Articulata, the Rotifera.
Class IV.— Rotifera.
General Characters. — This interesting class of Microscopic
Aquatic Animals, included amongst the Infusoria by Ehrenberg,
is now generally admitted to belong to the Articulate Division
THE ROTIFERA.
773
They are animals of very diverse forms, but are always characterised
by the possession of ciliated org'ans at the anterior extremity (Fisf.
2049), by means of which they produce a vortex in the water, that
carries to their mouths any minute Animals or plants which may be
floating' in their neighbourhood. The skin exhibits distinct indica-
tions of transverse wrinkles or folds, by the agency of which the
Animals are enabled to contract themselves to an extraordinary
extent, so that they often acquire an almost globular shape. In some
cases, however, the skin becomes
horny, or a small quantity of sili-
cious matter is fixed in it. In either
case the skin then forms a sort of
carapace, within which the little
Animal can retreat in case of dan-
ger. Many of them pass their
lives fixed in one place like Pol-
ypes, whilst others enjoy the power
of swimming freely about. The
free species are all furnished with
means of fixing themselves when
about to feed. In some cases the
tail terminates in a sucker; in
others, in a pair of minute forceps,
by which the creature attaches it-
self to its resting-place.
As might be expected from their
minute size — few of them exceed-
ing a line in length, and some be-
ing no more than -sJtrth of an inch
— the nervous system in these Ani-
mals has not been made out very
distinctly. It appears certain,
however, that a pair of ganglia
always exists in the neighbourhood
of the head, and that from these a
little filament runs down each side of
the body. The head also possesses
from one to four eyes, usually indi-
■' ;s- '"t?- " "— . -»......».'.>.i>.^. j,gfg(j f,y their red colour; these,
A.wuhthe wheels expanded ; B, with ^^ ^^^^^'_ disappear in the seden-
tary forms ; although their young,
which are endowed with the powers
masticating apparatus; ^, 'salivary of locomotion, possess them,
glands; //, intestinal canal ; s, its The structure of the alimentary
dilated termination ; //, glandular canal is wonderfully cornplex, con-
apparatus surrounding it; i, young sidering the minute size of the
ones nearly complete ; i, eggs ; /, creature possessing it Within the
tail. mouth is a wide hollow, at the bot-
tom of which the entrance to the
gullet is seen ; this is armed with a singular apparatus of teeth, set
Fig. 2049. — Wheel Animalcules.
the wheels folded up and drawn in ;
(7, the head with the eye-spots ; ^,
the wheels ; c, water-siphon ; d,
In motion by muscular action, and ready to seize upon any particles
of food that may be carried into the mouth by the external vortex.
The wa^^tcr introduced is sometimes carried off by a minute canal,
situated close under the head ; in other cases it is allowed to find its
way out as it can. The teeth, in some Roti/cra, are in the form of
acute spines: such are prcdaccous Animals, and exhibit as much
ferocity, in their way, as can be shown by creatures infinitely their
superiors in size ; in others they constitute small horny plates fur-
nished with transverse ribs ; and these are usually vegetable feeders.
Close to this apparatus are a pair of glandular bodies, which,
apparently, discharge their secretions into the cesophagus at that
point ; these are regarded as salivary glands. From these the
intestinal canal extends through the body, inclosed in a thick
granular mass, till it nearly reaches the caudal extremity, at which
point the anal opening is usually situated.
The Rotjfera appear to be perfect self-impreg^nating hermaphro-
dites, and the ova in most of them appear to be developed within
the body of the parent, until the principal organs of the young
Animal are quite recognisable. Their powers of reproduction are
most extraordinary. Ehrenberg relates that in three d.ays the pro-
geny of a single specimen of Hydatina scnta, which he had iso-
lated, amounted to no less than twenty individuals ; a rate of increase
which in ten days would give upwards of a million of specimens
But wonderful as is the fecundity of these Animals, when placed in
favourable circumstances, not less so is their power of resisting the
action of drought, which might otherwise, by drying up the water of
their habitations, involve the whole or the greater part of their
species in destruction. It is found, however, that these little crea-
tures may be dried completely and repeatedly, until their bodies are
so brittle that the slightest touch would crush them, and that on the
return of moisture they will again spring into existence, unfold their
little wheels, and give rise to a fresh generation.
Sub-divisions.— The Rotifera form two orders, the SessiHa
and the Natantia, the names of which speak for themselves. In
the Sessile Rotifera the body is continued into a longish stalk,
which is attached, by its hinder extremity, to some aquatic plant or
other object. The rotatory organ, in these Animals, has generally
a disc-hke form, with the margin more or less notched. This order
includes two families, the Floscularida:, which have bent spiniform
teeth at the orifice of the oesophagus ; and the Megalotrockida; in
which that organ is armed with ribbed plates for the trituration of
the food. In the Nafatiiia, which, as its name implies, includes
the free-swimming species, the caudal extremity terminates either
ma sucker-hke organ, or in a small pair of forceps, by means of
which the Animals are enabled to fix themselves at pleasure so as
to set their rotatory organs in action. These are also divided into
two families, the Polytrocha, in which the rotatory organs take the
form of several lobes surrounding the anterior extremity of the body ■
and the Zygotrocha, y:hich possess only a pair of ciliated processes
placed on each side of the mouth. ^
774
THE TRUE ARTICULATA.
CHAPTER XLII.
THE ARTICULATA.— SUB-DIVISION II.— ARTHROPODA, OR TRUE ARTICULATA, INCLUDING LOBSTERS,
CRABS, SPIDERS, INSECTS, ETC.
E now come to the second sub-division
of the Ariicii/afa, in which the division
of the body into segments appears with
great distinctness. This single sub-
division contains a greater number of
species than all the rest of the Animal
.J Kingdom put together ; and as the
number of individuals of each species is
usually enormous, the part assigned to
them, in the economy of nature, is, in
spite of their generally insignificant
size, by no means an unimportant one.
They swarm in every situation, and in
every part of the earth. The plants and trees of every
region nourish myriads of Insects ; the waters are every-
where alive with them. Their existence and its effects
force themselves upon our notice in whatever direction we
turn ; vegetation is kept in check by their ravages ; our
own persons and the bodies of our domestic Animals are
not exempt from their attacks ; whilst, as if to make up for
any evils they may inflict upon our race, multitudes are
constantly at work in the removal of decaying matters,
which, if left to the natural progress of decomposition,
would contaminate the air with their pestilential effluvia.
Nor are they without some species that are of direct
service to mankind. Many species of Crustacea are reckoned
delicate articles of food, as the Lobster, Crab, Shrimp, eSrc. ; the
Silk-worm, the Honey-bee, and the Cochineal Insect, furnish us
with valuable products ; and many others contribute more or less to
the comfort or the luxury of mankind.
The principal general characteristic of these Animals, and that
which serves at once to distinguish them from those of the preceding
sub-division, consists in the division of the body and limbs into
numerous distinct rings or segments, movably articulated, or joined
together, and thus forming a sort of external skeleton, which not
only protects the internal soft parts, but, by giving firm points of
attachment to the muscles, enables their movements to be executed
with much greater rapidity and precision than those of the vermi-
form classes. In a few species (as the Myria-poda) these segments
(with the exception of those at the two extremities), like the indis-
tinct rings of the Annelida, are mere repetitions of one another,
each segment being of the same form, and bearing the same organs
as its neighbour ; but the complete articulation of the segments,
both of the body and limbs in these Animals, precludes all risk of
their being confounded with the members of the lower class. In the
majority of the Arthropoda, however, some of the segments are
always developed differently from the others, generally giving rise
to a division of the body into three principal regions, the head,
ihorax, and abdomen ; the appendages sometimes occurring along
the whole series of segments, at others being confined to particular
regions of the body.
As might be expected, from their increased capacity for motion
and enjoyment, the amount of intelligence possessed by these Ani-
mals is much greater than in any of the groups to which our atten-
tion has hitherto been directed ; and the nervous system, of course,
exhibits a corresponding advance. As a general rule, it may be
observed that, in proportion as the different segments of the body
resemble each other, the nen'ous system approaches the original
type ; but that it deviates more and more from the typical struc-
ture, in proportion as some of the segments preponderate over the rest.
The appendages of the segments forming the head are converted
into masticating organs ; and the number of these, of course, varies
with the number of segments which may be supposed to form that
region of the body. As these are merely metamorphosed limbs,
an'd, indeed, generally exhibit their relationship to the organs of
motion in their articulated structure, it is evident that, like the true
limbs, they will be placed in pairs, one on each side of the middle
line of the body ; hence their action is always horizontal, and the
opening of the mouth may be considered to be vertical. The head
is also usually furnished with one or more pairs of jointed organs,
called antennce, which evidently act as organs of sense, and pro-
bably have different functions in different groups. Their structure
often furnishes important characters, for the discrimination of the
minor groups, into which these Animals are divided. Except in a
single class (the Insecta), the segmentary appendages are developed
only on the ventral surface ; but in these other appendages they are
also articulated to the back, forming the wings.
Sub-divisions. — Numerous as these Animals are, they may be
divided into four classes, and these are generally very easily distin-
guishable. The first, the Crustacea (Fig. 2050), possess antennae,
Fig. 2050. — The Sandhopper,
Fig. 205 1. ■
and are furnished with jointed appendages on all the regions of
the body. Their respiration is aquatic. Some of them only ex-
hibit the distinguishing characteristics of the class in their earlier
stages. The second class, containing the Spiders {Arachnida,
Fig. 2051), is characterised by the absence of antenna, by the pos-
session of four pairs of limbs attached to the anterior portion of the
body, which consists of the head and thorax fused together. The
Fig, 2052.— The Stag Beetle.
third class, the Afyriapoda, contains air-breathing Animals furnished
with antennjB, with appendages on all the segments of the body ;
whilst the fourth, containing the innumerable hosts of Insects
{Insecta, Fig. 2052), is characterised by its aerial respiration ; by
the division of the body into three very distinct regions (of which the
middle one, the thorax, bears three pairs of jointed legs, and usually
two pairs of wings) ; and by the possession of a single pair of jointed
antennje.
Class v.— Crustacea.
General ChAI^ACTERS.— If this class included only the ordinary
well-known forms, such as the Crab and Lobster, and their allies,
there would be little difficulty in giving it an exact character, which
should apply to every member of which it is composed ; but many
of the lower forms cannot be said strictly to come under even the
brief definition given above ; although, in the earlier stages of their
development they agree so exactly with some of the most highly
organised Animals belonging to the class, that it is impossible not
to admit them into the same category. Our description of the class,
as a whole, must consequently be liable to many exceptions.
THE CRUSTACEOUS TRIBE.
77S
The form of the body in these Animals is excessively vanable ; it
is usually somewhat spindle-shaped, and divided into a series of
distinct rings, articulated together, and allowing of a considerable
amount of movement. These segments are sometimes of nearly
equal size, and furnished with nearly similar appendages through-
out. (See Fig. 2050, illustrating the Sandhopper.) Sometimes a
few of the segments acquire a greater degree of development than
the rest, and the organs of motion are confined to these ; whilst the
appendages of the other segments are reduced to a more or less
rudimentary condition ; and in the higher forms, the anterior seg-
ments become fused into a single mass, called the ccplialothorax,
as seen in the Spiny Lobster, which bears the mouth and organs of
motion. The skin is generally hardened by a calcareous secretion,
constituting a complete cutaneous skeleton, within which all the soft
parts of the body are inclosed ; the segments are united by a thin
membrane which gives flexibility to the whole armour. As the
Animal has no power of adding to the size of this shell to make
room for its increasing growth, it casts off its old coat at stated
periods, and secretes a new deposit of calcareous matter over its
entire surface.
The form of the articulated appendages varies exceedingly. The
first segment of the head, which is occasionally distinct from the rest,
is sometimes provided with a pair of movable stalks, on the summit of
which the eyes are situated ; the second and third segments bear
the antenna;, of which two pair are usually present. These organs
generally consist or a long tapering series of short joints, supported
upon two or three large articulations, similar to those of the limbs,
which enable them to move freely in every direction. The appen-
dages of the following segments are generally formed into masti-
cating organs. They often, however, gradually approach the true
limbs in their structure ; and the hindmost pair or two are gene-
rally denominated_/L'o/-yrtf<;'j by zoologists.
In the Common Cray-fish (Fig. 2053) six pairs of these appen-
dages are present, of which the three last are considered as foot-
jaws. These are followed by the legs, the true organs of motion,
which are also attached to the under surface of the thoracic seg-
ments, or of the cephalothorax in the crabs and their allies. The
number of these varies, of course, with the number of thoracic seg-
ments. In the Cray-fish and Lobster there are five pairs of those
Fig. 2053.— Cray-fish.
a and /;, antennte ; c, eyes ; d, organ of hearing ; e, external foot-jaws ; / first
pan- of thoracic members ; g, fifth pair of thoracic members : /(, abdominal
false legs ; i, tail-fin ; j, anus.
organs, the anterior pair being often developed into large pincers ;
and the true feet are often followed by a series of rudimentary ab-
dominal members, which sometimes serve to protect the ova, when
these are carried under the tail, and sometimes bear external
^^?,i J®' "^^ "leans of these limbs many of the Crustacea are
enabled to run with great swiftness ; whilst others have the ex-
tremities flattened so as to form fin-like organs. Many bury them-
selves with great rapidity in the sand, by the action of the feet, at
the approach of danger; and the species furnished with pincers,
make use of these often formidable weapons both to seize their prey
and to attack their enemies.
The nervous system of the Crustacea always consists of a series
of ganglia runnmg along the ventral surface of the body, united to
each other, and to a cephalic ganglion or brain, by a pair of nervous
filaments, and giving off nerves to tl-.c various organs in their neigh-
bourhood. The development of these ganglia, however, often varies
greatly in different segments ; for, although in the more uniformly
articulated forms, the ganglia arc nearly equal in size, those in
which the thoracic segments are amalgamated have the whole of
the ncrv-ous centres of these segments fused into a single mass,
from which nerves are given oflf in every direction. The cephalic
ganglion is always situated above the oesophagus, and furnishes
nerves to the organs of the senses. These are the eyes, the antennae,
and in many cases the organs of smell and hearing.
The eyes present very different degrees of development in the
different orders of Crustacea. The lower forms possess only simple
eyes, containing a single lens, surrounded by a mass of pigment,
and receiving a single nervous filament.
yp^ ^v !Many of the lower Crustacea possess only
'~''y V^~\_„o ""'^ °'^ these organs, which is then placed
' ^ ^-^ — -J in the middle of the head. In others, a
number of these eyes are brought together
at a single point ; but each eye is still
distinctly recognisable, furnished with its
own lens, surrounded by its pigment spot,
and receiving its own branch of the optic
nerve. In the highest Crustacea tlie visual
organs become true facetted compound eyes,
similar to those of Insects ; and these are
often supported upon a foot-stalk, which is
sometimes of considerable length.
The organs of hearing (which arc pro-
bably common to all the Crustacea, al-
though they have been investigated princi-
pally in the highest order) are situated close
to the base of the long external antennae.
In the Cray-fish they have the form of
a cylindrical hollow process, which is closed
internally by a thin membrane, or drum.
Behind this is a vesicle filled with iluid,
which receives the termination of a particular
nerve. The organs of smell, which have
been observed principally upon the Crabs,
are in form of cavities situated at the base
of the inner pair of antenna;, and lined with
Fig. 2054. — Mastic.-itor)' a mucous membrane. The external orifice
Apparatus, composed' of of these cavities is surrounded by fine
SIX pairs of appendages, bristles— no doubt to exclude injurious par-
a, mandibles ; b and c, first tides from the interior. The antenna; ap-
and second pairs of max- pear to be principally organs of touch ; in
illiB ; d ef, three pairs of many cases they are employed as natatory
foot-jaws, gradu.ally ap- organs.
preaching the form of The digestive canal, in the Crustacea,
the ordinary limbs. generally exhibits a high degree of develop-
ment. Itrunsfrom the mouth to the posterior
extremity of the body, and consists of a very short ccsophagus, open-
ing into a large stomach, which is often armed with rows of teeth ;
from this an intestine runs to the anal opening. The liver is gene-
rally of large size.
Fig. 2055. — Nervous system of the Crab {Maia).
ca, the upper part of the shell laid open; «, antennx ; y, eyes;c, -stomach;
c, cephalic ganglion ; no, optic nerves ; co, oesophageal collar ; ns, stomato-
gastric nerves ; C, thoracic ganglionic mass ; np, nerves of the legs ; na,
abdominal nerves.
The cut on the following page (Fig. 2057) represents the under sur-
face of the female Crab, with the tail extended ; a, b, c, d, e, are
sternal pieces ; f, g, li, i, talero-sternal pieces ; k, k, orifices /, /, /,
abdominal appendages or false feet. The detached figure a, repre-
sents one of the false feet removed.
The respiratory organs consist of branchiae of various forms,
sometimes attached to the abdominal members, sometimes inclosed
776
THE CRUSTACEOUS TRIBE.
within a cavity on each side of the cephalothorax, in and out of
which the water passes by two openings. Circulation is effected by
means of a regular system of vessels ; the heart consists of a single con-
Fig. 2056.
-Anatomy of a Crab ; the greater part of the carapace having
been removed.
/, portion of its lining membrane ; c, heart ; as, ophthalmic artery ; aa, ab-
dominal artery ; b, branchix in their natural position ; h' branchiae turned
back to show their vessels ; fl, lower portion of the shell ; /, appendage of
the foot-jaw ; e, stomach ; ?«, muscles of the stomach ; fo, liver.
tractile cavity, situated in the middle line of the back ; the arteries,
in the higher forms at least, are closed tubes ; but the venous blood
passes back through spaces left between the organs of the body,
Fig. 2057. — Under side of the Female Crab.
until it reaches peculiar cavities situated at the bases of the legs
(Fig. 2058), whence it passes into the branchia;, and thence, when
Fig. 2058. — Vertical section of a Crustacean, showing the course of the
blood.
e, heart ; s, venous smus ; fa, vessels conducting the venous Hood to the
gills ; 7v, vessels which collect the aerated blood from the capillaries of the
gills ; vd, branchiocardiac vessels ; /, carapace ; s/, sternum.
With the exception
aerated by contact with the water, through proper vessels to the
heart. . „ , „
of a single order, the Crustacea are all
unisexual Animals. Their reproduction al-
ways takes place by ova, which are gene-
rally attached to the tail of the female for
some time after exclusion. Indeed, in some
species, the eggs are hatched in this posi-
tion, and the young continue, for a certain
period, to shelter themselves beneath the
body of the mother. Their development
V» ^WUIVi*^ presents many curious phenomena. In
^ ^ailS7>^ some species, the young leave the egg in
very nearly the same form that they are
to retain through life ; whilst in others,
nearly allied to these, the young Animal,
at its first coming into the world, has a
form so totally distinct from that which it
is destined to assume, that nothing but
absolute observation could lead to a sus-
picion of its true parentage (Fig. 2059). So
different, in fact, is the appearance of the
young of many of the Crustacea from that
Fig. 2059. — Early form of of the mature Animals, that before the con-
Crab {Zoea). nection between them was discovered,
several species, and even genera, were
established upon these embryonic forms. It is singular that this
metamorphosis takes place amongst both the highest and the
lowest members of the Crustacea; and that some of the latter, in
which, in the mature state, most, if not all, the ordinary charac-
teristics of the class completely disappear, yet, in their earlier
stages of development, they exhibit the most perfect resemblance
to the most highly endowed of their relatives.
Sub-division of the Crustacea.
The number and extraordinary variety of the Crustaceous Animals
have presented many difficulties in respect to their arrangement in
sub-classes and orders. Naturalists have held various opinions on
the subject, and, consequently, have invented numerous systems in
the hope of solving the difficulty. A general idea of their charac-
ters, their functions, organs, &c., has been given at the commence-
ment of the present chapter, and from what has been there stated
some aid may be obtained in regard to their more detailed study.
In Latreille's arrangement the Crustacea primarily resolve them-
selves into two great sections, the Alalacostraca* (soft-shelled
Animals) and Entomostraca (shelled Insects). That of Milne
Edwards does not differ in material points from the simplified table
subjoined.
Malacostraca.
Eyes on peduncles, and movable.
Orders.
{ Brachyura — as Crabs.
Decapoda < Anomura — as Hermit Crabs, Birgus, &c.
( Macrura — as Lobsters.
Cf„„.,_„j, ( Unipeltata — as Squilla.
stomapoaa ^ Bipeltata— as Phyllosoma, Lucifer, &c.
Eyes sessile and immovable.
Amphipoda — as Gammarus, Talitrus, &c.
Lffimodipoda — as Cyamus, Leptomera, &c.
Isopoda — as Ligia, Limnoria, Canolira, Oniscus, Armadillo, &c.
In the arrangement which is adopted in the present work, there
will be seen five principal groups or sub-classes. Of these, the first,
the Cirrhopoda, is composed of Animals which were formerly
arranged among the Moltusca. When mature they are always
attached to submarine bodies. Their bodies are inclosed in a shell
composed of several calcareous plates, from an opening in which
they protrude a bundle of articulated Cirri.
The Entomostraca, forming the second sub-class, are generally
of small size, covered with a delicate skin, and usually protected by
a broad shield or a sort of bivalve shell. The branchia, when pre-
sent, are attached to the feet, which, with the antennae, are gene-
rally furnished with bristles, that render them efficient organs of
locomotion. Many of them, when full-grown, attach themselves, as
Parasites, to the bodies of other Aquatic Animals ; and these fre-
quently lose all resemblance to the other members of the class.
The Animals of the third sub-class, Xyphosura, are covered with a
hard calcareous carapace, and the tail forms a long, sword-shaped
spine. The mouth is furnished with no jaws, and the operation of
mastication is performed by the basal joints of the true feet. The
fourth sub-class, the Podophthalmata, is at once distinguished by
* Malacostraca, from Malahos, soft, Os/racon, a shell. The name, alluding
to the softness of the shell compared with that of a bivalve or univalve
mollusc, is not, it must be confessed, veiy happily chosen. The term
Entomostraca is derived from Entomos, an insect, and Ostracon. a shell.
BARNACLES.
Fig. 2060. — Group of Barnacles.
sessile species, wlnose curious little habitations may constantly be
met with upon the rocks of the sea-shore, and not unfrequently upon
many species of marine shells. The shell forms a short tube, usually
composed of six segments firmly united together. The lower part
of this tube is firmly fixed to the object on which the Balamis has
taken up its abode ; whilst the superior orifice is closed by a mov-
able roof, composed of from two to four valves, between which the
little tenant of this curious domicile can protrude his delicate cirri
in search of nourishment. In their young state the Balanidcs re-
semble the Entoniostraca.
As an example of this genus we select the Balamis -psitiacus
{Lepas psittacus, Molma) as an example (Fig. 2061).' This gigan-
tic species IS a native of various parts of the coasts of South America
and 1$ described by Capt. Phillip Parker King, R.N., in his account
the pedunculated eyes, and amalgamated thoracic segments of the
Animals composing it ; whilst those of the fifth, the Edriophflial-
mafa, on the contrary, have the eyes sessile, and the thoracic
segments distinct. These sub-classes are again divided into orders,
to which we must advert as briefly as possible.
Sub-class and Order I.— Cirrhopoda.
General Characters. — The first sub-class includes only a
single order. They are all Marine Animals, which, when mature,
attach themselves to rocks, or other submarine objects ; the Com-
mon Barnacle, perhaps the best known example of the order,
generally selecting floating objects for this purpose, and frequently
covering the bottoms of ships to such an extent as even to impede
their progress through the water. The bodies of these Animals are
soft, and inclosed in a case composed of several calcareous plates ;
they formed part of the group of multivalve shells of the older con-
chologists. The limbs are converted into a tuft of jointed cirri,
which can be protruded through an opening in the sort of mantle
which lines the interior of the shell. The cirri are twelve in number,
and beset with bristles. When the Animal is alive they may be seen
in continual motion, exerted and retracted every moment in search
of prey. The intestinal canal is complete, furnished with a mouth
and an anal opening ; and the nervous system exhibits the usual
series of ganglia, which we have seen to be characteristic of the
Articulate type. The head is marked only by the position of the
mouth, which is armed with a pair of jaws ; but all traces of any of
the organs, that we are accustomed to see at this part of the body,
have completely disappeared.
In their very earliest days, however, these creatures are by no
means so ill provided ; they are then furnished with eyes, antennae,
and limbs, and are as active as any of the minute denizens of the
sea. It is only after a certain period of wandering, that they fix
upon a place of rest — fix themselves, and become respectable house-
holders. All these Animals are hermaphrodites ; but according to
the researches of Mr. Darwin, active individuals, which he calls
compleme7itary tnales, are produced at certain periods, to assist in
the impregnation of the ova of the hermaphrodite individuals.
Sue-divisions.— The Cirrhopoda are divided into two families.
In the first, the LepadidcB, or Barnacles (Fig. 2060), the Animals
are attached to their resting-place by a flexible stalk, which pos-
sesses great contractile power. The shell is usually composed of
two triangular pieces on each side, and is closed by another elong-
ated piece at the back, so that the whole consists of five pieces.
The second family, the Balanidcs, or Sea Acorns, includes the
777
of the Molluscs, &c,, collected by the officers of H.M.S. Advent'-.-e
and Beagle, employed between the years 1826 and iSjoin surveying
the south coast of America. " This cirrhipod," he says, " which at
Concepcion de Chile is frequently of a larger size than five inches
and a half long, and three inches and a half in diameter, fo'.ns a
very common and highly esteemed food of the natives, by v ,iom it
IS called Pico, from the accuminated process of the two posterior
valves. The anterior and posterior opercular valves when in con-
tact present some resemblance to a parrot's beak, whence Molina's
name {Psitiacus). It is also found very abundantly at Valdivia and
at Calbuco, near the north of the island of Cliiloe. It occurs in
Fig. 2061. — The Balayius psitiacus,
large bunches, and presents something of a cactus-like appearance.
The parentis covered by its progeny, so that large bunches are found
composed of from fifty to a hundred individuals, each of which be-
comes in its turn the foundation of another colony. One specimen,
in the possession of my friend, W. J. Broderip, Esq., consists of a
numerous group based on two large individuals. They were col-
lected by being chopped off with a hatchet. At Concepcion, where
they were found of a larger size than to the southward, they are
principally procured at the island of Quiriquina, which lies across
the entrance of the bay, whence they are exported in large quanti-
ties to Valparaiso and Santiago de Chile, where they are considered
as a great delicacy, and, indeed, with some justice, for the flesh
equals in delicacy and richness that of the crab, which, when boiled
and eaten cold, it very much resembles."
Referring to Fig. 2061, a, represents the Balamis psitiacus, about
one-fourth of the natural size ; b, the opercular valves of the natural
size ; the spiked terminations of the posterior valves are very decided.
It is from the fissure between the two anterior valves, and which is
capable of being opened by the action of certain muscles, that the
plumose cirri emerge, and the spines seem as if intended to protect
them. A fine group of the shells of this species, clustered one upon
another, forms a most picturesque object.
Sub-class II.— Entomostraca.
General Characters.— The Entomostraca, in general, present
the characters of the class of which they form a part, much more
distinctly than the Cirrhopoda, although many of them, in their
mature or reproductive state, diverge immensely from the typical
form. They are, especially in their earlier stages, provided with
distinct articulated limbs, and antennaj, which are usually furnished
with bristles, and employed as natatory organs.
Or:>er II.— Parasita.
General Characters.— This order is composed of numerous
small Animals, which, in their young state, are furnished with dis-
tinct jointed limbs, antennse and eyes— organs which either disap-
778
PARASITIC CRUSTACEA.
pear completely, or become greatly modified as the Animal ap-
proaches maturity, when it attaches itself to Fishes or other Aquatic
Animals, and passes the remainder of its existence as a Parasite.
In their mature state, the Parasita often present the most extra-
ordinary forms ; and, in their appearance and habits, they bear so
little resemblance to the other Crustacea, that it was not until the
history of their development was investigated, that their intimate
connection witli that class of Articulate Animals was ascertained.
They are very common on the bodies of Fishes, generally attacking
the branchije, but not unfrequently attaching themselves to the soft
skin under the fins, or to the eyes, to the great inconvenience of
their unfortunate victim.
Sub-divisions. — These Animals form several families, to some
of which we shall briefly refer. The family LerJiceidcB exhibits the
greatest amount of degradation in its mature state. The Animals
composing it consist of a more or less elongated sac-like body, bear-
ing, at its anterior extremity, a proboscis, through which they suck
the juices of their victim ; and a pair of modified legs, by which
they maintain their position upon its surface. They also frequently
possess a pair of foot-jaws, which, however, are no longer connected
with the mouth, but serve as additional prehensile organs. The
proboscis is usually buried in the substance of the unfortunate host,
whose delicate vessels are wounded by a pair of pointed organs
which it contains. The young of the LerncBidce are exactly like
those of the next order oi £nto?nostraca, the Copej)oda.
In the DichelestidcB the body is more distinctly annulated, and
the anterior segment bears four antenna:, of which one pair is slen-
der and thread-like ; whilst the others are stout, and furnished with
a claw-like extremity, serving as a prehensile organ. In the
Caligida: the structure is much more complicated ; the body is
divided into two parts, of which the anterior, that is by far the
largest, and is covered by an oval carapace, bears two pairs of
antenna;, a sucker, three pairs of foot-jaws, and four pairs of tho-
racic legs — three formed for swimming, and one for walking. The
abdomen consists of a small lobe at the apex of the second segment.
It bears a pair of small fin-like appendages ; and from each side of
its base springs a long tube, which apparently ser\'es as an ovisac.
In the Argtt/ulcs, one species of which, the Argulus foliaceus, is
very common upon various Fresh-water Fishes, the body is of much
the same general form as in the Caligida; and the anterior seg-
ment is in like manner covered by a large carapace. The second
pair of foot-jaws is here converted into a pair of curious sucking
discs, by which the creature adheres to any object. Between these
the jointed rostrum takes its rise. The four pair of thoracic legs
are fringed with bristles, and converted into powerful natatory
organs, by means of which the Argulus swims about with great
rapidity. Unlike the other Parasites, it does not remain constantly
attached to its victim, but only adheres to it while actually engaged
in sucking. It possesses no ovisacs, and the eggs are deposited
upon aquatic plants.
Order III.— Copepoda.
These Animals present the closest affinity with those of the pre-
ceding order, particularly in their earlier stages. They are minute
Animals, with the body divided into distinct segments, of which the
anterior (forming the cephalothorax) bears two pairs of antenna:,
one or two eyes, the mouth, with its jaws, and two pairs of foot-jaws.
The five following segments bear a similar number of pairs of feet,
furnished with bristles, and adapted for swimming ; and the re-
mainder, constituting the abdomen, form a sort of jointed tail,
terminated by a tuft of bristles. They appear to possess no distinct
respiratory organs ; and the ova
are carried in sac-like organs
attached to the abdomen of the
mother. These Animals occur in
countless swarms in all waters,
whether salt or fresh ; and, minute
as they are, one species is said to
constitute the principal food of
the Antartic Whale.
The best known form is the
genus Cyclo:ps (see Fig. 2062,
specimens of which may be found in every stagnant pond. It is the
type of the family, Cyclopida, and characterised by the possession
of a single eye. In the Celochilidcs there are two of these or"-ans.
Order IV.— Ostracoda.
General Characters.— In this order, composed of Animals
generally of very minute size, the body, which strongly resembles
that of the Copepoda, is always inclosed in a little bivalve shell, the
feet and antenna being protruded between the lower edo-es of the
valves. These little shells so closely resemble those of minute
Bivalve Mollusca, that those of some of the larger species have
actually been described by conchologists as the coverino-s of An'-
mals belonging to that class. The antenna; are often curiouslv
Fig. 2062. — The Cyclops.
branched ; and the hinder extremity is usually produced into a sort
of tail, which is seen in constant action wlien the Animal is in
motion.
Sub-divisions. — This order forms two families— the Cy-pridm, in
which the body is entirely inclosed within the shell, of which the
genus Cypris (Fig. 2063) is an example ; and the DaphniadcB, in
Fig. 2063. — The Cypris vidua,
magnified.
Fig. 2064. — The Polyphemus
stagnorum.
which the head is protruded beyond the shell. In the Polyphemus
(Fig. 2064), belonging to this group, the head, which is large, is
almost entirely occupied by an enormous eye, giving the creature a
most singular appearance.
Order V.— Phyllopoda.
General Characters. — In this order we meet with Animals
generally of larger size than those comprised in the preceding
groups. They consist of a considerable number of segments, fur-
nished with foliaceous feet, serving both as natatory and respiratory
organs. Some of them are covered by a carapace or a bivalve shell,
whilst others are destitute of this protection. The head is usually
quite distinct from the following segment, and bears two large eyes
and two pairs of antenna, which are often of very singular forms.
The mouth is furnished with jaws.
Sub-divisions. — This order is divided into two families. In the
first, the ApodidcB, the body is protected by a carapace, which often
takes the form of a bivalve shell. The Animals are frequently of
considerable size ; and the number of feet in the typical genus
Apus, is as great as sixty pairs. A singular circumstance connec-
ted with this Animal, is that it sometimes makes its appearance in
great numbers in ponds that have
been dry for some time, as soon
as they are filled up by heavy rains. ^— -"ifu/iij^ii
In the genus Apus the cara-
pace is one piece, completely in-
closing all the anterior portion of Fig. 2065. — The Branchipus sia^alis.
the Animal. In the Limnadice,
also belonging to this family, it forms a sort of bivalve shell.
The second family includes the naked species, or those which are
not provided with a carapace. They are called Pranchipodidcs,
from the name of the typical genus, Branchipus (Fig. 2065), an
Animal which is often found, after heavy rains, in cart-ruts and
other small pools. Another species, the Artemia salina (Fig.
2066), inhabits a still more curious
situation ; namely, the salt pans
at Lymington, where it is usually
found in those pans in which the
evaporation of the water has pro-
ceeded to a considerable extent.
This is also, probably, the pro-
per position for a singular order
of Fossil Crustacea, the ■well-
known Trilobites {Trilobila), of
which vast numbers occur in some
of the earlier strata of the earth's
crust. Their general form is well
shown in the annexed figure of
Calymetie blumenbachii ; they
possessed well-formed, compound,
facetted eyes, which are frequently well preserved in the fossil state.
The body is usually divided into three regions, of which the first and
last are commonly in the form of semicircular
plates; whilst the middle portion exhibits distinct
segmentation, and, by its flexibility, enabled the
Animal to double itself up in the manner of the
Common Woodlouse. These Animals are now
quite extinct, although during the period of the
deposition of those ancient strata in which their
remains are found, they were almost the only
representatives of the class Crustacea.
Sub-division III.— Xyphosura.
This sub-division includes only a single order.
This order, Xyplwsura, consists only of a sin-
gle genus, the Limuli, or Kiiig-Crabs, which.
Fig. 206^. —Caly- from the locality inhabited by the commonest
\ mcne blumenbachii. species, are frequently termed Molluca Crabs.
Fig.
2066. — The Artemia salina,
different stages of growth.
VARIOUS SPECIES OF CRUSTACEA.
"9
They are amongst the largest of Crustaceous Animals, sometimes
measuring as much as two feet in length.
The body of these Animals is composed of two divisions — an
anterior, crescent-shaped piece (Fig. 2068), or carapace, inclosing
the ccplialuthora.\ with* its organs ; and a posterior, somewhat
hexagonal piece, formed by the coalescence
of the abdominal segments. From the pos-
terior extremity of tliis second division of
the body, projects a long, spine-like tail,
which exhibits no trace of segmentation.
(See Fig. 2068.) The upper surface of the
body is very convex ; the lower surface, on
the contrary, is very concave in the middle,
forming a hollow, in which the feet are
lodged.
The upper surface of the carapace is
marked by three ridges ; the middle termi-
nates anteriorly in a small tubercle, on
each side of which is a minute simple eye;
but the creature is also furnished with true
compound facetted eyes, placed one on
each side, by the outside of the two lateral
ridges. Three sides of the abdominal
' plate are confin^ within the posterior
margin of the carapace ; of the others, two
are notched, and furnished with movable
plumose spines, and the caudal spine is
capable of motion in every direction. The
mouth, which is situated near the middle
of the lower surface, is completely destitute of true jaws; but the
basal joints of the five pairs of legs {b, Fig. 2069), which are attached
close to the buccal aperture, are armed with horny spines, forming
very efficient organs of mastication ; whilst their extremities, being
converted into prehensile claws, are employed in the conveyance of
food to the mouth. Immediately in front of the mouth is placed
a pair of short-jointed antenna; {e, e. Fig. 2069), which also bear a
small pair of forceps at their extremity. The concavity of the ab-
dominal plate is occupied by six pairs of fin-shaped abdominal feet
{ab. Fig. 2069), of which five pairs are furnished with branchire ;
whilst the first pair, which is destitute of those organs, forms a sort
of cover for the rest. The anal opening is situated close to the base
of tlie caudal spine.
Fig. 2o5S. — The Limulus.
»6-
Fig. 2069. — Under surface of the Limulus.
These singular Animals, which appear to be most nearly allied
to the Pliyllopodous Eiitornostraca — but which also in many points,
especially in the structure of their eyes, approach the True Crabs —
are found in a very limited area ; they occur only on the shores of
Tropical Asia ; the Asiatic Islands, and on the western coasts of
Tropical America. The young closely resemble their parents, ex-
cept that, at their first escape from the ^^^i they possess only two
pairs of branchial feet, and are quite destitute of a tail.
Sub-class IV.— Edriophthalmata.
General Characters.— The Animals belonging to this sub-
class have the head distinct from the thoracic segments, which are
also separate, and never amalgamated into a single mass (the so-
called cephalothorax), which occurs so generally in the other
Crustacea. The head always bears a pair of eyes, which are never
pedunculated ■ they usually consist of a number of simple eyes
crowded together into one spot, although some species possess
regular compound eyes. The mouth is furnislicd with jaws, and
with a single pair of foot-jaws ; and these arc usually followed by
seven pairs of legs, to which the branchial organs arc attached.
Sub-divisions.— The Eilriophthalmata form three orders,
characterised principally by the structure of the feet and abdomen.
In the first, the Lcemodipoda, the abdomen is rudimentary, or in the
form of a minute tubercle without appendages ; in the Ainpiiipuda,
the abdomen is well developed, and furnished with limbs, but the
branchial organs are confined to the thor.icic legs ; whilst in the
Isopoda the abdominal legs appear to be the organs of respiration.
Order LiEMODiroDA.
General Characters. — These Animals are at once distinguish-
able by their rudimentary abdomen, which usually forms a very
inconspicuous part of their bodies. The head is small, furnished
with four antenna;, and usually bears the first pair of legs ; the
mouth is armed with well-developed jaws, and with a pair of foot-
jaws bearing long palpi. Of the seven pairs of legs usually present,
two are sometimes wanting — their places being taken by small
tubercles or vesicles connected with the process of respiration ; this
change usually takes place on the third and fourth segments, and
similar vesicles also occur on the second and third. The legs of
the first and second pairs are terminated by a raptorial grasping
organ, similar to that of the well-known Mantis, or Praying Insect ;
the others are usually armed with sharp movable hooks. The ova
are received into a sort of pouch, formed of several leaves, which
are attached to the footless segments.
This little curious order includes only two families. The Cyamidce,
or Whale-lice, which infest the different species of Cetaceous
Mammalta, forms the first. In the second family, the Caprellidce,
all the proportions of the body are reversed ; instead of being broad
and flat, it is long, slender, and nearly cylindrical, and the limbs
undergo a corresponding extension in the same direction. The
antennae are frequently of considerable length ; and the two first
pairs of feet exhibit a striking resemblance to those of the Mantis.
One genus has all the segments furnislied with legs ; while in
another genus the third and fourth bear small vesicular organs in place
of limbs.
Order Amphipoda.
General Characters. — This order also consists of Animals
mostly of small size, none of them exceeding two inches in length.
They usually live free in the water or burrow in sand ; a few species
arc parasitic on Fishes. The head is completely separated from
the first thoracic segments, and usually bears four antenna;, which
are sometimes of considerable length. The mouth is furnished with
jaws and. a pair of foot-jaws. The thorax consists of six or seven
segments, each bearing a pair of legs, which are usually furnished
with leaf-like branchial appendages, at their bases. In the females
of some species, the legs also bear peculiar appendages, which
serve to keep the eggs under the body. The abdomen is well de-
veloped, and furnished with limbs of various forms, sometimes
adapted for swimming, sometimes for leaping — a movement in
which some of the ^;;////('^orf'a display great agility in swimming.
This order also includes two families : the Hypei-ide; and the Gam-
marida. The first is characterised principally by the small size of
the foot-jaws, which are not furnished with palpi or similar organs.
The Gammaridce are characterised by the large size of the foot-
jaws, which cover the whole mouth. The Common Talitriis locttsta,
or Sand-hopper, which may be met with in thousands upon the sands
of our shores, is a well-known example of this family. Another
species, Gammarus -piclex is found commonly in fresh water, and is
scarcely inferior to its marine relative in agility.
The Coryphium longico7-iie, remarkable for its long antenna:, is
not less so for its singular habits. It is found at Rochelle, where it
burrows in the sand, and wages constant war with all other marine
creatures of moderate size, that come in its way.
Order Isopoda.
Gener.\l Characters. — This order includes the greater part of
the Edrioplithalinata, and the Animals composing it exhibit a
great variety of form and structure. The body is sometimes of an
oval, sometimes of an elongated form, convex above, and flat
beneath ; the head (Fig. 2070, c) is small, distinctly separated from
the first thoracic segment, and bears a pair of round eyes, usually
formed of a collection of simple eyes, but sometimes truly compound.
The antenna; are often of considerable length, and the jaws are well
developed. The thorax consists of seven segments [t — f^), each of
which bears a pair of feet (p — pp) ; these are usually similar in
form, nearly equal in size, and furnished, in the female, with basal
plates for the protection of the eggs. They never bear branchial
plates as in the preceding orders. The abdomen ("'') is well-formed,
and consists of six segments, which are often, however, more or less
780'
THE STALK-EYED CRUSTACEA
Fig. 2070.— The Wood-
louse (Onisais),
amalgamated together. The abdominal legs are furnished with a
pair of large oval plates, of which the inner is of a soft consistence,
and acts as a branchial organ ; the sixth pair, however, usually forms
a sort of cover, which can be folded over the others for their pro-
tection. In the air-breathing species, of which the common Wood-
louse (Fig. 2070) is an e.xample, the branchial plates of the hinder
abdominal legs are quite rudimentary, whilst those of the anterior
are well developed.
Sub-divisions. — This order is remarkable, from its presenting,
in its lowest forms, Animals as thoroughly
Parasitic in their habits as the Crustacea
of the Entomostracous order Parasita ;
whilst, at the opposite extremity of the scale,
the air-breathing Isnpoda appear to make
a very close approach to the Myrtapoda.
Mr. Milne Edwards has divided the Isopoda
into three sections, denominated from their
habits. Cursorial, Natatorial, and Seden-
tary Isopods. The latter comprises those
species which are fitted for a strictly par-
asitic existence, being furnished only with
clinging feet. We include only a single
family in this section, the BopyridcB which
live in the branchial cavity of Shrimps. The
females of these animals are scarcely more
recognisable, as Crustaceans, than the Cirrhopodous Barnacles, or
Acorn shells. They are of an irregularly oval form, furnished with
fourteen feet, but quite destitute of eyes.
The Natatorial Isopoda have the last pair of abdominal feet ter-
minated by horizontal plates, which form, with the extremity of the
abdomen, a regular caudal fin. This section includes two families.
Of these, the Cymothoidce are parasitic upon Fishes, apparently
having an especial predilection for their tails. They have small
heads, with short antennse ; and the legs are short, and terminated
by hooks. In the second family, the Sphcsromidcs, the body is
usually oval, and very convex, sometimes nearly hemispherical ; the
head is large, with four longish antennae, and the feet are slender,
and fitted only for walking. The five first abdominal segments are
fused together ; but the last is free and of large size, forming, with
the lateral fins, a powerful natatorial organ. These animals all
live in the sea, especially on rocky coasts. Like the Wood-lice,
they are able to roll themselves up into a ball.
The Cursorial, or walking Isopods, are distinguished from the
preceding by the absence of the fin-like expansion of the posterior
extremity of the body. The first family, the Idotheidm is distin-
guished by the development of the posterior abdominal feet into a
pair of flat appendages, which can be made to cover the branchifer-
ous feet completely. These animals all live in the sea ; they are of
an elongated form, and the outer antenna are usually of great
length. The second family, the AsellidcB, resembles the preceding
in many respects, but the appendages of the last abdominal seg-
ment are styliform. One species of this family, the Liinnoria tere-
bra?is, a little creature about the sixth of an inch in length, is ex-
ceedingly destructive to wood-work immersed in the sea. It bores
into timber in every direction, apparently for the purpose of feeding
upon it, and has often produced great alarm by its ravages. Some
species live in fresh water.
The last ramily, the OniscidcE, including the well-known Oniscus,
or Wood-louse (Fig. 2070), and many similar Animals, is charac-
terised by the adaptation of its members to a terrestrial existence.
The outer antennae alone are visible, the inner pair being usually
very minute. The body is generally oval, with the rings very dis-
tinct ; and the legs are formed exclusively for walking. Nearly all
these Animals live on land, in damp places, under stones, dead
leaves, and moss ; some of them are not uncommon in cellars.
When alarmed, they roll themselves up into a ball presenting
nothing but the smooth convex surface of their scaly armour to their
enemy.
Sub-class V.— Podophthalmalmata.
General Characters. — The Animals forming this sub-class
are distinguished by many peculiarities from those of the preceding
sections, and undoubtedly present the characteristics of their class
in the greatest perfection. They are easily recognised by the posi-
tion of the compound eyes at the extremity of a pair of movable
stalks (Fig. 2071 jv), which are often of considerable length; the
head and thorax are generally amalgamated into a single piece,
called the cephalothorax, which bears the antennae, the eyes, the
mouth, with its jaws, and the feet (Fig. 20-ji,p) ; of the latter organs
five pairs are usually present, besides one or more pairs of foot-jaws.
The remaining segments are generally quite distinct, forming a
jointed abdomen, which is frequently terminated by a fan-like caudal
fin («). The abdominal legs are sometimes organised for swimming ;
but rarely, as some members of the preceding sub-class, bear respi-
ratory appendages, the branchiae being usually inclosed within a
cavity on each side of the cephalothorax, as already described.
SUB.mvi^lom.-ThePodophlhalmala, or Stalk-eyed Crustacea
may be readily divided into two orders, characterised by the structure
of their respiratory apparatus. In the first, the Slomapoda, the
Fig. 2071.— The Prawn.
as, antennre of the first pair; m, antennae of the second pair ; /, laminar ap-
pendage covering its base ; r, rostrum, or frontal prolongation of the cara-
pace ; y, eyes ; pm, external foot-jaw ; /*, first thoracic member ; /+,
second thoracic member ; fp, false legs, or swimming members of the ab-
domen ; «, tail-ho,
branchiae, when visible, hang freely from the abdomen as filiform
organs, at the base of the abdominal feet ; whilst in second, the
Dccapoda, they are always inclosed in cavities of the cephalothorax.
Order Stomapoda.
General Characters. — This order is composed of some singular
Animals, which appear to have relations with all the other groups of
Crustacea, and, of course, exhibit a corresponding diversity of struc-
ture amongst themselves. The thoracic segments are sometimes
completely covered by the carapace ; whilst, in other forms, the
carapace only covers one or two segments. The segment, bearing
the eyes and antennae, is always distinct. The mouth is furnished
with jaws, and usually with a single pair of foot-jaws ; these are
followed by seven or eight pairs of true feet, of which the anterior
J>t P9
Fig. 2072.— The Squilla.
y, eyes ; a, antennse ; p\, first pair of legs ; /2, second pair of legs ; /3, three
last pairs of thoracic legs ; pa, abdominal pro-legs ; b, gills ; g, tin-like
members.
are often converted into prehensile organs, whilst the posterior are
usually organised for swimming. The prehensile feet are never ter-
minated by nipping claws, like those of the Lobster, The abdominal
feet are usually leaf-like organs ; they bear, attached to their bases,
tufts of branched filaments, which act as respiratory organs ; these,
however, are sometimes altogether wanting, and are very rarely
attached to the thoracic legs (Fig. 2072).
Sub-divisions.— The Stomapoda form three families. The
PhyllosomidcB zxf^ Kxi\m2Xs of an extraordinarily flattened form, with
the shell thin and transparent ; the body is apparently divided into
two parts, a longish, or oval cephalothorax bearing the eyes, which
are supported upon long slender stalks, the short antenna , and the
mouth ; and a second piece, composed of the thoracic segments,
which bears seven or eight pairs of long slender feet on its margins
Fig. 2073 represents the Phylloso?n<B commune, which is a native of
the seas of Africa and India.
In the family of the Squillidcs the body is elongated, and bears a
resemblance to the Mantis. Fig. 2074 represents the Squilla
7i!antis, which is frequently called the Sea Mantis.
Some of them attain the lengjth of a foot or more ; but their average
size is about three or four inches. The eyes are mounted on short
foot-stalks. The antenna are of moderate length, and the outer
pair have an oval plate at the base. The carapace is small, and
leaves three segments of thn thorix uncovered 1 *hcse bear three
THE LONG-TAILED CRUSTACEA.
?(Jr
pairs of swimming feet. The mouth is furnished with distinct jaws,
and with five pairs of large foot-jaws. The second pair, especially,
are of extraordinary size, forming large raptorial organs ; whilst the
others are furnished with a large vesicular joint, against which the
teiminal claw can be applied in the same manner as the last joint of
Fig. 2073. — The Phyllosoma commune.
the anterior pair. All these feet are so arranged that their extremi-
ties can be easily brought in contact with the mouth, so as to hold
the prey in a convenient position for the action of the jaws. The
abdomen is furnished with six pairs of feet, of which the last pair are
formed into fin-like organs, which, with the extremity of the powerful
Fig. 2074.— The Squilla or Sea Mantis.
abdomen, constitute an excellent natatory organ. The other ab-
dominal feet bear the branchiae, which consist of bundles of branched
or plumose filamentous organs.
The third family, Alysidcs, lead to the next order. To this group
be ongs the genus Mysis, containing the Opossum Shrimps, so
called from having a pouch for the reception of the eggs and young
analogous to that of the Marsupial Quadrupeds. This pouch is
formed by a flabelliform appendage or scale, of considerable size in
the females, and attached to the base of the two last pairs of thoracic
feet ; these appendages are bent under the sternum, and, overlapping
each other, constitute a receptacle for the eggs, and also of the
young during the early part of their life. According to Mr. Thomp-
son, the eggs, enveloped in a gelatinous fluid, when received into
the pcuch are considerablv more advanced than those of Shrimps
Crabs, &c., but by no means so numerous, a circumstance more
than compensated by the rapidity with which one brood succeeds
another durmg the whole of the spring and summer months. The
number of broods produced by one individual, as well as the time
occupied m their evolution, have not been determined; but the
changes which the embryo undergoes in configuration are sufficiently
obvious. '
Fig. 2075.— The Mysis vulgaris.
The Opossum Shrimps abound in the Northern seas ; the Arctic
ocean teams with myriads forming, not troops, but vast clouds,
spreading over leagues of water, and affording sufl3cient and most
nutritive food to the Whale, and to the prodigious shoals of Salmon
which visit the shores of Boothia and the mouths of rivers, in July
and August, and upon which the inhabitants of that dreary region
depend in a great measure for their store of winter provisions.
IDunng summer the Opossum Shrimps absolutely crowd the mouths
of the rivers, and there their destroyers revel in a perpetual feast.
Fig. 2075 represents the Mysis vulgaris, magnified. This species
is common on the Irish coast, where in some parts it is very abun-
dant, associated myriads forming a wide belt along the margin of
the water. Like the Shrimp, these Crustaceans swim in a horizontal
manner, and when pursued by Fish, often spring out to a consider-
able height above the surface.
Order Decapoda.
The general characteristics of the Animals of this order have been
already so fully described, that we need only say here, that it in-
cludes all those stalk-eyed Crustacea, in which the whole of the
thoracic segments are united with those of the head into a single mass
(the cephalothorax), incased in a common shell, with no traces of
segmentary division (the carapace), and which have the branchial
organs inclosed within a cavity on each side of the cephalothorax,
Ihe true thoracic legs are almost always ten in number ; whence
the narne of the order. It includes an immense number of species,
generally of considerable size, when compared with the other Crus-
tacea ; and these vary so greatly in their form as to have given rise
to the establishment of three distinct sub-orders, characterised
principally by the degree of development of the abdominal region.
Sub-order I.— Macrura.
General Characters.— In this, including the Long-tailed
Decapod Crustacea, the abdomen is largely developed, generally
longer than the cephalothorax, capable of being extended backwards,
and furnished at the extremity with a fan-shaped caudal fin, which
is of great service to the animal in the operation of swimming.
The first five segments of the abdomen are furnished with laminar or
cylindrical legs, to which the ova are attached by an adhesive
matter after expulsion from the ovaries. The two last segments with
782
THE SHRIMPS AND LOBSTERS.
broad plates, with a similar plate at the extremity of the last seg-
ment, form the live-fold tail-tin. The antenna; — the outer pair espe-
cially — are usually of considerable size, sometimes even exceeding
the body in length ; and the feet are often terminated by a pair of
nipping claws, of which those of the anterior pair are sometimes of
great size and power. The Macrura undergo but little change in
their progress to maturity ; the young, on first escaping from the
(igg, usually presenting a very close resemblance to their parents.
Fig. 2077. — The Common Shrimp.
Sub-divisions. — The CrangonidcB, including the well-known
Shrimps and Prawns (Fig. 2077 ), form the first family of the
Macttra. They are distinguished by the possession of a large oval
or triangular appendage which covers the base of the first joint of
the outer antennpe. In their general appearance they all present a
considerable resemblance to the Common Shrimp, which is too well
known to need description. They all inhabit salt water, and gene-
rally occur in numbers together, on sandy coasts ; and in spite of
their small size, they are everywhere in great request as articles of
food, a, represents one of the claws of the Shrimp.
The second family, the Astacidcs, embraces the Lobster and Cray-
fish, or Craw-fish. Tfie genus ^j/'tfCWJ', contains the Common Lobster,
Asfacus mar inns, and the River Cray-fish, Astacus fluviatilis, &c.
We shall not attempt to enter into a detailed account of the form
and structure of this well known species, so celebrated for its ex-
cellence as an article of diet, and for the change of colour it under-
goes in boiling. This change, it may be remembered, served
Butler in his " Hudibras" for one of his humorous similes ; —
"Now, like a lobster boiled, the morn
From black to red began to turn."
It is owing to the action of water at 2128 Fahr. upon the bluish-
black pigment secreted by the corium, and diffused through the
substance of the tegumentary skeleton or armour, which it also
secretes. Alcohol, ether, and some acids also produce the same
effect.
The Lobster is found in abundance in clear water, among sub-
merged rocks, along various parts of our coasts, and is captured
nearly in the same manner as the Crab. It is not only from our own
shores that the markets are supplied with this delicacy ; thousands
are brought over from Norway, in a living state. Great numbers
are also caught around Scotland. The consumption of Lobsters in
England is almost incalculable ; but the vast destruction made is
counterbalanced by an according increase. By a wise provision the
maintenance of the species is fully secured, so great is its
fecundity. Dr. Basten says that he counted 12,444 eggs under the
tail of one female lobster ; and that this number was not the total
amount.
One of the best narratives extant of the habits of the lobster is to
be found in a letter from Mr Travis, of Scarborough, to Mr. Pennant.
We select from it the following extracts : — •
" We have vast numbers of fine lobsters on the rocks near our
coast. The large ones are in general in their best season from the
middle of October till the beginning of May. Many of the small
ones, and some few of the larger sorts, are good all the summer. If
they be four inches and a half long, or upwards, from the tip of the
head to the end of the back shell, they are called sizeable lobsters.
If only four inches they are esteemed half-size, and when sold, two
of them are reckoned for one of size. If they be under four inches,
they are called pawks, and are not saleable to the carriers, though
in reality they are, in the summer months, superior to the large ones
in goodness. The pincers of one of the lobster's large claws are
furnished with knobs, and those of the other claw are always serrated.
With the former it keeps firm hold of the stalks of submarine plants,
and with the latter it cuts and minces its food very dexterously. The
knobbed, or numb claw, as the fishermen call it, is sometimes on the
right and sometimes on the left, indifferently. It is more dangerous
to be seized by them with the cutting claw than the other; but, in
Fig. 2078. — The Common Lobster.
either case, the quickest way to get disengaged from the creature is
to pluck off its claw. It seems peculiar to the lobster and crab,
when their claws are pulled off, that they will grow again, but never
so large as at first.
" The female, or hen lobster, does not cast her shell the same year
that she deposits her ova, or, in the common phrase, is in berry.
When the ova first appear under her tail, they are very small and
extremely black ; but they become, in succession, almost as large as
ripe elder-berries before they are deposited, and turn of a dark brown
colour, especially towards the end of the time of her depositing
them. They continue full, and depositing the ova in constant suc-
cession, as long as any of that black substance can be found in their
body, which, when boiled, turns of a beautiful red colour, and is
called their coral. Hen lobsters are found in berry at all times of
the year, but chiefly in winter. It is a common mistake that a berried
hen is always in perfection for the table. When her berries appear
large and brownish, she will always be found exhausted, watery,
and poor. Though the ova are cast at all times of the year, they
seem only to come to life during the warm summer months of July
and August. Great numbers of them may then be found, under the
appearance of tadpoles, swimming about the little pools left by the
tides among the rocks, and many also under their proper form, from
half an inch to four inches in length.
" In casting their shells, it is hard to conceive how the lobster is
able to draw the fish of their large claws out, leaving the shells entire
and attached to the shell of their body ; in which state they are con-
stantly found. The fishermen say the lobster pines before casting,
till the fish in its large claw is no thicker than the quill of a goose,
which enables it to draw its parts through the joints and narrow-
passage near the trunk. The new shell is quite membranous at
first, but hardens by degrees. Lobsters only grow in size while their
shells are in their soft state. They are chosen for the table by their
being heavy in proportion to their size, and by the hardness of their
shells on their sides, which, when in perfection, will not yield to
moderate pressure. Barnacles, and other small shell-fish adhering
to them, are esteemed certain marks of superior goodness. Cock
lobsters are in general better than the hens in winter ; they are dis-
tinguished by the narrowness of their tails, and by their having a
strong spine upon the centre of each of the transverse processes
beneath the tad which support the four middle plates of their tails.
The fish of a lobster's claw is more tender, delicate, and easy of
dio-estion than that of the tail. Lobsters are not taken here in pots,
as is usual where the water is deeper and more still than it is upon
our coast. Our fishermen use a bag-net fixed to an iron hoop, about
two feet in diameter, and suspended by three lines like a scale. The
bait is commonly fish-guts tied to the bottom and middle of the net.
They can take none in the daytime, except when the water is thick
and opaque : they are commonly caught in the night ; but even then
it is not possible to take any when the sea has that luminous appear-
ance which is supposed to proceed from the Nereis noctiluca. In
summer the lobsters are found near the shore, and thence to about
THE CRAB-TRIBE.
783
six fathoms depth of water ; in winter they are seldom taken in less
than twelve or fifteen fathoms. They are much more active and
alert in warm weather than in cold. In the water they can run
nimbly upon their legs or small claws, and, if alarmed, can spring
tail foremost to a surprising distance as swift as a bird can fly. The
fishermen can see them pass about thirty feet, and, by the swiftness
of their motion, suppose they may go much farther. Athenasus
remarks this circumstance, and says that the incurvated lobsters
will spring with the activity of dolphins. Their eyes are raised upon
movable bases, which enables them to see readily every way. When
frightened, they will spring from a considerable distance to their
hold in the rocks ; and what is not less surprising than true, will
throw themselves into their hold in that manner through an entrance
barely sufficient for their body to pass, as is frequently seen by the
people who endeavour to take them at Filey Bridge. In frosty
weather, if any happen to be found near the shore, they are quite
torpid and benumbed." The lobster was known to the ancients, and
is probably the aaraKoq of the Greeks.
The River Cra.y'Cish {Astacus ^uviait'h's) is a native of the rivers
and streams of our island and the adjacent continent, especially
where the bed is rocky and stony.
In the remaining Macriira, the base of the outer antenna2 is not
covered by a movable plate ; but the Animals generally exhibit a
very close resemblance in form to the AstacidcB. In the Thalas-
sinidcB the shell is of a somewhat horny consistence ; the breast is
very narrow, and the anterior nipping claws of large size. The last
family, iuLluditig perhaps the largest Crustacea, is that of the
PaliniiridcB, of which the Spiny Lobster is an example. These are
powerml Animals, with very hard shells. The breast is broad, the
outer antenna usually very long, and the anterior feet are rarely
furnished with nippers ; and these, when present, are small. All
these Animals inhabit the sea, where they usually frequent deepish
water, not far from the shore. Many of them are used as food in
various countries. The Paliiiurtis, or Spiny Lobster, often weighs
as much as twelve or fifteen pounds. It was in great esteem
amongst the ancient Romans, who denominated it Locusta.
Sub-order II. — Anomura.
General Characters. — The second sub-order of the Decapod
Crustacea includes a number of Animals which appear to hold an
intermediate position between the Long-tailed forms just described,
and those in which the abdominal segments are least developed —
the third sub-order Brachyura. They partake, to a great extent, of
the characters of both groups, sometimes approaching one, and
occasionally the other ; so that it becomes almost equally difiicult
either to distribute them amongst the Long and Short-tailed forms,
or to find characters by which they may be distinguished from the
other two groups.
They are distinguished from the Macrura, principally by the
form of the abdomen, which scarcely ever possesses the fan-like fin
so characteristic of those Animals, and never bears natatory feet ;
whilst they differ from the Bracliyura in nearly always having
appendages attached to the last abdominal segment but one, which
are wanting in the latter sub-order. The abdomen is sometimes
bent under the body like the tail of a Crab ; at others, extended
backwards in a line with the body. The inner pair of antennae is
generally of moderate size, and the outer pair of considerable length.
The three first pairs of feet are always well formed, and the anterior
pair is generally furnished with powerful nippers. The fourth and
fifth pairs are generally small, and frequently rudimentar)'. In the
latter case, they are sometimes attached to the back. The develop-
ment of the young appears to resemble that of the Brachyura ; the
newly-hatched young, as far as yet observed, being very like that of
the Common Crab.
Sub-divisions. — In the first family of this sub-order, the /"a^w-
ridcE, or Hermit Crabs, the abdominal portion is quite soft, forming
a sort of cylindrical fleshy mass behind the shelly cephalothorax.
The latter bears well developed feet, of which the anterior pair is
usually converted into formidable nippers. As the comfort of the Ani-
mal would be materially interfered with were this soft. Worm-like ap-
pendage constantly exposed to be caught at by every passing Fish who
might take a fancy to it, he usually seeks some shelter for his tail,
and the habitation selected is generally the shell of some univalve
Mollusc. Into this spiral home the Hermit Crab is coiled, and
retains himself in this position by means of a sucker at the extremity
of his tail, assisted by two or three rudimentary feet, which are
developed upon the abdominal sac ; and so firmly does he adhere to
his castle, that he will allow himself to be torn to pieces rather than
let go his hold. By protruding his body, with its three pairs of
legs, from the orifice of the shell, the little Hermit is enabled to
■walk with ease upon the sandy beach in search of his prey ; but the
moment danger threatens him, he disappears again into his cell, the
orifice of which is then occupied by one of his claws, which is always
larger than the other. As the Crab does not possess the same
power of adding to the size of the domicile that was enjoyed by the
original tenant, he is compelled, from time to time, to change his
residence for one a little larger, and often appears almost as difficult
to please as a human householder in the same predicament. Often
they may be seen crawling about amongst the empty shells just
thrown upon the beach, trying one after another, until they meet
Fig. 2079. — The Pagurus iemiardiis,
with one uniting all the conditions requisite for Crustacean comfort ;
but, until this great object of their search is attained, always return-
ing to their old house after each unsuccessful trial. It is said,
indeed, that when two of them happen simultaneously to cast a long-
ing eye upon some particularly suitable residence, they often engage
in a fierce battle for the possession of the coveted object, which the
victor inhabits in triumph. Fig. 2079 represents the Common Her-
mit Crab {Pagurus bern/iardus) of our coasts. The upper figure
exhibits the Animal out of its shell ; a, the right jaw-foot ; d, the
Animal in the shell. Of the great numbers of these Crabs which we
have seen, and of which several specimens are now before us, most
have made the shell of the "\Vhelk their habitation. Occasionally
they may be met with in the Periwinkle. The species of this form
are very numerous.
Several species of Hermit Crabs frequent our shores, and may be
often found in the pools left by the retiring tide, by anyone who will
take the trouble to look for them. A curious species belongs to this
family, the Birgus latro, inhabiting the Isle of France, which pro-
tects its soft body in holes in the earth at the roots of trees. _ It is
said to feed upon cocoa-nuts, and even to climb up the trees in the
night to nip off the fruit.
In the Hippidcs (Fig. 2080), the fleshy abdomen disappears, and
its place is taken by a jointed tail, furnished with a pair of movable
appendages attached to the last joint but one. This tail is some-
times extended behind, but generally bent under the breast as in
the True Crabs, and never terminated by a fan-like fin. These
Animals generally live in the sand, where they bury themselves
Fig. 2080. — The Hippa.
with great facility by means of their flattened feet. The family
Porcellandice includes some small Crabs, which, from their beauti-
fully smooth texture, have received the name of Porcelain Crabs,
In their form they resemble the True Crabs, and, like these, their
anterior feet are converted into powerful nippers ; but their tails,
^84
THE TRUE CRABS.
although bent under their body, are furnished with a small fan-like
fin. The outer antennae are very long, and the fifth pair of feet are
rudimentary. Like the preceding family, they generally live buried
in the sand.
In the remaining families of the Anomtira, the tail is destitute
of terminal appendages, and the form gradually approaches that of
the True Crabs. In the Raninidce, the four hinder pairs of legs are
nearly equal in size, and flattened so as to form natatory organs.
In the Homolidce, the three middle pairs are long and cylindrical;
whilst the fifth are much shorter, furnished with a prehensile claw,
and placed quite at the back of the Animal, or concealed under the
carapace ; the inner antennae also are of considerable length ; and
in the DrotniidcB, which make the nearest approach to the
Brachyitra, the fifth, and sometimes the fourth and fifth pairs of
legs, are altered in form as in the preceding family ; but the inner
antennae are short, and capable of being concealed in small pits
situated at the front of the head.
Sub-order III.— Brachvura.
General Characters. — In the Brachyura, short-tailed Crus-
tacea, of which the Common Edible Crabs may serve as examples,
the abdomen is always converted into a short jointed tail, quite
destitute of terminal appendages, and bent round so as to fold
closely under the breast (Fig. 2081 ). The cephalothorax is usually
of a more or less rounded form, generally of considerable breadth,
and often produced in front into a point. The upper surface is
entirely covered by a single plate (the carapace). The eyes and
the inner antennas, the latter of which are very short, can be en-
tirely concealed within small cavities of the forehead. The outer
antennae are never of any great length, and the anterior feet are
Fig. 2oSt. — Cardniis nuenas (Common Small Edible Crab), upper side, and
under side of the body with the limbs cut short.
a, lateral antennae ; b, intermediate antennae ; c, eye ; d, outer foot-jaw ;
e,f, g, h, i, base of the five pairs of legs ; k, tail ; /, sternum.
always converted into nippers. The four other pairs of legs are
generally terminated only by single claws. They are sometimes
flattened, to assist the Animals in swimming ; but, as a general
rule, the feet are formed exclusively for running. This is performed,
not forwards, as in most other Animals, but with a curious sidelong
gait ; and the aspect of a Crab, when making his escape from danger,
with his claws extended, and every limb in the most rapid though
awkward motion is often very droll.
The tail of the female Crab is always much broader than that of
the male, and bears four pairs of of filiform appendages on the side
which is applied to the breast. To these the eggs are attached, so
as to be protected by the homy plates of the tail, until the young
Animals are developed. These, on first coming out of the egg, are
active little fellows, with long tails, which, after their first moulting,
acquire a singular spine on the middle of the back, whilst a similar
spme is developed at the front of the head. These were described,
when first discovered, under the generic name of 2oea, At a later
period the eyes become pedunculated, the legs acquire somewhat of
their mature form, the nipping claws of the anterior pair are deve-
loped, and the spines disappear. In this form the young Animals
have received the name of Megalops. It is to be observed, how-
ever (and this constitutes one of the most singular facts in the
history of these Animals), that this metamorphosis is by no means
universal amongst the Bachyura — the young of some species, like
those of the Macrura, nearly resembling their parents from the
moment of their leaving the egg ; whilst those of others, nearly
allied to these, undergo a regular series of changes before arriving
at their mature form.
Sub-divisions. — Professor Milne Edwards divides the Brachyura
into four families. The first family, the Oxystomata, have the
carapace orbicular, and arched in front ; and the openings for the
passage of water, to and from the branchial cavities, are placed
close together in front of the mouth. The anterior claws are often
of very large size, and curiously compressed ; so that they can be
applied to the sides of the cephalothorax so closely, as to be invis-
ible from above. The other legs vary greatly in their development,
being sometimes long and stout, sometimes short and weak ; some-
times formed exclusively for walking, and occasionally more or
less flattened to form natatory organs. In the genus Dorippe, the
fourth and fifth pairs of legs are reduced in size, placed quite at the
back of the animal, and terminated by curious prehensile hooks.
In the second, the Oxyrhyncha, MaidcB, or Sea-spiders, the
carapace is more or less narrowed in front, forming a projecting beak
or rostrum (Fig. 2082) ; the legs are long and hairy ; the back
usually covered with spines and hairs, whence the name -of Sea-
Fig. 20S2.— The Spider Crab {Maia).
Spiders, or Spider-Crabs, by which these animals are commonly
known. These Crabs generally live in deep water, and rarely
approach the shore. Of the third family, the Cyclo?neiopa or
Cancer ida, the Common Edible Crab {Ca?tcer pagurus), may serve
as an example.
Most who have wandered along the shore of the sea at low tide
have observed shoals of Crabs running quickly about in their sideway
manner, and endeavouring when approached to hide themselves under
stones, or bury themselves in the sand. It is, indeed, far more common
for the Crab thus to approach the shore than the Lobster, for the for-
mer is far more terrestrial ; yet both, provided the gills are kept moist,
will live a long time out of their native element. Some species, indeed,
are almost exclusively terrestrial, visiting the sea only at certain pe-
riods, and again returning to the land where they live in deep burrows.
The Large Edible Crab [Cancer pagurus), Le crabe Poupart, ou
Tourteau, of the French, is too well known to need description ; it
may be taken as the type of Brachyura. It is much esteemed as a
delicacy for the table, but previously to moulting, and during the
time in which it is destitute of its armour, its flesh is soft, watery,
and very unpleasant. On the contrary, some of the Crabs in tiie
West Indies, and America, are at that season in their highest per-
fection.
The powers of vision, smell, and taste, are enjoyed by the Crab
in great perfection. With regard to smell, though, as has been
well observed, every creel baited for the capture of these Animals
and Lobsters proves them to be endowed with it, yet where the
organ is seated is a matter of doubt.
The Large Edible Crab, Cancer pagurus, is partial to rocky
coasts, and is taken around those of our island in great abundance.
Crab-fishing is generally conducted by two men, who go out in one
boat ; in addition to their boat, they have lines, and creels, cruives,
or Crab-pots, as they are termed in various countries, the original
cost of which amounts to about ten pounds. These creels are made
of dry osiers, and resemble basket-work. They are constructed on
the same principle as a wired Mouse-trap, but the aperture, instead
of being at the side is at the top. Within the creel, the bait, con-
sisting of pieces of Thornback, Skate, or other Fish, is fastened to
the bottom, and the creel is then dropped in some favourable situa-
tion, three stones of sufficient weight being fastened in the inside to
sink it. The creels are sometimes let down to a depth of twenty
fathoms, the fishermen being guided in this respect by the state of the
weather, or the nature of the ground. In fine weather they are
dropped in from three to five fathoms deep ; but the Crabs are
chiefly to be found where the bottom is rocky. A line is fastened
to the creel, and at the upper end of the line a cork is attached
which floats on the surface. By this means the place where the
creel is sunk is known to the fishermen, who usually set from forty to
fifty creels at one time. The bait is suspended about the middle of
THE TRUE CRABS.
78s
the creel, and can easily be seen by the Crabs, which, entering at
the aperture, find, like a Mouse in a wire trap, that escape is impos-
sible. The difficulty of egress is increased by the entrance being
overhead. Lobsters, Prawns, and Shrimps are frequently found
captured in the same creel with Crabs. When the fishermen have
sunk the whole of their creels, they have still some time left to pro-
ceed farther out to sea for ordinary Fish before it is necessary to
visit them, ^j Crab-fishing is therefore a valuable addition to their
means of livelihood, for it does not preclude the pursuit of other Fish
at the same season. The demand for this species of Shell-fish is
usually good, and in the nearest large town on many parts of the
coast it is often fully equal to the supply. Thither the fisherman's
wife, or some of his family, may convey the quantity taken ; and, if
the market be already abundantly provided, they can, by means of
the well-boxes, although already caught, be kept back for a time
until prices rise again. These are all advantages peculiar to this
fishery. When a few hours have elapsed, the fishermen visit their
creels, one of them rowing and the other keeping a look-out for the
floats, and taking out of the creels whatever has been captured.
There may, perhaps, be a dozen different owners of boats thus
engaged, and it is therefore necessary to have recourse to some
means by which they may each secure the fruits of their individual
industry without the risk of dispute. This is accomplished by dis-
tinguishing their respective floats by some peculiar mark — by a
notch in the side — a mark in the shape of a diamond cut at the top
■ — an angle cut off, &c., &c. The necessity of mutual protection
points out to them the value of combination and union, and the
marks adopted by the fishermen to distinguish their floats are con-
sequently the result of some common understanding amongst them ;
or otherwise of an instinctive regard to the means by which not only
one but all are enabled to pursue their calling in confidence and
security.
Crabs are brought to market both in a boiled and in a raw state.
If the market be distant they are placed in a well-box which is
attached to the outside of the fishing-vessel, and in this manner
they are brought to Billingsgate from parts so distant as Norway.
May, June, and July are the months in which they are generally out
of season ; but even in these months many may be obtained which
are in a perfectly good state for the table. The male is of greater
value than the female, and has larger claws. The sexes are distin-
guished as the cock and the hen. Before boiling, a good Crab is
known by the roughness of its shell, particularly on the claws.
When boiled, the mode of ascertaining its goodness is by holding
the claws tight, and skaking the body, which will rattle, or seem as
if water were in the inside, if it be not in perfection. The time
they are usually boiled is from a quarter of an hour to a couple of
hours in sea-water, or in water in which salt has been infused. Some-
times they are put into cold water which is afterwards heated to the
boiling point ; and this mode is believed to be less cruel than
plunging them suddenly into water heated to a high temperature,
though it is alleged they are inferior for the table when the former
method is employed.
The Small Edible Crab, Carcinus mamas, the anatomy of which
has already been illustrated by Fig. 2081 ante, is also well known.
It is to be met with, in profusion, on all our shores. It is less
esteemed than the larger species, and is principally consumed by
the poorer classes. Many other species are eaten in different parts
of the world. Some, of which the Long-stalked Crab [Podophthal-
vuis), is an example, have the posterior pair of feet converted into
paddles.
In the Catometopa, or OcypodidcB, forming the fourth family, the
carapace is usually quadrilateral, sometimes oval, with the front
generally transverse and knotted. The abdomen of the male does
not occupy the whole space between the hind legs. This group is
represented in the British seas by the little Pea Crabs {Piniiothe7-es),
which shelter themselves within the shells of many of the bivalve
Alollusca, especially the Common Mussel.
The ancients were acquainted with one species of Pinnotheres,
which inhabits the shell of the Pinna, a common Mediterranean
Mollusc. They believed that the connection between the Crab and
the Mollusc was one of mutual advantage ; and that the former, in
return for the protection afforded to him by the shell of his host, not
only gave him timely notice of any approaching danger, but also
procured him his food.
The most remarkable members of this family are the Land Crabs
of Tropical climates, which are furnished with a peculiar apparatus
of leaflets, for retaining moisture in the interior of their branchial
cavities.
The group of Land-crabs, termed the Gecarcinians, are known to
the French under various names, as Toulouroux, Cr4bes peints, and
Crabes violets, &c.
They are more exclusively terrestrial than the Ocypodians, and so
decidedly organized are the branchiae for atrial respiration, that if
submerged for any length of time in the sea, the Animals perish
from suffocation. It has been shown by MM. Milne Edwards and
Audouin (" De la Respiration aerienne des Crustaces, et des modi-
fications que I'appareil branchial eprouve dans les Crabes terres-
tres"), that in all the Crustacea the branchia; are fitted to perform
the functions of respiratory organs in the air as well as in the water ;
that the more or less rapid death of the aquatic species when ex-
posed to the air depends upon various causes, of which one of the
most direct is the evaporation from the branchiae, and that con-
sequently one of the conditions necessary to the support of life in
Animals which have branchiae and live in the air, is that these
organs be kept moist, and always defended from desiccation. lu
the Land-crabs these arrangements and provisions are proved
Fig. 2083.— The Land Crab (Gecanimis).
actually to occur. They possess various organs destined for ab-
sorbing and keeping in reserve the quantity of moisture necessary
for supplying the branchiae with a due proportion of fluid ; in fact,
for maintaining them in working condition, as already hinted.
The Land-crabs are distributed through the warmer regions of
the Old and New World, and Australasia, but the species are most
numerous in America and its islands. All the Gecarcinians, live
more or less inland, paying at stated periods a short visit to the sea,
the females for the purpose of disencumbering themselves of the
eggs, which are carried under the abdomen. On land they dwell in
burrows, where they undergo the process of exuviation. Their
history, says Latreille, in C'uvier's " R^gne Animal," may be
summed up as follows : — " They pass the greatest part of their life
on land, hiding in burrows, whence they issue forth in the evening ;
some take up their abode in graveyards. Once a year, when they
would lay their eggs, they assemble in numerous troops, and take
the shortest course to the sea, without being deterred by any ob-
stacles which they may meet with on the road. After the deposition of
the eggs, they return in a state of great debility. During the
Fig. 2084. — The Cardisonia carnifex.
season of exuviation they block up, as is stated, the mouths of their
burrows ; whilst undergoing this process, and still soft, they are
' boursiers,' or Purse-crabs, and their flesh is then held in high
estimation ; nevertheless it is sometimes deleterious. This quality
is attributed to the fruit of the manchineel (mancenillier), of which
it is supposed, perhaps without foundation, that they have eaten."
The Cardisoma carnifex, which usually inhabits the Mangrove
swamps of the West Indian Islands, lives principally upon the fruit
of a species oi Annojia, which grows in those places..* But nothing
comes amiss to it. Those individuals whose residence is in the
neighbourhood of the cemeteries, are said to burrow down to get at
the dead bodies; and Dr. Duchassaing tells us, that the West
Indian burial-grounds are pierced in every direction by the burrows
of these Animals. Nevertheless the Cardisoma is regarded as a
luxurious article of food by the West Indians ; who, however, take
care only to eat those which live in the Mangrove swamps, as far as
5H
786
THE CRABS-THE SPIDERS.
possible from the cemeteries. They are caught in box rat-
traps, baited with a piece of their favourite fruit ; and after their
capture, they are usually kept some time, and fattened with broken
victuals
The Gelasmtt, another group of Land-crabs, ase found in the
warm countries of both hemispheres ; they live on the sea shore, or
on the borders of saline marshes, and burrow deep cylindrical holes
running obliquely downwards, and often so close together, and in
such numbers, as to form a sort of Crab-warren. Each burrow is
tenanted by a pair of these Crabs, and the male keeps guard, closing
the entrance with its great claw. While running over the ground,
these Crustaceans usually keep the large claw elevated before the
body, as if making a signal in order to call to some one, and from
this habit they have obtained the name of callers or beckoners,
" Crdbes appellants." The species are very numerous, but like the
Ocypoda they are dfficult to be distinguished, because the parts
which differ the most, namely the front and the great claw, change
their form with the progressive age of the Animal. One species
observed in South Carolina by M. Bosc, passes the three winter
months in its retreat, and does not seek the water until the period
of depositing its eggs. Fig. 2085 represents the Gelasimus annu-
apes from the Indian Seas, a, the under side of the head ; b, the
abdomen ; c, one of the antennae.
Fig. 2085 — The Gelasimus annulipes.
Like the species of the genus Ocypoda the Gelasimi are singu-
larly rapid, traversing the shore with such celerity that it is by no
means an easy thing to overtake them ; nor are they incapable of
defence, as may be readily conceived from the magnitude of the
great claw, which is extremely powerful, and well adapted for
inflicting a severe gripe with the pincers, or even a lacerated wound,
the serrations of the opposed edges being very sharp.
The Thclphtisa also belong to the Land Crabs. In general form
they approach Eriphia ; but they differ in their habits, living in the
earth about the banks of rivers, or in humid forests. Several species
are known. The restricted genus Thelphusa is represented by a
species well known in the South of Italy, Greece, Egypt, and Syria ;
the Cr4be fiuviatile of Belon, Thelphusajluviatilis, Fig. 2086.
Cuiver, eat it raw, and during Lent it forms one of the dishes of the
Italians. Its carapace is about two inches in diameter both trans-
versely and longitudinally, The general colour is pale gray. Tlie
upper surface is smooth, with little furrows and asperities anteriorly
along the sides. The claws are rough, of a reddish brown colour
at the extremities ; they are long, conical, and unequally dentated :
a, the external jaw-foot. Other species are natives of India and
Africa.
Our space will not permit further description of the Crab family.
Out of the immense number of species the following have been
selected. Specimens of many of them may be seen in the British
Museum.
Cardisoma carnifcx; Plagusia craviniana ; Gonoplax rhom-
bo'ides ; Grapsus pictus ; Pinnotheres veterum; Hynienosoina
orbiculare ; U<;a una; Pseiidograpsus penciliger ; Gecarciiius
ruricola ; Mycten's longicarfiis ; Doto sulcatus : Maia squinada,
Stenocitiops cervicornis ; Hyas coarctata; Ptricera cornufa ;
Mithras dichotomus ; Micippa philyra ; Acanfhonyx liuiu-
latus ; Chorinus heros ; Criocarcimts superciliosus ; Lissa
chiragra ; Halirnus aries ; Egeria indica ; Epialtus tuberciUa-
tus ; Hepatus fasciatus ; Calappa tuberculata ; Leucippa fenfa-
gotia ; Euryot!ome aspera ; Eiimedonus 7iiger ; Cryptopodia
fornicata ; Lambrus longinianus ; CEtJn'a scruposi ; Parihenope
horrida ; Persephona latheilld ; Leptopodia sagittaria ; Inachus
Scorpio; Stenorhynchus phalangiuni ; Doclea rissonii ; Pisa
tetraodon ; Camposcia retusa ; Libima spinosa ; Eurypodius
latreilli; Naxia serpulifera; Herbestia condyliata ; Lupea
cribraria; Lupea forceps; Portumnus variegatus ; Ltipca
pelagica; Thalainita cliaptalhz; Platyo7iychus bipustulatus ;
PortuHus puber, or Velvet Crab ; Thalamata criicifera ; Poly bias
he?islowii ; Thelph7isajluviatilis; Dromia hersutissima ; Gelsasi-
7nHS marionis ; Ethusa mascarorie ; Ocypoda arenaria ; Melia
tesselata ; Ocypoda hippea ; Boscia dentata ; Gelasimus annu-
lipes ; Dorippe lanata ; Lithodes arctica ; Remipes testudinarius ;
Albunea syni7iista : Pactolus boscii ; Pagurus chilensis ; Pagurus
deformis; Pagurus bernhardus ; Homola spini/rofis ; Hippa
eremita ; Ranina dentata; Atyasceabra; Thenus orie?italis ;
Ibacus peronii ; Scyllarus aguinoclialis ; Cenobita diogenes ;
Birgus latro ; Jilegalopa viutica ; Egeon loricatus ; Porcella
7ta platycheles ; Ca7icelus iypus ; Galathea strigosa; ^glea
Icevis ; Thalassi7ia scorpionoides ; Callianassa subterratiea ;
Eryott ciivieri; Gebia stellata ; Callianidca typa ; Axia stirhyn-
chus ; Pedophthahnus vigil ; Eriphia spi/ii/rons ; Thala7>iita
7iatator ; Piret/iela de7iticulata ; Eriphia g07iagra ; Corystes
cassivela7i7ius ; Xa7itho floridus ; Eriphia leviTna/ia ; Ruppellia
teTiax ; Thia polita ; Zozy7nus ce7ieiis.
Class VI.— Arachnida.
The present class — the Arach7iida — including the Spiders, Scor-
pions, &c., are generally held in popular aversion. Some of them
give a decidedly poisonous bite to the human system, and most, if
not all of them, are venomous to insects. Among the Spiders, the
web shows a wonderful amount of constructive skill. They are at
great pains to keep their downy limbs clean, passing them through
their mandibles to free them from dust. They are assiduous in
repairing their broken nets, when injured by Insects or other causes.
It is related of the old Scotch warrior, Bruce, that he was stimulated
by the example of the Spider in this respect to further exertion in
tiie cause of his country. Spiders are patient in watching their prey.
Fig. 2086. — The Thdphusa Jlnviatilis.
This species, which was well known to the ancients, and is
figured on many of the Sicilian and Grecian medals, is very common
on the borders of the rivulets, streams, and lakes of the south of
Italv, where it makes its burrows. The Greek monks, according to
Fig. 2087. — Section of the Cephalothorax of a Mygale, showing the aiTange-
ment of the nervous system.
ct, cephalothorax ; in, mandible ; g, movable hook which terminates it ; /',
mouth ; ft", cesophagus ; e, stomach ; ab, origin of abdomen ; <-, cephalic
ganglion ; /, ganglionic mass of the thorax ; ca, cords which unite it to the
abdominal ganglia ; no, optic nerve ; y, eyes.
skilful in attack, and ingenious in securing the Insect caught in their
nets. So that despite the dislike we entertain for them, their habits
are well worthy of study.
The Arachnida are distinguished from the other Arth/vpoda by
THE SPIDERS.
rp;
their aSrial respiration, the possession of four pairs of legs attached
to the anterior division of the body, and the total absence of
antennx. The body is usually covered with a softish skin, which,
however, sometimes attains a horny consistency. In the lower forms,
the divisions of the body into separate regions is quite unrecog-
nisable, and the whole forms a roundish or oval mass, which does
not even present traces of segmentation. In the higher groups the
body is composed of two principal divisions, of which the anterior,
as in the Crustacea, consists of tlie thoracic segments, amalgamated
with those of the head, and forming together a mass called the
ceplialothorax. In the highest forms the division of the thorax into
separate segments become;; apparent ; but the anterior segment is
still amalgamated with the head. The structure of the abdomen
varies greatly. In some cases, it forms a soft, round mass, without
any traces of segmentation ; whilst in others, as the Scorpions, it is
produced into a long, flexible, jointed tail.
In most of the Aracluiida the cephalothorax is armed in front
with a pair of powerful jaws, terminated by a distinct claw-like
joint (Fig.2oS8) ; these are usually perforated, and convey a poison
into the wounds inflicted by them. The jaws are considered to be
the representatives of the antenna; of the oihtr Arf/irojioda. Below
tliem is the opening of the mouth, which is furnished with jaws of a
different construction, called maxilla (Fig. 2088), bearing on their
outer surface long jointed organs, called
falpi, which often attain an enormous
development, and are furnished with a
pair of pincers at their extremity. In
many of the lower forms, the mouth is
converted into a sucking proboscis.
The legs are usually formed of the
same parts as those of Insects ; a roun-
ded hip-joint {coxa) attaches the limb
Fig. 20S8.— Bncc.il apparatus tg ti,e sternum ; the thigh is united with
of a Spider. j^is by a small movable joint called
s, sternum; /, Inbriim ; via, Xhe frocha/ifer ; the joint following this
maxilla: ;/,ni.ixilliaiy palpi; is the shin {tibia), at the extremity of
m, mandibles ; g, hook ter- which is the foot {tarsus), usually com-
minating the mandibles. poged of two joints. The nervous system
in the higher groups is well developed,
consisting of a large nervous mass, situated in the lower part of the
cephalothora.x (Figs. 2089 and 2087 a?ite) communicating with a
brain, or supra-ossophagal ganglion by a band of nervous matter which
embraces the oesophagus ; and of one or more ganglia placed in the
abdomen and united with the thoracic mass by a pair of filaments.
po ah po 8
Fig. 20S9. — Anatomy of the Mygale.
c/, cephalothorax opened below, and giving attachment to the limbs, whose
first joints .are exhibited ; fa, legs of the first pair ; /, palpi ; m, mandibles ;
t, thoracic nervous mass ; a, abdominal ganglia ; fo, respiratory sacs • s
stigmata ; /, leaf-like folds in the interior of one of these laid open ; 'oz',
ovana ; or, orifice of oviducts ; ma, muscles of the abdomen : an, anus '•
/, spinnerets. '
In the Spiders there is usually only a single ventral ganglion ; but
the Scorpions have one of these nervous knots in each segment of
the abdomen. The eyes are situated on the upper surface of the
front of the cephalothorax (Fig. 2087 a?!te) ; they vary in number
fiom two to eight, and are of the kind called ocelli, or simple eyes.
Respiration is effected by means of air-tubes (tracAece), or by
peculiar modifications of those organs which, in their most'perfect
form, have received the name of pulmonary sacs. The blood is set
in motion by the contraction of a dorsal vessel (Fig. 2090), which
propels the nutritive fluid from behind forwards, and gives off
numerous minute arteries ; no veins have been discovered. The
intestine is sometimes a simple canal, running in a tolerably straight
direction from one extremity of the body to the other ; but in most
cases the oesophagus leads into a sac-like stomach, furnished with
numerous blind processes, which are sometimes confined to the
cavity of the body, but frequently send branches into the legs.
The Arachnida are all unisexual, and all lay eggs with the
exception of the Scorpions and a few Mites, in which the ova are
retained within the oviducts until they arc hatched, so that the
Animals produce living young. In the majority of the Arachvida,
the young, on escaping from the c'r^, present the same general form
that they are to retain through life ; but among the lower forms,
such as the Mites, the young are often com-
paratively imperfect, sometimes possessing
fewer legs than the perfect Animal, and some-
times having the same number of those organs,
but in a less-developed condition.
Sub-divisions.— The Arachnida may be
divided into two large groups or sub-classes, in
accordance with differences in the structure of
their respiratory apparatus. In one of these sec-
tions, the Animals (when respiratory organs
have been detected) breathe by means of air-
tubes, or trachea;, and the eyes arc never
more than four in number ; these form the
sub- class Trachearia. In the second section
the respiratory organs take the form of pulmon-
ary sacs, and the Animals are hence called
I'lg. 2090.---Heart of a Puhnonaria; they possess six or eight eyes,
bpider. The first of these sub-classes includes three
a, border of the abdo- orders— the Podoso??i.afa, which appear to pos-
men ; c, heart ; ar, sess no special breathing apparatus, and which
large arteiy, proceed- are distinguished from all other Arachnida
mg from its anterior by their marine habitation; the Acarina, or
extremity ; v, pulmo- Momtnerosomata, in which the body is usually
nary vessels. composed entirely of a single mass ; and the
Adclarthrosomata, which have the abdomen
more or less distinctly annulated.
Sub-class I.— Trachearia.
Order I. — Podosomata.
This order is composed of a few singular Spider-like creatures,
which have been shifted about by different authors, backwards and
Fig. 2091.— The Nymphon grcssipes, and under side of its beak.
forwards, between the Crustacea and the Arachnida. They are all
marine ; some of them, like the Nymphon (Fig. 2091), being found
amongst stones and sea-weeds on the beach, or amongst rocks and
corals in deep water; whilst others, such as the Pycnogonum (Fig.
2092), attach themselves parasitically to Fishes and other Marine
Animals ; the species figured lives upon Whales. The body is com-
posed of four segments, amalgamated into a regular cephalothorax,
and each segment bears a pair of long jointed legs. In front of
this mass is a short rostrum, which is some-
times accompanied by a pair of palpiform jaws ;
and between these and the first pair of feet,
the females of some species possess a pair of
false feet, to which the eggs are generally
attached. The stomach gives off long pro-
cesses, which sometimes run almost to the
extremity of the legs ; but no circulatory or
Fig. 2092. — The /^rwo- respiratory organs have yet been recognised.
^oitum balananim. The nervous system is very imperfectly deve-
loped. The young, on first leaving the egg,
possess only four short legs, furnished with long filaments ; their
metamorphosis has not been observed.
These Animals form two families : the PycnogotiidcB, which are
parasitic in their habits, and have the palpi obsolete ; and the Nyjn-
phonidcs, which crawl about slowly amongst the stones and weeds
of their aquatic home, and are furnished with distinct palpi.
Order II.— Acarina, or Monomerosomata.
General Characters. — Nearly all the Animals that we include
788
THE MITES— THE SCORPIONS.
in this order— of which the Common Mites are the best known
examples— are recognisable at the first glance by the form of the
body, which usually constitutes a roundish or oval mass, without any
trace'of segmentation. They are mostly Parasitic Animals, furnished
with a proboscis containing a pair of sharp spines, which serve for
WLunding their prey, and bearing a palpus on each side.
Sub-divisions. — We must refer very briefly to the numerous
families into which this order is divided. The three first of these
groups, like the earlier families of the Crustacea, are composed of
Animals in which the characters even of the class are almost entirely
lost by degradation ; and although their general structure appears
to indicate this as their proper position, they have been placed in
very different situations by some zoologists. The first of these, the
LiiigiiatididcB containing the Linguattdca, curious Worm-like
Animals, found in the frontal sinuses and lungs of various Mamma-
lia, and in the lungs of some Reptiles, have generally been placed
amongst the Intestinal Worms; but recent investigations have
shown that the young of these creatures greatly resemble \.\\f:.Acari
in the form of their body, and that they are furnished, whilst still in the
egg, with four short, jointed legs. The second family, the Simo-
neidcB, also includes Parasitic Animals ; but these select a more
singular habitation than the LingiiatulcB. They are minute, soft
creatures, furnished with four pairs of legs, which frequently take up
their abode in the follicles of the human skin ; they are vulgarly
denominated " maggots in the skin."
In the structure of the mouth these creatures agree with the
Mites ; their bodies, when young, are much elongated, but gradu-
ally shorten as they approach maturity. They never exhibit any
appearance of segmentation. The species found on man, Simonea
folUciilorum, usually confines its attacks to the face, and appears
to be particularly partial to the nose. The third of these doubtful
Acarine families, is that of the Macrobiotida: — microscopic animals
which have usually been associated with the l7ifitso7-ia , and especi-
ally with the Rotifera. They aie known as Sloth or Bear-animal-
cules, and they are to be found in moss or in fresh water. Their
bodies are usually of an elongated oval form, furnished with four
pairs of legs, of which the hinder are placed at the extremity of the
body. The mouth is furnished with a short rostrum, armed with a
pair of sharp, movable spines. The feet generally bear four claws.
No trace of circulatory or respiratory apparatus has been found in
these creatures ; and in one genus only do any indications of annu-
lation present themselves.
Fig. 2092. — Acarus domesticus,
or Cheese Mite, magnified.
Fig. 2093. — Sarcoptes scahiei, or
Acarus of the Itch, magnified.
Of the family of True Miies {Acaridcs) som& are active in their
habits, like the Common Cheese Mite (Fig. 2092) ; others are
parasitic upon or beneath the skins of man and otner Animals. Of
the latter, one species is well-known by its effects ; this is the
Sarcoptes scabiei {¥\g. 2093), which produces the disgusting com-
plaint so common amongst dirty people, known as the itch.
The IxodidcB, forming another family, are furnished with a power-
ful rostrum, armed with recurved spines with which they pierce the
skin of the unfortunate Animals upon whose blood they live. These
creatures live upon a great variety of Animals. The Dog is very liable
to their attacks, and many species attach themselves exclusively to
Serpents and other Reptiles. The Animal known as the Harvest Bug,
which is often so troublesome in summer and autumn, also belongs
to this group. The GaviasidcB, which are furnished with a sucking
apparatus very similar to that of the IxodidcB, usually attach them-
selves to the bodies of Beetles; and the Common Dung Beetles
{Geotr2iJ>esJ may often be found with the lower surface nearly covered
with them.
In the preceding families — most of which are parasitic in their
habits — the eyes are usually wanting. The remainder, which
generally lead a more active life, are always furnished with these
organs. One family, the HydrachnidcB, or Water-mites, inhabit
the water, where they swira about with considerable rapidity by
means of their fringed legs. The OribatidcB — which, unlike the
other Aca7'!}!a, live upon vegetable matter, principally the leaves of
mosses — are covered with a hard and very brittle skin, and have the
mouth adapted for biting. The Bdellidcc, which live amongst damp
moss, have the body divided apparently into two parts by a con-
striction, and the rostrum and palpi very long ; whilst the Troni-
bidiidcB, of which the little Scarlet Mite, so often seen in gardens is
an example, have the palpi converted into little raptorial organs.
Order III. — Adelarthrosomata.
General Characters. — The animals composing this order have
the abdomen united to the cephalothorax throughout its whole breadth,
and the body sometimes presents a regular oval outline, as in the
Mites ; but the abdomen, on close examination, is always found to
be more or less distinctly annulated. The mouth is armed with
jaws like those of the Spiders ; and the palpi are generally of great
length, and converted into nipping claws [che/tcera), like those of
the Scorpion, to which some of these creatures bear no very distant
resemblance. Like the Mites, they respire by means of trachea:,
which open by two or four apertures on the lower surface of the
body.
Sub-divisions. — These animals form three families. In the first,
the PhalavgidcB, of which the Har\'est-men, or Harvest Spiders of
our gardens and fields are well-known examples, the division of the
abdomen into segments is often indistinct ; the antennal jaws are
large, and furnished with a didactyle claw ; the palpi are of
moderate length, and the legs in general immoderately long.
Propped upon these stilt-like limbs, the Phalangia stalk about
amongst plants in search of Insect prey, and they seem to be very
voracious Animals.
The Cliclifcrida;, forming the second family, are at once distin-
guishable by the form of their palpi, which are very long, and ter-
minated by strong nippers, like those of the Scorpion. These
Animals, in fact, resemble little Scorpions that have lost their tails.
They are frequently found amongst old books, which they visit, no
doubt, in pursuit of the minute Insects sometimes to be met with in
such situations.
The last family, the So!j>ug2dcs, includes several Spider-like
Animals, some of which enjoy a most unenviable reputation. They
live principally in the sandy deserts of the Old World, where the
common species (Galcodes araiieoides), which attains the length
of about two inches, is said to be a great torment to the Camels.
Sub-class II.— Pulmonaria.
The pulmonary sacs, the presence of which is the leading cha-
racteristic of these Animals, are to be regarded merely as modifica-
tions of the tracheary structure presented by the other Araclinida.
Like the tracheae, they open by stigmata, or small apertures in the
lower surface of the Animal ; but these, instead of leading into a
tuft of little tubes radiating amongst the organs of the body, admit
the air into a small closed sac, containing a packet of minute plates,
laid side by side like the leaves of a book. These Animals possess
six or more eyes, placed on the anterior portion of the cephalothorax.
They are always ocelli, or simple eyes, each furnished with its own
separate nervous filament.
The Pulmo7iaria form two orders — the Polymerosomata or
Pedipal;p2, in which the abdomen is distinctly annulated and
attached to the cephalothorax by its whole breadth ; and the
Dimerosomata, or True Spiders, in which that region of the body
presents no sign of segmentation, and is connected with the pre-
ceding segment by a narrow peduncle.
Order IV. — Gedipalpi, or Polymerosomata
General Characters. — The principal distinctions existing
between these Animals and the True Spiders, which constitute the
following order, are the great development of the palpi, which always
form large arm-like prehensile organs, often terminated by a pair of
nippers, and the distinctly annulated structure of the abdomen.
The skin is always hard and horny ; and the abdomen is attached
to the back of the cephalothorax by its entire breadth.
Sub-divisions. — This order includes only two families, and the
species in these are not particularly numerous ; but few of the
Arach?2ida are more renowned than these, from the universal dread
inspired by the venomous powers of their best know-n representatives,
the Scorpions. These form the family Scorpionidce, which are
characterised by their elongated tail-like abdomen, armed at its
extremity with a sort of hooked claw, which, when the creatures are
in motion, is always carried over the back in a threatening attitude.
The sight of a large Scorpion advancing v\\\\ his many-jointed
tail elevated, and ready to inflict a venomous wound, will give us
some idea of the force of that expression "a lash of scorpions," the
fulness of which can only be felt in a country where these dreaded
creatures abound. In their appearance, a^ nell as in their disposi-
THE SCORPIOXS—THE SPIDERS.
m
tion, these Animals have much to disgust the ordinary observer, and
it must be owned that they are formidably armed. The maxilla;,
which in Insects are small, are here developed into enormous crab-
like claws, capable of seizing with great power, and of crushing
their prey. Besides these, we find the mandibles forming on each
side of the mouth a smaller but similar claw, for the purpose of
holdiiig the food which they are in the act of eating. The tail
terminates in a sharp curved sting, which, analogous to the poison-
fang of a Serpent, instils venom into the wound it makes.
The body of the Scorpion is composed of a broad cephalothorax,
covered with a single plate, and succeeded by an abdominal portion
of seven rings overlapping each other. To this succeeds a caudal
prolongation of six joints. Scorpions have six or eight eyes, two on
each side of a dorsal furrow, on the middle of the cephalothorax,
and two or three at each anterior angle of the latter.
Scorpions tenant the hotter regions of both hemispheres, conceal-
ing themselves under stones, among crumbling ruins, in obscure
corners of houses, and the like. They run very actively, arching
the tail over the back, and in attacking their prey seize it with their
claws, and instantly pierce it with the sting. They spare not even
their own species. Maupertuis put a hundred Scorpions together,
and a murderous conflict immediately ensued ; almost all were
massacred in a few days and devoured by the survivors.
The sting of the Common Scorpion of Southern Europe and Bar-
bary [Biiihus oca'fatuis. Leach), or the
six-eyed European species, {^Scorpio Eic-
ropaus), is not fatal except to small
Animals and Insects. But in the hotter
regions there is some degree of danger.
In South America the sting of some
kinds has been found to occasion fever,
numbness of the limbs, and dimness of
sight, lasting for two or three days, and
death is said to result sometimes from
the wound of the Black Scorpion of
Ceylon. Mr. Kirby states that the only
means of saving the lives of our soldiers
who were stung by these creatures in
Egypt was amputation.
The Scorpion produces its young alive,
and they do not arrive at maturity till
after the lapse of two years. During the
first days of their existence they are car-
ried by the female on her back. She
then keeps close in her retreat, and assi-
duously guards them. In about a month
they are capable of shifting for them-
selves. Fig. 2094 represents the African
Scorpion {Scorpio afcr, Linn. ; Bidhus
afer, Leach). The Scorpion is among
the Animals represented on the sculp-
tured remains of ancient Egypt.
The Animals forming the second
family, the Thelypho?iidce, present an
appearance in some degree intermedi-
ate between the Scorpions and the True
Spiders. The abdomen is short and roun-
ded,but distinctly annulated ; the cephalothorax forms a single mass ;
the palpi are very long and stout ; but, instead of the pincers of the
Scorpion, they are terminated by a movable claw, capable of being
applied to the inside of the preceding joint, and thus forming a
prehensile organ. Many of them are large Animals, of a somewhat
forbidding appearance, which, like the Scorpions, can run in every
direction. They are almost confined to Tropical countries, inhabit-
ing principally the hottest parts of Asia and America.
Order V.— Dimerosomata. — The Spiders.
General Characters.— The general appearance of the Animals
forming this order must be familiar to all our readers. The body
consists of two distinct portions, of which the anterior, or cephalo-
thorax, is usually of an oval form, and covered with a plate of a some-
what horny consistence ; whilst the posterior (the abdomen) generally
forms a soft, roundish mass, without any traces of segmentation,
and which is attached to the base of the cephalothorax by a narrow
peduncle. On its anterior portion, the cephalothorax bears six or
eight simple eyes, which are usually situated on a slight eminence.
Below and in front of these are seen the large mandibles, which serve
the Spiders for the destruction of their prey, Hnder which is the
opening of the mouth, furnished with a pair of masticating jaws, or
maxillffi. From each of these springs a long, jointed palpus, which
in some instances appears to be converted into a supplementary
leg. These organs occupy the front of the cephalothorax. Its
lower surface bears four pairs of jointed legs, furnished at their
extremities with claws, which are often of a very singular comb-like
structure. The pulmonary sacs, which are contained in the abdo-
men are either two or four in number, opening by stigmata in the
Fig. 2094. — The African
Scorpion.
lower surface of the abdomen. Besides these respiratory organs,
the majority exhibit an aperture at the extremity of the abdomen,
from which four flat trachea arise, and ramify through the organs
of the body.
Spiders have been celebrated in every age for their webs, or
filmy tissues, in which they entangle their prey, or conceal them-
selves or their progeny from observation. The webs are composed of
threads, the production of a curious apparatus, situated under the
abdomen, and called the spinneret. These spinnerets are four, or
more mammillary processes, perforated by innumerable minute
orifices, through which are drawn thousands of separate lines of a
glutinous fluid, the product of certain vessels, or secreting reservoirs,
destined to furnish the material : the lines quickly harden, and at ii
little distance from the spinneret become united together, and form a
single cord composed of many thousand parallel lines of incon-
cievable fineness. Fig. 2095 shows the mode in which the threads
are drawn out, but each line represented contains about a hundred
of wonderful delicacy. Fig. 2096 shows the way in which the lines
all become united to form a single cord. Fig. 2097 shows the
Fig. 2095. — The Spinnerets and
Thread of the Spider,
Fig. 2096. — The Spider's Thread,
with lines united.
Garden Spider, Epeira diadema, hanging by a thread. The hind feet
(see Fig. 2098) are always applied to the thread at a short distance
from the spinnerets, probably in order to bring the numerous fila-
ments into contact before their hardening has proceeded too far to
Fig. 2097. — The Garden Spider.
allow of their adhesion. This power of spinning threads is of the
greatest importance to all these Animals, as it not only serves many
of them for the construction of dwellings, and of nets for the capture
of prey, but appears to be constantly employed in securing them
from falls whilst in motion, or in descending in a direct line from an
elevated position to some object below them. Many of them have
the faculty of emitting threads, one end of which floats freely m the
air, until it meets with some object to which it adheres By this
means Spiders often form natural bridges, by which they can pass
over brooks and ditches. Some species avail themselves of the
same power to take long flights in the air, where they often attain
great altitudes. Those Spiders whose instinct prompts them to em-
ploy their spinning powers in regular weaving operations, manifest
this in various ways. Some— of which the Common Garden Spider
790
THE SPIDERS.
already referred to, is an excellent example— construct a beautiful
net, composed of stout radiating- lines, intersected at tolerably
re.cular intervals by circular filaments. It appears that the latter
are beset bv an immense number of viscid globules, which doubtless
assist greatly in intangling any Insect that is so unfortunate as_ to
come in contact with the web of the destroyer. The mode in which
the creature forms this elegant structure — its readiness to rush out
of its concealment the moment some hapless fly has become en-
tangled in its meshes — the rapidity with which it shrouds its victim
in a silken coat — and the care witli which it repairs any damage
done to its net — are all exceedingly interesting.
The nets of some of the large Tropical .Spiders are said to be of
strength sufficient even to capture small Birds. Other species —
such as the Common House Spider [Aranea {Tegenaria\ domestica)
Fig. 2098. — Foot of the Spider.
— weave a close cloth-like web, usually placed in obscure corners ;
this is furnished w^ith a sort of funnel-shaped cell, within which the
Spider lies in wait for his prey. Others again employ their silk
merely to line the holes and crevices which form their ordinary
places of abode ; and some of these exhibit great ingenuity in the
construction of their nests. Another purpose to which this secretion
is applied by all Spiders, is the formation of little silky cases, or
cocoons, for the reception of the eggs, which a few species carry
about with them. Attempts have been made to employ this silk,
which differs considerably in its texture from that of which the nets
are constructed, for industrial purposes ; but hitherto with very little
success.
The Spiders are all Predacious Animals, and^enerally of an ex-
ceedingly fierce and sangumary disposition. They prey with avidity
upon Insects and other Articulated Animals of smaller size than
themselves ; but, unless in self-defence, they do not appear to turn
their weapons against the higher Animals. Nevertheless, the
gigantic species of My gale, which inhabit Tropical countries, have
received the name of Bird-spiders, from a belief that they frequently
attack and devour small Birds ; and Madame Merian, in her book
on the Insects of Surinam, has given us a most striking representa-
tion of the Mygale in the act of devouring a small Bird, which he
had. to use the lady's own expression, " torn from its nest." It is to
be feared, however, that in this instance, as in some others, that
enthusiastic naturalist was misled by Indian tales ; for, from all
that we know of the Spiders of the genus Mygale, they are strictly
terrestrial in their habits, and generally seek their food upon the
surface of the ground.
SuB-DlvisiONS. — We divide the Spiders into three families, dis-
tinguished at once by differences in their structure and habits. Those
of the first family, the AraneidcB, have the eyes in two rows, one
behind the other; the terminal claw of the mandibles directed in-
wards, and the palpi, although often long, never converted into foot
like organs. Perhaps the best known of these is the Epeira diadema,
the Garden Spider already named, whose threads often force them-
selves upon our attention in a very disagreeable manner.
This species forms one of the most beautiful of what are called
geometrical webs ; many of the others form a somewhat similar
structure, although without displaying the same wonderful regularity.
Of these the Malmignatte, a spider much dreaded in the south of
Europe, is an example. Our Common House Spider is another
well-known species, offending the eyes of the housewife, as it con-
stantly does, by weaving its dusky web in all dark corners. One of
the most remarkable members of this family is the Argyroneta
aquatica, or Diving Spider, which weaves itself a curious little bell-
shaped dwelling at the bottom of the water. As, notwithstanding
its aquatic habits, this kind, like the rest of its order, is fitted only
for aerial respiration, it takes care to fill its minature dome with air,
which it carries down with it from the surface among the hairs with
which its body is thickly clothed.
The second family, the Lycosidcs, agrees in the structure of its
jaws and palpi, and in the number of its spinnerets, with the
Araneidcs, but the eyes are arranged in three rows. Unlike the
AraticidcB, the Animals of this family never construct regular webs
for the capture of prey ; their utmost exertion of instinct, in this
direction, consisting in laying a few threads in the neighbourhood of
their dwelling-place. They generally live under stones, in holes in
the earth, or in old walls, sometimes lining their habitations with a
silken tapestry ; and some, which live upon trees, weave themselves
a silken nest amongst the leaves or on the branches. They all take
their prey by force ; some of them running it down by swiftness of
foot, whilst others spring suddenly upon their unwary victim. Per-
haps the most celebrated of these Spiders is the Tarantula {Lycosa
iaraniu/a) of Southern Europe, whose bite is supposed by the natives
of Italy to cause death, unless the patient be relieved by music and
violent dancing. Some of these Spiders can run in any direction.
A common example is the Salticiis sceniciis, a small species banded
with black and white, which may frequently be met with on garden
walls. Most of the European species are small ; but in hot climates
they attain a size scarcely inferior to those giants of the order which
form the third family, the Mygaiidcs. In these the palpi are of
great length, terminated by a claw. The last joint also has a
regular sole, like that of the feet. The mandibles are of very large
size, and their terminal claw is directed downwards. Some of these
Spiders attain such a large size, that their extended legs occupy a
circle of six or seven inches in diameter ; and it is to these that the
practice of Bird-catching, already alluded to, has been ascribed.
Species occur on the shores of the Mediterranean ; but they are, for
the most part, confined to Tropical countries. They resemble the
Lycosidcs in their habits, generally living on the ground, in holes, or
under stones. Some of them form long twisted burrows for them-
selves, which they line with silk ; and these burrows sometimes
extend as much as two feet below the surface of the ground. Some,
like the CtenizcB, close the mouth of their subterranean residence with
a most ingeniously constructed trap-door. The Animal selects as the
site of her nest a place destitute of grass, and having such a slope as
to give quick drainage to the water. Here, in the firm dry soil, she
digs a pit to the depth of one or even two feet, and of equal diameter
throughout. This she lines with a tissue of close silken threads,
and forms a deep conical nest or dwelling, of a thick and warm
fabric. The entrance is closed with a circular valve or lid, composed
of several layers of earth, intermingled and bound firmly with silk, and
capable of being opened or shut at pleasure, turning on a silken
hinge. So accurately does this lid fit the rim of the nest, that it
might seem to have been fashioned by the hand of a human artificer.
Fig. 2099 shows this species and its nests : A, the nest shut ; B, the
nest open ; C, the Spider ; D, the ej'es magnified ; E, F, parts of
the foot and claws magnified. Hence the CtenizcB — of which several
species are found in the south of Europe, and on the shores of the
Mediterranean — are generally known as Trap-door Spiders. The
bite of the large Tropical species is said to be very dangerous.
Fig. 2099. — Nests, &c., of the Trap-door Spider.
In the British Museum there are several specimens of the Spider
tribe, viz., the Common Garden Spider, Epeira diade7>7a ; the
Epeira pyramidafa ; Tegenaria atrica ; 2'. domicola ; Lycosa
alacris ; Q.vorax; L. tare}itula, or Tarentula Spider ; the Large
Hairy Spider, Mygaie avictilaria ; the Red-bodied Hairy Spider,
Mygale versiocolor ; the Trap-door Spider, Cle?iiza 7iidnlans ; the
Tufted Spider, Epeira claripes ; the Large Asiatic Scorpion, Scorpio
fnegacephalus, &c., &c.
Class VIL— Myriapoda.
General Characters. — The small class of Myriapoda, is, in
its general characters, very closely allied to the Insects, although in
some respects it appears to approach the Crustacea, especially
THE CENTIPEDES AND MILLIPEDES.
791
the air-breathing Isopods {Oniscidcc). In the mature state, their
bodies are generally elongated, and composed of numerous seg-
ments, of which only the first and last exhibit any difference in
structure from the rest ; the articulations of the body being generally
exactly similar, and bearing each one or two pairs of jointed legs.
The head always bears a pair of jointed antenna;, very similar to
those of many Insects ; and behind the insertion of these, on each
side, is a variable number of simple eyes, which, however, are some-
times wanting. The mouth, in its general structure, bears a con-
siderable resemblance to that of the masticating Insects, being fur-
nished with jaws, palpi, and an upper and lower lip. Besides these
organs, it is armed below with a pair of powerful hooked jaws, which
are perforated at their extremity, apparently for the emission of
a venomous fluid. These are the principal agents in seizing prey.
The succeeding rings, which admit of no division into thorax and
abdomen, are each furnished with one or two legs on either side ;
and close to the insertion of the feet, the stigmata, through which
the air passes into the trachea;, are situated. The trachea; ramify
through the organs of the body in exactly the same manner as
those of Insects.
In their internal anatomy, they also exhibit a great resemblance to
the Insects. Their nervous system consists of a series of ganglia
running along the ventral portion of the body, and usually united by
a double thread ; and the circulation is effected by a long cylindrical
dorsal vessel, the structure of which will be explained under the
following class. The Myriapoda are all unisexual Animals. In
some Alyriapoda, the young, on first escaping from the ^^Z,
possess nearly all the characters of their parents, although the
number of segments and limbs is always less, and increases at each
change of skin ; but some, as the luli, undergo a sort of metamor-
phosis (Fig. 2100), coming from the egg either quite destitute of feet,
or furnished with only three pairs of these organs ; and it is not until
Fig. 2100. — Transformation of the lulus.
a, l>, c, successive stages.
after several moultings that they attain the same number of legs as
their parents. This process appears to occupy a considerable
period ; and, according to the observations of Professor Savi, the
luli occupy two years in their development before the sexual organs
make their appearance. This metamorphosis, such as it is, indi-
cates the close alliance of these creatures with the Insects.
Sub-divisions. — The Myriapoda form two orders — the Chilopoda
and the Chilognatha, which may be readily distinguished by the
structure of the antennae ; those of the former never being composed
of less than fourteen joints, whilst those of the second order always
consist of seven articulations.
Order I.— Chilopoda.
General Characters. — These Animals are usually of a flat-
tened form, with the rings protected, both above and below, by a
more or less flattened horny plate, and each ring bears only a single
pair of feet, those of the hinder ring being directed backwards in
the form of a pair of jointed tails. The antennae are long, and
always composed of at least fourteen joints. The structure of the
mouth has already been described.
These creatures usually live in the earth or under stones. They
run with considerable swiftness in pursuit of their prey, and can
even progress backwards by the assistance of their tail-like hind
legs, which at other times are dragged helplessly behind them.
Their food consists of Insects, which they seize with the powerful
jaw-like organs attached to the lower lip ; and these organs are
supposed to inject a poison into the wound they inflict. The bite
of some of the large Tropical species is said to be exceedingly pain-
ful, and even more injurious than that of the Scorpion ; although
the application of ammonia to the wound speedily relieves the pain
of the bite.
Sub-divisions.— The Chilopoda are divided into three families—
the CermaiiidcE, the Scolopendrida, and the GeophilidcB. The
Cermatiidce have the body rather short, with its upper surface
covered by eight plates ; its ventral surface by fifteen ; the legs are
very long, and terminated by feet composed of numerous joints.
These Animals are all exotic, and generally of small size. They
conceal themselves amongst the beams and joists of houses.
The ScolopcndridcB, well known as Centipedes, have the body
long, and divided into an equal number of segments on both sur-
faces, with the legs rather short, but stout, and well adapted for
active motion. This family includes all the most powerful and
prcdaceous species, those of hot climates certainly attaining a
length of twelve inches; and, if we are to believe some travellers,
still more gigantic species arc to be met with in particularly favour-
able situations. Thus Ulloa states that specimens have been seen
in Carthagena exceeding three feet in length and five inches in
breadth, the bite of which is said to be mortal ; but these dimensions
are so far above those of any Centipedes that have ever been
brought to Europe, that we may be pardoned for receiving them with
some little incredulity. Our British species, of which one of the
commonest, 'Cnc Lithobiiis forcipatus, is represented in Fig. 2101 a,
are of comparatively small size, rarely exceeding two inches in
length ; but even these, when seized, will turn, and attempt to fix
their jaws into the skin of their captor.
The Gcophilidcs, of which a common British species is figured
below (Fig. 2101 <5), are distinguished by their very elongated and
almost thread-like bodies, composed of numerous segments, and
Fig. 2101. — a, ihs Lithoblus forcifratus ; h, the Ceophilus loit^icornis.
bearing a great, but variable number of feet. Some species are
phosphorescent in the dark. One of these, the Gcophilns ek'ctricus,
is not unfrequently met with in the neighbourhood of London.
Order II.— Chilognatha.
General Characters. — In the Chilognatha, the body is
generally of a convex form, composed of numerous horny arches,
below which an immense multitude of little feet may be seen, w-hcnce
the name oi Millepedes, or thousand-legs, by which these Animals
are commonly known, is derived. Each segment of the body bears
two pairs of limbs, with the exception of the hindmost segment,
which is destitute of those organs. The antennje are short, and
composed only of seven joints ; and the powerful biting jaws of the
Chilopoda are reduced to a rudimentary condition, the other organs
of the mouth also undergoing considerable modifications. As might
be expected, from this difference in the structure of the mouth, the
food of these Animals diff:ers greatly from that of the predaccous
members of the preceding order ; and the Chilognatha are found
to feed principally upon vegetable matters generally when in a
state of decay. In accordance with this change of habit, the move-
ments of the creatures, notwithstanding their immense number of
Fig. 2102. — The Polydesmus.
legs, arc always very slow, and they generally endeavour to escape
danger by rolling themselves up into a ball. They are to be met
with constantly in damp moss, and a few live under the bark of
trees.
Sub-divisions. — The first of the four families into which the
Chilognatha are divided, contains only a single, minute, but very
curious creature, which is often found in great abundance under the
Fig. 2103. — The lulus.
bark of old trees. It is about a sixth of an inch in length, com-
posed of eight segments, e,xclusive of the head and tail. On each
side of the body there are nine tufts of little curved hairs ; and the
extremity of the body is furnished with a tuft of longer straight hairs.
This Animal is the Polyxenus lagurus : it forms the type of the
family Polyxcnida:.
In the second family, the PolydesmidcE, the form of the body ap-
proaches that of the Scolopend'ridce in the preceding order, being
flattened and rather soft ; but in other respects the Animals re-
semble the lulidce. One species, the Polydesmus complanatus
(Fig. 2102 ), is an inhabitant of Britain.
792
THE CENTIPEDES.
In the lulidce {lulus, Fig. 2103), the body >\f °"S'^t^'^/,^^"^
nearly of a cylindrical form, bearing no ^considerable rescrnbla_nce
Zl thick worm , in which the skin has become horny and ^ 'J' J^^ into
numerous segments. These animals are constantly to be found m
damp moss, and sometimes crawling upon trunks of t-i^ s- ^^ he"
alarmed, they coil themselves up in a spiral f'^™i ^' '''',, '''V"^
ent ely concealed. Their march is very slow, and, from the short-
ness of their legs, appears more like a gliding motion than a walk
The G/./«./-^§^ forming the fourth family, have a short oval
body closely resembling that of the Wood-louse, which thty also
resemble in U.eir habit of rolling themse^^^^^^^
^Ifere' ittTrnishTrwith I row oTsmall scales on each side. These
animals live under stones.
The
inM-gnuUa); 2, tne -^u.imi.uu x.....>.k— - v------ - Pnivvenus or
Flat "Millepede {Polydesmus compianatus), 4. the Polyxenus, or
Brush-tailed MiUepede-a, magnified; b, the ^^I'^^f ^'fx^'^^
Tnncr horned Centipede {Geophdus longicorms): 6, the Uommon
^:^^:^{U^Mncsfo,iicatU, 7, the Scutigera coleoptrata.
mals live under stones. Millepede {(?/(7Wer«
Fig. 2104.— Group of Centipedes.
THE INSECIS.
"93
CHAPTER XL II I.
ARTICUL ATA.— CLASS INSECTA.
HE study of Entomology, or the science
dealing with Insects, is equally in favour
with old and young-, with the learned and
unlearned. It forms the last, and, per-
haps, the largest class of the Articulated
Animals. It emoraces, also, a great
variety of natural objects which are con-
stantly familiar to us.
It has been said by a great entomolo-
gist, that Insects are Nature's favourite
productions, in which to manifest her
power and skill she has combined all that is either
beautiful and graceful, interesting and alluring, or
curious and singular, in every other class of her
children. To these her valued miniatures she has
given the most delicate touch and highest finish of
her pencil. Nor has Nature been lavish only in
the apparent ornaments of these privileged tribes.
In other respects she has been equally unsparing
of her favours. To some she has given horns
nearly the counterparts of those of various Quadru-
peds ; some are covered with bristles ; others with
pines; some are of richest hues, sparkling like
gems, topaz, sapphire, and amethyst, in the rays
of the sun ; some gleam in polished armour —
" Like some stem warrior formidably bright,
Their steely sides reflect a gleaming light."
Others are dull of colour, and of strange form and aspect, resembling
withered leaves or bits of stick, and find thereby tlieir security.
To leap, to run, to walk, to bore into the ground, or drive galleries
through timber, to fly through the air, to gambol in the water, and
dive and swim, are amongst the endowments of Insects — some build
structures more wonderful than the pyramids, some gleam with
phosphorescent radiance — and many are armed with poisoned
weapons. They furnish us with silk, wax, honey, lac, cochineal,
gall-nuts, &c. Some hold an important place in the pharma-
copoeia, some are eaten by various tribes of Man, and multitudes
furnish food to the Beasts of the earth, the Birds of the air ; to the
Reptile tribes ; to the Fishes ; and to the more powerful of their
own class. But others, such as the Weevil, the Colorado Beetle,
the Aphides, Locusts, &c., prey on our vegetable productions, and
consequently become the scourge of some countries.
Insects, in their perfect state, are distinguished from thp other
Head.
Thorax.
Abdomen.
Anleiii.iB
Eyes
lEit pair of Lege
iBt pair of Wings
2nd pair of Lege
And pair of Wings
Srd pair uf Legs —
Tibia,
TflTBUfl
Fig. 2105. — Anatomy of the E.xtemal Skeleton of an Insect.
Articulate Animals by the possession of six legs and two antenna,
and by the division of the body into three distinct regions, the head,
thorax, and abdomen (see Fig. 2105), of which the sdcond bears the
organs of motion. They respire by tracheae, are generally furnished
with wings, and almost always undergo a series of transformations
(the metamorphosis) before arriving at their mature and reproduc-
tive form. ^
Like the other Arthrofoda, the bodies of Insects are composed
ot distinct rings or segments, and these are generally of a horny con-
sistency, united to each other by a membranous skin which gives
flexibility to the whole. In some cases, however, the skin is of a
softer te.xture ; but even in these it presents sufficient firmness for
the attachment of the muscles, and the tubes composing the limbs
are generally of a harder consistence than the rest of the integu-
ment. The number of segments of which the body of an Insect is
normally composed is thirteen ; but some of them are occasionally
amalgamated together, or concealed by the others, so as to make it
appear that fewer segments are present.
The first segment, or the head, is composed of a single piece,
which bears the eyes, the antennas, and the organs of the mouth.
The eyes CFig. 2106), which are amongst the most wonderful objects
m nature, are almost always of the kind called compound ; that is
a, a,
Fig. 2106.— Head and Eyes of the Bee.
antennae ; b, ocelli; A, facets enlarged ; B, the same with hairs growing
between them.
to say, they consist of a multitude of little he.xagonal lacets, brought
close together on each side of the head, each furnished with a
cornea, a lens, a coating of pigment, and a nervous filament. The
number of these little eyes is sometimes most extraordinary. The
eye of the Common House-fly has 4,000 of them ; that of a Dragon-
fly more than 12,000; of a Butterfly, observed by Puget, 17325-
and that of a small species of Beetle {Mordel/a) no less 'than
25,000. In addition to these compound eyes, many Insects also
possess two or three ocellt, or simple eyes, placed on the head,
between the large compound organs; these appear to be very
similar in their structure to the individual eyes, of which the com-
pound eyes are composed.
The antenna; are usually attached to the front of the head,
between the eyes. They are exceedingly variable in their form, and
^^^Octxaj::^
Fig. 2107. — Antennae of various Insects.
5 I
794
ORGANS OF INSECTS.
probably very considerably in function, although their general
office appears to bo that of organs of touch. (See Fig. 2107).
In some instances, however, their conformation appears to
indicate that they are the organs of some special sense ; and
the functions of smell and hearing have been attributed to them
by different observers. In their most ordinary and simple form,
they are more or less filiform organs, composed of a very variable
number of joints. Sometimes they are thickened at the base ;
occasionally at the apex. In some cases the whole or part of the
joints are furnished with one or more processes, bristles, or hairs,
giving the entire organ a comb-like or feathered appearance ; in
others the terminal joints are converted into broad plates, folded
together like the leaves of a book. These, and several other forms,
are represented in Fig. 2107 ; and we shall meet with a still greater
variety as we proceed.
The structure of the mouth in Insects~exhibits very remarkable
modifications ; and such are of the utmost importance in the classi-
fication of these creatures. In some Insects the mouth is formed
exclusively for biting ; in others, as exclusively for suction ; whilst in
others again, it is fitted for the performance of both these actions ;
and the form of its constituent parts of course undergoes correspond-
ing changes — but the same organs really exist in all, modified in
appearance, indeed, so as sometimes to be scarcely recognisable.
Fig. 2108. — Head of the Cockroach.
a, labrum ; b, mandibles ; c, maxilla ;
d, maxilliary palpi ; e, tongue ; /,
labial palpi ; g, antennas ; h, com-
pound eyes ; i, ocelli.
Fig. 2109. — Parts of the mouth of
the Carabus.
a, labrum ; b, mandibles ; c,
maxilloe ; d, labium.
Maxillary Falp
Labial Falp
Lateral Lebes of
the Torino
Tongin
In the masticating or biting insects, the mouth (Figs. 2108, 2109)
consists of six separate organs ; an upper lip {labrum, a) attached
to the lower part of the front of the head ; a pair of horny, curved,
biting jaws {mandibles, b) which are usually armed with teeth ; a
pair of chewing jaws {maxillcs, c), generally composed of four
pieces, and bearing either one or two pairs of jointed palpi ; and
a lower lip {labium, d), which closes the mouth from beneath, and
also bears a single pair of palpi (Fig. 2110). On its inner surface
it is furnished with a membranous or fleshy organ, to which the
name of the tongue has been given.
Amongst the Bees, the organs of the mouth take another form,
which, whilst it leaves a portion of them fitted for biting, converts
the remainderinto genuine suctorial organs (Figs. 2110, 2111). The
parts thus modified are the maxillffl and labium ; the former (Fig.
21 1 1 c) become greatly elongated, forming a sort of jointed sheath,
which incloses the elongated tongue (Fig. 2 in (/}, constituting a
Fig. 21 10. — Head of the Anthophora.
tubular organ, though which the fluid nourishment of these creatures
can be sucked up. The mandibles and labrum (Fig. 2 in a, b) retain
their ordinary form, and the former are constantly employed in the
numerous ingenious operations which these industrious creatures
QQ-
perform. The suctorial mouth presents three principal forms. In
the Butterflies and their allies, the suctorial organ consists of a long
trunk, which, when at rest, is coiled up in a spiral form beneath the
head, as in the case of the Sphinx. (Fig. 211 1). This spiral trunk
is composed of the terminal portion of the maxilla:, which are more
or less elongated, and form two long, wrinkled tubes, adhering
together along their inner surfaces, and forming a double tubular
organ, through which their possessor sucks the juices of flowers.
The maxillary palpi are generally of very small size, and only to be
detected by dissection ; but the labium,
although very small, usually bears a pair of
very large, hairy palpi, which form the
cushions, between which the trunk is coiled
up when at rest, The mandibles and la-
brum are also present, although in a very
rudimentary condition, and always con-
cealed under the hairs with which the heads
of Butterflies are clothed. This structure
of the mouth, which is characteristic of
the oxditx LeJi!doJ>tera, that embraces these
Insects, will be easily understood by refer-
ence to the preceding figures, in which the
organs are represented separately.
There are other forms of the suctorial mouth
specially adapted to the purposes of the In-
sect. Thus in the Rhyiichota, which includes
the Bugs and their allies, the mouth is fur-
nished with a jointed rostrum formed by the
coalescence of the labial palpi. It is in fact
a tube inclosing four bristle-like organs. By means of these bristles,
which are sharp at the point, the Rhyncota are enabled to wound the
tissues of the Animals and plants on whose juices they feed. Another
form of suctorial apparatus is seen in the Diptera, or the Winged
Flies, such as the Common House Fly. These possess a proboscis
generally of a fleshy character; this is composed of the lower lip ; is
Fig. 21 1 1. — Pails of the
Mouth separated.
Fig. 21 12. — Mouth of the Sphinx.
H, head ; e, eye ; a, antennre ; w.r, maxillie ; mp, maxillary palpi ; I\, la-
brum ; /2, labium ; Ip, labial palpi ; m, mandibles.
usually bent upwards, at a short distance from its base, and ter-
minated by a broad flap (the representative of the labial palpi), which
is constantly used as an organ of touch. The upper surface of this
proboscis, which forms a tube, is opened below the knee-like bend,
to give issue to the true buccal organs, the mandibles, maxillae, and
labrum, which, in many of these Animals, acquire the form of
bristles or lancets, and are employed in piercing the skins of other
Animals, and sucking their blood. (See Fig. 2113.) The maxilte
are generally furnished with a pair of palpi, consisting of from one
to five joints ; and when, as is sometimes the case, the maxilla;, with
the other internal organs, are reduced to a rudimentary condition,
the maxillary palpi are inserted upon the stalk of the labium at or near
the bend. All these types of structure undergo great modifications
in different groups of Insects ; and these differences furnish some of
the most important characters for the classification of these Animals.
Fig. 2 II 3. — Proboscis of a Dipterous insect ( Tabanus ).
e, eyes ; a, ocelli ; vi, mandible ; mx, maxillie ; mp, maxillary palpus ;
/2, labium.
The second division of the body of Insects is always composed of
three segments, although these are frequently amalgamated toge-
ther in such a manner as to be almost undistinguishable. The three
LEGS AND WINGS OF INSECTS.
795
segments together form the thorax (see Fig. 2105 a7ite, representing
the anatomy of the external skeleton of the Insect) ; but they are
individually distinguished by names indicative of their position in
the body ; the first being called the p>-othorax, the 'second the
mcsothorax, and the third the metatliorax. They vary greatly in
their comparative size. In some Insects, all the segments are
equally uncovered, whilst in others only the prothorax is visible when
the wings are closed.
The thoracic segments always bear the organs of motion, which,
in most Insects, consists of six legs and four wings. The form of
these organs is very various; but their general construction is
always similar. Tlie centre of the lower surface of the thorax, or
breast, is occupied by a narrow piece called the s/crnNin, which fre-
quently projects as a ridge externally, and generally gives off an
internal process for the insertion of muscles. On each side of this
are the sockets for the legs, of which each segment of the thorax bears
a pair. The first joint of the legs, called the coxa (or hip), is some-
times immovably attached to the thorax, and at others articulated
with it by a sort of ball and socket joint. This is followed by a
second piece, the trochanter, which unites the long thigh {femur) to
the coxa ; this varies greatly in its form, being sometimes ring-
shaped, sometimes forming atriangular piece applied against the base
of the thigh. The thighs are generally of a rounded form, frequently
thickened in the middle or towards the extremity ; they are often,
especially the hinder pair, of very large size, and armed with spines
of greater or less magnitude. The shanks (or tibicB), which, articu-
culated by a sort of hinge-joint to the extremities of the thighs, are
generally about equal to these in length, but thinner, and frequently
more or less flattened or angular, and furnished with numerous
spines or bristles. At the extremity of the tibia comes the tarsus,
or foot, which sometimes consists of one, but generally of from three
to five joints. The lower surface of these feet is generally flattened,
and converted into a sort of sole, covered with very close-set hair ;
and the apex of the last joint is almost always furnished with a pair
of claws, often beautifully toothed, and in many cases accompanied
by a pair of soft membranous organs, called puivilli, which are
very distinct in the Common Fly. These adhere, like sucking-cups,
to any object against which they may be applied, and thus enable
their possessors to walk securely even in a reversed position. The
legs and their component parts undergo an infinity of modifications
in the different groups of Insects ; always, however, in exact coinci-
dence with the habits of the creatures. Fig. 2 114 represents these
Fig. 21 14. — Legs of the Beetle.
various parts ; the coxa, or hip, A and C, a, which is the first joint, or
that next to the body. The trochanter. A, B, and C—b; the femur or
thigh, c : the tibia or shank d; and lastly the tarsus, or foot, e, never
composed of more than five joints, and often ending in two hooked
claws, A, g, called unguiculi. The apex of the tibia is often fur-
nished with two spines called calcarea, A and B,/. To this we may
add that A represents a limb formed for running : B, a paddle-shaped
limb for swimming : C, a limb suited for burrowing : D, a limb en-
dowed with the power of leaping, the thigh being voluminous and
muscular. In Leaping Insects, such as the Grasshopper and the
Locust, the hinder legs are frequently much lengthened. In many
aquatic Insects, as the Water Beetle, the legs are flattened. In the
Mule-cricket the legs are adapted for burrowing; while m the Mantis,
or Praying-insect, the limbs are converted into formidable prehensile
weapons which they fix on their prey.
We may here glance at the wings of Insects. These organs are
two or four in number, of a membranous and often extremely delicate
texture, variously marked by nervures, which Jurine has demonstrated
to be air-tubes continued from the body. Delicate as are the wings,
they arc composed of a double membranous tissue, between which
the nervures ramify, often so minutely (in the Dragon-fly, for in-
stance) as to represent exquisite lacework. They vary greatly in
relative extent and outline, and also in their position when at rest :
sometimes they are elevated; sometimes they cross each other,
and sometimes are extended ; in many tribes they are folded up,
somewhat like the wings of a bat, and hidden under wing-cases, or
elytra, of more or less rigid consistence. This latter mode prevails
throughout the Coleoptcra ; which, instead of having anterior wings,
have these opaque portions under which the true wings are folded
when at rest. During flight the elytra are extended, and give
increase of surface, without additional weight to the " Shardborne
Beetle." In none of the Coleoptera are these elytra wanting,
though in some species the wings themselves arc undeveloped. In
many Insects, as Butterflies and Moths, the nervures and tissues of
the wings are hidden by minute scales and plumes, which beneath a
microscope present very beautiful objects. These scales, which to
the naked eye appear like fine dust, are variously arranged, but
mostly in an imbricated manner, with more or less regularity. They
are inserted into the membrane by a short footstalk or root, but
their attachment is comparatively slight, whence they are brushed
off by a touch. Not only are they often richly coloured, but they are
marked with stria;, and often crossed by finer lines, and these
striae, by the reflection of the light at different angles, produce vary-
ing tints of brilliant or metallic effulgence. Some idea of the
almost endless variety of form and markings which the scales of
moths and Butterflies assume may be conceived when we state that
Lyonnet nearly fills six quarto plates with crowded delineations of
those of one species, viz., the Boinbyx cossus. The number of those
scales on the wings of a large Butterfly almost defy calculation.
Leeuwenhoek counted upwards of four hundred thousand on the
wings of a Silk Moth, and it is estimated that in one square inch of
a Butterfly's wing the number of scales will amount to one hundred
thousand seven hundred and forty. When these scales are rubbed
off, the wings will be found to consist of an elastic transparent mem-
brane, exhibiting beneath a microscope indented lines, according to
the arrangement of the scales. In the scales of the wings of
Butterflies with iridescent colours, we are forcibly reminded of the
scaly feathers of the Humming-bird.
We must not omit here to state that Dipterous, or two winged,
insects, as the Fly, the Tipula, &c. , have below the wings on each
side a slender peduncle terminated by a bulb or club ; these are
termed halteres, balancers, or poisers ; and they vary in length in
different species ; and from experiments that have been often
repeated it appears that they steady the body during flight. Above
Fig. 21 15. — A Beetle flying.
Fig. 21 16. — Wings of various Insects.
these balancers is a fittle scale or winglet {alula), formed of two
portions joined together at one of the edges, and not unlike the two
valves of a shell. The use of these wmglets is not very clear ;
Scheler found that if removed from a Fly, the power of buzzing
ceased, and, moreover, that the faculty of flight was destroyed, as
much so as by the removal of the balancers ; these latter he con-
jectures to be filled with air and to serve as a sort of reservoir In
7g6
TRANSFORMATION' OF INSECTS.
some Dipterous Insects, the balancers are situated at the anterior
part of the thorax. Latreille terms them " prebalanciers. " Fig.
2115 represents a large Beetle, with the elytra snread in flight and
the membranous wings displayed at full stretch. Fig. 21 16 represents
the wings of several Insects — a, the wing of a Beetle ; b, the wing of
an Earwig ; c, the wing of the Saw-fly ; d, the wing of a Crane Fly ; e,
the wing of a Common Fly ; f, the wing of a Midge.
Of the abdomen, in general, but little can be said. It consists
normally of nine segments ; but some of these are generally con-
cealed by the others, so that the abdomen appears to be composed
of a smaller number of articulations. The orifice of the generative
organs is situated at the extremity of the abdomen, which, in the
male, is often furnished with peculiar organs for grasping the abdo-
men of the female during copulation, and in the female, with instru-
ments of very various structure, adapted for placing the eggs in the
situation most proper for their development. The apex of the abdo-
men is also sometimes furnished with appendages not connected
with the generative organs ; these are sometimes long filiform tails,
occasionally bristle-like organs, by means of which the Insect effects
considerable leaps. In the Cockroaches, and some other Insects,
they form stout-jointed bristles, resembling short antenna. In the
Earwigs they constitute a powerful pair of forceps, often of great
length ; whilst the Aphides are furnished with a pair of tubular
appendages, from which a sweet juice exudes.
The intestinal canal always forms a tube of variable width (Fig.
2117), formed of three membranous layers, running from one ex-
tremity of the body to the other,
commencing behind the mouth in
a narrow oesophagus, and usually
terminating posteriorly in a some-
what dilated cavity, the cloaca,
which also receives the termina-
tion of the internal generative
organs. The oesophagus leads
first into a membranous, and usu-
ally folded stomach, the crop;
from this, in the masticating In-
sects, the food passes into a se-
cond stomach, which, from its
being furnished with homy plates
and other organs for the com-
minution of the food, has received
the name oi gizzard. Behind this
is the true stomach, in which the
process of chylification goes on.
This is often covered with little
villi, or furnished with glandular
organs, which appear to secrete a
gastric juice of some kind. The
remainder of the canal forms the
intestine, which is usually of a
tubular form, and is very variable
in length, sometimes running to
the anal opening with but little
deviation ; whilst in other cases it
forms several convolutions in the
anterior of the abdomen. The
length of the intestinal canal
varies greatly. In the Carni-
vorous and Suctorial species it is
usually short — not more than twice
the length of the body — whilst in
the vegetable-feeding Insects it is
Fig. 2117.— Digestive Apparatus of jnuch longer, sometimes attaining
Beetles. - - ^ ' s
, phamyx ; b, oesophagus ; c, crop ;
a, gizzard ; e, chylific stomach ; f,
small intestines ; g, rectum ; hh,
biliary vessels.
^
a. length equal to eight times that
of the body. The oesophagus is
usually furnished with tubular sali-
vary glands, and in the Suctorial
Insects, also, frequently with a
bladder-like organ, the sucking
stomach, by the dilatation of which the Animals are enabled to suck
up their fluid nutriment. Behind the stomach, the intestine receives
the mouths of several long tubular organs, which are usually con-
sidered to secrete matter analogous to the bile of larger animals.
The anus is frequently furnished with similar glands.
The circulation in Insects is effected as follows : — The heart is a
tubular organ, running along the back of the Insect, and hence
called the dorsal vessel, as represented in Fig. 2 118. This is
formed of a series of sacs, opening one into another from behind
forwards. Thus the folds formed by the junction of the sacs serve
as valves to prevent the reflux of the blood.
The most general form of the nervous system in Insects has been
already described ; although many of these Animals exhibit a
striking departure from a general rule. In some, the whole of the
ganglia of the body appear to be condensed into one or two masses,
from the hindmost of which, the abdominal nerves radiate in all
directions ; whilst others present various intermediate stages between
this and the normal form. The brain consists of a nervous mass,
placed above the oesophagus ; and from this the nerves of the princi-
pal organs of sense, the eyes and antenna, are given off. Below
the oesophagus is another ganglion, united with the supra-cesopha-
gal ganglia by a pair of nervous threads, which form a collar sur-
rounding the oesophagus. From the lower portion of this ring the
filaments are given off which unite the ganglia of the body with Those
Fig. 21 18. — Circulati-jn in Insects.
(The arrows indicate the course of the blood.)
of the head ; and these filaments, with their ganglia, always run
along the lower portion of the body, immediately within the skin of
the belly ; the alimentary canal occupying the space above them,
and this again being surmounted by the dorsal vessel.
We next turn to the transformation that Insects undergo, a most
interesting subject, the objects of which are familiar to us all.
Here it may be observed that the British Museum contains a series
of models, in wax, and, where possible, dried specimens of the various
states of many Insects to be described hereafter.
The change in their regular development from the egg which
Insects undergo, is technically termed Metamorphosis (changed-
form). The amount of this change varies with different Insects, but
in the case of the Butterflies, Moths, and Beetles, with many others,
three distinct changes are seen, as represented in Fig. 21 19. In
the first place is the larva (a), Caterpillar, Grub, or Maggot. Dur-
ing this part of its existence, the chief business of the Animal is
Fig. 2 1 19. —Transformations of the Swallow-tailed Butterfly (Fa/>i/!0 machaon).
a. Larva ; b. Pupa ; c. Imago.
that of eating. After remaining for some time in this condition, it
becomes converted into the^«/a (b) when it is apparently dormant,
neither eating nor moving. After lying in this state for some time
it changes into the imago (c), or perfect Insect. Those who have
kept Silk-worms will have noticed all these changes from the Worm
to the Moth. These changes are among the most remarkable
which the study of Natural History affords. To see the same
Animal, first as a Worm-like creature, slowly moving and eating
ravenously, then passing into a state apparently of death, and at
last rising to a busy aerial life, furnished with wings, frequently ot
the most brilliant colours, is certainly a remarkable spectacle,
whether for the man of science or the amateur.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.
797
But although the majority of the class Insccta undergoes a com-
plete metamorphosis of this description, there are many in which
the only transformation consists in a series of changes of skin, with-
out any interval of rest ; the larva, which, from the first, presents
a certain degree of resemblance to its parent, gradually acquiring
those organs which it originally wanted. In this metamorphosis,
which is called incomplete, the principal difference between the
larva and imago consists in the absence of wings, which first make
their appearance in the form of thick lobes, inclosed in cases, in the
course of the last changes of the skin. The joints of the antennae
and tarsi are also sometimes fewer in number; and the ocelli, or
simple eyes, are generally wanting in the larva, when present in the
perfect Insect. In some insects, such as the Dragon-flies, the May-
flies, and some others, the larva, which are Aquatic, present a
greater difference from the perfect Insect than in the cases above
referred to ; although the pupa is active, and continues to feed until
the time of its arrival at imago state. We may therefore call this a
sub-complete metamorphosis. Lastly, a few Insects, which possess
no wings in the perfect state, undergo no change, except in size,
''rom the time of their emergence from the e.gg, to that of their reach-
ing maturity.
Sub-divisions. — From the enormous variety of Insects, natur-
alists have greatly varied in regard to their classification. But,
availing ourselves of the peculiarities of metamorphosis, just des-
cribed, the whole of the Insect Class may be conveniently divided
into three sub-classes. In one, the Animals are Apterous, that is,
without wings in all stages, and undergo no change of form. These
have been termed Insecta Amctabola (Insects wanting transfor-
mation). In the second, the larva present a more or less close re-
semblance to the perfect Insects, but possess no wings, which make
their appearance in the form of lobes or tubercles on the back of the
pupa. The latter is generally active, and continues to eat, but is
occasionally quiescent. These are the Insecta Hemimetabola
(half-transformation). In the third sub-class, the metamorphosis is
complete, the larva, pupa, and imago states constitute the three
distinct conditions of existence, the second being always quiescent,
as already illustrated in the case of the Butterfly in Fig. ziiganfe.
There are the Insccta Alctabola, or perfectly transformed Insects.
These sub-classes are further divided into orders principally from
characters derived from the structure of the mouth and wings. Of
these the Ametabola, include three — the Anoptura, or Lice, pos-
sessing a suctorial mouth ; the Mallophaga, or Bird-lice, with biting
oral organs, but without caudal appendages ; and the Thysaniira,
or Spring-tails, with mandibulate mouths, and with two or more
bristles attached to the caudual extremity. The Hemimetabola in-
clude three principal orders, of which one, the Ry?ichota, including
the Bugs and Cicadis, is characterised by the possession of a jointed
suctorial rostrum, whilst the other two are mandibulate. In one of
these, the Ortliopte?-a,t\\e.yiir\gsaxe unequal; the posterior membran-
ous pair being the largest, and folded up in repose beneath the
anterior pair, which are generally coriaceous in their texture. A
second, the Neuroptera, has the wings generally equal in size and
similar in consistence. Some of these have quiescent puoa. A
fourth small order, the Physopoda, consisting of minute Insects
nearly allied to the Orthoptera, is characterised by the possession
of four narrow flat wings, without nervures, but furnished with a
fringe of fine hairs.
The third sub-class, the Metabola, is divided into six orders, of
which three have the mouth completely suctorial ; whilst in the others
some of the oral organs are always formed for biting. Of the suc-
torial Aletabola, the Aphaniptera (a little order including only the
Fleas), have the thoracic segments distinctly separated, and the
wings represented only by two horny plates on each side of the body.
In the two other suctorial orders the segments of the thorax are
more or less completely fused into a mass. Of these, the Diptera,
or Flies, are distinguished by their short proboscis, and by the
possession of only a single pair of wings ; the position of the hinder
pair being occupied by knobbed filiform organs ; whilst the Lepi-
doptera, including the well-known Butterflies and Moths, are fur-
nished with a spiral trunk, and with four large scaly wings. Of the
mandibulate orders of this section, the Hymenoptera, Bees, Wasps,
&c., are characterised by their four more or less membranous veined
wings, of which the posterior pair are always the smallest ; whilst
the Coleoptera, or Beetles, are distinguished by the horny consis-
tency of their anterior wings, which serve merely as cases for the
protection of the delicate membranous hinder pair. A third mandi-
bulate order, the curious Strepsiptera, or Bee-parasites, apparently
allied to the Coleoptera, have the anterior wings reduced to a rudi-
mentary condition, forming a pair of singularly twisted appendages
placed on the mesothorax ; whilst the hinder wings are of large
size, and fold up like a fan during repose. The females are apterous
or wingless.
Sub-class I.— Ametabola.
Order I.— Anoplura.
Neither the habits nor the appearance of the Insects forming the
Fig.
b,
2 1 20. — (7, the Common Louse,
magnified ; c, one of the legs
magnified ; d, eggs ; e, ditto mag-
nified.
present order are such as to render them particularly attractive
objects. Small as they are, perhaps no other Insects inspire so much
disgust as Lice ; being generally regarded as the concomitants of
dirty habits. They have a flattened and semi-transparent body,
with a distinctly separated head, which bears a pair of short five-
jointed antennx and one or two simple eyes on each side. It is
furnished beneath with a soft retractile proboscis, within which
are four bristle-like organs, the analogues of the mandibles and
maxilla;. There is rarely any distinction between the thoracic and
abdominal segments, except that the former are furnished with three
pairs of stout legs, terminated either by a strong hook or by a pair
of grasping claws (Fig. 2120).
These Animals are all parasitic upon mammiferous Animals, of
which almost every species has its peculiar louse, whilst some of
them harbour three or four distinct
species of these parasites. Four
species inhabit the human subject,
three of them being of ordinary
occurrence ; whilst the fourth,
the Pediculus tabescetitium, has
only been occasionally observed,
v> ^^**r \vf' rvs- but always in vast numbers, either
I ^T wa-^ -Y^><n"^^ causing or accompanying a com-
\ j3 Oii/ .^jL^ffl b p plaint under which the patient
I ij\ ^w ^^" "• W\$ appears gradually to waist away.
Several instances are recorded in
ancient authors, of death being
caused by this disease, which is
termed phithiriasis (from the
Greek phtheir, a louse) ; and
although, in some of these cases,
the mischief appears rather to be
attributable to mites, allied to the Sarcoptes scabiei, already des-
cribed, yet the occurrence of vast quantities of Pcdiculi upon an old
woman, which was observed some years since at Bonn, would seem
to show that True Lice may have been the aggressors in some of the
fatal cases on record.
Order II. — Mallophaga.
General Characters. — This small order is composed of Insects
bearing a general resemblance to tho Lice, with which, in fact, they
are arranged by many authors. They differ from the Anoplura, in
having the mouth always formed for biting, being furnished with a
pair of hooked mandibles, and distinct upper and lower lips, and
sometimes with a slender pair of palpigerous maxilla;. This differ-
ence in structure is accompanied by a corresponding difference in
habits. Instead of sucking the blood of the Animals on which they
are parasitic, the Jllallop/taga devour the most delicate portions of
their hair or feathers ; frequently attacking these organs at the
moment of their spouting through the skin. They are especially
common upon Birds, few of them being free from such Parasites ; and
some species also infest Quadrupeds. As nearly every species of
Bird has at least one of these Parasites peculiar to itself, their num-
bers, as might be expected, are by no means small, and they have
been formed into numerous genera. Burmeister divided them into
two families — the Philopteridcs, with filiform antenna, and without
maxillary palpi, aad the Liotkeidcs, with maxillary and clavate
antennae.
Order III.— Thysanura,
General Characters. — This order includes a small number of
mandibulate Insects, referred by Burmeister, like those of the preced-
ing order, to the neighbourhood of the Orthoptera. They are dis-
tinguished from the other Ametabola by the possession of caudal
appendages, by means of which most of them are enabled to execute
considerable springs. The body is clothed with hairs or scales.
The head is sometimes free, occasionally concealed beneath the
prothoracic segment. The eyes, in some species, are compound ;
but the majority are only furnished with a group of simple eyes on
each side of the head ; and the mouth is composed of an upper and
lower lip, a pair of mandibles, and a pair of maxilla ; the lower lip
and maxillse being usually furnished with palpi.
Sub-divisions.— They form two families— the Poduridm, or
Springtails, and the Lepismidce. In the former the caudal appen-
dage has the form of a forked tail {Podura, Fig. 2021), which is bent
under the Animal when not in use, and by its sudden extension
causes the Animal to spring, often to a great distance in comparison
with its size. The head is distinct ; the antennje short, and gene-
rally four-jointed ; the simple eyes, six or eight on each side ; and
the palpi very short, and composed only of a single joint. The body
! is covered with numerous minute scales, often of a beautiful silvery
or pearly lustre, and curiously striated, which are frequently em-
ployed as test objects for the microscope. The Insects usually live
in moist places, under leaves, in considerable numbers. Some
species may be found jumping about on the surface of the water,
whilst others are met with in profusion upon snow and ice
798
THE HOMOPTERA—THE COCHINEAL INSECT.
Fig. 2I2I.— The Podiira.
The Lepis7nidcB {Machilis) have a spindle-shaped body, usually
covered with silvery scales, and furnished along- the sides of the
abdomen with a series of appendages or false feet, besides several
long, jointed, bristle-like organs at its extremity. The head is con-
cealed under the prothorax : the eyes are usually compound, and
frequently occupy the whole of the head ; the antennie are very long,
and composed of numerous joints ;
and the maxillary palpi, which con-
sist of from five to seven joints, are
very conspicuous.
These Insects generally inhabit
moist places under stones, in woods,
and similar localities. The most
common species, Lepisma saccha-
rina, is frequently found about
houses, especially in sash frames.
They are very active, and many of
them jump well ; but they generally conceal themselves during
the day, and seek their food, which appears to consist of vegetabfe
matter, by night.
Sub-class IT.— Hemimetabola.
The majority of the Insects of this sub-class are active in all stages
of their existence; and, as a general rule, the principal diiferences
between the larva and its exclusion from the e^'g, and the perfect
Insect, consist in its smaller size, and in the absence of wings. In
the last order of this section, the Neiiroptera, the difference between
the larva and the perfect Insect becomes greater ; and in some of
these Insects the pupa stage is passed in a quiescent state ; but in
these the pupa still retain the power of motion.
Order IV.— Rhyncota.
General Characters.— The order Ekyncofa, corresponding
with the Hciiiipfera of Latreille, is distinguished from the other
Insects with an imperfect metamorphosis, by the possession of a
suctorial mouth. This consists of a more or less flexible jointed
rostrum, composed of the labial palpi, which form a sheath, within
which four bristles, the analogues of the mandibles and maxilla;, are
contained and protected from injury. By means of these bristles the
Insect wounds the plants or Animals upon the juices of which it
feeds, and the fluid nutriment is then sucked up by the action of an
inflated appendage of the cesophagus. The head always bears a
pair of compound eyes, and usually either two or three ocelli. Most
of these Insects possess four wings, which vary considerably in their
structure. The segments of the thorax are usually distinctly sepa-
rated. The legs are generally formed for walking ; but the anterior
pair are sometimes converted into raptorial organs; and in the
Aquatic species, the hinder legs are generally flattened, and fringed
with bristles, to render them efficient organs of natation.
Sub-divisions. — The order Rhyncota may be divided into two
sub-orders, which, in fact, have frequently been regarded as distinct
orders, especially by English entomologists. In the first, the
Homoptera, the anterior wings are usually of similar consistence
throughout, and the mouth is turned backwards, so that the rostrum
springs from the base of the head, and, in some instances, apparently
from the breast. In the second sub-order, the Heteroptera, the
anterior wings are almost always of a horny consistence from the
base to the middle, or even further ; the remainder of the wing being
membranous, and the line of demarcation between the two parts
perfectly distinct ; in these the rostrum springs from the anterior
portion of the head.
Sub-order I.— Homoptera.
The Homoptera (similar winged Insects), forms three great
groups or tribes. The first, the Coccina, is composed of numerous
mmute Insects, of which the history is still very imperfectly known.
Of these the tarsi have only one joint. The males are furnished
with two wings, with a few straight nervures ; they are destitute of a
rostrum, and pass their pupa stage in a state of repose. The females
are destitute of wings, possess a rostrum, and appear to undergo no
inetamorphosis whatever. These curious little creatures, whose
history is so singulur that some authors have proposed the formation
of a separate order for their reception, are principally inhabitants of
the warmer regions of the earth, although many species are found
in our own country, where some of them are well known to gardeners
under the name of "the bug," from the injury they do to many
plants, especially in hothouses.
Nothmg can well be more dissimilar in appearance than the two
sexes of these singular Insects (Fig. 2122). The females usually form
a mere fleshy mass, often nearly destitute of limbs, and remaining
attached to one spot upon the branches of the plant infested by
them, from which they continue to suck nutriment, by the agency of
their rostrum, until they attam a considerable size. The males, on
the contrary, are generally very minute and really elegant creatures.
furnished with a single pair of filmy wings ; the only representatives
of the hinder wings being a pair of organs somewhat similar to the
halteres of the Diptera. Hence some entomologists have put for-
ward the opinion that the males of the Coccina are, in reality.
Dipterous Parasites ; but this view is quite untenable. The abdo-
men of the male is generally furnished with a pair of long filaments.
In some instances the females retain their limbs and power of
motion through life
Fig. 2122. — Cochineal Insects ; a, the male ; b, the female (Cactus cadi).
The larva; of these Insects are minute, oval creatures, resembling
little Woodlice, and creep freely about the plants they inhabit, living
without any apparent change through the winter, at least, this is
the case in one British species (the Coccus aceris), as observed both
by Mr. Westwood and the author. In the spring, the females
become remarkable by their increased size ; they attach themselves
to the branches of the sycamores, on which they live, and gradually
swell until they resemble fleshy excrescences, about the size of a
small pea. At the same time the males change to the pupa state
beneath the skin of the larva, which then resemble little oval scales
attached to the bark. In the month of May the males acquire their
full development, and when nearly ready for exclusion, their little
white tails may be seen projecting from beneath the greyish case,
formed by the skin of the larva. They emerge backwards, so that
the wings are pulled up over their heads ; and immediately on
leaving their case they seek the female. After the impregnation ot
their disproportionate partners, the great end of their existence, the
males disappear ; but the females continue growing for some time,
and at last lay their eggs in the midst of a mass of white cottony
matter, between the bark of the tree and the lower surface of their
own bodies. The latter at length becomes nothing but dry convex
shells, beneath which the young are hatched. The development of
the other species of the order is very similar. (See Fig. 2123.)
Fig. 2123. — Eggs of the Cochineal Insect.
Insignificant as the Insect may appear in itself, it has great com-
mercial importance, being the sources of one of the finest of our red
dyes. The Lecamum llicis, which inhabits the Ilex, or ever-green
oak of the countries round the Mediterranean, was employed for this
purpose by the ancient Greeks and Romans, as it is still by the
Arabs ; and until the introduction of the Mexican Cochineal, another
%i^e.c\t%,X\\i PorpJiyropliora polo7iica, -^Vxch lives on the roots of
the Sctcfa/it/ius perennis in Central Europe, was much used for
the same purpose. The Mexican Cochineal, which has driven the
others out of the field, is also a species belonging to this group, the
Coccus cacti {^K'g. 2122), which lives as a Parasite upon the Nopal,
or Cactus opuntia — a plant very common in Central America. The
commercial importance of this Insect is shown in the large amount
which is annually imported of them into Great Britain alone ; and as
about 70,000 Insects are supposed to be contained in a pound of
this substance, we may form some idea of the numbers annually des-
troyed. The value is at about the rate of half-a-cro\vn per lb. For
many years the cultivation of Cochineal was entirely confined to
Mexico ; but the Insect has been introduced into Spain and the
French possessions in Africa, with some prospect of success ; also
into Teneriffe, which now supplies large quantities. A fourth species,
ot great importance, is the Lac Insect {Coccus lacca) an inhabitant
THE APHIDES, OR PLANT-LICE.
799
of the East Indies, where it feeds upon the Banian-tree {Fictis
religiosa). and some other trees. To this Insect we are indebted,
not only for the dye-stuffs known as lac-dye and lac-lake, but also
for the well-known substance called shcll-lac, so much used in the
preparation of sealing--wax and varnishes. In all these cases it is
only the female Insects that yield the colouring matter.
In one genus of Coccina (Dorthesia), several species of which are
found in this country, the female — which, although apterous, is
active in all stages — is completely covered with a snow-white secre-
tion, which gives it more the appearance of a little plaster-cast than
anything else.
In a second tribe, the Phytophthiria, or Plact-lice, both se.xesare
cither wingless or furnished with four distinctly veined wings. The
rostrum springs apparently from the breast, and the tarsi are two-
jointed, and furnished with two claws. The gteater part of this
tribe is composed of the Aphides, or Plant-lice (Fig. 2124), whose
extraordinary history renders them one of the most interesting
groups of Insects. These creatures must be
well known to everyone. They are all small
Animals, with a more or less fiask-shaped
body, furnished with si.x feet and a pair 01
antenna;, and usually with a pair of short tubes
close to the extremity of the abdomen, from
which a clear sweet secretion e.xudes. Both Fig. 2124. — The Aphis
sexes are sometimes winged, sometimes apte- Rosa:.
rous ; and the individuals of the same species
are often winged and apterotis at different periods of the year. They
all live upon plants, the juices of which they suck ; and when they
occur in great numbers, often cause much damage to vegetation.
Gardeners and farmers are well aware of this. Many plants are
liable to be attacked by vast swarms oi Aphides, when their leaves
curl up ; they grow sickly, and their produce is certain to be greatly
reduced. One striking instance is presented by the Hop-fly {Aphis
humuli). The cultivation of hops is notoriously a most uncertain
business ; and this uncertainty is mainly caused by the occurrence,
in some seasons, of vast numbers of these minute Insects : whilst in
others very few are to be seen. Many species also attack the roots
of plants, where their presence is speedily indicated by the gradual
withering of the foliage. Lettuces, amongst garden vegetables, are
especially subject to these visitations. Fig. 2125 represents the
Apple Aphis ; a, b, the Insects magnified, and c, an infected branch
of the tree.
Fig. 2125.— The Apple-Aphis.
The sweet fluid, which exudes from the tubular process of the ab-
domen of these Insects, is often in such abundance that it drops
upon the leaves of the plants frequented by them, and even to the
ground. It is well known by the name of honey-dew. Ants have a
particular fondness for this fluid, and may constantly be seen upon
trees and plants frequented by Aphides, stroking them with their
antenna apparently to induce them to furnish a supply of the
coveted fluid. From this circumstance the Aphides have been
termed the Ant's Milch-cows ; and they are said to tend them with
as much care as would be bestowed by a human farmer upon his
cattle. Wasps also have been observed similarly engaged.
One of the most singular portions of the history of 'these Insects is
their very curious manner of propagation. In the autumn, male and
female Insects are found, furnished with perfect generative organs ;
these copul.ite, when the females lay eggs, which are hatched the
following spring. But, instead of producing individuals of both
sexes, these eggs give birth only to female Animals, which produce
living young without any congress with the male ; the brood thus
brought forth, again produces living young in the same manner ;
and this goes on throughout the whole summer, without the appearance
of a single male Insect. In the autumn again, male and female indi-
viduals are produced, and the latter lay eggs which are to continue
the species until the following summer. This succession of fruitful
virgins, as they have been termed, was traced by Bonnet through
nine, and by Duvau, in seven months, through eleven generations,
when the experiments were cut short by the cold of the approaching
winter ; but Kyber, a German naturalist, by keeping a colony of
Aphides in a warm room, observed this mode of reproduction during
a period of four years without once seeing a male Insect. The young
ones thus produced grow rapidly, and change their skins three or
four times ; so that in a few days they are in a condition to continue
their race.
Few phenomena in Natural History have presented more difficulties
to physiologists than this, and many have been the theories advanced
to account for it. Some have imagined that the viviparous Aphides
were hermaphrodites, whilst others have recurred to the doctrine of
spontaneous generation. Some have supposed that by some mys-
terious process the original copulation was sufiicient to fecundate all
the ova to be produced from the descendants of that union for a
certain number of generations, when, its virtue being exhausted,
males and females made their appearance as a last generation ;
whilst Steenstrup regarded the reproduction of the Aphides as an
instance in support of his doctrine of the alternation of generations.
Perhaps a modification of Steenstrup's view is probably the correct
one, as recent researches, especially those of Dr. Burnett, appear to
prove that the viviparous Aphides possess no ovarian organs, and
that their young are formed by a process of gemmation in the interior
of the abdomen — a process which Dr. Burnett regards as analogous
to the budding of the Medusa: from their Hydroid polypes.
The third section is that of the Cicadaria, which includes a great
variety of Animals. The great diversity of form presented by them
has led to the establishment of many families, but we shall only
notice the four principal groups.
The first of these, the Cicadellina, or CercopidcB, of which the
Aphrophora spitmaria, or Common Frog-hopper, is a well-known
British example, have the antenna placed between the eyes, and the
scutellum visible — that is to say, not covered by a process of the
prothorax. The ocelli, which are sometimes wanting, are never
rriore than two in number. These little creatures are always fur-
nished with long hind legs, which assist them in performing most
extraordinary leaps. The posterior tibia; of many species are armed
with a double row of spines. A species nearly allied to the above
(the Aphi-ophora bi/asciafa) is very abundant in gardens. The
larva envelops itself in a frothy secretion, which has received the
name of Cuckoo-spit ; and this denomination has been extended to
the Insects. An immense number of the species of this group are
to be met with almost everywhere. The Membraci?ia, forniino- the
second group, resemble the preceding in most of their characters
but have the back of the prothorax produced into a singular process'
which often covers and conceals, not only the scutellum, but the'
whole upper part of the Insect. This prothoracic process often
assumes the most remarkable forms. Both these Insects inhabit
Brazil ; and most of the species of this group are found in Tropical
countries, two only inhabiting Britain.
In the third group, the Fu'lgorina, the antenna; are placed under
the eyes, and the ocelli are only two in number. This group in-
cludes the Lantern-flies [Fulgorce), of which a large* species,
inhabiting Guiana, the Fulgora lateriiaria (Fig. 2126 ), is said to
emit considerable light in the dark.
This account rests principally
upon Madame Merian's unsuppor-
ted statement ; so that the gener-
ality of entomologists are disposed
to doubt the occurence of the
^^ phenomenon. The light is said to
be produced from the singular
prolongation of the head, which is
common to this and many other
species, exhibiting most extraordi-
nary forms in some instances. A
well-known example of the genus
^«r,ef., ,1 * V • , Fulgora is the F. candelaria,
constantly to be seen in boxes of Chinese Insects. Many of the
Fulgorz/ia are of large size, and decorated with most brilliant
colours; but these are all inhabitants of warm climates The
Luropean species are small, and generally very dingy in their an-
pearance. .- j aj ^
The fourth group is distinguished from all the rest by the pos-
session of three ocelli. The antenna: are placed in front of the eves
ihese insects are called Stridulaiitia, from the faculty they posses.s
ot producing a chirping noise, which, as they are generally of large
Fig. 2126.— The Fii!s;ara laternaria
(reduced).
8oo
THE B UG FA MIL Y—THE PHYSOPODA .
size, is often exceedingly loud and disagreeable. Nevertheless, the
ancients, and especially the Greeks, appear to have regarded this
music, which is very unpleasant to modern ears, with feehngs of
great satisfaction, and the Cicada is often referred to by the Greek
poets. The apparatus, by which the sound is produced, consists in
a sort of drum placed in a cavity on each side of the base of the
abdomen ; this is pulled inwards by the
\^^ X / i action of a parti''.ular muscle, and on
being again let loose its vibration pro-
xy )?tSW1^_!/ duces a loud, sharp tone. The drums
are concealed by scale-like plates, which
are sometimes so large as to reach nearly
to the extremity of the abdomen.
The female lays her eggs in slits,
which she cuts in the bark of trees by
means of a curious saw-like ovipositor.
An American species is very remarkable
from its appearing only once in seventeen
years in the same locality, apparently
passing the interval in its preparatory
stages. Hence it is known, in the United
States, as the Seventeen-year Locust.
Its scientific name is Cicada septe7ide-
cim.
The Cicada.
Fig. 2 1 28. —The
Notonecta.
Sub-order II. — Heteroptera.
The Hetero;ptera, or Bugs.'of which the
Common House Bug is an illustration,
form the principal groups, namely, the
Hydi-ocores, or Water-bugs, and the Geocores, or Land-bugs. The
Hydrocores have small antennas.
The Notojicctida are distinguished by their broad, rounded head,
which occupies the whole width of the front of the body. They
swim rapidly about in the water, with their bellies directed upwards,
rowing themselves along by means of their flattened hinder legs,
vifhich are e.xtended on each side of them like oars. Hence the
Noto7iecta (Fig. 2128) is generally known as the boat-fly. They
carry the air required for their respiration in a space left for this
purpose between the wings and the back. They are very active
and predaceous Animals, and when captured, some
of them often inflict a painful wound with their
powerful rostrum. Several species may be met with
in almost any piece of water. In the second group,
the N'cpina, the head is small and triangular, and
generally considerably narrower than the thorax.
Their legs are generally less distinctly formed for
swimming than in the preceding group ; but the an-
teriorpair are converted into powerful raptorialorgans ;
as the Nepina, although much slower in their move-
ments, are quite as predaceous in their habits as the
Notonectida .
The Nepa cinerea (Fig. 2129) is a British example of this group,
which may be met with in every pond. These Insects respire by
means of the filaments attached to the caudal extremity, which they
place at the surface of the water, the only available stigmata^being
situated at the base of these filaments.
In the Geocores, or Land-bugs, for which Mr. Westwood proposed
the name oi Aurocorisa (Air-bugs), as more appropriate, some of
the species inhabiting the surface of the water,
the antennse are never concealed, and the legs
are always formed for running. When disturbed
or irritated most of them emit a most offensive
odour, which no one who has ever had the mis-
fortune to have any dealings with the Common
Bed-bug will be likely to forget. These Insects
form nine principal groups, of which the first four
have the rostrum of three joints, whilst in the re-
mainder this organ is composed of four articula-
tions. The species with a three-jointed rostrum
are, for the most part, predaceous in their habits ;
whilst those with four joints generally feed upon
vegetable juices.
The nearest approach to the Water-bugs appears
to be made by the Ploteres, a group of Bugs with a
boat-like body and very long legs, which may be
constantly seen running about upon the surface
of ponds and quiet rivers. They are distinguished from the other
Heteroptera by having the claws inserted at some little distance
from the apex of the last joint of the tarsi. Some species have been
taken on the surface of the sea at a great distance from land.
Another group, the Riparia, is formed of small oval Bugs, often
met with in the mud at the sides of ponds ; a third, the Reduvina,
is distinguished by having the head produced behind the eyes into
a distinct neck. This group includes the most predaceous and
some of the largest of the Geocores. The rostrum is usually stout,
and is said to inflict a most severe wound. In the Membranacea,
Fig. 2129.— The
Nepa cinerea.
Fig. 2130. — The Halys
mucorea.
to which the Common Bed-bug belongs, the rostrum is inclosed in a
sort of canal, formed by two little ridges running down between the
bases of the legs.
Of those groups with a four-jointed rostrum, two are destitute of
ocelli or simple eyes. Of these, one (the Bicelluli) is composed of
a great number of small Insects, which may usually be found upon
plants in great profusion during the summer months. They are dis-
tinguished by having the nervures of the membranous portion of the
hemelytra formed into two basal cells. The two last joints of the
antenna, which are composed of four joints, are generally very
slender. In the second group, the Ccecigcnia, the membrane is
furnished with numerous parallel nervures, and the four joints of the
antennje are nearly of equal thickness. These Insects are generally
of a bright scarlet colour, adorned with black spots. One species is
found in England.
The same colours not unfrequently occur in the next group, the
Lygceodea, which, however, possess ocelli. These are further dis-
tinguished by the insertion of their antennse upon the sides of the
head, below a line drawn from the eyes to the rostrum, and by the
membrane of the hemelytra never having more than four or five
nervures. Numerous species occur in Britain. The Coreodea are
distinguished from the preceding group by the insertion of tlieir
antenna; higher up on the sides of the head, ar.d by the presence
of numerous nervures in the hemelytral membrara. The scutellum
is usually small and triangular, and the antennae are always com-
posed of four joints. The majority of these Insects inhabit hot
climates, where many of them attain a large
size. Some of them are remarkable for
strangeness of form, but very few for brilliant
colouring. The European species are all
small.
The Scutata, the last group of the order,
includes some of the most brilliant creatures
contained in it, or perhaps in the entire class
of Insects. Their most striking character
consists in the large size of the scutellum,
which in all cases reaches the base of the
hemelytral membrane (Fig. 2130), and in
some instances is so large as to cover all
the upper surface of the body, serving as
a sheath for the protection of the wings.
Tlie antennje are usually composed of
five joints, and are almost always inserted
beneath a projecting margin of the sides of the head. The rostrum
is frequently long ; sometimes longer than the body. This group
includes a great number of species, most of them of considerable size.
The majority inhabit warm climates, to which the species with
the very large scutellum are almost confined. Amongst these the
CallidcB, which are of a brilliant golden green colour, with black
spots, rival the most splendid Butterflies in beauty.
Order V.— Physopoda.
General Characters. — The small order Physopoda includes
some minute Insects which were placed by Linnseus, Fabricius, and
most of the older entomologists, in the same order with the Rhyn-
chota, their mouth at the first glance bearing a certain amount of
resemblance to a minute rostrum. Later observations proved, how-
ever, that the structure of their oral organs is quite different from
that presented by the Rhy?ichota ; and they have since been gene-
rally placed in the neighbourhood of the Orthoptera. Burmeister
included them in his order Gymnognatha, with the other mandibu-
late Hemimetabolous and Ametabolous Insects.
The Physopoda are generally fur-
b p nished with four nearly equal, flat wings,
destitute of reticulations, but usually
fringed, especially at the apex, with nu-
merous fine hairs. Some species, how-
ever, are apterous. The head (Fig.
2 131) bears a pair of large, granular,
compound eyes, between which there
are usually three ocelli. The antenna;
are generally composed of about eight
joints, and are attached to the front of
the head between the eyes. The lower
part of the head is bent back under the
breast, and the mouth is situated at its
hinder extremity ; so that the resem-
blance to the Homoptera is tolerably
Fig. 2131.— The Phla:othnps. complete. The organs of the mouth
a, natural size ; b, insect mag- consist of a large triangular upper lip,
nitied ; r, head ; d, mandi- behind which a pair of curved, bristle-
bles ; e, leg. shaped mandibles is situated ; the
maxillae are small, usually attached to
the labium, and, like it, bear a pair of jointed palpi. The presence
of the latter organs will always distinguish these Insects from the
Rhynclwta. The tarsi are composed of two joints, the last of which
THE LOCUSTS.
80 1
is destitute of claws, but furnished with a soft vesicular organ,
which enables the Insects to adhere firmly to any object upon which
they are walking-. It is from this structure that the name of Physo-
poda, given to this order, is derived {Gi.^husa, a bladder; ;pous, a
foot).
These Insects are seen upon most plants, generally in the flowers,
which they appear to visit in search of the sweet fluid to be found in
such situations. They run quickly, and often perform considerable
leaps by the assistance of the abdomen, which is employed in the
same way as the furcate appendage of the Podurce. Many of them,
not content with such light nourishment as the nectar of flowers,
inhabit the foliage and stems of plants, to which they often do a
great deal of mischief. One species, the Thrips cerealiitm, has
frequently done considerable damage to the wheat crops, both in
this and other countries, sometimes attacking the grain in the ear,
and sometimes gnawing the tender stems. Others are found upon
and under the bark of trees.
Mr. Haliday divides these Ins( ts into two tribes. In the first,
the Tubulifera, the terminal segment of the abdomen is tubular in
both sexes ; whilst the females of the second, the Terebrantia, are
furnished with a valvular serrated ovipositor.
Order VI. — Orthoptera.
In this order are included a number of Insects which have little to
recommend them to popular liking. It embraces the Locusts,
whose ravages are the bane of the har\'est of many warm countries,
the Cricket, our well-known house pest, with the Earwigs, Cock-
roaches, &c.
The Orthoptera form the first order of the Ilemimetabolous
Insects, in which the mouth is unmistakably formed for biting. The
head is usually large and perpendicular, furnished with a pair of
antenna; of very variable length (generally long, and composed of
numerous joints), with a pair of large compound eyes, and usually
with two ocelli. The mouth is mostly of very powerful construction ;
the mandibles strong, horny, and toothed ; the ma.xillae large, with
the apex half concealed by a hood-like, horny lobe, and each bearing
a long, five-jointed palpus; the upper and lower lips are large, and
the latter is furnished with a pair of three-jointed palpi, and usually
with one or two additional pairs of palpiform lobes. The segments
of the thorax are distinct ; the anterior segment, or prothorax, being
generally of a large size. The remaining segments are usually
concealed under the wings, which, when present, are four in
number ; the anterior pair are smaller than the posterior, and
generally of a leathery or parchment-like texture, serving as a pro-
tection for the latter, which, in repose, are folded up in a fan-like
form. The anterior wings almost always lap over each other at the
ape.x, and both pairs are traversed by distinct reticulated nervures.
The principal nervures of the hinder wings always radiate from a
central point to the circumference (Fig. 2132). The legs vary greatly
in form. Some species are exclusively formed for running (Cock-
roaches, Earwigs), all the legs being of nearly equal size ; in others,
the anterior pair are greatly enlarged and converted into raptorial
Fig, 2132. — The Locust, with wings expanded.
organs {Mantis), the Insect running upon the other four legs ;
whilst in others, again (Grasshoppers, Locusts, Crickets), the hinder
legs, and especially the thighs, are of very large size, enabling the
Insects to execute great leaps. The number of joints in the tarsi
varies from three to five.
Sub-divisions.— The Orthoptera fall readily into two great
sections ; namely, the Saltatorial and Cursorial Orthoptera. The
former (in which the hind legs are always elongated .and converted
into leaping organs, and the tarsi never composed of more than four
joints) include three tribes— the Lociistina, the Gryllina, and the
Acheiiiia. They are all herbivorous Insects.
In the Locustina the tarsi are three-jomted ; the antennx short,
and composed of from twenty to thirty joints ; and the females have
no apparent ovipositor. The head is usually furnished with three
ocelli. Few Insects are more dreaded by the inhabitants of the
warmer regions of the earth than those Locusts, which, from their
often collecting in vast swarms, and mcjving onwards with a steady
and irresistible progress, quickly destroy every trace of vegetation
over a vast extent of country ; thus reducing the husbandman to
despair, and converting the smiling face of nature into a desolate
wilderness. A district, over which one of these devastating swarms
has passed, is said to appear, to the eye of an observer, as though
every regetable production, which once decked its surface, had been
completely burned off the ground; hence the Latin name of the
Insect {Locusta, from locus ustus, a burnt place) is peculiarly appro-
priate. Eastern countries, and especially those in the neighbour-
hood of the Levant, appear to be most exposed to the ravages of
these destructive Insects ; and we find many highly poetical
references to them in the writings of the Hebrew prophets, wherein
this appearance of burning is expressly mentioned. The poetical
description in Joel (ch. ii. v. 2-10) well describes their habits, their
noise, the desolate wilderness they leave behind them, their voracity,
and their invasion of cities and houses. When the vegetation of the
place first devastated by these creatures is entirely destroyed, they
take to flight in countless multitudes towards some other devoted
spot, often forming clouds of several hundred yards across, which, in
their passage, sometimes conceal the light of the sun. When
engaged in the work of destruction, they are said to produce a
sound resembling that of a strong flame driven by the wind, and the
spot upon which (hey have alighted is almost immediately denuded
of everything green. The descent of a hostile army is less dreaded
in the countries subject to these visitations, than the appearance of
the hosts of the Locusts, which were regarded by the ancients, both
Fig. 2133. — The Locust.
Jews and Pagans, and are still so by the Arabs, as the avenging
armies of the Deity. The modern Arabs, in fact, declare that the
Locust bears a statement to this effect, in good Arabic, in the mark-
ing on its wings. The best known species is the Locusta migratoria
(Fig. 2133), which has occasionally found its way into Central
Europe, and even to our own island ; but in the South of Europe this
Insect is a formidable enemy to agriculture, and a considerable
amount is there annually paid in rewards for its destruction.
The inhabitants both of Asia and Africa, where Locusts parti-
cularly abound, use these Animals as a common article of food.
They generally pull off the legs and wings, and fry the bodies in oil
or butter ; and a dish of Locusts well prepared is said to be regarded
as somewhat of a delicacy in those countries. The Locusts are
also occasionally dried, pounded, and used as flour. Many of our
British Grasshoppers belong to this tribe ; some of them {Tetrix)
have the back of the prothorax produced backwards into a pointed
process as long as the abdomen. The IMigratory Locust measures
about two inches and a-half in length, and some other exotic species
are much larger ; the Locusta cristata, a very beautiful species
common in the Levant, being four inches long, and between seven
and eight in expanse of wings. Our British species are generally of
comparatively small size. Nearly all of them produce a loud chirp-
ing noise, by rubbing the inside of the thigh against the elevated
nervures of the wing covers ; but beyond this they possess no special
apparatus for the production of sound. Some species [Truxalis zind.
Proscopia) are remarkable for the form of their heads, the front of
which is produced into a conical process, bearing the eyes and
antenna, at or near its summit. The antennse, which are generally
thread-shaped, are sometimes thickened at the base, and sometimes
clavate.
The Insects composing the second tribe (the Gryllina), resemble
the Locustina in having their wings arranged during repose in a
roof-like form ; but are at once distinguishable from them by the
structure of the antennce, which, instead of being short, cylindrical,
and stout, are of great length, generally very slender, and tapering
to a fifie point. The females, also, are furnished with an exserted
802
THE CRICKETS-THE LEAF-INSECTS.
ovipositor, and the males have a singular talc-like spot, surrounded
by elevated nervures, at the base of each wing-cover, by the mutual
friction of which their chirping is effected. These two plates are
not exactly similar, and the Insect, in consequence, cannot produce
his shrill music indifferently with either wing-case uppermost ; the
right wing-case is usually laid over the left one. The tarsi are four-
jointed. The ocelli are generally wanting. The ovipositor of the
female is a sword-shaped organ, composed of several plates attached
to the extremity of the body, which also bears a pair of short caudal
appendages in both sexes. The female pushes the ovipositor a con-
siderable distance into the earth, forming a narrow cavity in which
she lays several eggs.
The Gryllina appear to frequent trees and shrubs more than
either of the other two tribes, the members of which generally keep
amongst herbage ; and, in accordance with this habit, many of the
exotic species have wing-cases, which present the most perfect re-
semblance to leaves, both in colour and veining. There are several
British species, one of which (the Gryllusviridissimus), is common
in autumn in many marshy situations. It is one of the largest
British Insects, being about two inches in length, and three-and-a-
half in expanse of wings; and, notwithstanding the vegetable nature
of its ordinary diet, two ol them can scarcely be put together without
a battle, when the victor very often makes a meal off some of his
antagonist's limbs. Mr. Westwood mentions an instance, in which
a specimen of this Insect, which had been inclosed in a box with one
of his own hind-legs, was found to have devoured about half of it in
the course of the n'ight. Another species (the Decticus verrucivoriis),
which has occasionally been found in this country, received its
specific name, which signifies "wart-eater," from a belief current
amongst the peasantry of the continent of Europe, where the Insect
is common, that its bite, assisted by a brownish liquid which it
emits from the mouth, is a certain cure for warts.
Of the tribe Ackeii/ia, the Common Cricket, {Achcta domcstica,
Fig. 2134), the noisy little denizen of our kitchen hearths, may serve
as an example. These Insects, like those of the preceding tribe,
have the antenna slender and tapering, and often considerably
Fig. 2134. — The House Cricket.
longer than the body. They also agree with the Gryllina in the
structure of the singing apparatus ; but the wings, instead of being
arranged in the form "of a high pitched roof, are laid flat upon the
back. Some of them possess ocelli, whilst others are destitute of
those organs. The hinder wings are very long, and folded up in
such a manner that they project beyond the wing-cases, in the form
of a pair of tapering tails ; the abdomen is also furnished, in both
sexes, with a pair of pilose, bristle-shaped, caudal appendages, and
in the female with a long, slender, ovipositor, composed of two fila-
ments, laid side by side, and somewhat thickened at the tip. The
tarsi are three-jointed.
The Common House-cricket is too well known to need any parti-
cular description. During the colder months these Insects always
seek the habitations of man ; when they establish themselves in tfie
neighbourhood of the fire-place, in some room on the ground floor,
generally preferring the kitchen, where their monotonous chirping
may generally be heard in the winter evenings. In summer, how-
ever, they remove their quarters to the open air, taking up their
abode apparently in the crevices of garden walls and similar situa-
tions. In fine summer evenings they sing most pcrtinaceously in
the open air. Their food, when in the house, consists of crumbs of
bread, and similar household refuse, which are generally to be found
in abundance on the kitchen hearth. Apart from all superstitious
feeling, opinions are greatly divided as to whether the fireside song
of the Cricket be pleasant or the reverse. Like the Cicada of the
ancients, the Cricket has found its poetical admirers ; whilst by
many its note is regarded with great dislike.
Another species is the Field-cricket {Acheta campestris), a timid
Animal which avoids the society of man, living all the year round in
the burrows which it forms in sandy banks, amongst stones. This is
much larger and louder than the domestic species, but is by no
means so common, frequenting only hot, sandy districts. A still
more remarkable Insect, belonging to this tribe, is the Jilole-cricket
{Gryllotapa vulgaris), which, both in its structure and habits, pre-
sents no inconsiderable resemblance to the Mole. Like that
Animal, it is constantly engaged in burrowing in the earth ; and to
enable it to do this with facility, its anterior limbs are converted into
a pair of flat, fossorial organs, which are turned outwards in exactly
the same manner as the hand of the Mole. It is a British Insect, but
very local in its distribution. In its passage through the earth it
does great injury to the roots of plants ; but is said to live quite as
much upon animal, as upon vegetable food.
The habits of tlio three British species of Crickets form the subject
of three of the admirable letters of Gilbert White, to which we must
refer our readers both in regard to their study and general interest.
A species of Mole-cricket, inhabiting the West Indies, has fre-
quently committed great ravages upon the young sugar-canes in
those islands.
The Ciirsorial Orthojitera may be divided into four tribes, of
which one is composed of exclusively Herbivorous Animals, whilst
the others are either predaceous, or adapted to subsist upon a
miscellaneous diet.
The Herbivorous tribe, Phastnina, is composed of some singular
Insects, to which, from their close resemblance to vegetable pro-
ductions, the names of ^Valkiiig-sticks and ]Valking-leavcs are
commonly given. They are distinguished by having the head
exserted, all the legs adapted for walking, the caudal appendages
usually small and not jointed, and the hinder wings not folded
transversely in the middle. Ocelli are sometimes present, but are
also wanting. The tarsi are composed of five joints, clothed beneath
with a membranous cushion, which gives the creatures a firm hold of
the branches and leaves of the trees on which they live, and fur-
nished with a large pulvillus between the claws. The wings are
sometimes present, occasionally entirely wanting; and, in some
species, the male is winged and the females are apterous. In the
Walking-sticks the body is much elongated, cylindrical, and
usually of a dingy brownish colour, so as exactly to resemble the
dried twig of a tree. The wing-cases, when present, are very much
shorter than the wings ; and as they would be quite insufficient for
the protection of those organs when folded, this is provided for in
anotlier way, the outer margin of the wings forming a firm plate,
under which the membraneous portions are entirely concealed during
repose.
The Walking-leaves [Phylliidce Fig. 2135) are still more remark-
able in their appearance. In these the body is very flat and thin,
and the wings form large, leaf-like organs, covering nearly the
whole abdomen, and furnished with irregularly reticulated nervures,
which gives them exactly the aspect of a leaf. This leafy structure
Fig. 2135- — The Leaf-Insect.
pervades the whole Animal ; the legs, especially the thighs, being
always foliaceous. Some species are of a bright green colour,
whilst others are of the brown of dead leaves ; and the natives of the
countries inhabited by these curious creatures generally inform
Europeans that the Insects are all green at first, but that as the
leaves change colour, they change also.
THE MANTIS— THE COCKROA CHES.
803
The Phasmina are found principally in warm climates, very few
occurring in Europe. They are very slow in their movements, creep-
ing about upon trees and shrubs, to which they often do consider-
able damage by devouring the young shoots. Some of the Stick
Insects are of large size, measuring at least seven or eight inches in
length.
The Insects of the next tribe, the Manlina, are also principally
inhabitants of hot climates, although a few species are common in
the south of Europe. They are at once distinguished by the struc-
ture of their fore legs, which are converted into powerful raptorial
organs. (See Fig. 2136) The head is attached to the extremity of
the prothorax ; the face is triangular, the eyes large, and the
ocelli three in number. The prothorax is elongated, forming a
narrow neck, which, in the ordinary position of the Animal, is carried
upright. From the front of this segment the raptorial legs, which
are very singular in their structure, take their rise. They are much
stouter than the other legs; the cox?e are very long, and are united
Fig. 2136. — The Praying Mantis.
to the still longer thighs by a small trochanter. The tibiae can be
folded back, so as to come into close contact with the lower surface
of the thighs, which are furnished with a distinct groove for their
reception. Each side of this groove and the under side of the tibiae
are armed with numerous spines ; those of the tibiae being the
smallest. Carrying these formidable weapons aloft in the air, the
Ma/itides move slowly along, and their whole attitude is so solemn,
that they are regarded with veneration by the inhabitants of all the
countries in which they occur. In the south of Europe they are
universally known bynames indicative of the belief that their singular
attitude is one of prayer; and, according to ancient legends, the
Man f IS has not always confined itself to silent devotion ; for we are
told that one of these Insects, on being desired by St. Francis Xavier
to sing the praises of God, immediately chanted a beautiful canticle.
Another prevalent superstition regarding these creatures is, that it
they be asked the way to a place, they will immediately indicate the
right road by holding one of their legs in that direction — hence the
name of Soothsayers, often applied to these Insects ; and the Greek
word Ma7itis has the same signification. Unfortunately, however,
all these amiable qualities are purely imaginary. The Mantis is
one of the most voracious of its class, and only assumes this solemn
and devout appearance for the beguilement of its unsuspecting
victim. Slowly and cautiously it steals along, by almost imper-
ceptible degrees, until within striking distance of its prey, when one
of the fore legs is instantly extended, and the struggling victim is
soon mangled by the tremendous weapons 'of the destroyer. Nor
are these organs employed solely in providing their owner with
nourishment. These Insects are excessively pugnacious, and two
of them can scarcely come together without a combat, which
generally has a fatal termination. Their manoeuvres, in such cases,
resemble those of two horsemen in single combat. The Chinese
amuse themselves with their combats.
The Ma7itina are sometimes adorned with brilliant colours ; but
their general tints are green and brownish-gray. Some of them
have a large eye-like spot on the wings. Their antennae are usually
rather long and thread-shaped ; their tarsi are five-jointed ; and
the abdomen is furnished with a pair of short articulated caudal
appendages. The eggs are laid by the female in rows, each tg^
inclosed in a separate cell. The entire mass of eggs is covered with
a gummy substance, which afterwards hardens, forming a protective
case. These cases, which are often of singular forms, are usually
attached to the twigs of trees.
In the sixth tribe (the Blattina, or Cockroaches) all the legs are
formed for running, as in the Walking-sticks ; but the head is more
or less completely concealed beneath the anterior margin of the
prothorax. The antennje are very long and bristle-like, and com-
posed of numerous joints. The ocelli are generally absent. The
wings are frequently wanting, sometimes in the female only, but
often in both sexes ; the anterior wings, or wing-cases, are of a leath-
ery texture, traversed by numerous reticulated veins. They lie
fiat on the body, and usually lap over each other, at the apex,
during repose. The hinder wings fold up like a fan, excepting a
rather broad piece of the anterior margin, which lies flat. The legs
are rather long, generally stout, with the tibx spinous and the tarsi
five jointed. The body is usually flat, and somewhat ovate, and
the abdomen is furnished with a pair of jointed caudal appendages.
The Common Cockroach, or Blackbeotle as it is commonly called
{Blatta orienfalis), which often swarms to such an extent in houses
as to be a complete nuisance, may serve as a well-known example of
Fig. 2137. — The Giant Cockroach.
this tribe ; although in it the wings, which in many species att.iin
at least the length and breadth of the abdomen, are reduced to a
very small size in the males, whilst in the females they are quite
rudimentary. These Insects, although now so common all over
Europe, are supposed to have been originally natives of India, and
to have been gradually carried westward by the progress of com-
merce, This and another species, the Blatta amcricana, are very
common on board ships, where they find a plentiful nourishment
amongst the merchandise ; and on shore they are usually most
abundant in seaport towns.
They are all nocturnal in their habits, concealing themselves in
dark holes during the day, but coming out of their hiding-places
when the lights are extinguished. On the introduction of a light
into the scene of their nocturnal prowlings, they may be seen scuttling
away in great disorder, towards the nearest place of concealment ;
and from this habit, no doubt, the ancients, who were well acquainted
with Cockroaches, denominated them lucifiiga:.
The Common Cockroach, and some allied species, appear to have
the faculty of devouring everything that comes in their way, whether
of an animal or vegetable nature ; and when they occur in great
numbers, the damage they do to provisions and many other articles
is excessive. They also usually communicate a disagreeable smell
to objects which they have touched, so that they often spoil more
than they actually consume. A large species {Blatta gigaufca,
see Fig. 2137), common in the West Indies, is there known by the
name of the Drummer, from its curious habit of making a knocking
noise during the night. The noise is frequently kept up all night,
the Insects alternately answering each other, to the great annojance
of those living in the house thus infested. This species is also said
occasionally to attack people when asleep ; and, as though its other
habits were not sufBcient to create a prejudice against it, it some-
times devours the extremities of the dead.
The most remarkable circumstance in the history of these Insects
is the mode in which their eggs are laid. Instead of emerging
singly from the abdomen of the female, they are inclosed in a horny
case, which is often half as large as the abdomen of the parent.
Within this the eggs are ranged in two rows, separated by a parti-
tion which runs down the middle of the case ; each (^g^ is also
separated from its neighbours by a similar but smaller partition.
Along one side of the case there is a slit, furnished with a pair of
toothed plates, which fit closely together, and which are further
secured by the mother with a strong coating of a sort of cement,
which also serves for the attachment of the egg-case to any spot
which she may select for this purpose. When the lar\-a3 are hatched
they speedily emit a fluid from their mouths, which softens the
cement, and enables them to escape from their temporary prison.
8o4
THE EARWIGS— THE WHITE ANTS.
As might be expected, the female has some difficulty in getting nd
of this composite offspring, and the Insects may often be seen run-
ning about with half the egg-case protruding from the apex of the
abdomen. Indeed their birth is said to occupy from a week to a
fortnight, in different species.
The Forficulina, or Earwigs, constitute the order Dermaptcra ot
Leach ; and which Mr. Westwood, who also regarded them as
forming a distinct order, has denominated Euplexoptera. The
latter name refers to the most striking character of these Insects,
viz., the structure of the hinder wings, which are exceedingly beau-
tiful. (Good-folded-wing). In these the radiating nervures, instead
of finding their common centre at the base of the wing, as in the
case in most Orthoptcra, spring from the extremity of a broad
leathery piece, which occupies about a third of the anterior rnargin.
Other radiating nervures occupy the spaces between the principal
nervures, but only run from the posterior margin to the middle of
the wing ; and the whole are united by a transverse nerve, which
runs parallel to the posterior margin. By the
assistance of these nervures, the wing, which is
of very delicate texture, folds up into exactly
the shape of a closed fan ; but as the wing-cases
of the Earwig are very short, the wings can only
be got under them by a very complicated trans-
verse folding in two places — namely, at the apex
of the leathery basal piece, and at a second point
about the middle of the wing, where the nervures
appear to be thickened. Even then the apex of
the firmer part of the wing projects beyond the
elytra. The Forficulina are further distinguished
by having the head exserted, and destitute of
ocelli, the tarsi composed of three joints, and
the extremity of the abdomen furnished with a
pair of forceps, which are often of large size.
These Insects appear to live principally upon vegetable substances,
and as they often attack the petals of flowers, they are regarded as
enemies by the gardener. They are nocturnal in their habits, creep-
ing into crevices at the approach of day. It is this instinct that
prompts them to take shelter in the flower-pots. Lobster-claws, and
other hollow objects usually placed as traps amongst the flowers,
such as Dahlias, which are subject to their ravages. It appears to
be a common belief almost everywhere that the Earwig creeps into
the ears of persons sleeping in the open air, passes thence into the
brain, and causes death. Ridiculous as this fancy is, it appears to
have furnished the name for the Earwig in almost all European lan-
guages. The female usually scoops out a hollow in the earth, in
which she lays a small mass of eggs ; these she watches over with
great assiduity until they are hatched, when she continues to display
the same affection for the new-bom young.
Order VII.— Neuroptera.
Among the Neuroptera are some beautiful Insects, some of
which, such as the Dragon-fly, are common in our country, while
abroad they are represented by the White Ants, the scourge of warm
climates. The Insects comprising the order present considerable
resemblance to the last order, the Orthoptera, in many respects, but
they may be generally distinguished by a glance at the structure of
the wings. In the Neuroptera these are almost always four in
number, as shown in Fig. 2139. These are generally of equal size,
membranous in texture, and traversed in various directions by longi-
Fig. 2139 — The Dragon-fly (Libellula concellata).
tudinal and transverse nervures, which are often very numerous.
Hence the term Neuroptera (?ieura — nerves, and ptera, wings).
The wings are generally kept flat, even during repose, although in
some instances the posterior pair are folded. In the structure of
the mouth some of them very closely resemble the preceding order ;
and nearly all are furnished with distinct mandibles and maxillae,
although in one group these organs are very inconspicuous. The
head is usually large, and distinctly separated from the body ; the
eyes are almost always of large size, and assisted by two or three
ocelli ; the antennae are either thread-like or bristle-shaped organs.
The segments of the thorax are easily recognisable, and the divi-
sion between the thorax and abc )men is always distinct ; although
the latter is generally sessile, or attached to the last thoracic seg-
ment by its whole breadth. The legs are of moderate size, and
the number of joints in the tarsi varies from two to five. The ex-
tremity of the abdomen is never armed with a multivalve ovipositor.
The metamorphosis of these Insects approaches nearer complete-
ness than that of the Orthoptera — the larva and pupa generally
e.xhibiting less resemblance to the perfect Insects than in that order.
The amount of resemblance between the different stages of these
Insects is, however, very variable in the different groups composing
the order ; so much so, in fact, as to have induced some naturalists
to separate them into two, or even three orders. We may adopt
these as our primary divisions or sub-orders.
Sub-divisions. — -In one of them, forming the Dictyotoptera of
Burmeister, the Insects are active and voracious in all their stages ;
and, although the appearance of the larva and pupa rarely resembles
that of the perfect Insect very closely, yet this similarity is greater
than in the other two sub-orders. In these the metamorphosis is
much more complete. The pupa always presents a much closer
resemblance to the perfect Insect than the larva ; and the interme-
diate stage of development is passed in a quiescent state, although
the pupa acquires the power of motion a little before its emergence
in the perfect form. In the Plajiipeniiia the wings are flat, mem-
branous, generally equal in size, and naked ; and the organs of the
mouth are usually well developed ; whilst in the TricJwptera the
hinder wings are larger than the anterior pair, and folded in repose.
The whole of the wings are more or less clothed with minute hairs ;
and the mouth is of very weak construction, and evidently incapable
of biting.
Sub-order I. — Dictyotoptera.
Sub-divisions. — Of the Dictyotoptera some are aquatic in their
habits in the larva state, whilst others are always aerial. Of the
latter, which make the nearest approach to the Ortlioptcra, the
Termitidce. or White Ants, are the most important. These Insects
live in vast communities, principally in the hotter regions of the
earth, where they do incredible damage by devouring everything
that comes in their way. Even wood is incapable of resisting their
ravages ; for they will gnaw away the interior of beams and articles
of furniture, leaving a thin shell to conceal their operations, so that
Fig. 2140. — The Teriiies bellicosus, in the winged state.
the mischief is not discovered until, from its weakness, the object
falls to pieces on being touched.
Considerable uncertainty still appears to exist as to the real con-
stitution of the societies of these Insects. According to Latreille,
they consist of five classes of individuals. Of these, two are un-
doubtedly males and females, which at first are exactly similar, and
furnished with four nearly equal wings. (See Fig. 2140.)
After impregnation, the abdomen of the female increases vastly
in size, from the immense number of eggs contained, which are so
numerous, that it is said as many as eighty thousand are sometimes
laid by one Insect in the course of tw-enty-four hours. (See Fig. 2 141.)
The great bulk of the community is composed of Apterous indi-
Fig. 2141. — The Termite Queen distended with eggs.
viduals, supposed to be larvae, which closely resemble the winged
Insects, but are destitute of eyes and ocelli. These are the workers,
and upon them all the labour of the community devolves. Other
Apterous individuals, apparently pupae, resemble the workers, but
have four tubercular wing-cases on the thorax ; whilst others, dis-
tinguished by the large size of their jaws, and which appear to be
THE WHITE-ANTS— THE MAY-FLY.
80s
neuters, are called Soldiers; their office, apparently, being the
defence of the community against the assaults of enemies.
The habitations raised by these diminutive creatures are amongst
the most surprising of Insect edifices. They are usually built upon
the ground, IJut sometimes amongst the branches of trees, whence
they communicate with the ground by a long gallery, twining round the
branches and trunk of the tree. Those built on the ground are of
various forms, which are represented in Fig. 2142 ; but the most
usual shape is an irregular cone. These nests are frequently as
-^t^vsr
Fig. 2142. — Nests of White Ants.
a, the Tcrmes fiitalis ; b, the Tcrmcs atrox,
much as ten or twelve feet in height, built of earthy particles, which
the workers masticate, and then apply to this purpose. It speedily
dries, and becomes very hard. The nest is divided internally into
numerous chambers and galleries (Fig. 2143), in one of which the
impregnated female or queen is imprisoned, and waited upon obse-
quiously by a numerous train of attendants, whose apartments are in
the immediate vicinity of the royal chamber. These attendants carry
off the eggs, as soon as laid, into separate chambers or nurseries,
Fig. 2143. — Section of Nest of the Termes fatalis.
a, royal chamber ; i5,. apartments of royal attendants ; c, nurseries and maga-
zines; d, lower roof; e, upper roof;/, bridges; g, dome of nest; /( //,
walls of dome, penetrated by passages ii ; k, under-ground passage.
■where the young produced from them, are tended with the greatest
care by the workers. The interior of the nest forms a large dome,
with thick walls, within which there are usually two or three roofs ;
the walls are perforated by passages leading from the bottom of the
nest to the magazines and nurseries placed in its sides, which also
frequently communicate with the ground-floor by small earthern
bridges. Other species, although differing in details, follow the
same general principles in the construction of their nests.
The antennaj of the Termitidce are thread-shaped, and composed
of about twenty joints ; the eyes are rather small, but prominent,
and the ocelli two in number. The structure of the mouth presents
a close resemblance to that of the Orthoptera. The thoracic seg-
ments are distinct, the wings large, equal in size, membranous, and
traversed by numerous branched nervures, and the legs are short,
and furnished with four-jointed tarsi. The abdomen is furnished
with a pair of minute caudal appendages. Only two or three species
of these Insects are found in Europe ; and although these can make
no pretensions to rival their Tropical brethren in destructiveness,
yet the ravages of one species produced considerable consternation
some years ago in the city of Rochelle, in France.
Nearly allied to these are the Psocida;, a family of minute Insects,
distinguished by having their labial palpi very minute, their tarsi
composed of two or three joints, and the hind wings smaller than the
anterior pair. Several species of Insects belonging to this family are
coinmon in this country ; and one species, the Atropos pitlsafo>-i!is
(Fig. 2144 ), which appears never to acquire wings, is often met
with in abundance in badly kept collections of Insects, dried
plants, &c. , to which it is very injurious. The name oS. piilsa-
torius, given to this Insect, refers to its power of producing a
sound like the ticking of a watch, whence it has often been de-
nominated the Death-watch. The generic name, Atropos, also hints
at this popular superstition.
The remainder of the Dicfyotoptera pass through their pre-
paratory states in the water ; and it is not until the perfect In-
sect is about to emerge from the skin of the pupa
that the latter leaves its native clement. It then
creeps out of the water, either on to the stones on
the brink, or up the stems and leaves of aquatic
plants ; and from this position the imago is able to
spring at once into the air, without any danger of
being drowned in its native clement.
In the Pcrlida, which approach most closely in
Fig. 2144.— The their structure to the preceding families, the antenna;
Alropos ptdsa- are filiform, as in those Insects, but the posterior
toriiis, wings are considerably larger than the anterior,
beneath which they are folded in repose, and the
abdomen is furnished with a pair of rather long, jointed caudal ap-
pendages, which are also present in the larva. The tarsi are com-
posed of three joints; the organs of the mouth are of a softish
texture, the mandibles usually rudimentary, and the palpi, both of
the maxilla; and labium, well developed.
The larva closely resembles the perfect Insect, and is found in
plently in lakes, ponds, and rivers, on the borders of which tlie
Insects themselves may also be met with in abundance. The well-
known Stone-Jly of the angler, which is an excellent bait for Trout,
is a species of this family {Per/a bicaudala). They are Carnivorous
Insects, but sluggish in their movements. The respiration of the
larva is effected by means of gills attached either to the thorax or to
the abdomen, the form of which varies greatly in different species.
In one genus {Pteronarcys), which inhabits North America, these
branchial organs are persistent in the perfect state.
This sub-order includes two other groups, distinguished from the
preceding, and indeed from all the other Nejiroptera, by their small
awl-shaped antennas. They form the section Siihulicor7ies of Latreille.
The EphemeridcB are distinguished by the small size of their hinder
wings, the rudimentary condition of the organs of the mouth, and
the long jointed bristles with which the tail is furnished. The
antennae are composed of only three joints ; the eyes are usually
large, and the ocelli three in number. These Insects are well known
to the angler as May-flies. They are also called Day-flies, from the
shortness of their existence in the perfect state ; and the generic
name of the typical group also refers to their ephemeral life. Their
transformations have already been described. Both lar\-a2 and pupae
present a considerable resemblance to the perfect Insect ; but the
entire period of the preparatory stages is passed in the water, and
the Insects are then furnished with a row of very curious giU-
laminffi along each side of the abdomen. During this period the
larvae and pupae make themselves little burrows in the sides of the
pond or stream in which they live ; and these burrows have two
openings ; so that if the Insect enters by one, it can pass out by the
other, without the necessity of turning round in its narrow domicile.
The caudle filaments are present in the larva, but much shorter
than in the imago. On arriving at maturity the pupa; come out of
the water, when the perfect Insect emerges from its case, and takes
to flight. It is still, however, inclosed in a very delicate pellicle, to
get rid of which it soon attaches itself by its claws to any object that
may be at hand, and, after a few struggles, leaves this encumbrance
behind it, and flies away. After this last change the Insect exhibits
its brightest colours, and the tails grow to twice their previous
length. The emergence of these Insects from the water appears
always to take place in the evening ; and as the whole of the Epiie-
Fig. 2145. — The May-tly (Ephemera).
meres in a river appear to arrive at maturity at the same period,
they generally make their appearance in such countless swarms, for
two or three evenings, that the effect produced by one species with
white wings, has been compared to a heavy fall of snow. By the
next morning the majority of these Insects are found lying dead
upon the shore in heaps. The occurrence of these swarms of May-
flies has been observed in different parts of Europe— in Holland,
France, and Switzeriand ; and it appears that the species found in
each of these localities is distinct from the rest. In Switzerland,
indeed, the swarms of two species are on record, one inhabiting the
Lake of Geneva, and the other the Rhine, near Basle. Our com-
mon species, the Ephemera vulgata (Fig. 2145), also occurs in
profusion, for a few days, in the rivers frequented by it, but not by
any means to the same extent as the Continental species just re-
8o6
THE DRAGON-FLIES.
ferred to. This and several other species of the family are favourite
baits for Trout. , ■, ■ t-
The LihcUiiIidm, or Dragon-flies, already represented in l<ig.
2IS9 ante, are characterised by their four large, nearly equal, reti-
culated \vin?s ; by the powerful structure of their mouths, and the
shortness of the caudal appendages, which, moreover, are not
iointed. The antennx are composed of from five to eight joints ;
the eyes are very large, generally meeting on the top of the head,
which also bears three ocelli.
These are exceedingly elegant, but voracious Insects, which may
be seen in fine summer weather, hawking about over the surface of
ponds and rivers in search of Insect prey. They are well known in
this country as Dragon-flies; the French call them " Demoiselles,"
probably in allusion to the elegance of their forms, and the grace of
their movements. The vulgar English name of Horse-stingers is
peculiarly inappropriate, as these Insects possess no means of annoy-
ing cither Horses or any other of the larger Animals.
The larvffl and pupae of the LibelluUdcB inhabit the water, from
which the pupa emerges when the perfect Insect is ready to com-
mence its aerial existence. The empty pupa skin may often be seen
attached to aquatic plants. The structure of the lower lip, in the
preparatory states of these Insects, is very singular ; it has been
denominated a mask by many authors. It consists of two principal
pieces (Fig. 2146), one of which is articulated to the head, whilst
the second is attached to its extremity. At the apex of this second
Fig. 2146. — Pupa of the Dragon-fly.
A, the pupa with mask ; B, the same with the mask closed, and discharging r.
current of water from the anus.
piece, two jaw-like organs are articulated. In repose this lip is
folded beneath the head, but can be immediately extended to a con-
siderable distance in front of the head, so as to seize any minute
Insects or small Fishes that may pass before the creature, which is
very sluggish in its movements. The respiration of the larva: of
some of these Insects is not effected by external branchia, but by
the entrance of the water into the cavity of the body, where it comes
in contact with the trachea;, which deprive it of the air dissolved in
it ; it is then forcibly expelled through the opening by which it
entered (Fig. 2146). The resistance offered to the expulsion of this
water also enables the larva to progress slowly. In some of the
smaller species the larva is fur-
nished with three narrow, elon-
gated caudal plates.
One of the most beautiful
species inhabiting this country
is the Calej>teryx virgo (Fig.
2147), which is not uncommon
on the sides of rivers. It is of
a deep steel-blue colour, and
the .wings have a large dark
patch near the apex. Some
exotic species allied to this have
the abdomen at least six inches long.
In this sub-order the wings are always nearly equal in size, reti-
culated, and generally laid flat upon the back when at rest, the pos-
terior pair never folded. The labium is usually notched on the apex,
but never deeply cleft, as in the preceding group. The antenna
are generally long, and either filiform or gradually tapering to the
tip. The pupa is quiescent.
Sue-order II.— Planipennia.
Sub-divisions. — In one family, the Sialida;, the larva is Aquatic
in its habits, and the perfect Insect is always found in the neigh-
bourhood of water. When mature, the larva quits the water, and
forms a cavity in the bank, where it passes the pupa stage. These
Insects are distinguished by the large size of the prothorax.
The remaining families pass the whole of their lives in the air.
Fig. 2147. — The Ccilefleryx virgo.
Fig. 214S. — The Myremelo.
Of these, one species, the curious Myrineleo7itidcs, or Ant-lions, are
distinguished by their clavate antennae, which are usually short;
although in one genus these organs are elongated, and knobbed at
the extremity, in the same way as Butterflies. The ocelli are
wanting ; the labial palpi are very long, and the wings are large and
finely reticulated, and, during repose, lie in a roof-like form upon
the sides of the body (Fig. 2148). Some of these Insects, which are
all exotic, are reniarkable from the habits of their larva; — small,
sluggish, oval creatures, furnished with a most formidable pair of
jaws. These curious little creatures excavate conical pits in the
sandy places which they inhabit, at the bottom of which they conceal
themselves entirely, with the exception
of the head and powerful jaws. Here
they wait patiently until some prying
Ant or other Insect unwarily strays into
their domain, when the unfortunate in-
truder generally slips to the bottom of
the pit, and is soon destroyed by 'the
merciless jaws of the Ant-lion ; but if
the victim show any intention of making his escape, a shower of
sand thrown up by the latter soon arrests his progress, and gene-
rally brings him down to the fangs of the destroyer.
The Hemerobiidie, which are closely allied to the preceding
Insects, are generally beautiful and delicate creatures, with soft
bodies, large, delicate, and finely reticulated wings, and long fili-
form antennae. They possess no ocelli ; but the eyes are large,
prominent, and usually of a beautiful golden colour. The larvie of
these Insects — of which several species are found in this country —
are amongst the greatest enemies of the Aphides, which they suck
by means of their curiously-constructed jaws. Many of them arc
elegant creatures. They fly generally in the evening ; and most of
them emit a most disagreeable odour on being disturbed or touched.
The pupa is enclosed in a cocoon.
The Parwr-pidcB are characterised by the form of the head, which
is prolonged below into a sort of rostrum, at the extremity of which
the mouth is situated. They have long slender antennae and three
ocelli, and the extremity of the abdomen is often furnished with a
curious forceps-like appendage, whence the
commonest English species has obtained
the name of the Scorpion-fly (Fig. 2149).
These Insects are found commonly about
hedges in damp situations ; but little is
known of their habits.
The two last families are distinguished
from the preceding by the great length of
the prothorax, which forms a slender neck ;
Pig. 2149. — The Scorpion- from which circumstance the few British
fly {Panorpa). species are denominated Snake-Jlies. In
the Raphidiidce the fore legs are formed for
walking, the head bears three ocelli, and the antennae are long and
slender ; the abdomen of the female is furnished with a long oviposi-
tor. The larvae are said to live under the bark of trees ; and the
Insects are generally found in woods. This family includes several
British species ; but none of the next family,' the AIa?ttispida-,
occur in Britain. These curious little Insects are furnished with
long raptorial fore legs, exactly like those of the Orthopterous
Mantidcv, previously described at page 803 ante, near which they
have indeed been sometimes arranged. They have no ocelli ; their
antennae are short, and the female has no ovipositor. They resemble
the RaphidiidcR in their habits ; and both families — especially the
second — are apparently very predaceous.
Sub-order III. — Trichoptera.
The sub-order Trichoptera, including only the large tribe, or
family of PliryganeidcB, exhibits the most complete metamorphosis
oi3.\vj oi\\\c K'europtera. The larvae, which are Aquatic, in fact,
present almost as little resemblance to the imago as those of some
metabolous Insects. They are long, softish grubs, furnished with
six feet, and with a horny head armed with jaws, generally fitted
for biting vegetable matters, although some appear to be carni-
vorous. To protect their soft bodies, which constitute a very
favourite food with Fishes, these larva; always inclose themselves in
cases formed of various materials ; bits of straw and sticks, pebbles,
and even small shells, being commonly employed in this manner.
The materials of these curious cases are united by means of fine
silken threads, spun like those of the Caterpillars of the Zc/)/'rt'6)//t'r«,
from a spinneret situated on the labium. In increasing the size of
its case to suit its growth, the larva is said to add only to the anterior
end, cutting off a portion of the opposite extremity. When in mo-
tion, the larva pushes its head and the three thoracic segments,
which are of a harder consistence than the rest of the body, out of
its case (Fig. ^150) ; and as the latter is but little, if at all, heavier
than the water, the creature can readily drag it along behind it, thus
keeping its abdomen always sheltered. It adheres stoutly to the
inside of its dwelling by means of a pair of articulated caudal ap-
pendages, assisted by three tubercles on the first abdominal segment.
DIPTEROUS INSECTS.
807
Before passing to the pupa state, the larva fixes his case to some
object in the water, and then closes up the two extremities with a
silken grating, through which the water necessary for the respiration
of the pupa can easily pass. The pupa is furnished with a large
pair of hooked jaws, by means of which, when about to assume the
perfect state, it bites through the grating of its prison, and thus sets
itself free in the water. In this form, the pupx of some species swim
freely through the water by means of their long hind legs, also creep-
ing upon the other four limbs ; these frequently rise to the surface of
Fig. 2150. — The Phrygauea gramiis.
A, larva in its case ; B, grating ; C, imago.
the water, and there undergo their final change, using their deserted
skin as a sort of raft from which to rise into the air, whilst others
generally creep up the stems of aquatic plants for the same purpose.
The perfect Insects have four wings, with branched nervures, of
which the anterior pair are clothed with hairs ; the posterior are
folded in repose. The organs of the mouth, except the palpi, arc
rudimentary, and apparently unfit for use. The head is furnished
with a pair of large eyes, and with three ocelli, and the antennae are
generally very long. Some species are so exactly like Moths, that
they have often been supposed to belong to the Lepidoptcroics order ;
and, in fact, these Insects may be considered to form a connecting
link between the Mcuropfcra and the Lepidopfcra. The females
have been observed to descend io the depth of a foot or more in
water, in order to deposit their eggs. Many species of these Insects
are found in Britain. The larvEe are well known to anglers under
the names of Caddis-worms and Straw-worms. They are said to be
excellent baits.
SUB-CL/\SS III. — METABOLA.
In this sub-class the metamorphosis is what is termed complete,
the larva, pupa, and imago being generally very distinct in ap-
pearance. The larva is either a Maggot, Grub, or Caterpillar,
and the pupa is quiescent, and inclosed in a skin or case.
Order VIII.— Aphaniptera.
This little order, which only includes the Fleas, of which one
species, at any rate, is probably even too well known to many of our
readers, presents an exceedingly remarkable structure, which has
been a frequent source of perplexity to systematists. By many recent
authors these Insects have been arranged with the Diptcra ; but
they differ from these so essentially in many of their characters,
that we have preferred retaining them as a separate and independent
order.
The external covering of the Flea is a horny case, formed of very
distinct segments (Fig. 2 151); those of the thorax being always
Fig. 215 1.— The Flea (Piilex irritans).
A, mouth ; x, supposed labrum ; /«(/, mandibles ; mx, maxilla; ; re/, maxil-
lary palpi ; //, labial palpi.
disunited. Although apparently Apterous, the Flea has the rudi-
ments of four wings, in the form of horny plates, on the sides of the
meso- and meta-thoracic segments ; the hinder pair of plates is
the largest. The mouth, which, as is well-known, is eminently
suctorial, is of a very curious construction, and the oral organs are
so singularly formed, that their homologies have frequently puzzled
entomologists. They consist of a pair of sword-shaped, finely ser-
rated mandibles, which, with a sharp, needle-like organ (supposed
to represent the labrum), appear to constitute the formid.Tble offen-
sive weapon with which the Fleas pierce the skin of their victims.
These are sheathed by the three jointed labial palpi. The labium and
maxilla; arc very small ; but the maxillary palpi are long, composed
of four joints, and stand out from the head in such a manner as to
have been generally mistaken for the antennrc. The latter organs
are of minute size, and are generally concealed beneath a valve-like
plate, on the sides of the head behind the eyes, although some
species occasionally carry them exscrted. The legs are strong, the
hinder pair especially, by means of which these active little creatures
execute their surprising leaps.
The larva of the Flea is a long, footless grub, furnished with a
distinct horny head. They are hatched from eggs laid by the female,
generally in the neighbourhood of animal matter. The eggs of the
common species are usually laid in the cracks of floors and similar
places. The larvaj are active ; and when they attach themselves
to Dogs or other Animals, they twist about freely amongst the hairs
or feathers, feeding upon minute particles of animal matter. In
about twelve days the larva; are full-grown. They then inclose
themselves in a little silky cocoon, and pass to the pup.i st.ite. In
this condition the Insect is quiescent, inclosed in a skin which fits
over all parts of the body. The perfect Insect emerges in about a
fortnight. Most of the species of Fleas, or Pitlicida, zso. parasitic
upon particular Animals — one of the largest being found upon the
Mole.
A minute species, inhabiting the West Indies and South America,
the Chigoe or Jigger ( Pulex penetrans], is remarkable for the habit
possessed by the female of inserting herself beneath the skin of the
foot, generally under the nails. In this situation her abdomen
swells to about the size of a small pea, in conicquence of the
development of eggs in the ovaries, occasioning great pain and
irritation of the part ; and if not extracted in time, the eggs are
said to be hatched within the wound, producing extensive ulceration,
and sometimes even causing death. The feet of Dogs are also
attacked by this pest ; and it is said that the unfortunate creatures
may often be seen rolling about, and nibbling their toes in a state of
the greatest agony.
Order IX.— Diptera.
This order, which includes among others the Domestic Fly, con-
tains an enormous number of species. The Insects possess but a
single pair of wings, hence the name Diptera, derived from the
Greek dis, two, and ptcra, wings. The wings are attached to the
mesothoracic segment ; the metathorax, instead of wings bears a
pair of small, clubbed organs known as lialteres, or balancers, which
appear to represent the posterior wings. By some entomologists
they have been denied this character, which they ascribe to a pair of
small membranous organs, called alulcts, or little wings, attached
to the base of the true wings ; but this opinion seems to us as
founded in error. The haltcres seem to be the most characteristic
organ of the order, as they are present in those Dipterous Insects
whose wings are wanting. The segments of the thorax are fused
into a mass, their limits being indicated externally by more or less
distinct furrows. The prothorax is always very small.
The head is generally of considerable size, and furnished with a
pair of large compound eyes, which often occupy nearly its entire
surface. It is usually attached to the thorax by a narrow neck, and
the crown bears two or three ocelli. The structure of the mouth has
already been described. The antenna; are always placed on the
front of the head, between the eyes. Their form is very variable.
The legs are well developed, sometimes very long. The tarsi are
composed of five joints, terminated by a pair of claws, and furnished
with two or three soft pulviUi, by the assistance of which these crea-
tures are enabled to walk with ease upon the smoothest surfaces,
even in a perpendicular or reversed position.
The abdominal rings are distinct, and usually of a firmer texture
than the rest of the body : some of the apical segments in the females
are often converted into a telescope-like ovipositor. The stomach is
furnished with a small sucking stomach, which communicates with
it by a very slender tube. At the base of the abdomen, are two air-
bladders, often of considerable size ; the position of which is some-
times indicated by the semi-transparent appearance of that part of
the body.
The larva; of the Diptera are footless grubs, or maggots, some-
times destitute of a distinct head. The stigmata are usually only
two in number, and placed at the posterior extremity of the body. In
some cases the larva, on reaching maturity, casts its skin, and
changes to a free quiescent pupa ; whilst in many species, this
transformation takes place within the skin of the larva, which then
hardens, and forms a case for the protection of the sleeping inmate.
This constitutes what is termed a coarctatc pupa.
8o8
DIPTEROUS INSECTS— THE FLY.
' Sub-divisions. — The great number of species, as already stated,
included in this, which is certainly one of the largest, if not the
largest, of the orders of Insects, has given rise to a corresponding
multiplicity of families and other minor groups. In the following
pages we shall refer, as briefly as possible, to the principal of these.
Fig. 2152. — AntenncE of the Dip/era.
A, Tipida ; B, Tabanus ; C, Miisca.
The order is divided into three sub-orders. The first consists of
Parasitic and often wingless Insects, which have the head usually
immersed in the thora.\-, and the claws denticulated. These are
called Pupipara, from the singular circumstance that the larvffi are
nourished within the body of the mother, and not excluded until they
have attained the pupa state. Of the other two sub-orders, which
are generally oviparous, although a few bring forth living larvm, one,
the lirachycera, is distinguished by having the antenna: short, and
composed, apparently, only of three joints, with the last joint gene-
rally furnished with a bristle (Fig. 2152 C) ; whilst in the Neinocera,
forming the third sub-order, the antenna (Fig. 2152 A) are always
composed of more than six joints, filiform, and usually feathered.
In the Brachycera, the palpi also consist of only one or two joints ;
whilst in the Nemocera, these organs are composed of four or five
articulations.
Sub-order I.— Pupipara.
General Characters. — In addition to the characters already
given, these Insects differ from the o\.\\cx Dififera in the structure of
the mouth, which is so singular that the analogies of its constituent
parts are very doubtful. The lower part of the head is covered by a
membranous plate, perforated by a minute orifice in front, where it
is also furnished with a pair of minute coriaceous lobes, which have
been regarded as modified palpi. Within this is a fleshy bent
organ, terminated by a bristle-like sucker, composed of three
separate bristles : this can be pushed out of the aperture, in the
first-mentioned plate, by the extension of their fleshy base, which is
probably the labium, and in this manner they are employed in
piercing the skin of the Animals on which these Insects are para-
sitic. Some of them are furnished with wings, whilst others are
destitute of those organs. Their bodies and limbs are generally
covered with bristles. The abdomen presents no indications of
segments ; so that in their appearance the Apterous species often
closely resemble Spiders, from which circumstance the French call
them " Mouches araignees," or Spider Flies.
Sub-divisions.— They form two families, the II/J>/>obosctdce, or
Forest-flies, in which the last joint of the tarsi is longest, and the
NycteribiidcB, or Bat-lice, in which the basal joint of those organs
is longer than all the rest put together. In their habits both these
families are very similar, living amongst the hairs and feathers of
Beasts and Birds, where they run about with great agility, often
progressing sideways. They live by sucking the blood of their
victims. Young Birds appear to be especially the objects of their
^'g' 2153- — Tlie llij'lobosca hi'rundinis imA Ilippolosca equina.
attacks, and are frequently driven completely to distraction by their
tormentors. The species of Hi^puboscidcc live upon different
Mammals and Birds ; the HiJ>J>obosca equina, or Forest-fly, is very
troublesome to Horses ; and the Melo;phagns ovinus, which is
Apterous, is v/ell known as the Shecp-tick. The Nycteribiidca con-
fine their attacks to Bats.
Sue-order II.— Brachycera.
General Characters.— In the Brachycera the antenna; are
always short, composed apparently of only three joints, the last
joint being sometimes articulated at its extremity (Fig. 2152 ^antc),
sometimes entire, and generally furnished with a long, sometimes
jointed, bristle. The palpi consists of one or two joints; the body
is generally broad, and the head usually as wide as the thorax.
Sub-divisions. — As this sub-order includes by far the greater
portion of the almost innumerable hosts of Dipterous Insects, the
number of families and sub-families of which it is composed is, as
might be expected, exceedingly great. They may, hov/ever, be
divided into seven principal groups (families or tribes), and to these
we must confine our attention.
In the Oestrida, the proboscis is usually imperceptible, or, when
present, very small ; the antenna; are very short, and the last joint
is furnished with a long bristle ; the alulets are large, and entirely
conceal the halteres. Although most of these Insects, from the
obsolete nature of their mouths, are probably incapable of taking
nourishment in their perfect state, they are nevertheless to be regarded
amongst the greatest pests to Cattle, when in their larva state.
During this period of their existence they are all parasitic upon
different species of Herbivorous Iilammalia, some of them living in
the skin, and others in the internal cavities of their hosts. Of the
former the best known is the Oestrus bovis, the larva; of which
resides in the large tumours on the backs of Cattle, known to the
farmer under the names of laornils and worbles. Of the internal
Parasites, some (such as the Cephalemyia ovis), live in the
frontal sinuses of Sheep and Deer, the parent laying her eggs
in the nostrils, whence the young larva creeps up into its destined
abode; whilst others, of which ihe Gasterophilus equt {V\g. 2154),
is an example, inhabit the intestines of
their victims. The eggs of the latter
species are laid upon the skin of the
Horse in such positions as are easily
reached with his tongue, so that in licking
himself he is instrumental in conveying
his foes into his intestines. The internal
larva are furnished with rings of bristles,
to enable them to retain their position ;
but they all quit their abode when mature,
and undergo their last transformations in Fig. 2154. — The GaslerophU
the earth, or in dung. The pupa is in- lus eoid, and larva,
closed in the dried larva-skin.
The two next families are distinguished by having only two
bristles in the proboscis. The Muscida are further characterised
by having the proboscis membranous and completely retractile,
terminated by two large lobes (Fig. 2155); the antennae are short,
three-jointed, with a long and often pilose bristle attached to the
third joint. _ This family includes an enormous num-
ber of species, presenting an almost infinite variety
of habit. An excellent example (the Common Fly,
Musca domcstica), occurs during the summer in
even too great abundance in our houses ; and many
others, almost equally common, may be met with at
all seasons of the year. In the larva condition, some
of them, including the Common fly, live in dung ;
others, such as the Common Flesh Fly {Sareopltaga
carttand), feed upon Animal substances. Some of
Fig. 2155.— The these, of which the Common Cheese-hopper {Pio-
Head of the j>hila casei. Fig. 2156), is an example, possess a con-
Musca. siderable power of leaping ; their springs being
effected by bending the body into a hoop, and then
suddenly straightening it. Many of these larva;, which feed upon
Animal substances in a state of decomposition, must be included
Fig. 2156. — The Cheese-hopper (Piophila casei).
I, Larva preparing to spring; 2, natural size of larva ; 3, 4, Flj', natural size
and magnified.
amongst our greatest benefactors, as by removing, in a short space
of time, rnatters which, if left, would corrupt and fill the atmosphere
with noxious vapours, they prevent all the ill effects which those
effluvia are known to produce upon Animal life. So rapidly do they
DIPTEROUS INSECTS.
809
perform this business, that Linnaeus calculated that the progeny of
three Flesh Flies would devour the carcass of a Horse almost as
quickly as a Lion ; and although there may be a little exaggeration
in this statement, it is, perhaps, not very far from the truth. The
larva; of a great number of minute species are parasitic upon other
Insects ; whilst those of many feed upon plants, often causing great
damage to various crops. Some, which infest the leaves of plants,
form minute galleries or mines between the two membranes of the
leaf, by eating away the parenchyma.
The lar\'a; are soft footless grubs, frequently destitute of any
distinct head, and generally of an elongated conical form, having the
mouth, which is furnished with two retractile hooks, at the smaller
extremity, and the single pair of stigmata at the larger. They are
generally produced from eggs laid by the parent in the midst of the
substances suited for their nourishment ; but in some cases — as, for-
instance, in the Flesh Fly — the eggs are hatched within the body of
the mother, and the Insects make their first appearance in the larva
form. The pupa is inclosed within the skin of the larva.
The habits of the perfect Insects are as dissirtiilar as those of the
larvae. A great number inhabit flowers ; others appear to feed upon
almost every description of animal and vegetable matter ; whilst
some, sucli as the Stoiiwxys attack Man, and other Animals, to suck
their blood. They are generally dingy in their appearance, although
some are adorned with brilliant colours. They exhibit a great
variety of form. The most remarkable, perhaps, is that presented
by the exotic genus Dio^sis, in which the eyes are placed at the
extremity of long stalks, with the antennae close beside them. (See
Fig. 2157.)
The CoHopidm are distinguished by having the proboscis long,
elbowed, and always exserted, with the palpi minute, and the
Fig. 2157. — The Diopsis sykesii.
antennas furnished with a short bristle, which is frequently placed at
the apex of the last joint. Most of these Insects are elegantly varie-
gated in their colours. They may be found in great abundance
during the summer, hovering upon their powerful wings over flowers
in gardens and elsewhere. The larvEe are said to be parasitic in the
interior of various species of Humble Bees.
In the three following families, or rather tribes — the Brachy-
stoma, the Notaca7itka, and the Tanystoma — the proboscis usually
contains either three or four bristles. In the Brachystoma, the
proboscis is very short and membranous, with the lip generally
large, fleshy, and bi-loped. The bristles are usually four in number ;
one group has only three of these organs. The antennae consist of
three joints, of which the last has a long bristle springing from its
back. The abdomen of the male is usually bent round at the apex,
and furnished with copulative appendages.
They are generally large Flies, adorned with brilliant colours,
which, for the most part, haunt flowers, living upon honey. A few,
however, are predaceous in their habits. The larvae are very various
in their forms, and differ greatly in their mode of life. Many live in
the earth ; others in dung ; whilst some are found upon plants
amongst colonies of AJ>hides, which they destroy in great numbers,
sucking their juices by means of a three-pointed spine.
The larvae of the genus Volucella live parasitically in the nests of
Wasps and Hornets. Those of the genus Eristalis, which inhabit
dirt)' water and other foul liquids, are furnished with a singular
telescopic tail, which they put to the surface of the water, and thus
breathe, whilst all the rest of their bodies is immersed. This group
is sub-divided into four subordinate groups (families or sub-families)
— the Dolichopidcz, the Syrphida:, the TherevidcB and the LcptidtB.
In \!ae.Notacantha, the apparent last joint of the antennae is com-
posed of several articulations, which, however, are generally more or
less amalgamated into an elongated mass, with the bristle, when
present, springing from its apex. The back of the thorax is generally
spined. The proboscis is short, and contains four bristles. The
tarsi are furnished with three pulvilli. These Insects are also fre-
quently brilliantly coloured. They generally frequent flowers. The
larvae live in various situations; in the earth, in rotten wood, in
dung, and in water. The latter is the habitation of the larvae of the
typical genus Straiiomys (Fig. 2158). They breathe, like the other
Aquatic Dipterous larvae, through the tail, which is furnished with
a circle of bristles, to keep the water from rushing into the stigmata,
when these are applied to the surface. The pupa is inclosed in the
larva skin.
Fig, 215S. — Larva, Pupa, and Imago of the Straiiomys chamcrlcon.
The Tanysfuma are generally distinguished by the great com-
parative length of their proboscis, which is often excessively long (Fig.
2159), and rarely terminates in a very fleshy lip. The bristles are
either four or six in number. Tlie antennae consists of three joints,
usually terminated by a bristle. The transformations of these Insects
Fig. 2159. — The Ncmeslrina lonpi-ostris.
The larva-
larv;c gene-
Fig. 2160. — The Talmmis bovinus.
are also different from those of the preceding groups,
skin is always cast on assuming the pupa state. The
reside in the earth.
It is in the Bomhyliidcs that the proboscis attains^ its greatest
dimensions (see Fig. 2159); these are generally hairy. Bee-like
Flies, which suck their nourishment from flowers whiht hovering
over them. In the Anthracidcc, the proboscis is short ; and in the
AcroceridcB, the organs of the mouth are sometimes entirely want-
ing. The Empidcc, the Hybottda:,
the AsilidcB, and the Mydasida,
are all predaceous in their habits ;
as are also the Tabaiiida:, the
well-known Gad-Jlies, or Breeze-
flics, so troublesome to cattle, and
even to man, which are distin-
guished from the oihex Brac/iyccra
by the possession of six bristles in
the mouth. In the Tabant, the last
joint of the antennae exhibits an
articulated extremity (Fig. 2160).
They are amongst the largest of Dipterous Insects ; and their
rapacity and power of annoying their unfortunate victims are propor-
tionably great.
Sub-order IIL — Nemocera.
General Characters. — The Nemocera are distinguished from
all the other Diptera by the structure of their antennae, which are
always rather long, thread-like, or formed of bead-like joints. The
palpi are also long, composed of at least four or five joints ; and
both the palpi and antennae are frequently plumose. The body is long
and slender, and the legs often of extraordinary length.
Sub-divisions. — Few of these Insects present anything "very at-
tractive in their appearance. Their colours are almost always dingy,
and their bodies soft ; but, like many other creatures of the same des-
cription, they force themselves upon our notice by the injury they
do either to our persons or property ; those of one of the two families
into which they are divided being often exceedingly destructive to
the vegetable productions of our gardens and fields ; whilst those of
the other are the most inveterate blood-suckers that ever tormented
Man or Beast.
The TipitlidcB are in the former case. They have the proboscis
very short, terminated by a pair of fleshy lips, and inclosing only
two bristles. The Common Tipulos, or Daddy-long-legs, are well-
SI-
8io
GNA TS—B UTTERFLIES.
known examples of this family ; and their larvse, which live in moist
eround, often do great mischief, attacking the roots of grass in
meadovvs, and sometimes denuding whole fields of their herbage.
Fig. 2162 represents Daddy, or Father Long-legs, A, a a are the
halteres, or balancers B, a, a, the poiscrs of another Fly ; C, a a the
poisers, b b, the winglets The larva; of the Ceadomyia and their
allies o-enerally attack the young buds of trees, when they produce
a sort of gall in which they come to maturity; whilst other species,
such as the Cectdomyia tritici and the Cecidomyui destructor, the
Fig 2161.— A, the Hesian 7\y ( Cecidomyia destructor); B, the Wheat Fly
(C. Triciti) ; C, larvre of C. Tricitiitti:\Vig on Wheat.
dreaded Hessian fly of the United States (Fig. 2161 ), generally
attack the corn crops. The former of these larva feeds on the
flower of the wheat, often rendering it abortive ; whilst the other
attacks the stem near the ground, aud thus causes a still more
wholesale destruction. The larvae of Chironomus (Fig. 2163) and
its allies live in standing water ; and the Insects themselves closely
resemble Gnats, both in appearance and in their habit of collecting
Father, or Daddy Long-legs,
in the evening in vast numbers, and dancing up and down in the air.
The larvae of Chiroiiomus ;plu}nostis are of a blood-red colour, and
are well known to anglers as Blood-worms. The larvae of a con-
siderable number of species are found in fungi.
Fig. 2163. — The Chronomus fhimosus, with its larva ; all magnified.
A few species depart somewhat from the general peaceful charac-
ter of the family, and suck blood with as much avidity as their
neighbours, the Gnats. Amongst these the species of Simulium,
or Sand-flies, must be especially noticed, as their bite often gives
rise to intensely painful swellings. In the family of the Culkida, or
Gnats, which includes the pre-eminently bloodthirsty species, the
proboscis is especially suited for their work of torment. It is often
half the length of the Insect, slender, slightly thickened at the tip,
and incloses six long, sharp bristles. The palpi are often very long,
and beautifully feathered in the males ; but in the females these
Fig. 2164.— The Gnat ( Culex pifiens).
Female, natural size, and magnified ; head of male.
Fig. 2165. — The Gnat escaping from its Pupa.
organs are generally short. These Insects, their curious dances,
and the very disagreeable effects of their bite, must be well known
to everyone ; but the Mosquitoes of warm climates, which are very
nearly allied to our indigenous Gnats, are still greater pests ; and
the inhabitants of India are compelled to protect themselves when
asleep, by means of fine gauze curtains, from the attacks of these
bloodthirsty little creatures. The larvae of the Gnats live in water,
where they swim about with considerable agility, breathing air by
placing the orifice of a long caudal tube at the surface of the water.
Fig. 2165 represents the Gnat escaping from its pupa.
Order X.— Lepidoptera.
General Characters. — In this last and highest order of the
Suctorial Insects, with a complete metamorphosis, we meet with
creatures which must be ranked amongst the most elegant of the
denizens of the air. The delicacy of the form of many species, the
charming contrast of colour often exhibited in their wings, and the
gem-like brilliancy of others, must always render
them most attractive objects. The attention of
collectors has always been more directed to these
Insects than to those of any other order.
The structure of the mouth is almost always
sufficient to distinguish a Lepidopterous Insect
from one belonging to any other order. The suc-
torial organ consists of a spirally-rolled trunk
(Fig. 2166) attached to the lower part of the front
of the head, and reposing, when coiled up between
the hairy labial palpi. The construction of this
trunk has already been described.
The wings are four in number, membranous,
generally nearly flat, and furnished with branch-
ing nervures. They are usually covered with
minute scales, popularly C3\\e.dt. feathers, which
a, head ; h, base of are, in reality, only a peculiar form of the hairs
antennce ; c, eye; with which the wings of most Insects are furnished.
d, trunk ; e, labial In the Lepidoptera these are set very close toge-
palpi. ther, usually more or less flattened, and laid over
one another in the manner of tiles upon the roof of
a house. Their form varies greatly in different species, and even
on different parts of the wings of the same species (Fig. 2167). It
is entirely to these scales that the beautiful colours of the wings of
these Insects are due ; and the metallic tints exhibited by many
species are owing to the presence of very delicate striae upon the
scales.
The thoracic segments are amalgamated into a more or less ovate
mass, generally clothed with hair ; the prothorax is very small. The
legs are generally well developed ; but in some species the anterior
pair is rudimentary. The tibia; are spurred, and the tarsi usually
composed of five joints.
The larvae of the Lepidoptera are well known as Caterpillars.
They are generally of a more or less cylindrical form, composed of
thirteen segments, of which the anterior forms a horny head, fur-
nished with jaws and antennas, and usually with groups of simple
eyes.
The jaws of the Caterpillar are usually very strong, and well
adapted for biting the firm vegetable tissues upon which most of
them feed. The mouth is composed of the same parts as that of
Masticating Insects. In addition to the usual pair of palpi, the
Fig.
and
2166. — Head
trunk of the
Butterfly.
BUTTERFLIES.
8ii
labium bears a slender tubular organ , the spiniio-ct (Fig. 2 1 6g?) .which
communicates with a pair of large internal glands, whose office it is
to secrete the viscous substance necessary for the formation of the
silky threads by means of which most Caterpillars secure themselves
from falling, and with which many of them spin a cocoon in which
to pass their pupa state.
The three segments following the head, which correspond with
the thoracic segments of the perfect Insect, bear three pairs of soft,
jointed legs, terminated by a single claw (Fig. 2i-jQ,a) ; and, in
Fig. 2167. — Scales from the wings of the Gnat-moth.
addition to these, a variable number of the abdominal segments are
also furnished with fleshy feet, called pro-legs (Fig. 2170, b,c], which
are of great assistance to the creature in grasping any object upon
which it may be resting or walking.
The duration of the larvaT-state is very variable in these Insects ;
many of them producing two broods annually, whilst others occupy
two or three years in arriving at their perfect condition. In their
larva state they are exceedingly voracious, often doing immense
damage to vegetation. Most of them accordingly grow rapidly, and
shed their skins several times before attaining maturity. When
this period has arrived, the Caterpillar seeks some sheltered spot in
which to undergo its change to the pupa form. Some species select
the lower surface of leaves and branches for this purpose ; others,
clefts and hollows in the bark of trees, walls, or palings ; whilst
some bury themselves in the earth. Those which remain in the air
Fig, 2169. — Head and Jaws of Caterpillars.
A, from above. B, from beneath, a, eyes; b., antenna;; c, labium; </,
mandibles ; e, raa.xillx ; f, maxilliaiy palpi ; g, labium ; h, labial palpi ;
:, spinneret.
always suspend themselves in various ways by means of their silky
secretion ; and some inclose themselves completely in a silky
Fig. 2170. — Leg and Pro-legs of Caterpillars.
a, thoracic leg ; /', pio-leg ; c, pro-legs grasping ; d, e, spiracles open and
closed.
cocoon, as the Silk-worm. This is
also done by some of those which
conceal themselves in the earth ;
but many of these only line their
cavity with a sufficient quantity of
silken threads to keep its walls
from falling in upon them. The
pupa is entirely enclosed in a homy
case, in which the position of the
wings and limbs is indicated ex-
ternally only by lines and other ele-
vations.
In their preparatory stages the
Lcpidoptera are exceedingly liable
to be destroyed by numerous spe-
cies of Parasitic Insects, which lay
their eggs in the larva. This then
continues to feed, ,and frequently
even effects its transformation to
the pupa state, without exhibiting
any indications of the work of de-
struction which is going on within.
These Parasites, assisted by the In-
sectivorous Birds, keep the number
of Caterpillars within moderate limts.
Without these checks, they would
soon destroy the fruits of the labours
of the gardener and the husbandman.
Fig. 2168.— Group of Butterflies.
Fig. 2171. — The Tortol?c-.s!idl
BuUcrfly just emerged from tlic
chrysalis.
The perfect Insect, on fust emerging
from the pupa case, usually lias the
wings soft and crumpled ; and it is
not until some little time after it has
set itself free from its prison, that
8l2
BUTTERFLIES.
its wings become sufficiently expanded to be available for flight
(see Fig. 2171). Many Butterflies, immediately before taking their
first flight into the air, eject a red fluid from the anus, which, of
course, forms a red spot wherever it falls ; and this — when, as is
sometimes the case, vast quantities of some species of Butterfly
lave simultaneously attained the perfect state in a particular dis-
trict — has given rise to the stories of bloody rain.
Fig. 2168 represents a group of British Butterflies, i is the
Swallow-tail, Pa^/Zz'o macJiaon : 2, the Purple Emperor, or High-
flyer, A^tura iris ; 3, the Orange Argus, or Wall Butter-fly, HiJ)-
;parchia mcgcsra ; 4, the Great Tortoiseshell Butterfly, Vanessa
Ipolychloros ; 5, the Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly, Vanessa urtica ;
6, the Red Admiral, Vanessa atalanta; and 7, the Peacock's
Eye, Vanessa io. It should be observed that the Swallow-tail
Butterfly is comparatively rare in England.
Sub-divisions. — The Lcpidoptera are divided into two great
groups or sub-orders — the Hete/'ocera and the Rhopalocera. In the
former, the antennae are of variable form, usually bristle-shaped,
and frequently plumose, but very rarely clubbed. The hinder wings
are furnished with a bristle on their anterior margin, which serves
to keep the two wings of each side connected during flight ; and the
wings are never carried erect during repose. This group includes
the numerous species of Moths. These are the Nocfur)ial and
Crepuscular Le;pidoptera [N'ociurna and Crepusciilaria) of many
Entomologists, so called from most of the species flying only by night
or in the twilight.
In t\\e Rhopalocera, or Butterflies, the antennae are almost always
terminated by a club ; the wings are generally carried perfectly
upright in repose, and the hinder pair are not furnished with bristles.
These are the Diurna of some Entomologists.
Sub-order I. — Heterocera.
Sub-divisions. — The Heterocera may be divided into eight
groups or tribes, most of which include several families. In the first
of these, the Pterophorina, or Plume-moths, the wings are divided
into radiating finger-like segments, fringed on both sides with nume-
rous delicate hairs, which give
them the appearance of minute
feathers. The antenna are slen-
der and bristle-like ; the body
slender ; the legs long, and fur-
nished with large spurs on the tibiae.
All these Insects have the habit
of folding their wings like a fan
when at rest. In some (Pteropho-
rus) the fore wings are but parti-
ally bifid, and the hind wings divi-
ded into three segments ; whilst in
others {Aluciia, Fig. 2172) the whole of the wings are composed of
feather-like pieces. One genus arranged in this tribe has the wings
entire. They are all of comparatively small size.
The second tribe, the Ti/ieina, includes a multitude of minute
Insects, often of the most elegant forms, and adorned with colours
as brilliant as those of the largest species of the order. They are
distinguished by their filiform or bristle-shaped antennse, which are
very rarely plumose ; but in many species they attain a considerable
length, and are generally longer than the body ; and by their
narrow, elongated wings, always terminated or edged by a long
fringe. The palpi are usually of great length, and often of singular
form.
The Caterpillars are provided with eight or ten pro-legs, in addi-
tion to the thoracic members. They inhabit the most various situa-
tions ; and most of them either shelter themselves within the
substance upon which they are feeding, or form themselves little
cases, which they carry about with them. The majority feed upon
green vegetable matter ; many of these mine in the leaves and stems
of plants ; whilst others live upon the surface, in small cases neatly
made of a little piece of leaf. The most destructive species are
those which live upon dry animal
and vegetable matter, amongst
which the well-known C'othes-
moths, and the Corn-moth {Tinea
gra7icUa), which attacks corn in
granaries, are the most noted.
Two species of Galleria live in
Bee-hives, to which they often do
great damage.
The Insects of the third tribe,
the Tortricina, are distinguished
by their shoit filiform antennae,
which are rarely feathered, and
their broad triangular wings. The
' ma.xillary palpi are inconspicuous,
the labial palpi elongated, and the body shorter and thicker than in
the Tineina. The head is generally furnished with ocelli.
The larvae possess sixteen feet ; they live upon the leaves of trees
Fig. 2172. — The Aluciia hexadadala.
Ki-;.
2173. — O.ik-lcaf rolling Cater-
pillar ( TortrU virJana).
and plants, which they generally roll np into a sort of tube (Fig.
2173). Within this they feed in security; and here they also under-
go their transformations. From this habit they have obtained their
common name of Leaf-rollers ; and their scientific name {Tortrix
ioriricina) has nearly the same meaning. When they occur in
great numbers, these Insects are often exceedingly injurious in
orchards and plantations.
In the Pyralidina the antenna; are also rather short and filiform ;
those of the males are somewhat pectinated. The labial p.ilpi are
generally very long, and the maxillary palpi tolerably conspicuous.
The wings are elongated and triangular, and the legs very long.
The Caterpillars are usually furnished with fourteen feet and
covered with short hairs ; they live upon leaves, and often, like the
Insects of the preceding groups, do much damage. 1\iQ Pyralis
vitis {^\g. 2174) is very destructive in wine countries; and other
species are frequently injurious to trees in orchards. The larva of
Pyralis farinalis lives upon flour and meal ; and that of the Aglossa
piiigiiinalis upon butter, grease, and similar substances.
In the Geometrina the antenna; of the females are filiform, but
•(-
Fit;. 2174. — The Pyralis vitis.
4, male at rest; dfi, female flying ; 4^, caterpillar; /\c, eggs ; 4^4/'. pupa.
those of the males usually plumose ; they are generally a little
longer than the thorax. The wings are large and broad, and the
body slender. The name of this group is derived from the structure
and habits of the Caterpillars, which are popularly known under the
name of loopers. These only possess four pro-legs, placed quite at
the extremity of the body. In progressing, the Caterpillar holds by
its thoracic feet ; brings the hinder extremity close to these, bending
the body into a loop ; adheres by the pro-legs, and then again ex-
tends the fore part of the body for a fresh step. In this manner they
proceed, apparently measuring the ground over which they travel ;
whence they have received the name oi geometricians. Many of
them present a close resemblance in colour and texture to a piece
of dry twig, and they take advantage of this to deceive their enemies,
adhering often for hours to one spot by their pro-legs, with the re-
mainder of the body stretched out in a straight line. The Cater-
pillars of these Insects are also very injurious to fruit trees — that of
the Magpie Moth (Fig. 2175), which inhabits gooseberry bushes,
often strips them almost entirely of their foliage.
The tribe of Nocturna includes a great number of Moths, of mid-
dling, or large size, generally of dull colours, and strictly nocturnal
in their habits. The antenna are generally bristle-like, rarely
pectinated, or even notched, generally a little longer than the head
and thorax ; the palpi are short ; the wings large, the anterior pair
longer, but narrower than the posterior, which are slightly folded in
repose. The body is rather thick, and the legs are generally stout.
The Caterpillars are generally naked, and furnished with sixteen
feet. The pupa are usually inclosed in a loose cocoon.
A few exceptions to the usual sombre colouring of the Insects of
this tribe are to be met with, principally in species which are more
diurnal in their habits than the rest. The Catocalce and Triphccna:
are distinguished by the bright red and orange colour of their pos-
terior wings ; and the Piiisia, which often fly in the bright day-
light, have the anterior wings adorned with metallic tints and
markings.
The Boinbycina have very short antennae, generally plumose or
pectinated, especially in the males. The wings are large, the pos-
terior pair being broadest, and generally adorned with bright
colours. The body is thick, and rather short ; the legs are stout ;
and the spiral trunk is either altogether absent or very short. This
tribes includes some of the largest species of the order ; and its im-
portance is greatly increased by the circumstance that the Silkworm
Moth [Bombyx mori) belongs to it.
Of the commercial importance of this Insect it is hardly necessary
THE SILKWORM.
813
to speak. Our chief supply of the silk it produces is obtained from
Italy, China, and Japan, but numerous attempts have been made
to rear it in other places. A trial in England, however, proved un-
successful.
Fig. 2176 represents the Silk-worm in its various stages — a and
b, the male and female Moth ; c, the eggs ; d, the pupa removed
from the cocoon ; e, the Caterpillar.
In this species the Caterpillar is about eight weeks in arriving at
maturity, during which period it changes its skin four or five times,
and ultimately prepares for assuming the pupa state. It then pre-
pares a nest of silk, or cocoon, the whole of which is composed of a
delicate silk, and then uniting the fine threads with gum or fluid
silk, given out in sufficient quantity to bind them all together.
Here, then, in a shroud of pale yellow glossy silk, the Caterpillar
JDecomes a pupa ; and here, if permitted, the pupa throws off her
last investment, and emerges a perfect Moth. But the question
now IS, how IS the Moth to get out of the silken tenement in which
while a Caterpillar she had locked up herself, leaving no aperture ?
The Moth makes her way out by destroying the continuity of the
silken threads at one end of the cocoon by means of a liquid solvent
discharged from its mouth ; it then presses forward, and the cocoon
opens. The latter, however, is now utterly spoiled for all useful pur-
Fig. 2175. — Tlie Magpie Moth ( Abraxas grossulariala).
Caterpillar, pupa, and imago.
single thread, arranged in two modes. To form the exterior en-
velope, the Caterpillar, having fixed upon a space between two
leaves or two stems, or other convenient site, draws a thread from
its spinneret and fi.\es it to an adjoining surface : it then conducts
the thread to another point and there secures it, and this it con-
tinues, drawing the threads from point to point, in various directions,
until it has surrounded itself with a loosely-spun maze, the scaffold-
ing for the support of the interior cocoon. Fixing itself by its pro-
legs to some of the surrounding threads, it bends its head from side
Fig. 2176.— The Silkworm.
to side, and spins a layer of silk-threads, to which it incessantly
adds until it is sufficiently deep ; it then shifts its position, and repeats
the operation in another place, and so on, repeating its labours till
the cavity is reduced to the proper size. Hence, therefore, the
cocoon is not formed of a thread wound round and round the Cater-
pillar, but backwards and, forwards, in a series of zigzags, so as to
form a number of separate pads or cushions. The' length of the
thread composing the inner or true cocoon, without including the ex-
terior case, is not less than 900 or 1,100 feet; but so great is its
tenuity that the threads of five or six cocoons require to be put together
to form one of sufficient thickness for the working of the manu-
facturer. The thread of the inner cocoon alone is valuable ; the
outer tissue is too much interwoven to be wound off, but it has been
otherwise utilised. We must add, that the chamber of the true
cocoon, in which the pupa is housed, is lined with a tapestry of silken
threads gummed to each other, so as to form a uniform surface ;
this appears to be effected by drawing from the spinneret a more
Fig. 2177.— The Saturnia promcthais, with ils caleipillar, cocoon, and pupa.
poses, and hence the breeders kill the pupa by exposing the cocoon
to a certain degree of heat.
_ The Bo})ibyx cynthia, the Arrindy Silkworm of India, furnishes a
silk which is said to possess astonishing durability. The Caterpillar
feeds upon the Castor-oil plant {Ricinus communis), and has been
introduced into the south of Europe, and into the French possessions
in the north of Africa, with some probability of success. Several
other species of these Insects furnish silk.
The Safuniia promeiheus (Fig. 2177), a fine North American
species, nearly allied to the preceding, is remarkable for inclosing
its cocoon within a leaf of the tree on
which it habitually resides. Amongst
British species, one of the most remark-
able is the Gasfropacha qucrcifolia, or
Oak-lappet Moth (Fig. 2178), in which
the under wings project on each side of
the upper ones when the Insect is at
rest, giving it a very singular aspect,
not unlike a bunch of dead leaves, the
Insect itself being of a brown colour.
Its mode of life, in the larva state, is not
less curious. The larvae live in a large
community within a silken nest, which
they weave for themselves ; and on leav-
ing it in search of food, they form a
regular procession, one taking the lead,
followed by a certain number two
abreast ; then three, and so on, until
they sometimes march in ranks of ten
or more. Hence they are called Pro-
cessionary Caterpillars, and the larva:
of several allied species have the same
singular habit.
The Goat Moth {Cossus ligniperda), which is one of the largest
2 1 78. —The Oak-lappet
Moth.
(Gastropaclia qturcifolia).
8i4
BUTTERFLIES.
British LcpMoptcra, also belongs to this tribe ; the larva feeds
upon the wood of willows, to which it often does iminense injury.
The Psychidcs, a faniily of singular small Moths, generally placed
with this group, are remarkable from the circumstance that the
larvae form portable cases for their protection, similar to those con-
structed by the Caterpillars of many Tineina. In these they
undergo their transformations; and the females of many of the
species, which are often footless, grub-like creatures, do not leave
this case, but are sought by the male whilst still inclosed. This
circumstance has given rise to an impression that these Insects pro-
duced fertile eggs without congress with the male ; but this opinion
proves to be unfounded in most cases ; although, according to
Siebold's observations, some of them exhibit phenomena of repro-
duction exactly analogous to those presented by the viviparous
Aphides, already described.
phant Hawk-moth, DeilephUa clpcnor. Perhaps the most remark-
able species of this tribe is the Death's-head Moth {Achcro7iticl.
afropos), a large species, variegated with dark brown and yellow,
and which bears upon the back of the thorax a deep orange
mark, presenting no inconsiderable resemblance to the front of a
human skull. Hence this Insect, whenever it has occurred in suffi-
cient plenty to attract general attention, has always been regarded
as ominous of pestilence— a feeling, probably, not diminished by its
power of emitting a plaintive squeak when disturbed. ' The larva is
very partial to the potato plant, and the pupa; are often turned up in
digging potato grounds. The Moth, which has a very short trunk,
is a great enemy to Bees, invading their hives, and feeding upon
their honey. It is supposed to frighten the Bees by the squeaking
noise above referred to ; for though it possesses no weapons, and
the Bees are well armed, they never appear to attack the intruder.
A considerable group of small Insects, be-
longing to this tribe, have transparent mem-
branous wings, only partially clothed with
scales. Amongst these, one, the Sesia tipuli-
Jormis, is very common in gardens, where its
Fig. 2l79.^Group of Moth?, Caterpillars, and Pupa,
Fig. 2179 represents — i, the Lappet Moth {GastropacJia qtiaxi-
folia); 2, the Emperor Moth, {^Saturnia pavonia); 3, the Oak
Egger Moth {Lasiocatnpa qiiercus) ; 4, the Small Egger Moth
(Eriogasicr lanestn's) ; 5, the Great Tiger Moth {Arctia caja) ;
6, the Cream-spot Tiger Moth {Arctia villicd); 7, the Ground
Lackey Moth {Clisiocainpa casirensis); 8, the Glory of Kent
{Etidfomis vcrsicolora).
In the Sphi?!gina, the last tribe of Heterocerous Lepidoptera, the
antennae are thickened in the middle or towards the end, but termi-
nate in an acute point. They are generally prismatic in their form,
and frequently pectinated or toothed internally. The wings are
generally long and narrow, but firm, and adapted for powerful flight ;
and the trunk is almost always well developed ; sometimes longer
than the body. The name of the Sphinx, applied to the typical
genus of these Insects, is derived from the habit the larvas have of
sitting with the head and fore part of the body raised in an
attitude which, to a fanciful imagination, bears some resemblance to
the Sphinx of the ancients. Most of these Insects fly in the twilight ;
but some are to be found hovering over flowers in the brightest sun-
shine, extracting the nectar by means of their long trunks. They
are generally of considerable size, and the appearance of the larger
species is well shown in the following figure (Fig. 21S0) of the Eie-
Fig. 2180.— The Elephant Hawk-Molh.
Deilephila elpenor.
Caterpillars feed in the interior of the twigs of
the currant and gooseberry bushes. The transi-
tion to the Rhopalocera is effected through
the Castniidce and Uraniidce, two groups of
Butterfly-like Insects, of which the latter, at
all events, has frequently been placed in the
following sub-order.
Sub-order II.— Rhopalocera.
This sub-order, including the numerous
beautiful species of Butterflies, which probably,
as . a group, may be regarded as the most
charming of Insects, forms only a single tribe,
which, however, is divided into numerous
families and sub-families. They are all diur-
nal in their habits, fluttering about from flower
to flower in the hottest sunshine ; and nearly
all of them carry their wings upright over their
backs in repose (Fig. 2181). It is in hot cli-
mates that the largest and most magnificent
species abound. Under the burning rays of
the tropical sun, numerous brilliantly metallic
species sport like living gems ; and even
those not adorned with metallic tints exhibit
an elegance and variety of colouring which is
perhaps not surpassed by any other productions of nature.
Beautiful as these creatures are, however, their structure and
habits exhibit so little diversity that we may pass them over with
but a few words. The Caterpillars, which feed upon the leaves of
various plants, are almost always
furnished with sixteen feet. They are
as voracious as the larvae of the
Moths ; some of them, such as those
of the Cabbage Butterflies {Poiitia
brassiccs and Rapce), often doing
great injury in gardens. The Cater-
pillars of the family Papi/ionida;, of
which the only British species has
already been figured, with its trans-
formations, are furnished with a
curious forked retractile process on
the back of the neck, wliich has been
supposed to be employed in frightcn-
„. Q T-, n ■ >; •.., i"ff ^'^'^y Insect foes.' The pupas,
F.g. 2iSi.-Thc D,nmsfle.r,f/a. ordinarily known as Chrysi/ides,
are usually more or less angular ;
these angles often becoming so prominent as to take the form of
THE HYMENOPTERA.
8iS
spines. Unlike the pupae of many Moths, they are not enclosed
within a cocoon, but either simply suspended by the tail, or furnished
with the additional security of a little silken band round the middle.
One of the most beautiful of our native species is the Peacock
Butterfly ( Vanessa w), the wings of which are adorned with splendid
eye-like spots. Its Caterpillar "feeds upon nettles. (See Fig. 2182.)
Several other charming British species belong to the same genus
Fig. 21S2. — The Peacock Butterfly (Vanessa io).
with the Peacock Butterfly. Of these the commonest are the
Tortoiseshell [V. Uriiccs), and the Red Admiral (F. ^ /«/««/«) ; the
Caterpillars of both feed on the nettJe. The Painted-lady Butter-
fly [Cy/i/hia ca>-dui) is another beautiful species, which is also
common everywhere.
The Coppers {Polyommati), and the Blues {Lyccenai), with their
brilliant metallic tints, are also very charming, although their size
is much smaller than that of the Insects above referred to. The
sptcies of the genus Argyntits, of which one of the commonest
Fig. 21S3. — The Argynnis faphia.
is represented in Fig. 2183, are elegantly marked with silvery spots
on the lower surface of the wings. A group of British Butterflies
has been given in Fig. 2168, ante.
Okder XL— Hymenoptera.
General Characters. — The order Hymeno;ptera, the first of
the Mandibulate Metabolous Insects, includes a vast number of
species, amounting, according to the calculations of Kirby and
Spence, to about one-fourth of the entire Insect world ; and some
of these certainly exhibit the highest development of instinct, or
perhaps the nearest approach to reason, that we meet with amongst
Invertebrate Animals. It includes among others the Bee tribe.
These Insects are generally distinguishable at the first glance,
by the structure of their wings, whicli are almost always present,
and four in number, of a membranous texture, and transversed by a
few nervures, which, by their union, form regular cells. The form
and arrangement of these cells, in some groups, afford the most im-
portant generic characters ; and Entomologists have distinguished
them by particular names. A few species are destitute of wings,
and in others the wings present no nervures. The hinder pair is
always smaller than the anterior, and the connection between the two
wings, during flight, is usually maintained by means of a series of
minute hooks placed on the anterior margin of the hinder wing.
The mouth is always furnished with a pair of strong mandibles,
and in most cases with maxilte and other organs of the usual form :
but in many species the maxilte and labium are converted into a
suctorial organ, the construction of which has already been de-
scribed in our introductory remarks. The eyes are generally large,
and placed on the sides of the head, of which, in the males, they
sometimes occupy nearly the whole surface ; the ocelli are usually
three in number. The whole body is enclosed in a scaly armour ;
its three great divisions are usually very distinct, but the thoracic
segments are more or less fused into a mass, the prothorax being
generally distinct. The legs are generally long, and the tarsi com-
posed of five joints.
The Hymcnoftcra arc also distinguished from the other Insects
with membranous wings, by the presence of an ovipositor of peculiar
construction at the extremity of the abdomen in the females, which
not only serves for placing the eggs in the required position, but also
in many species (Bees, Wasps, iec.) constitute^ a most formidable,
offensive weapon. As the structure of this organ, whicli is rarely
absent, is essentially the same throughout the order, the form of its
component parts being merely modified to suit the exigencies of the
different Insects, a short description of its general construction will
not be out of place here. The ovipositor, or sting, generally con-
sists of five pieces; a pair of horny valves (Fig. 2184, i, 2), which
Fig. 21S4. — Sting of the Bee.
form a sheath for the true sting or ovipositor ; these arc jointed at
the point where they issue from the cavity of the last abdominal
segment, and the last joint is usually as long as the sting itself.
The latter consists of three bristles, of which the superior (Fig. 2184,
4) is channelled along its lower surface, for the reception of a pair
of finer bristles (Fig.' 2184, 3 and 5), which are toothed at the lip,
These three pieces, when fitted together, form a narrow tube, through
which the ^gg passes to its destination ; and through this, also, the
poisonous fluid, which renders the sting of the Bee so painful, is in-
jected into the wound. In the Saw-flies, as we shall see, one of
these parts is rudimentary ; but in other respects the organ remains
the same.
The sting of the Bee is really a formidable instrument, and so
extremely acute, that a good glass will not render the extreme point
visible, as it will that of a needle. It consists, as already stated, of
an extensile sheath, enclosing two needle-shaped darts much finer
than a human hair, and scarcely to be distinguished by the naked
eye ; these with the sheath together form the sting, and the whole
of the parts are numerously barbed at the point ; hence when plunged
into the skin, the Bees can seldom withdraw them, and they are
consequently wrenched out of the Insect's body, most probably to its
speedy destruction : the sting is moved by powerful muscles, eight
in number, according to Swammerdam, which, by their action, pro-
trude from its recess and urge into the skin ; it appears that each
part of the sting is capable of separate movement. On more than one
occasion, when the sting of a Wasp, the point of which has been
just forced into the skin, has with the whole apparatus been torn
from the Insect's body, have we seen the muscles continue their
movements, and that for a considerable time. Were the sting of a
Wasp or Bee a simple sharp weapon, it would give not so much
pain as the puncture of a needle, but, as we well know, it produces
very great pain and inflammation. As in the case of Snakes, the
poison of the Bee and Wasp has acid properties, and will change
vegetable blues to red. Chemically speaking, the acid is called
Formic acid. .
Instances are on record in which persons have lost their lives from
the attack of a horde of Bees ; and serious results from their stings
are by no means of uncommon occurrence. To small Animals it is
fatal ; and Fontana considers a single grain of the poison sufficient
to destroy a Pigeon.
Fig. 2185 exhibits another view of the structure of the sting of the
Common Bee : a, the terminal ring of the abdomen, cut open so as
to expose the recess in which the sting and its appendages are seen ;
b, the sting, and its appendages removed from the abdomen ; c, a
profile of the sting and appendages : all are greatly magnified, but
in different degrees. Fig. 2186 shows the poison-bag of the Bee
attached to the base of the sting, highly magnified.
The larvae of most of the Hymenoptera are footless grubs (Fig.
2187), usually furnished with a soft head, exhibiting but little, if
any, advance upon the maggots of the Diptcra. The pupa: are
quiescent (Fig. 2188), completely enveloped in a delicate skin, each
limb being inclosed separately. In the Saw-flies, however, the
larva, instead of being, as above described, a mere footless maggot,
presents the closest resemblance to the Caterpillars of the Lepido-
ptera, being provided with a distinct horny head, and not only with
six thoracic legs, but also, in most cases, with from twelve to sixteen
pro-legs, which are situated upon the abdominal segments.
Sub-divisions. — As the diflferences just referred to in the larvae
of these Insects are accompanied by an equal diversity in the
structure and mode of life of the perfect Insects, we thus obtain an
excellent means of dividing the Hymenoptera into two sub-orders ;
8i6
THE HY3IEN0PTERA.
those with Caterpillar-like larvas having been regarded by McLeay
as diverging so greatly from the rest of the Hymcno;ptera as to
warrant their complete separation. Jn these, forming the sub-order
Securifera, the abdomen is attached to tlie thorax by its whole
breadth ; whilst in the other sub-order, the Petiolata, it is supported
on a slender foot-stalk of greater or less length.
Fig. 21S5. — iitiug ot Ece.
Fig. 2 1 86. — Poison Bag of Bee.
The Hymeno;ptcra have generally been divided into two great
sections, the Tei-cb7-aniia and Aculeata, in one of which the
ovipositor is employed solely in the operation of egg-laying ; whilst
in the other it is converted into a sting by its connection with a
poison-gland. By this arrangement, however, Insects with a very
different metamorphosis, and exhibiting a great diversity of general
structure, are brought together ; and we have preferred adopting
the method given above, which appears to be more natural.
ifJ?^
Fig. 21S7. — Larvje of Bee, natural
size and magnified.
Fig. 2188.— Pupa of Bee,
magnified.
Sub-order I. — Securifera.
The Sccurifcrous Hymeno;ptera, of which the Perfect Insects
may always be distinguished by their sessile abdomen, are vege-
table feeders in all stages of their existence. They form two tribes,
of which one, the Phyllophaga, always feed upon the leaves or
other soft parts of plants ; whilst the Xylcphaga burrow in the
woody portions, and there find their nourishment.
The Phyllopltaga are distinguished by the peculiar construction
of the ovipositor, which has procured them the name of Saiv-Jlies,
by which they are popularly known. This organ (Fig. 2189), 's com-
posed of a pair of broad, serrated plates, the analogues of the inferior
bristles of the Bee's sting (see Fig. 2185 atite). The superior chan-
nelled bristle is considered by Burmeister to be reduced to the form
of a tubercle, which keeps the bases of the saws separate ; whilst,
according to Westwood, this bristle is divided into two parts, repre-
sented by the dorsal portion of the serrated plates. This saw-like
organ is protected on each side by a jointed horny plate, and the
whole is generally received within the lower surface of the last ab-
dominal segment. By the agency of these curious and elegant
organs, the female Saw-fly cuts numerous minute slits in the stems
or leaves of plants, in each of which she lays an egg accompanied by
a drop of fluid, which is supposed to have some influence in prevent-
ing the closing of the wound, and, in some cases, the irritation thus
set up causes the formation of a gall, within which the larvae live
and feed. As a general rule, however, the larvae, when hatched,
leave their shelter and feed upon the leaves of plants. The species
are generally confined to certain kinds of plants, to which, when
they are produced in groat numbers, they often do immense mischief.
Thus the larvas of the Athalia centifolia:, known to farmers as the
Fig. 21S9. — A, extremity of the abdomen of the Saw-fly, showing the two
saws, c, extended ; a, the terminal joint of the abdomen ; and b, the two
internal horny sheaths. B, a small portion of one of the saws very highly
magnified.
Nigger or Black Caterpillar, has occasion.-illy done incredible
damage to turnips in this country ; and that of another species, the
Nematus grossulari,\%no\. less destructive to gooseberry bushes.
The larva; of other species infest fruits, living and feeding in the
interior, and causing them to fall off whilst still immature. They
are almost always furnished with pro-legs in addition to the thoracic
members. Fig. 2190 represents a j>ortion of the Saw-fly's rasp.
Fig. 2 191 represents the Saw-
fly of the gooseberry above men-
tioned — a a a ; on the leaf b its
eggs are shown, adhering to the
nur\'ures ; d d, the caterpillars
\ eating ; c, one rolled up ; f, one
^"x;. extended.
Before changing to the pupa
Fig. 2190.— Part of the Saw-fly's state, these larvae usually spin
^^^P- a cocoon, some of them remain-
ing attached to the twigs of the
plants infested by them ; others burrowing down into the pith ; and
others again seeking security in the earth. The perfect Insects
generally make their appearance in the spring or early summer.
■-^m
Fig. 2191.— Saw-fly of the Gooseberry.
passing the winter in the pupa state. In the perfect state they
frequent flowers ; and although generally of small size, and rarely
adorned with very brilliant colours, most of them are elegant
Insects.
In the second tribe, the Xylo-phaga, the ovipositor differs in its
structure from that of the Saw-flies, and approaches that of the
following sub-order. It projects from the abdomen, whence the
name of Tailed Wasps, popularly applied to the commonest species
in this country (Fig. 2192), is derived. The second joint of the
lateral plates is also prolonged, forming a sheath, within which
three bristles are concealed, the upper one being the largest, and
channelled beneath for the reception of the two lower bristles.
These three bristles, forming the true ovipositor, or borer, are all
serrated at the extremity.
The larvae, which only possess six thoracic legs, live in the trunks
of trees, especially firs, burrowing through the wood in various
directions, and often causing extensive damage. It has been sup-
posed that these Insects are parasitic upon the larvae of other Wood-
boring Insects ; but this opinion appears to have arisen entirely
THE GALL INSECTS.
817
from errors of observation. They are rare in this country ; but upon
the continent of Europe, where pine forests are more abundant, they
often make their appearance in immense numbers, and commit very
serious depredations upon the timber. Specimens of Sirex gigas
Fig. 2192. — The Sirex gigas.
are occasionally taken in the neighbourhood of London ; but these
have, in all probability, been imported in the pupa state in timber.
Sub-order II,— Petiolata.
The Petiolata, distinguished by the Maggot-like form of their
larvae, and by the union of the abdomen with the thorax by the inter-
vention of a slender footstalk, form two principal groups, the
Terebrantia and the Aculeata. In the former the ovipositor,
although similar in construction to that of the Aculeata, appears to
be exclusively intended for the business of oviposition. Some species,
indeed, will apply this organ to the purpose of self-defence when
captured ; but even if they puncture the skin, they rarely leave that
lasting pain which is so disagreeable an accompaniment of the
stings of the True Aculeata. By far the greater number of the
Terebrantia are parasitic upon other Insects ; but one tribe, that of
the Gallicola, consists almost entirely of vegetable-feeding Insects.
These are generally of minute size, with straight antennae, composed
of thirteen to fifteen joints ; the wings exhibit only a few nervures,
and the palpi are short. Their most striking character consists in
the structure of the ovipositor, which is bent into the form of an S
within the abdomen, its extremity passing up through a channel
formed by the ventral plate of the last abdominal segment. Its
construction otherwise departs in no respect from the general cha-
racter of the order. By means of the ovipositor — which can be
exserted or retracted at pleasure — the females puncture the leaves,
buds, and other parts of plants and trees, depositing an ^^^ in the
wound, accompanied probably by some irritating fluid, which causes
a diseased growth in the part, and thus produces the excrescences
known as galls. Within this domicile, the lar\'a lives, feeds, and
attains its maturity. Here it also undergoes its transformations ; and
it is not until its arrival at the perfect state, that it eats its way out,
and becomes a free denizen of the air.
The oak is especially liable to the attacks of the Gall-fly ; the
species called Cynips quercus-folii attacks the leaves. Fig. 2193
represents the Galls of Oak-leaves, with the Insect of the natural size.
Fig. 2193. — Galls of Oak-leaf, and Insect (Cynips quercus-folii).
The Cynips lays her eggs by means of a long ovipositor, which in
some species is conspicuous at all times, but in most is coiled up
spirally within the abdomen, and invisible until protruded, when it
appears like a very slender curved needle, longer than the body of
the Insect itself. The mechanism by which it is darted out is
analogous to that connected with the tongue of the Woodpecker, and
it is completely under the control of the Insect. Fig. 2194 represents
the ovipositor of a species of Cynips greatly magnified. Fig. 2 195 shows
the mode in which it is coiled up in the abdomen, and the Fly itself,
highly magnified. By means of this instrument the Cynips pierce^ the
outer skin or cuticle of the leaf, or twig, and introduces her ^gg,
accompanied, probably, by some secretion capable of deranging the
organic actions of the circulatory and secretory vessels, for in a
short time the Qgg becomes surrounded by a thickened layer, which
gradually increases, assuming different forms according to the
species of Cynips, and of the tree it has selected. The gall tubercle
may be then considered as the result of diseased action on the part
where the puncture has been made ; but what it positively is that
produces that diseased action, and how it is that the same kind of
Fig. 2194. — Ovipositor of the Gall-fly. Fig. 2195.— The Gall-fly.
gall should invariably be produced by the same Insect, are points
respecting which we are in the dark. Besides, in many instances it
is not a mere nut or apple that is produced, but a truly morbid
excrescence, with unnatural filaments like moss growing over it.
Look at the Bedeguar-gall of the dog-rose, produced by the Cynips
roscB. This is so common that it must be familiar to all ; it is a
sort of ball or apple, covered with red mossy filaments, on the stems
of wild dog-roses. This singular excrescence results from several
punctures, and the deposition of as many eggs, and is often of con-
siderable size. In this the larvae live, each lodged in its own cell,
and as they there pass the winter, the thick mossy covering pre-
serves them from the intense severity of the cold, and is the more
necessary as the edges are bare of leaves, and afford but little
shelter; besides which, the excrescence is often seated high, and
exposed to the wind. Early in the spring the larva undergo their
change into the pupa state, previously to which they work their way
out of the dried and indurated gall-nut by means of their sharp
mandibles, and in summer undergo their final change into the winged
state, to decorate in their turn the rose-trees with other mossy balls.
Another species, the Cynips querciis-gemmcs, produces very
singular galls, termed from their scaled appearance artichoke
galls. They are placed on the twigs, and might be mistaken for
buds ; in size they exceed a filbert, and are composed externally of
concentric leaves, overlapping each other like pointed scales, and
are evidently intended as a means of protecting the larvae within
from the cold of winter. To theorise on the mode in which these
leaflets are produced is useless ; however it may be, thev are
rapidly formed, as indeed are all other galls, and soon acquire their
full growth.
A structure in some respects similar is produced on the stalk of
the Dyer's Broom by the Cy?iips genistcB. These galls, which vary
in size from that of a filbert to a walnut, are generally of a globular
shape, the stem passing through the centre ; externally it is com-
posed of a multitude of leaflets, each rolled up, the point ending in a
bristle. Internally its substance is fleshy, and on it feed multi-
tudes of larvae so minute as to be discerned with difficulty. It would
seem that the buds of the branch bearing this gall never push out
into shoots, but only developed leaves, which are all rolled up and
turned round the stem, indicative of a general morbid action.
A very remarkable gall, but by no means common, is produced on
the oak by a species of Cynips. It appears in the form of a woolly
or cottony substance around the twig at the origin of the leaves, and
might be mistaken for a cluster of the Aphis lanata, covered with
their white down. Internally the gall resembles in substance the
bedeguar of the rose, but the cells in which the larva; are lodged are
not so irregularly scattered, but arranged at the offgoings of the
leaf-stalks ; there are also small isolated groups of cells. The
woolly covering is analogous to the moss which invests the bede-
guar of the rose, and seems intended as a protection.
The young shoots of the hawthorn are subject to the attacks of a
Fly, not a Cynips, but probably a Cecidomya, which produces a
semigall, formed by a crowded bunch of leaves, which appear
curled and half-withered, and, as it were, crumpled up together •
the twig which they terminate is stunted, and the intertwined leaves'
moreover, are covered with minute spines ; among these leaves
numerous minute white larvae work their way, keeping, however in
the centre of the foliage which encloses them.
5 M
8i8
THE TRUE ANTS, AND WASPS.
Those galls of the oak called Oak-apples, so often seen on the
slender twigs, are formed by a species of Cynips {Cynips quercus), and
often attain to a large size. Galls are often to be found on the bark
of the oak at the line of junction between the root and stem. They
are similar in structure to the Oak-apple, and are probably produced
by the same or a closely allied species, and at a season of the year
in which the buds or young twigs are unfit for the reception
of eggs.
We may here notice the galls of commerce, so valuable as one of
the ingredients used for dyeing, and so remarkable for their astrin-
gent quality and bitterness. These are the production of a species
of Cynips, and occur chiefly on the Quercus htfcctoria : they vary
in size and quality, the largest equalling a nutmeg in magnitude,
•while others are not much larger than a pea, and no doubt they are
produced by a distinct species of Fly. The surface is generally
covered with irregular lines and little ridges, and their external
crust is hard and woody. One variety is white or yellow, aiiother
dusky olive, green, grey, or nearly black. The white variety is the
largest, but the least esteemed, and is often pierced with a small
aperture, through which the Insect had made its exit. These are
obtained in Syria and Cyprus. The best or dark galls are imported
from Aleppo and Smyrna. Fig. 2196 represents the galls of com.-
merce, and the Insect Cyni;ps gallcBtinctorim, which produces them.
Fig. 2197. — The Fcrniis.
Fig. 2196. — The Commercial Gall, and its Insects (Cynips galla: tmctoria).
The Dead Sea Apples, which have been the subject of frequent con-
troversy, are also galls produced by the puncture of a small Insect.
The second tribe includes an immense assemblage of Insects —
some of considerable, others of minute size — which, from their
constant habit of passing their larva state as Parasites upon other
Insects, have received the name of £nfomoj>haga. They are dis-
tinguished from the Gadicola by having the ovipositor of the usual
construction, straight, and inserted at the apex of the abdomen.
It is sometimes concealed, sometimes more or less exserted, and in
the latter case often attains a great length (Fig. 2197).
Insects of every order, and in every
stage of their existence, are subject to
the attacks of these Parasites, which are
well known under the name of Ichneu-
mons and Cuckoo-flies. They introduce
their eggs into the bodies of their victims
by piercing them with their ovipositor.
Aiinute size is no protection ; for many
species lay their eggs in Aphides, Cocci,
and the larvje of other small Insects.
The Ichneumons, with long ovipositors,
seek the burrows of wood-boring In-
sects, whose larvae they are enabled to
reach by means of this organ. Each
species usually infests a particular spe-
cies of other Insects, and, singular as it
may appear, many of these Parasitic
larvae are again preyed on by others,
whose parents are directed, by unerring
instinct, to the selection of the proper position for the nourishment
of their offspring.
This vast tribe is divided into four great families. In the Ev-
a?iii(IcB the abdomen is attached to the upper surface of the meta-
thorax, and the antennse are straight ; the IchaeumoJiidcB also have
straight antenna ; but the abdomen is attached to the extremity of
the metathorax. In the Chalcididcs and Proctotrupidis, which are
generally minute Insects, the antennae are elbowed, and the wings
are neatly veinless ; but in the former, the palpi are short, and the
pupa is naked ; whilst in the latter, the palpi are long, and the pupa
is enclosed in a cocoon.
In the preceding Insects the abdomen is composed of six or seven
distinct segments ; but in the Tubulifcra, forming the third tribe, it
appears to consist only of three or four, or at most five segments ;
the remainder being converted into a tubular telescopic organ, at
the extremity of which a minute sting or ovipositor is situated. The
antennae of these Insects, which appear to constitute a transition
from the Terebrant to the Aculeate sections, are composed of thirteen
joints in both sexes, the basal joint being elongated, and the an-
tenna; bent or elbowed at its extremity.
These Insects — of which one species {Chrysis ignita) is well
known in this country under the name of the Ruby-tail — generally
exhibit a gem-like brillinacy of colour ; the thorax being usually of a
fine metallic blue or green, and the abdomen of a most splendid
ruby colour.
We now pass to the Aculeate series of Hymenoptera, in which
the ovipositor not only serves for the extrusion of the egg, but also
conveys a poisonous and acid fluid into the wounds which it inflicts.
The antena; in these Insects are almost always composed of twelve
joints in the females, and of thirteen in the males; the four wings
are veined, and the veins of the anterior pair are always arranged
so as to form distinct and regular cells, the number and form of
which have been found to furnish valuable characters for the generic
groups. The abdomen in the males consists of seven joints, and of
six in the females.
The Aculeate Hymenoptera are divided into four tribes, of which
three are predaceous in their habits, living principally or entirely
upon Animal matter ; whilst the fourth seeks its nourishment entirely
in the secretion of flowers.
The first tribe, the Hctcrogyna, including the True Ants, is com-
posed entirely of Insects, which live in communities, composed of
three distinct kinds of individuals— males, females, and neuters.
The males and females are winged, the former during the whole,
the latter during a part only of their existence in the perfect state.
TJiey make their appearance in great numbers at a particular
period of the summer, when they quit the nest in which their pre-
paratory stages have been passed, and copulate in the air. When
this has been accomplished, the males speedly die ; but the females
lose their wings, and crawl aTiout upon the ground, until they fall in
with some neuters, which immediately seize upon them, and convey
them to their nest. The neuters, as they are called, which form the
bulk of the community, are in reality females, in which, probably from
difference of food in the larva state, the sexual organs have remained
undeveloped. Like the perfect females, they are furnished with a
sting. It is upon these that the entire labour of the society de-
volves ; they form the nest, carry off the eggs when laid by the
female, and attend to the larvae, feeding them with the utmost care.
The nests of Ants exhibit a great diversity of structure, but the
larvae are never inclosed (as in the Social Bees and Wasps) in cells.
The nest consists of numerous chambers, communicating by wind-
ing passages ; excavated sometimes in the ground, sometimes in
heaps of earth, or other matters raised above the surface, and, in
some cases, in the trunks of old trees.
In the second tribe, the Fossoria, or Burrowing Hyme7ioptera,
we no longer find communities of three kinds of individuals : these
Insects are solitary in their habits, and both the males and females
are usually winged. The wings lie flat upon the back in repose.
The tongue is never elongated and thread-like ; and the legs are
constructed solely for walking and burrowing, and never dilated to
form instruments for carrying pollen. The females of these Insects
excavate little burrows in wood or in the ground ; in the latter case
generally selecting a sandy locality, whence the name of Sand-wasp
is applied to some of them. In these burrows they lay their eggs,
accompanied by a supply of food for the use of the larva, consisting
of other Insects, Spiders, &c.
The Insects composing the third tribe, the Diploptera (with the
exception of a single genus), are distinguished from all other
Hymenoptera , by having the wings folded longitudinally when at
rest, forming a pair of long narrow organs running down the sides
of the body. The tongue is rather long ; the maxillae are long and co-
riaceous in their texture ; and the eyes are notched, or kidney shaped.
The Common Wasp ( Vespa vulgaris) may be taken as the type
of this tribe. This Insect, as is well known, lives in extensive com-
munities, inhabiting a nest formed in holes of the ground ; and Iiere,
as in the Ants, we find that the mass of the community is composed
of barren females (workers). In the Wasps these are winged, so
that the difference between them and the queens, or fertile females,
is less striking than amongst the Ants. But, in addition to these
Social Wasps, there is a considerable number which are solitary in
their habits, possessing only individuals of the two sexes, perfect
males and perfect females, of which the latter form nests or burrows,
wherein they lay their eggs, after stocking them with food, in the
same manner as the Fossorial Hymenoptera.
The Wasp is generally seen in great abundance in the autumn
and latter part of the summer ; and its fondness for luscious
fruits, for sugar, and even for flesh, is known to all. It is very
rapacious, and will attack and devour weaker Insects ; it is also
bold in defence of its nest, or vespiary. A vespiary during the
season of bustle and activity contains the following inhabitants :
first, females of two sorts, a large variety, the founders of a
future colony, and a smaller variety, producing, it is believed,
only male eggs ; secondly, workers ; thirdly, males ; and fourthly,
eggs and young. But there is no honey, and no store of food.
The vespiary of the Common Wasp is of a roundish, or oval figure ;
externally it presents a coat of tiling, or rather of thin overlapping
pieces of greyish paper like liule flat oyster- shells ; these cover a
number of layers (fifteen or sixteen) constituting the wall of the cell,
within the hollow of which the plates of cells or combs are arranged.
These in a finished vespiary are from twelve to sixteen in number,
THE BEE TRIBE.
8:9
and are placed, not vertically, as in the bee-hive, but horizontally,
the cells being on the under side of each table. These tables are
not only fixed to the sides of the outer walls, but have their centre
supported by suspension rods, like colonnades of pillars with the
base and capital wider than the shaft. The top of each table forms
a floor, where, amidst the suspension rods, the Wasps can walk
about, attending to the young in the cells above their heads, having
a clear space of about halt an inch from the cells to the platform.
Tw-o holes at the bottom of the nest, to each of which a covered way
leads, are the doors, one of ingress, the other of egress, and orifices
admit of access from one stage to another. The whole structure is
generally about three feet in circumference ; we have seen larger
and smaller. In the building of this beautiful structure the dome is
first finished ; then brought lower down and another plate added,
and secured to the former by stout suspension rods. The first layer
or two is the work of the solitary female ; the workers in due time
come to her assistance, and cany on the operations, which are not
completed till the middle or close of autumn. Winter comes, and it
then only serves as the dormitory of a few females. These in the
spring commence the whole over again, for the same structure is
never used a second season.
The Hornet ( Vespa crabro) builds essentially the same kind of
structure as the Wasp, but of a coarser material ; the colour of the
papier-mache is generally of a yellowish-brown. This Insect often
takes up its situation in the hollows of logs or decayed trees, which
it enlarges to suit the size of the vespiary. The strong mandibles of
the Hornet enable it to work with facility, not only upon the soft
wood, but even, as Reaumur says, to bore a winding way to the nest
through the solid and undecayed substance of the tree. It is not,
however, always that the Hornet builds in the hollows of trees ; it
often rears its vespiary in thatch, or under the tiles of old barns and
outhouses.
The last tribe of the Hymenoptera, the Anthophila, or Flower-
lovers, is distinguished by having the basal joint of the posterior
tarsi dilated and flattened, and often furnished with an apparatus of
bristles, adapting it for the conveyance of pollen (Fig. 2198). The
labium and maxillae are more or less elongated, generally forming a
trunk. The Perfect Insects feed exclusively upon the nectar of
flowers, and the larvae upon this, and upon pollen.
In some Bees, forming the i3Ln\\\y Andreiiidcc,
the trunk is short and blunt at the apex. In these
it is the basal portion of the lower lip (the mentuin
or chi?i) that is elongated. The posterior legs are
not constructed for carrying pollen. These Insects
are solitary in their habits ; the females forming
burrows in the ground, in which they deposit
their eggs, in the midst of masses of pollen and
honey. Numerous eggs are laid in the same
burrow ; each furnished with a separate mass of
paste, and divided from its neighbours by a little
earthern partition. In the True Bees {Apidce)
the tongue is elongated.
In these we meet with a great variety of habits
— some are solitary ; and of these some burrow in
the ground, like the Andrenidcs ; others form
nests in dead wood {Xylocopa, Fig. 2199) ; others,
termed Mason Bees {Osmi'a), construct their cells of grains of sand
agglutinated together ; and others, again, known as Upholsterer
Bees, or Leaf-cutting Bees, line their nests with pieces of leaf,
which they cut as neatly as if it were done with a pair of scissors.
The Cuckoo Bees {NomadcB), elegant and gaily-coloured Insects,
Fij. 2198. — Hind
leg of Working Hive
Bee.
Fig. 2199. — The Xylocota, or Carpenter Bee, with its nest.
save themselves the trouble of nest-making, by depositing their
eggs in the cells of their more industrious brethren.
In the Social Bees, which exhibit the instinctive faculties in their
highest development, we again meet with three sets of individuals —
males, females, and workers. It is upon the latter that the labour
of the community, the construction of the nest, and the rearing of
the young, generally devolve ; although, amongst the Humble Bees
{Bombt), the females also take part in these operations. In these,
as in the Wasps, the continuation of the species, from year to year,
depends upon the impregnated females, which pass the winter in a
state of torpidity, and in the spring construct a small nest, and
bnng up their first brood by their own exertions. Besides the
neuters, we find two kinds of females in the communities of Bombus
—the large females, which found the colonies, and smaller ones,
which assist in the labour of the nest, and are said to produce only
male eggs.
The nests of the Humble Bees are generally constructed of moss.
They contain a few waxen cells, in which the young are brought up.
Both the females and workers have the basal joint of the posterior
tarsi enlarged and excavated, forming what has been termed a
Fig. 2200.— The Bombus lapidaritts, with the jaws of the male and female.
basket, for the conveyance of pollen. These are wanting in some
species {Apathies) which are Parasitic in their habits.
In the Hive Bees, the society is permanent— that is to say, the
workers, as well as the females, survive the winter, during which
period their stores of honey are intended for their support. Like
those of the Humble Bees, their communities consist of three kinds
of individuals — males, females, and neuters (Fig. 2201). We never,
however, except at the period of swarming, meet with more than one
Fig. 2201. — Hive Bees ; A, Queen ; B, male, or Drone ; C, Worker.
female in the hive. The whole duty of the construction of the comb,
and the care of the young, devolve upon the workers, whose in-
cessant activity has rendered them the most appropriate types of
industry. The comb, as is well known, consists of beautiful hexa-
gonal cells, constructed with mathematical accuracy (see Fig. 2202).
It is perpendicular, and composed of a double series of cells, placed
end to end in such a manner that the end of each cell is closed by
Fig. 2202. — Part of the Honey-comb of Bees.
three waxen plates, each of which also assists in completing one of
the cells of the other side of the comb. By this arrangement the
greatest possible number of cells may be constructed in a given
space with the smallest possible amount of material. In these cells
the eggs are laid. Here also the larvze are brought to maturity by the
care of the workers; and when no loneer reouired as nurseries for
820
THE COLEOPTERA, OR BEETLES.
the young, the cells are employed as a store for honey. The eggs
which are to give birth to males are placed in cells a little larger
than those of the workers. Those from which females, or queens,
are to be produced, are deposited in cells of peculiar construction,
and the larva; are fed upon a different food from that of
the workers. When the population of the hive has grown too
large, a portion of the workers emigrate, accompanied by a young
queen ; this is termed swarming. Many other details relative to
these interesting and valuable Insects will be found in the works of
Entomological writers ; and we may refer the reader especially to
the Introduction of Messrs. Kirby and Spence, which contains much
interesting information on the subject.
Order XII.— Strepsiptera.
We come now to a small order of minute Insects which are para-
sitic in the interior of numerous species of Bees and Wasps, and the
history of which is so singular as to have given rise, for many years,
to a great deal of speculation amongst Entomologists. The males
are generally rather elegant little creatures, and are furnished with a
single pair (the posterior) of large membranous folding wings, the
place of the anterior wings being occupied by a pair of curiously
twisted organs. The mouth is provided with slender jaws, and with
a pair of palpi ; but it appears to be doubtful whether the males take
any nourishment after their arrival at the perfect state.
The females, which were long taken for the larvae, present the
appearance of soft Maggots, furnished with a horny head, which
they protrude between the segments of the Bee in which they are
parasitic, the remainder of the body remaining concealed. On ex-
amining this, it is found to contain a number of eggs, and to exhibit
a broad canal running up to the head, on the under surface of which
it opens. Through this opening the male fecundates the eggs, the
female never quitting the body of the Bee ; and the larvae are
hatched within the body of their mother, from which they escape by
creeping up the canal above mentioned. In their earliest state
they are active, little, six-footed creatures, which were long supposed
to be Parasites upon the Strepsipterous parasite. They attach
themselves to the bodies of Bees and Wasps, by whom they are thus
conveyed into their nest.
The position of these Insects in the system has always been a
puzzle to Entomologists, and can scarcely yet be considered settled.
By some authors they have been placed amongst the Hymenoptera ;
by others amongst the Diptera ; by others as intermediate between
these two orders, or between the second order and the Lepidoptera.
In their general structure, however, they appear to approach the
Coleoptera, amongst which they are arranged by some recent Ento-
mologists ; and their proper position is probably between the
Coleoptera and the Hymenoptera.
Order XIII.— Coleoptera.
General Characters.— The leading characteristic of the vast
order of Coleoptera (from Koleos, a shield, and ptera, wings), or
Beetles, consists in the leathery or horny texture of the anterior
wings [elytra^, which serve as sheathes for the posterior wings in
repose, and generally meet in a straight line down the back. The
posterior wings are membranous, and much larger than the anterior
pair ; they are the sole organs of flight, and are folded both longi-
tudinally and transversely when not in use. They never exhibit the
radiating folds and nervures which we have seen to be universal in
the hind wings of the Orthoptera.
The mouth in the Coleoptera is always formed for biting, and
perhaps exhibits the mandibulate type of structure in its highest
perfection. The labrum is generally distinct, although sometimes
concealed beneath the front of the head. The mandibles are
almost always strong, somewhat triangular, horny organs, which, in
the Predaceous Beetles, are hooked and sharp at the points, and
often armed with acute teeth on the inner margin ; whilst in many
Herbivorous species, the inside of the basal portion is transversely
ridged to fit the jaws for the comminution of vegetable substances.
In some Beetles, which feed upon fluid matters, the mandibles are
dilated into membranous hairy plates. In some cases, as in the
common Stag-beetle, the mandibles are of great size ; and some
allied species have them still larger.
The maxillae e.xhibit differences in form corresponding with those
of the mandibles. In the Carnivorous Beetles they are usually acute,
and somewhat hooked at the tip ; whilst in the vegetable feeders
they are generally blunt at the extremity, and frequently fringed with
hairs. They are always furnished with one pair of palpi, consisting
of three or four joints ; and in many Carnivorous Beetles, the outer
lobe, which was described as forming a hood-like covering in the
Orthoptera, acquires the form of a second palpus. The labium is
also furnished with a pair of palpi, composed of from two to four
joints.
The other organs attached to the head are the antennae and the
eyes. The antennae exhibit a great diversity of form, numerous
examples of which will be referred to in the sequel. They are
generally composed of from nine to eleven joints, and are inserted
upon the forehead, between the eyes, sometimes close to those
organs ; occasionally more in the middle of the head. Compound
eyes exist in nearly all Beetles ; they are placed on the sides of the
head, and are generally of a more or less spherical form, sometimes
oval or kidney-shaped, and in a few cases divided into two parts by
an elevated ridge ; so that the Insect appears to have four eyes ;
whilst in a few Beetles, inhabiting caves or other subterranean
situations, the eyes are entirely wanting.
The thoracic segments are always distinctly separated. The pro-
thorax is usually of considerable size, and bears the first pair of legs.
The meso- and meta-thorax bear the other two pairs of legs, and the
elytra and wings, beneath which their upper surface is entirely con-
cealed, with the exception of a small triangular piece of the meso-
thorax (the scutellum), which is usually visible at the base of the
suture. The elytra generally cover the entire dorsal surface of the
body, to the apex of the abdomen, and the upper portion of these
segments is then of a soft and somewhat membranous texture ; but
in some cases the elytra are short, leaving a greater or less portion
of the abdomen uncovered ; this is then equally horny on both
surfaces. In some cases the wings are wanting, when the elytra are
not unfrequently completely soldered together. The legs are usually
constructed exclusively for walking; but in some cases the fore legs
are converted into fossorial organs, and in others the hind legs are
. flattened for swimming, or furnished with thickened thighs for salta-
torial purposes. The tarsi are generally composed of five joints ;
and this appears to be the normal number. The number varies,
however, in different groups, from two to five.
The metamorphosis of the Coleoptera is as complete as in the
Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera. The larva is usually a soft fleshy
grub ; although the texture of its integuments is often leathery, or
even somewhat horny, especially in the rapacious species. The
soft larvae are almost always furnished with a horny head, armed
with distinct jaws, and usually supplied with simple eyes. They
are generally furnished with six thoracic legs (although these are
sometimes wanting), and frequently also with anal pro-legs. The
pupae are free and quiescent.
This order includes an immense number of species. It is sup-
posed that between thirty and forty thousand are already known ;
and it cannot be doubted that many more remain to be discovered.
This multiplicity of species has necessitated the formation of a great
number of groups ; and so complicated is the classification of the
Coleoptera, that (although, with the exception of the Lepidoptera,
no other order of Insects has so much engrossed the attention of
Entomologists) it is still in rather an unsatisfactory state. Latreille
divided these Insects into four principal sections, characterised by
the number of joints in the tarsi ; and although this character is
liable to many exceptions, and can only be regarded as applying to
the 7}iajority of the Insects in each group, yet, as it furnishes us
with the best means of effecting the general division of the order, we
shall follow it here to a certain extent. In the largest of these
sections, the greater number of the Insects have five joints in the
tarsi ; these form the section Pentamera. In the second group, the
Heteromera, most of the Insects have five joints in the tarsi of the
two anterior pairs of legs, whilst the posterior tarsi are composed of
only four joints. In the Tetramera all the tarsi are usually four-
jointed, and in the Trimera, three-jointed.
Section I.— Trimera.
In this section, which only includes a single tribe, the tarsi ap-
parently consist of three joints ; although a fourth minute joint really
exists at the base of the last joint, concealed within the bi-lobed
apex of the second. From this circumstance, Mr. Westwood pro-
posed the substitution of the name Pseudotrimera, for that of
Trimera. The antennae are short, and usually clavate ; the maxillae
bi-Iobed, with shortest palpi, usually terminated by a hatchet-shaped
joint; and the body is either oval or hemispherical, and very flat
beneath.
An excellent example of this tribe of Beetles is afforded by an
Insect that must have been familiar to most of us from our earliest
years — the Common Lady-bird {Coccinella •j-ptinctata). The nu-
merous species of Coccinellm feed principally upon Aphides, both in
the larva and perfect states. The larvae of our common species are
constantly to be met with on plants infested by Aphides ; they are
of a slate colour, with yellow tubercles and spots, and furnished
with six well-developed legs.
Section II.— Tetramera.
The majority of the Insects composing the three tribes included in
this section, have only four apparent joints in all the tarsi, the true
fourth joint being reduced to a very small size, and concealed within
the one preceding it. As this joint exists, however, Mr. Westwood
has proposed the addition to the name of this group of the same
prefix as to the Trimera ; he accordingly calls these Insects Pseud-
otetramera.
THE BEETLES.
821
Fig. 2203. — The ChrysomeJa populi.
a, larva ; b, pupa ; c, imago.
In the first tribe, the Phytophaga (Plant-eaters), the body is
usually of a more or less ovate form, generally very convex, rarely
elongated ; the head is short, not produced into a snout, immersed
in the thorax up to the eyes; the antennse are shortish, usually
thread-shaped, or slightly clavate : the mandibles are small, the
maxillae bi-lobed at the apex, with the outer lobe often jointed and
palpiform ; the palpi are short.
These Insects rarely attain any
great size, and many of them are
very minute ; their colours, how-
ever, especially in the larger ex-
otic species, are often very splen-
did ; m some cases, perhaps, ex-
ceeding in brilliancy those of any
other Beetles. They feed upon
plants, both in the larva and the
perfect state ; and many of them
do great damage to crops. The
Turnip-fly {Haltica netnoriun.
Fig. 2204), one of the most de-
structive species, belongs to a group in which the posterior thighs
are much thickened for jumping.
In connection with this species, although possibly in not strict
order, may be mentioned the Colorado Beetle, which recently was
stated to have arrived in Ireland. So
important was this considered, that a
special Act of Parliament was passed
to deal with this terrible enemy of the
potato, and of the Solanum genus of
plants generally. Its native place seems
to be in the Rocky Mountains of the
United States of America, where it feeds
on a species of wild potato. In 1859 ''
was located in Nebraska. In 1861 it
showed itself in Iowa, and gradually ad-
vanced through the States. During
1 87 1 a large army of these Beetles
covered the river Detroit in Michigan, and gradually travelled to New
York and Boston. In 1873 the earliest specimens were seen in Ire-
land. No description can do justice to the astonishing voracity of this
Insect, especially in its larva state. When once a field of potatoes
has been attacked, all hope of a harvest must be given up. In a
few days the whole crop appears as a mere mass of dried-up stalks.
In Fig. 2205 a, shows the eggs deposited on the leaf of a potato
plant ; b, the larva, and c, the perfect Beetle.
The most singular Insects belonging to this tribe are the Cassi-
didce, or Helmet Beetles (Fig. 2207), in which the body is rather
Fig. 2204.— The Turnip-fly ;
natural size and magnified.
Fig. 2205.— The Colorado Beetle.
flat, margined all round with dilatations of the thorax and elytra.
The dilated portion of the former completely conceals even the head.
They are slow-moving Animals, which always draw up their limbs
and mimic death when disturbed. Their larvae are furnished with
a caudal fork, projecting forwards over the back. Upon this they
collect their excrement, which thus forms a portable shelter.
The Insects of the tribe Longkornia
^'''v^^*'*^ <i?***°^^^ ^^^ generally distinguishable "from all
I \. °\-jr /•- J "^"^^r Beetles by the great length of
V,^ X vKaL' / """^ their antennas (Fig. 2206), which are
usually considerably longer than the
body. The body is usually elongated
in its form ; the head is never produced
into a rostrum ; the mandibles are large
and prominent, andthelabrum is usually
distinct.
Most of these are large and elegant
Insects, often adorned with splendid
colours, or armed with spines upon the
thorax and other parts of the body, which
render their appearance curious, and even grotesque.
One of the handsomest British Beetles is the Callichroma mos-
c/iata, belonging to this tribe. It is also distinguished by its pecu-
liar musky odour. It is of a fine metallic green colour ; but many
exotic Insects nearly allied to this are far more splendid in appear-
ance.
The larvs of these Insects live in timber, often doing enormous
V\s
2206. — The Acantho-
cinus spsculifer.
injury to trees by eating large passages through the solid wood.
They are soft, fleshy grubs, generally widened in front ; almost
destitute of feet. They appear to live in this condition for several
years, and afterwards probably pass a considerable time in the pupa
state, as the Perfect Insects have been known to eat their way out
of timber which had been for some time worked up into furniture.
These Beetles generally produce a sharp grating sound, by the
friction of the back of the prothorax upon the base of the scutellum.
Fig. 22oy. — The CassiHa viridis, in its diflerent states.
a, larva ; by the same on a leaf; c, pupa ; d, perfect insect.
The Rhynchophora, forming the third tribe of Tetramerous
Beetles, are distinguished by having the front of the head produced
into a snout or rostrum, at the extremity of which the mouth is
situated. The larvaj are soft, footless Grubs, which usually live
in the interior of the stems, fruits, and seeds of plants, to which
their ravages are often very injurious. Amongst these the Corn-
weevil {Calandra granaria) holds the first place, as its larva fre-
quently causes great damage in granaries. One of the commonest
species is the Balaninus nucuin (Fig. 2208), or Nut-weevil, the
Fig. 220S.— The Nut-Weevil.
A, a branch of the filbert tree ; a, a healed wound caused by the introduction
of the eggs of the Nut-Weevil ; h, extremity of the nut ; e, exit of the hole
of the grub ; B, the grub of the Nut-weevil ; C, the pupa of the same ; D,
the perfect insect [Balaninus tiueum).
parent of the little white Grubs so frequently met with in filberts and
other nuts. This Insect has the longest rostrum of any British
Rhynchophorous Beetle ; and by means of this the female is said
to eat a small hole in the young nut whilst its integuments are still
soft. Here she deposits an tg^, and the larva, when hatched, eats
its way into the interior of the kernel, where it continues to reside
until it has arrived at maturity. It then eats its way out of the
nut, and falls to the ground, into which it burrows, and there
undergoes its transformation to the pupa state, which, however,
does not take place until the commencement of the second summer.
Most of the Rhynchophora are more or less covered with minute
scales, somewhat resembling those with which the wings of the
Lepidoptera are clothed ; and these, in many cases, exhibit a splen-
dour of colour scarcely, if at all, inferior to that of the most gorgeous
of Butterflies. Even amongst our small British species, several of
great beauty are to be met with on every bank of nettles ; and few
Insects can boast of greater magnificence than the well-known
Diamond Beetle of Brazil {Curculio zmper talis). This has of late
been frequently employed as an ornament for brooches, &c.
A considerable number of the true Rhynchophora burrow in their
larva state into the stems of trees, often forming holes of consider-
able diameter in the solid wood. They are, however, completely
outdone in this respect by the Insects of the following sub-tribe,
which have received the name of Xylophaga, from their constant
habit, both in the larva and perfect states, of boring into the solid
wood of trees. In their general structure they resemble the
Rhynchophora ; but their heads are broad and fiat, not distinctly
rostrated, and the antennae are inserted beneath the lateral margins
of the head. Although these Insects are of small size, the damage
which they occasion in forests is often enormous. The ^tcoiyius
destructor, a common British species, destroys great numliers of
elm-trees ; but the ravages of some other species, in the pme torests
of Germany, are almost incredible. Of these the commonest are
the Tomicus tyiographus and the. Hylurgus ptniperda (Fig. 2209).
The former receives its name of the Typographic Beetle from the
8«
THE BEETLES.
circumstance that the burrows formed by it in feedinsf upon the soft
wood, immediately within the bark, often present a rude resemblance
to printed characters. The devastations of these apparently con-
temptible foes are sometimes so formidable, in the pine-forests of
Fig. 2209.— I, 2, The Tomkus typogmphiis. 3, 4, The Urbimts pinlpn-da
(natural size, and magnified). 5, 6, The larva and pupa of the Hylurgus.
Germany, that prayers for their restriction are offered up in the
churches ; and we are told that, in the year 1783, at least a million
and a-half of trees were destroyed by these Insects in the Hartz
forest alone.
Section III.— Heteromera.
_ Nearly all.the Insects of this section of the Co!eo;ptera have four
joints in the posterior tarsi ; whilst the other four feet are composed
of five joints. They are divided by Mr. Westwood into two tribes—
the Trachelia, in which the head forms a distinct neck behind the
eyes, and the A trachelia, which possess no distinct neck, the head
being immersed up to the eyes in the thorax.
The Trachelia are generally active Diurnal Insects, frequency
adorned with gay colours. Their bodies are often soft, the elytra
flexible, and sometimes much shorter than the abdomen. To this
tribe belongs the Common Blister-fly {Lytta vesicaioria), the im-
portant medicinal uses of which are so well known. These Insects
are common in the south of Europe, and specimens have occasion-
ally been met with in England ; they feed principally upon the ash.
Many other Insects belonging to this tribe also contain a substance
which has the effect of raising blisters when applied to the skin ;
and these are employed in their native countries in place of the
Lytta yesicatoria. The species of Meloe, several of which are found
in Britain, possess this property; which, however, seems in all
cases to increase in intensity in proportion to the heat of the country
in which the Insects live. The species of Meloe are soft, sluggish
Beetles, with short elytra and no wings, and may be found crawling
about amongst the grass in warm sandy places, in the early summer!
One of the most beautiful of the British species is the scarlet Pyro-
chroa rubetis, which is found about hedge-banks in the neighbour-
hood of London. In the Sal;pitigidcB, which appear to connect
this group with the preceding, the front of the head is produced into
a short snout.
_ The Atrachelia are generally black, or of dull colours, nocturnal
in their habits, and slow in their motions, usually crawling upon the
ground in obscure situations. A few are found upon trees and
plants ; and these, in their structure, evidently approach the pre-
ceding tribe. A very good example of this group is furnished by
the common Blaps mortisaga, which bears the not particularly
inviting English name of the Churchyard Beetle. These Insects are
generally found in dark and dirty places about houses, in cellars,
and similar situations. Another species is the Tenebrio molitor,
of which the larva, found in flour, meal, &c., is well-known as the
Meal-worm. Other species live under the bark of trees, and in
decaying vegetable matter ; but comparatively few are found in this
country.
Section IV.— Pentaimera.
It is in this section that we find the greatest variation in the num-
ber of joints in the tarsi. A great number of the Insects of which it
is composed would require to be distributed amongst the precedino-
sections if we allowed none but truly Pentamerous Beetles to be
arranged here ; these, however, are exceptions to the general rule,
and the majority of the Insects placed in this section have tarsi com-
posed of five distinct joints. In some of these Insects, forming the
sub-tribe Malacodermata, the body is usually soft, and the Insects
in their general form, present a considerable resemblance to many of
the first group of Heteromera. They are further distinguished from
the Sternoxia, forming the second sub-tribe, by having the pro-
sternum of the ordinary form, and not produced into a spine pos-
teriorly. Many of these, such as the Insects well known to children
as Soldiers and Sailors {Telephori), are predaceous in their habits ;
whilst others are wood-borers, and some feed on dry animal sub-
stances. Of the wood-boring species, one, the Lymexylon navale,
infests oak timber, to which it frequently does incredible mischief in
dockyards. It is common in the north of Europe, but appears to be
rare in England. Other species, which also bore into timber in their
larva state, are well known by the name of the " Death Watch "
{Anooiutn striatum), from their habit of making a ticking noise by
knocking with their jaws against the wood-work upon which they
are standing. They are little creatures, which often do great
damage to furniture in houses. When touched, they contract their
legs, and counterfeit death— a piece of mimicry which they are said
to keep up even when exposed to a heat suflScient to roast them. To
this group also belongs the Glow-worm {Lampyris noctiluca), whose
lamp has so often been the theme of the poet's song. The female
alone is luminous.
^A^^- ^i'^''"°'^^^ the prosternum is produced in front into a lobe,
and behind into a spine, which is received in a small cavity of the
mesostemum. By the assistance of this apparatus (the spine being
drawn out of its groove, and then suddenly brought into it ao-ain)
many of these Insects (the Elaterida) are enabled to execute con-
siderable springs when laid upon their backs. The larvse of some
species are wood-borers ; those of others live in rotten wood ; and
some inhabit the ground, feeding upon the roots of plants. One of
the latter is well known to agriculturists as the Wire-worm
The vast tribe of the Lamellicorn Beetles {Lamellic'ornia) is
characterised by having the antennae terminated by a club, composed
of several leaf-like joints, laid together like the leaves of a book.
Ihis tribe includes an immense number of species, some of which
are amongst the largest and most splendid of Insects. In the Stag
Beetle [Lucanus cervus. Fig. 2210), the leaves are short and dis-
tinct, rendering the club pectinated; whilst in the Common Cock-
Fig. 2210.— The Stag Beetle.
chafer {Melolontha vulgaris) they are of considererable length,
especially in the male, and fold up like the leaves of a fan. These
Insects fly well, but heavily, with a loud whirring noise ; but they
generally crawl slowly. The larvae are thick fleshy grubs, furnished
with a distinct head, and with six jointed feet, and having the hinder
part bent down. They live in very various situations, in dung, in
decaying vegetable matter, and in the earth, feeding upon roots.
They usually pass several years in the larva state, and change to the
pupa in the interior of a sort of cocoon, formed of particles of the
surrounding materials, agglutinated together by a sticky secretion.
Many of the Perfect Insects are found in the same situations as
their larvae, especially in the case of the Dung-feeding species. Of
those which live in rotten wood, many, like the beautiful Rose-chafer
of our own country, and its still more splendid foreign allies, fre-
quent flowers in their perfect state ; and the Common Cockchafer,
the larva of which feeds upon, and often does great mischief to, the
roots of plants, lives entirely upon leaves, after it has undergone its
last change.
Many of the Dung-beetles, amongst which the Sacred Beetle of
the Egyptians (Fig. 2211) holds a prominent place, are remarkable
for inclosing their eggs in a small pellet of dung, which they then
roll along with their hind legs, until they drop it into a hole which
they have dug for its reception. On all the monuments of Egypt the
ScarabiEus may be seen sculptured, sometimes with the wings closed
and sometimes extended. A colossal illustration, sculptured in
greenish-coloured granite, may be seen in the British Museum.
The celebrated Cleopatra Needle, now on the Thames embankment,
and brought from Egypt in 1878 through the munificence of Mr.
Erasmus Wilson, F.R.S., &c., has also illustrations of the Beetle.
Others, like the common GeotrupidcB and AphodiidcB of our own
country, are contented with deposing their eggs in the midst of a
THE BEETLES.
8»3
plentiful supply of food. The forms of some of these Insects are ex-
tremely curious ; and many of the larger Tropical species are fur-
nished with enormous horns on the head and thorax, which give
them a singular appearance. The Dynastes hercuks (Fig. 2212 )
is one of the most remarkable of these. It is a native of Brazil, and
is one of the largest Beetles; sometimes attaining a length of five
inches.
In the Helocera, which appear to
make the nearest approach, both in
structure and habits, to the Lamelli-
corn Beetles, the antenna; are termi-
nated by a knob, composed of several
joints, which are sometimes pressed
closely together, and sometimes loosely
connected, so as to give the club a
serrated appearance. They are further
distinguished by their flattened con-
tractile limbs, each portion of which
folds closely upon its neighbour ; the
whole, when thus reduced to the smallest
compass, being received in cavities of
the lower surface of the body. This
position is always assumed by these
Beetles when alarmed ; and, from this
assumption of a death-like attitude,
some of the commonest species have received the name of ilimic
Beetles. These Insects, both in the larva and perfect states, are
commonly found in cow-dung ; a few also inhabit rotten wood ; some
are to be met with under the bark of trees, and a few in carrion. This
tribes includes two groups : — the Histerida, smallish Insects,
generally of a black colour, with geniculated antennte, and the
elytra rather shorter than the body, which is usually of a square
form ; and the Byrrhida;, with straight antennae, and the e'ytra as
long as the abdomen. The latter are of a round or oval form,
whence they have received the name oi Pill-beetles.
Fig. 221 1. —The Scarbaits
tEgyptioriitn.
Fig. 2212. — The Dynastes hercuUs.
The next tribe, the Necropliaga, includes an immense number of
small and moderate-sized Insects, which live for the most part,
both in the larva and perfect states, in decomposing Animal and
vegetable substances. A good many are also found underthe bark
of trees, and in Fungi. Like the preceding Insects, these have
clavate antenna:, but their legs are not contractile. The nearest
approach to the preceding tribe is made by the Dermestidce, small
Beetles, clothed like the Byrrhida;, with minute hairs, which often
do great damage to skins and furs, and other dry Animal matter.
The commonest species, Dcrmestes lardarius, has received its
specific name on account of the fondness exhibited by its curious
larva for bacon.
The largest and most interesting Insects belonging to this tribe,
are those of the family SilJ>hid(S, which includes the Burying Beetles
(Necrophori, Fig. 2213) and their allies. The Burying Beetles are
prompted by their instinct to bury any small Animals, or pieces of
Fig.
2213. — The Burying Beetle
(Necrophorus).
Fig. 2214. — The Hydrophiliis
caraldides.
carrion, as a provision for their young. In many cases several of
them set to work together, getting under the Animal to be buried,
and digging the earth out with their feet. In this way they will
quickly bury Animals many times their size, such as Mice and small
Birds. These Insects are not uncommon. They run and fly well ; and
some of them are adorned with bright orange-coloured bands ; but
they diffuse a most abominable odour, arising probably from the
nature or their food.
The Insects of another small tribe, called Philhydrida, from
their generally aquatic habits, also have clavate antennae, but
these are usually very short ; whilst the maxillary palpi are of great
length, and often longer than the antenn;c. Most of these Insects
live constantly in the water ; and their legs are generally more or
less flattened, to render them efficient as natatory organs (Fig-.
22iii) One of the largest British Beetles, the Hydrous pfceus,
which is not uncommon in ponds in some localities, belongs to this
tribe. It also includes a group of small hemispherical Beetles (the
Spharidiidce), which constantly inhabit dung. The Aquatic
species are carnivorous in their habits, the larger one will often
attack young frogs and fishes.
We now come to a group, the location of which has given much
trouble to entymologists, as, although it is undoubtedly nearly allied
to the Necrophaga, its introduction in the neighbourhood of that
tribe always appears to interrupt some natural affinities. The active
predaceous habits of some of the larger species, of which the
GoSrius olens ['F\g. 2215) is a very common example, seem also to
point to an alliance with the True Carnivorous Beetles ; and, on the
Fig. 2215. — The Goiirus olens.
whole, this is perhaps the most natural position of these Insects.
They are characterised by their generally filiform antenna;, and by
the shortness of their elytra, which always leaves a considerable
portion of the abdomen uncovered. The name Brachelytra, given
to the tribe, refers to this character. The wings, however, are
usually ample, and the Insects fly well. They are generally of an
elongated form ; and the abdomen, which is horny on both surfaces,
possesses great mobility. It assists in tucking the wings under the
elytra after flight ; and the Insects generally raise it when alarmed
or angry. This attitude has obtained, for the Insects figured above,
the appropriate name of Cocktails. The derivation of their other
vulgar denomination. Devil's Coach-horses, is not so clear. The
larvse are very sim.ilar to the perfect Insects, both in appearance
and habits. Many of them feed in carrion ; others in rotten wood,
and other decaying vegetable matters. The number of joints in the
tarsi varies greatly, but five is the prevalent number.
In the two following tribes, which close the series of Coleopterous
Insects, the outer lobe of the maxillas is jointed and palpiform, so
that these Insects appear to have six palpi. They are pre-eminently
Carnivorous and rapacious in their habits.
The former, constituting the tribe Hydradephaga, arc charac-
terised by their somewhat flattened oval body, and by having the
legs, especially the hinder pair, compressed and fringed with
bristles, so as to become powerful paddles. Many of these Insects
are of considerable size; the Dytiscus niargitialis (Fig. 2216), a
species very common in ponds, attaining a length of more than an
Fig. 2216. — The Dytiscus marginalis.
A, larva ; B, perfect insect.
inch ; whilst many foreign species are much larger. The larva is of
an elongated form, tapering towards the tail, which bears a pair of
tubular ciliated appendages, which the creature applies to the surface
of the water to obtain a supply of air for its respiration. It is as
predaceous as its parent, seizing upon other aquatic larvae with its
long curved mandibles, and quickly sucking the juices out of the body
of its victim. These mandibles are perforated throughout ; and it is
through these tubes that the larva sucks its nourishment. When
about to change to the pupa state, the larva burrows into the bank
of its native pond, and there undergoes its transformations. The
824
RADIA7ED ANIMALS.
well-known Gyrini, or Whirligigs— \\\.We. Black Beetles, which
may be seen describing circles upon the surface of any piece of water
— are also placed in this tribe, although their claim to such a position
is rather doubtful. The Insects of the last tribe, the Geodephaga,
resemble those of the preceding group in their carnivorous pro-
pensities, and in structure of their mouths ; but their legs are always
constructed for terrestrial progression.
The Insects of one family, the Cicindelidce, which have received
the name of Tiger-beetles, from their eminently predaceous pro-
pensities, are more diurnal in their habits than the rest of the tribe ;
the common English species may be found flying and running about
with great agility in the hottest sunshine. This Insect is of a
beautiful green colour, with whitish spots ; and its mouth is armed
with a most formidable pair of sharped-toothed jaws.
CHAPTER XLIV.
DIVISION IV.— RADIATA, OR RADIATED ANIMALS.
*HE Animals arranged under this division
of the Animal kingdom, are generally dis-
tinguished by the radiate form of their
bodies — that is to say, all the parts of which
the creature is composed are arranged
circularly round a common centre. In
some instances, however, this radiate ar-
rangement of the organs is not readily
recognisable ; although in other respects
the Animals approach the true radiate
forms so closely that it is difficult to place
them in any other position.
In complexity of structure, some of the lower forms
oi Radiata scarcely seem to exceed the simple crea-
tures belonging to the following division, consisting as
they do of a mere bag or digestive cavity, furnished
with a few tentacula or feelers. But as we advance
from these low forms towards the higher classes, we
find the complication of structure constantly on
the increase ; instead of a membranous bag, either
side of which will serve equally well as a skin or a
stomach, we soon find a marked distinction between
the outer coat and the membrane lining the diges-
tive cavity; and this goes on increasing until, in
the hightest forms (some Star-fishes and Sea-
urchins), the former consists of a most complicated
mosaic of calcareous plates, and the latter becomes converted into
a long convoluted intestine, furnished sometimes with a very curious
masticating apparatus in the mouth, and with an anal opening for
the discharge of the refuse of digestion. Other organs and functions
show an analogous advance.
The nervous system, when present, is very imperfect, and almost
rudimentary ; it partakes of the radiate arrangement of the body ;
and in its most perfect condition, consists of a ring of ganglia sur-
rounding the mouth, and giving off nervous filaments to each of the
segments of which the body is composed. The organs which have
been regarded as special organs of sense, occur by no means uni-
versally ; they will be noticed in treatmg of the groups in which they
are met with. A system of vessels exists in many of these Animals :
but it is only in the highest class that we find a distinct circulatory
system, with a sac-like heart for the propulsion of the nutritive fluid.
In the majority, respiration appears to be effected by the simple
contact of the surface of the Animal with the circumambient fluid.
A faculty which is possessed by most of the Radiata is that of
emitting phosphorescene in the dark, especially when irritated or
disturbed. Although they have this power in common with some
other groups of Animals, it is to the gelatinous free-swimming crea-
tures of this class, that the phenomenon, well known as the lumi-
nosity of the sea, is principally to be attributed. This phenomenon,
the occurrence of which is by no means uncommon on our own
coasts in calm weather, is exhibited in the greatest splendour in
the seas of warm climates. This general luminosity is due to in-
numerable minute animals, amongst which larger and more brilliant
species may be seen swimming in splendour, some like balls of
living fire, others like waving bands of flame. The majority of these
creatures belong to this division, and principally to the class of
Discophora, well-known to most of us as Medusae, or Jelly-fishes.
In some localities, the Noctiliica, a singular little Animal belonging
to the class of Siphotiophora, also plays an important part in the
production of this phenomenon.
Sub-divisions. — The Radiata may be divided into five classes.
The first class, containing the Polypes (Polypi), consists of Animals
of a more or less cylindrical form, which are generally attached by
one extremity to some solid submarine substance, and furnished at
the other, with an oral opening surrounded by tentacles.
The second class, the Discophora, includes the Animals well
known as Jelly-fish. They consist of a more or less convex disc or
umbrella at the centre of the lower surface of which the mouth is
situated, generally surrounded by four arms. The body is naked,
gelatinous, and transparent.
The Animals constituting the third class, the CtenophORA, are,
like the preceding, of a gelatinous consistency and glassy trans-
parency ; but the body, instead of being discoid is generally more
or less ovate in its form, and the Animals swim by the action of a
number of cilia arranged in rows upon their surface.
The fourth class, the Siphonophora, is composed of creatures,
the structure of which is still, in many cases, but little known.
Like the Animals of the two preceding classes, they swim freely in
the sea, and their bodies are also gelatinous and transparent ; they
are generally furnished with a peculiar cartilaginous support, and
with closed air-bladders, which serve as floats to maintain them at
the surface of the ocean.
In the fifth and last class, the Echinodermata, we find the most
highly organised forms of Radiata. These possess a coriaceous
skin, in which a deposit of calcareous matter takes place, often to such
an extent as to form a shell inclosing all the soft parts of the Animal .
They generally creep along the bottom of the water, by means of a
great number of tubular suckers, which can be protruded, at
pleasure, through openings left in the plates of which the calcareous
covering is composed. The radiate arrangement of the parts is
perhaps more distinctly recognisable in some of these Animals (the
common Star-fish, for example) than in any other members of this
division ; it is in these only, that any trace of a nervous system has
been discovered.
Class I. — Polypi.
General Characters. — The class of Polypi includes a great
number of Animals, most of which are of very simple construction.
They are all Aquatic in their mode of life ; and by far the greater
number inhabit the sea, a very few only being found in fresh water.
Most of them live in societies of greater or less extent, supported on
a common stock, or polypidian, which is sometimes horny, some-
times calcareous. The bodies of these Animals are generally
cylindrical in form, with a fringe of ioitacles. or arms, frequently
consisting of a considerable number, surrounding the anterior ex-
tremity, in the centre of which the mouth is situated. The mouth
is the only aperture of the digestive cavity; it is quite destitute of
any masticating apparatus. The skin in the Compound Polypes,
which are able to retract themselves into firm cells or tubes, is ex-
ceedingly soft and tender ; but in the solitary species it frequently
acquires a leathery consistence, forming a closed sac, within which
the more delicate tentacles can be be retracted at pleasure.
Sub-divisions. — The Polypes are commonly divided into three
orders. In the first, the Hydroida, the Animals are generally
compound, and invested with a horny tubular polypidom. In the
second order, the Asteroida, the Polypes are always compound ;
the mouth is surrounded by eight tentacles ; the digestive cavity is
lined with a membrane, and the ovules are produced in the interior
of the animal. The Polypes of the third order, the Helianthoida,
are single, and either possessed of a certain power of locomotion, or
imbedded in a calcareous polypidom.
Order I. — Hydroida.
General Characters.— It is in the Polypes of this order that
we find the nearest approach to the Protozoa. The body generally
consist of a homogeneous aggregation of vesicular granules, held
together by a sort of glairy intercellular substance, and capable of
great extension and contraction ; so that the creature can, at
pleasure, assume a great variety of forms, extending its body and
tentacles until the latter become so fine as to be almost invisible,
and again retracting itself, until it acquires the appearace of a small
gelatinous mass. The tentacula, which surround the anterior ex-
THE POLYPES.
82s
tremity, are irregular in number ; they are capable of extension to a
very great length when seeking for prey ; and on coming in contact
with any object floating in the water, they immediately twine round
it, and convey it to the mouth. In some genera the tentacles
appear to be tubular, the internal cavity being continuous with that
of the stomach. To assist in the capture of living prey, their sur-
face is commonly roughened with a series of granules, which in
some cases contain a curious poisonous or urticating apparatus.
The mouth, which is situated in the centre of the circle of tentacles,
leads directly into a simple digestive cavity, which is not lined with
any membrane.
I3y far the greater number of these Animals live in societies of
greater or less extent, supported on, and protected by, branched
horny polypidoms. These are often exceedingly elegant in their
form, and many of them are familiar to every sea-side visitor — by
whom, however, they are generally regarded as sea-weeds. They
consist of continuous horny tubes, generally with a jointed appear-
ance, and bearing the little cup-like cells occupied by the individual
polypes along the sides and at the extremities of the stem and
branches. The cells communicate by a perforation at the bottom,
with the general tubular structure of the polypidom, which is filled
with a substance apparently very analogous to that of which the
polypes are composed, and serving as a sort of common bond of
union between the many individual animals occupying the same
stock. This common medullary pulp, as it is called, may in fact
be regarded as the most important portion of the compound polype ;
for it is by the increase of this that the polypidom continues grow-
ing ; and it appears to have the power of producing new polypes,
not only in the fresh cells formed during growth, but also in those
which have already been occupied, but which have been vacated by
the death of their former tenants.
Sub-divisions. — The first family, HydridcB, contains only a
single genus {Hydra) of Polype, some of which may be met with
in almost every piece of stagnant or slowly-running fresh water.
They are usually attached to some aquatic plant, and their most
_ favourite station is amongst the rootlets
of the duckweed, so common in all our
ponds. The Animal, when extended,
consists of a long gelatinous cylinder, at-
tachedbyone extremity to thesub-aquatic
plant, and furnished at the other with
very long tentacles, which it stretches
about in the water in search of the
minute Animals on which it feeds. In
a state of contraction, it presents the ap-
pearance of a mere gelatinous lump or
button.
The most wonderful portion of the
history of the Hydra, consists in its ex-
traordinary powers of propagation. The
most usual mode in which reproduction
takes place is by a process of budding
or gemmation, in which some portion
of the substance of the creature is pushed
out into a small tubercle ; this gradually
becomes larger, and at length develops
a circle of tentacles from its upper extremity. The young Animal
is then complete, but yet generally remains attached to its parent
for a short time stretching out its tentacles, and taking food in pre-
cisely the same manner as the old Animal. Nor is it an unusual
thing to behold the young one and the old one struggling for,
and gorging, different ends of the same Worm. Before the de-
velopment of tentacles on the young Hydra, and even after these
have made their appearance, a communication exists between the
digestive cavity of the parent and that of its offspring ; so that food
given to either of them produces, more or less, a distension of the
bodies of both. This communication, however, appears to close
some little time before the separation of the young animal.
An operation which, to almost any other Animal, would prove in-
jurious or fatal, is found, in the case of the Hydra, only to
assist the propagation of the species. Wounds heal up with mar-
vellous facility ; and by cutting the creatures in various directions,
the most extraordinary monsters may be produced. A tail deprived
of its head will produce a fresh one in four or five days ; whilst the
amputated head forms a new tail in about the same time. These
singular facts were received, as maybe supposed, at the time of their
discover)', with no little incredulity ; but the testimony of numerous
observers leaves no room to doubt of their correctness ; and the
animals themselves are so common, that any one may repeat the
experiments of Trembley and Baker, for his own satisfaction.
The Hydrffi are exceedingly voracious, and feed only on living
Animals. The larva: of Insects, Worms, and the minute Crus-
taceous Animals which swarm in all waters, constitute their
principal food. Sometimes two Polypes will seize upon the same
Worm, when a dispute, of course, ensues, which occasionally ends
in very singular manner. If the weaker of the two do not feel in-
clined to let slip a booty for which he has perhaps been waiting with
Fig. 2217.— The IlyJia.
extended tentacles for several days, it sometimes happens that each
Polype swallows the end which has fallen to his share, until at
length the Worm being nearly all gone, the mouths of the pair
come into actual contact. They now find themselves in a position
of considerable difficulty, which is sometimes terminated by the
breaking of the Worm ; but if this do not take place, the larger or
stronger of the two seizes upon his antagonist, and swallows him,
Worm and all.
The Polypes of the second family, the Scr/iilaridix, all live in
societies, each Polype being inclosed in a sort of homy cup, sup-
ported on a branched polypidom of the same consistence. The
structure and mode of formation of these polvpidoms, which are
amongst the most elegant productions of the se 1, have already been
described. Their delicate arborescent forms arc constantly to be
seen attached to the sea-weeds left upon the beach by the retiring
waves. The cups or cells containing the Polypes arc sometimes
placed at the extremity of long stalks, sometimes arranged along the
sides of the stem and branches of the polypidom ; and the family has
bcpn divided into two sub-families, in accordance with these charac-
ters. The Laoincdca gcniciihita is an example of the former mode
of growth, characteristic of the sub-family of Campa)utlariiia : in
the second arrangement, the cells are sometimes placed along both
sides of the tubular portion of the polypidom, sometimes only in a
single series along the upper or lower surface of the branches.
These constitute the sub-family Sertularina. In some instances
the stem springs from a proper root, so that the Zoophyte is isolated.
In other cases the roots of the polypidom creep over the surface of
the object to which it is attached, frequently covering large pieces of
sea-weed with a complete network of minute horny fibres, from
various portions of which spring the delicate plant-like structures
which support the active Polypes.
Independently of the reproduction by gemmation, which is a ne-
cessary condition of their existence as compound Zoophytes, the
propagation of these Polypes is effected by the development, at
certain seasons, of peculiar cells, called ovigeroits vesicles, which
are regarded by some Zoologists as fertile Polypes. They are des-
titute of tentacles and of digestive organs, and contain, when mature,
a number of minute ova ; after the discharge of these the vesicles
fall off, and the Zoophytes appear completely sexless. The ova,
when discharged, are active, and swim freely in the water for two or
three days, when they fi.x upon a spot for their further development,
settle there, and shoot up into a polypidom, similar to that from
which they derived their existence. This freedom of motion in the
ova, of all stationary Animals, is one of the admirable provisions of
nature for securing the due distribution of her productions through
the world of waters ; for as these Polypes, in their mature state, are
confined to a single locality, it is evident that if their ova merely
dropped to the bottom of the water, more
of them would be developed in a single
spot than could conveniently exist there ;
the ova are consequently endowed with
a locomotive power, enabling them to
emigrate to such a distance from the
parent stock as to avoid all chance of
inconvenient crowding.
The Tuhiilarido', forming the third
family of Hydroid Polypes, are also for
the most part social Animals, frequently
possessing a polypidom, which, however,
when present, is of a much less firm
consistence than the horny framework
of the SertularidcB. The Polypes are
never entirely retractile within their
tubes ; the upper extremity is enlarged
into a clavate head, surrounded by a
variable number of tentacles. The
family is divided into two sub-families,
the Tubula?-iada;, in which the Polypes
are inclosed in a polypidom (Pig. 2218);
and the Corynidce, in which they are
naked, or only furnished with a rudiment of a polypidom. The
genera are founded on the arrangement and form of the tentacles.
Some of these Polypes attain a considerable size ; the Corymorpha
nutans, one of the most beautiful of the group, attains a length of
four inches and a-half. The general colour of the creature is a
delicate pink, with longitudinal lines of brownish or red dots. The
tentacles are very numerous and long, and of a white colour ; and
the ovaries, which are situated immediately above the circle of ten-
tacles, are orange. Most of the Tubula>-idcB inhabit the sea ; but
one species, the Cordylophora lacustris, is found in water which is
tolerably fresh.
Order II.— Asteroida.
General Characters. — The Asteroid Polypes are all compound
Animals, inhabiting a polypidom, which consists of a fleshy external
layer, supported upon a calcareous axis. The Polypes which are
S N
Fig. 22 1 S. — The Eudeitdrium
ramositm (m.ngnified).
826
THE CORALS.
imbedded in this fleshy mass are furnished with eight flat tentacles,
placed in a single circle round the mouth, and not unfrequently
toothed or fringed on their margins _ The outer integument consists
of two membranes, which are so thin, on the portion of the creature
which can be protruded from its cell, as to permit the internal organs
to be seen through them with ease. Towards the base of the body,
however, the outer of these membranes increases in thickness, and
becomes continuous with the common covering of the polypidoni, in
which, in most of the Asteroid Polypes, minute particles of carbonate
of lime are secreted, forming either spicula; or small granulated
masses, which give increased stability to the whole. The inner
membrane, retaining its delicacy of texture, is continued through the
cell of the Polype, lining this as well as the numerous canals which
penetrate in minute ramifications to all parts of the polypidom.
Some interesting particulars may be noticed in regardto their diges-
tive organs, as the stomach, &c.
In regard to their reproduction, the ova first make their appear-
ance in the form of little tubercles, which gradually increase in
height, and become narrowed at the base, until they form small
seed-like bodies, adhering by a short stalk to the membrane from
which they have arisen. In process of time, this stalk becomes ab-
sorbed, and the eggs are set at liberty to commence their further
development. For this purpose, however, they must get out of their
prison — an undertaking not altogether unattended with difficulty.
Sub-divisions. — This order of Zoophytes is divided into four
families, from characters derived from the nature of the polypidom.
In the first, this consists of a series of parallel tubes, each of which
serves as a habitation. The tubes are generally of a calcareous
nature, and are united together by transverse partitions. This family
is called Tubiporidis, from the name of its most typical genus,
Tiibipora ; of this only a single species is known, the red " Organ
coral" [Tuhipora miisica), inhabiting the Indian Ocean, in which
the polypidom is of a deep crimson colour, contrasting strongly with
the bright green of the living Polypes. This species is frequently
employed as ornaments for jewellery and other purposes.
In the family Alcyotiidcs, one of the British members of which has
received from our fishermen the elegant appellations of Coiv' s paps ,
Dead man's foes, &n6. Dead man's fingers, the polypidom is of a
spongy nature, and contains a multitude of minute calcareous con-
cretions, which serve to give iirmness to the fabric. When the
Polypes are contracted, the surface of the polypidom, which is
covered with a coriaceous skin, is seen to bear numerous scattered
stellate marks, which, on examination, are found to consist of eight
rays corresponding with the tentacula of the Polypes which are to be
protruded from these spots. The Alcyonidas are always attached to
submarine bodies. The species already named is exceedingly com-
mon round our coasts ; so much so, that, as Dr. Johnston says,
" scarce a shell or stone can be dredged from the deep that does not
serve as a support to one or more specimens." One of the most re-
markable species belonging to this family is the Alcyoniic?n pociihim ,
or Neptune's cup, which is found upon the coral reefs in the Eastern
Archipelago. The polypidom of this Zoophyte, which bears some
resemblance to a wine-glass in form, is sometimes as much as three
feet in height, and eighteen inches in diameter at the mouth.
In the GorgonidcB, which constitute the third family of Asteroid
Polypes, the calcareous matter, when present, instead of being
scattered in the form of granules or spi-
cule throughout the substance of the
polypidom, is collected into a solid
central axis, covered by the fleshy mass
in which the Polypes are imbedded.
The axis is sometimes calcareous, some-
times horny ; and in some curious forms
it consists of a mixture of both sub-
stances ; as in the Isis liippitris, a
species inhabiting the Indian seas, the
axis of which is formed of a series of
calcareous joints united together by
horny rings (Fig. 2219). l\Iost of the
species possessing a horny axis [Gor-
gonia, and allied genera) grow in a
-rait of axis of his more or less arborescent form ; but in
hippiiris. some species, well known in a dried
state as " sea-fans," the longitudinal
branches are united at irregular intervals by a number of transverse
pieces, which are composed of a continuation of the horny axis,
covered with the cortical substance, and bearing Polypes, exactly
like the main stem and branches.
But there is one species belonging to this family, with the stony
axis of which most of us has been acquainted from our earliest
years, although it is probable that many are still ignorant of its
origin. This is the Corallium rubrinn, the Animal which produces
the common red coral, a substance of great beauty, and, at one time,
of considerable value.
The Zoophytes of the three preceding families all grow attached
by the base to rocks or other submarine bodies ; in those of the
fourth family, the Pennatulida:, on the contrary, the polypidom is
Fig. 2219.
completely unattached, and they are only retained in their proper
position by the insertion of the lower portion into the sand or mud
of the bottom of the sea. The main stem of the polypidom of these
Animals is fleshy, but furnished with an internal bony axis, which,
however, does not reach to either extremity of the stalk. The
Polypes are not situated upon this portion, but upon a series of
lamella; which stand out upon each side of the stalk, giving the
whole creature, in some cases, the appearance of a large quill-
feather. It was formerly supposed these Polypes swim by the waving
of the pinnse to and fro in the sea ; and as some of them are most
Fig. 2120. — The Pcmiatula.
a, a single polype magnified.
brilliantly phosphorescent, the beautiful appearance which would be
presented by the motion of such a splendid undulating meteor
through the water may, perhaps be imagined. In the words of
Dr. Grant, " a more singular and beautiful spectacle could scarcely
be conceived than that of a deep purple Pennatula phosphorea,
with all its delicate transparent polypi expanded, and emitting their
beautiful phosphorescent light, sailing through the still and dark
abyss, by the regular and synchronous pulsations of the minute
fringed arms of the whole polypi." But unfortunately for this
charming vision, all that we know of the habits of these creatures
tends to show that, although certainly not rooted to one spot like
the other Polypes, they are completely sedentary in their mode of
life, remaining always in one place, with the base of the central
stalk buried in the soft bottom of the sea.
These Zoophytes vary considerably in form. In some cases, of
which the Pentiatula, or " sea-pen " (Fig. 2120) raayserveas an ex-
ample, the central stalk is of moderate length, whilst the pinnse are
tolerably long, giving the creature so completely the appearance of
a feather, that, to use the words of Lamarck, "it seems, in fact, as
if nature, in forming this compound animal, had endeavoured to
copy the external form of a bird's feather." In some genera, Vir-
gulan'a axid Pdz'onaria,Xo ^h\ch the name of " rea-rushes " has
been given, the central stem is very much prolonged, some of them
measuring between three and four feet in length. The polypiferous
lobes are comparatively short.
Order III. — Helianthoida.
General Characters.— The Helianthoid Polypes, of which the
Common Sea-anemones of our coasts may serve as an example, ap-
proach much more closely in their structure to the Asteroid than to
the Hydroid Polypes. They have
for many years been favourites in
our Aquaria. Like the Asteroid
Polypes, the Animals forming the
present order have a stomach,
consisting of a sac quite distinct
from the outer walls of the body :
like them, also, the space between
the stomach and the outer integu-
ments is divided into cells, by mem-
branous or muscular partitions,
upon whicli the ova are produced.
But, instead of eight flat fringed
organs, the mouth is surrounded
by a variable number of tubular
tentacles, which are generally very
numerous, and arranged in mul-
tiples either of five or six ; and
the lamelteofthe interparietal space follow the same rule.
Some of them, as the Actinice, are free and naked; but the
greater number secrete a calcareous polypidom, which, however,
differs widely from that of the preceding order. Instead of the
Polypes being imbedded in a fleshy or leathery mass, supported on a
calcareous or horny axis, the cells inhabited by the Helianthoid
Polypes are hollowed out immediately in the Stony polypidom ; the
lamellaj, which divide the space between the outer skin and the
stomach into compartments, being also supported by a calcareous
plate ; so that when the polypes are removed, the cells still exhibit
a radiate structure. The Actinice, one of the commonest species of
which is represented in the preceding figure, affords a very good idea
of the individual Polypes of this order.
;Fig. 2221. — The Actinia mcscnihy-
anthcmmn.
CORAL fSLAN-DS, AND CORAL REEFS.
827
The extension of these Animals is effected by the imbibition of
water, either throusi-h the mouth or tlic pores of the tentacles. This
fills the interparietal space, and is forced thence into the tentacles ;
the little pores at their tips being kept closed until every part of the
creature is distended to the utmost — often presenting a most beauti-
ful appearance. The contraction of the walls of the body, and of
the perpendicular lamella:, soon forces out this water, when the
Actiriui wishes to contract itself; the water passes off through
minute pores at the tips of the tentacula ; and when the con-
traction is sudden, it is sometimes ejected to a distance of a foot or
more.
The polypidom of the Helianthoid Zoophytes is essentially a cast,
in carbonate of lime, or chalk, of the structure of the animal. It is
presented in its simplest form by the Fniigia: — a group of corals in
which tlie polypidom is inhabited only by a single Polype.
Humble as these creatures are, their operations occupy an im-
portant place in the history of the globe. Islands — some of them of
considerable size, and affording a habitation to an entire race of
human beings — owe their elevation (from the bottom of the ocean,
and the solidity which enables them to resist the continual action of
the tremendous breakers of the Tropical seas) to the labours of
these apparently contemptible agents ; and in the geological periods
of the world's history they appear to have played even a still more
important part.
ihree kinds of Coral reefs are distinguished. Nearly all the
shores of the seas inhabited by the reef-building corals, which oc-
cupy a broad zone extending between 20° and 30° of latitude on each
side of the equator, are more or less fringed with their living walls ;
these are called skirting ?'eefs. Other reefs are sometimes met
with at a much greater distance from the shore, although still, to a
certain extent, running parallel to its outlines. To these the name
of barrier reefs has been given ; the most remarkable of them is
the great reef which runs along the north-east coast of Australia.
The third form of reef is presented by a great number of the Poly-
nesian islands. Many of these are of a crescent-like form, or even
sometimes completely circular, inclosing, as within a wall, a basin
of still water (called a iagooii), in which the more delicate Marine
Animals find a welcome refuge from the tumultuous waves which
rage without. These islands, which are called a/oils, or lagoon-
reefs, are generally highest on the windward, or eastern side, against
which the waves are continually dashing with great violence ; the
Polypes, from some cause still unexplained, building with greater
rapidity on that portion of the reef which is constantly exposed to
the action of the breakers. On the opposite or leeward side, the
reef is seldom completed ; so that at this part the lagoon usually
communicates with the open sea by an opening of variable width.
As exposure to the air appears quickly to be fatal to these Polypes,
they never raise their habitations quite to the surface of the water,
usually stopping at four or five feet below low-water mark. It is
evident, therefore, that the living Polypes can have nothing to do
with the final elevation of the Coral islands above the level of the
sea ; and we find that this is due to the action of the very waves
which appear to threaten the infant island with destruction. The
violence of the storm breaks off large fragments from the lower parts
of the reef, and washes them up to its surface, where they rest,
and gradually become agglutinated together by a constant deposit
of calcareous sand, produced by the disintegration of the coral. In
course of time, these deposits rise above the surface, when some
floating cocoa-nut is thrown upon the beach, and germinates in the
sandy soil. Things go on rapidly now. Birds visit the new-formed
land ; new species of vegetation arise ; and each plant, by the decay
of its fallen leaves, assists in the formation of a layer of mould, in
which other plants may grow. Assisted by a Tropical sun and a
moist atmosphere, vegetation becomes luxuriant : and the barren
sandy spot, so recently raised from the bosom of the ocean, is soon
converted into one of the most delightful abodes of man. To solve
the difficulty which is presented in the study of the production, (S:c.,
of coral reefs, a most ingenious hypothesis has been put forward by
Mr. Darwin, of which, for want of space, we are compelled to omit a
description, and must consequently refer our readers to his works on
this interesting subject.
Like the greater number of Radiated Animals, the Helianthoid
Polypes possess urticating organs, which consist of minute capsules
imbedded in the skin, containing a spicule, or a spiral thread, of
great delicacy, and apparently, also, secreting an acrid fluid of some
sort, which exerts a poisonous action upon an}' soft living tissues
with which it may come in contact. The effect of this urticating
power is seen, in the speedy death of small Fishes, and other Marine
creatures, which tempt their fate by straying carelessly amongst the
tentacles of our common Actiiiicc, several of which produce a slight
sensation of heat even in the human skin.
Sub-divisions. — In this, as in the preceding order, the charac-
ters of the families are derived from the structure of the polypidom.
In the first family (the Aladreporida, or " Tree Corals ") the poly-
pidom is much branched, and composed of a porous substance, in
which the openings of the Polype cells occupy the summits of tuber-
cular prominences of greater or less elevation. These cells are gene-
rally almost round ; sometimes they are nearly superficial, but in
many cases roach nearly to the centre of the coral. The rays are
few in number, and nrcly meet in the middle cf the cell. The
Polypes arc usually sni.ill, and possess only twelve short tentacles
placed in a circle round tin: mouth.
The family of Cyai/io/i/iy/iid,,-, or " Cup Corals," form polypidoras
of a more or less cup-like shape, with the cell occupied by the
Polype at the upper extremity. The Polypes arc large, and fur-
nished with many tentacles, and the rays of the cells arc also
numerous. This family may be divided into two sub-families, ac-
cording as the cell occupied by the Polype is divided or not, from
the lower portion of the polypidom, by a transverse partition.
Species of both these groups are found in deep water off the British
coasts.
It is to the third family, the Astrmda; especially that the forma-
tion of the Coral reefs is to be attributed. In this, the Corals usually
form thick stony masses ; the stony rays of the cells are exceedingly
numerous, and the cells themselves penetrate deeply into the mass
of the coral, although they are generally partially divided by im-
perfect transverse partitions. Most of the Zoophytes of this family
appear to increase by a sort of spontaneous division, instead of by
gemmation. By this means, the body of the Polype, and the cavity
which it occupies, are in many cases not distinctly circumscribed ;
and the latter form curious, elongated, winding depressions in the
surface of the coral. A very well-known example of this form is
presented by the brain coral (Mcsa?idriria cerebriformis).
In the fourth family, the Fungida, to which we have already re-
ferred, the Polypes are single, and often attain a considerable size.
The polypidoms form oblong or roundish masses, furnished with an
extraordinary number of rays ; the outermost of which project from
the circumference, without being confined by any outer walls. The
Polype occupies the whole of this radiated edifice ; it is furnished
with a tubular mouth in the centre, and with numerous short, round
tentacles, which are scattered over the upper surface.
The family Zoanfhidcs consists of somewhat clavate Polypes, pre-
senting a considerable resemblance in their general structure to the
ActinicB. They differ from these, however, in being social in their
mode of life, a number of the Polypes being united by a common
creeping stem, which attaches them to some submarine object, and
from which new Polypes arc produced at intervals as it runs along.
The mouth is surrounded by a single row of tentacles.
We now come to the family of Actiniada;, or " Sea Anemones,"
the structure of which has already been described. A considerable
number of these Polypes occur on our own coasts, especially on the
West coasts of Scotland and Ireland ; but it is in the seas of Tropical
latitudes that they are to be found in the greatest profusion, and
presenting the most attractive appearance. In many respects they
nearly represent the appearance of beautiful flowers. Thus are the
wonders of nature exhibited in the most minute productions.
The tentacles are arranged either in one or several rows. In some
species they are long and thin ; in others, short and thick ; in most
of them the tentacles and oral disc can be retracted within the body ;
but in the genus .<4«//ie(Z, of which two British species are known,
they are always exserted.
The ActiniadcB are exceedingly voracious in their habits, feeding
upon almost any small Animals that come within their reach.
Shrimps and small Crabs, Whelks, and even sometimes small Fishes,
fall a ready prey to these apparently helpless creatures. In many
cases, the objects taken into their capacious maw appear to bear no
proportion to the original size of the Animal, or to its power of pre-
hension.
Although so much more complicated in their structure than the
Hydra, whose extraordinary history has already been detailed,
these Animals possess a nearly equal power of surviving and repair-
ing an amount of injury that would be fatal to most other creatures.
They may be kept without food for upwards of a year ; they may be
immersed in water hot enough to blister the skin, or frozen in a mass
of ice and again thawed ; and they may be placed in the exhausted
receiver of the air-pump, without being deprived of life, or disabled
from resuming their usual functions when placed in a favourable
situation. The most serious mutilations appear to be equally sub-
jects of perfect indifference to them ; their tentacles may break off,
and new ones will soon spring up in the place of those which have
been removed ; the whole upper part of the body may be cut away,
and after a time the base will produce a new mouth, oral disc, and
tentacles, and proceed with its vital functions as if nothing had hap-
pened to disturb the even tcnour of its existence.
The Luceritaridcc, which form the seventh and last family, have
been arranged by some authors with the Asteroid Polypes, as, like
these, they possess eight tentacles, or rather eight bundles of ten-
tacles. They appear, however, to be more nearly allied to the
Actinia than to the Asteroid Polypes ; and in some of their charac-
ters they approach the Mcduscv, which constitute the following class,
so that in their natural position they ought probably to be appro.xi-
mated, as nearly as possible, to those creatures. The Lucernaridcs,
of which several species are found on the British coasts, are Cam-
panulate Animals of a g'elatinous consistence.
THE MEDUSA, OR UMBRELLA FISHES.
Class II.— Discophora.
In walking along the sea-beach as the tide is falling, the atten-
tion of the wanderer is often attracted by the number of singular
gelatinous masses left on the sands. At first sight it would never be
suspected that these are really living Animals, endowed with a struc-
ture of considerable complexity ; but a very little examination will
soon show the observer that this is the case. If one of these lumps
of jelly be put into a clear pool or basin of sea-water, parts, before
confounded in a shapeless mass, immediately unfold themselves ; a
circular umbrella-like disc, surrounded by numerous short filamen-
tous tentacles, appears to support the creature at the surface of the
Fig. 2222. — The Medusa atirita.
A. lateral view, showing the tentacles hanging down ; B, under surface.
water; and from the centre of this hang four long arms with mem-
branous fringed margins. This is the Medusa aurifa (Fig. 2222),
the commonest Medusa of our coasts, and must have been observed
by any one who has looked into the water from a boat or jetty in
calm weather. In the v/ater the creature swims along most grace-
fully by the alternate contraction and dilatation of its transparent
disc.
All the Animals of this class present a structure very similar to
this. They all possess a disc of greater or less convexity, which is
employed in the manner already described, for the purposes of loco-
motion ; and in most of them, the margin of this disc is furnished
with tentacles or cirri. The disc, or umbfella, consists of two
membranes, of which the lower is called the sub-umbrella. In the
centre of this the mouth is situated, sometimes at the extremity of a
peduncle of variable length, which contains the stomach, and in
some cases also the ovaries. The mouth is most frequently furnished
with tentacles. Immediately above the stomach there is frequently
a second cavity, whence a system of vessels takes its rise ; these run
in a radiating direction from the centre to the circumference of the
sub-umbrella, where they are united by a circular vessel. In some
cases these vascular canals are branched, and sometimes they form
a delicate net-work, which runs through the whole body of the crea-
ture. _ When the supra-stomachal cavity is wanting, the vessels
open immediately into the stomach itself. They serve to convey the
products of digestion from the stomach to the various parts of the
body, and at the same time expose it to the action of the water
through which the Animal moves. The tentacles, which generally
surround the mouth, vary greatly in size and form ; those of the
margin are filiform and very variable in length. At the base the
marginal tentacles (Fig. 2223) terminate in a small bulb, in which
the microscope reveals the existence of one or more minute cavities,
which from their structure, and supposed connection with the faculty
of hearing, have received the name of ofoUtic vesicles {b). They
consist of an oval or roundish sac, containing from one to nine, or
even more globules. In addition to these, the bases of the marginal
tentacles contain other organs,
which also occur on other parts of
the margin of the disc. These
consist of small masses of pigment
cells, each surrounding a minute
silicious crystal. From the analogy
of their structure they are regarded
as rudimentary eyes, or at all
events as organs by which a sensa-
tion analogous to vision is pro-
duced, and they have consequently
received the name of ocelli (c).
In many species they are present
in great numbers ; and in the more
highly organised forms, they are
more complicated in their struc-
ture, and protected from injury by membranous hoods or coverings,
Nevertheless, although the visual auditory functions of these curious
organs seem to be admitted on all sides, the existence of any ap-
proach to a nervous system in these creatures is still a matter of
great doubt ; so that if the ocelli zn^ otolitic vesicles really perform
the parts assigned to them, the perceptions conveyed by them to
the animal, must be of an exceedingly imperfect nature.
The stinging power, which has already been referred to as com-
Fig. 2223. — Margin of the Oceania
octona^
a, basis of marginal tentacles ; b,
otilitic vesicles ; c, ocelli.
mon to several groups of radiate Animals, is possessed by many
Meduses in the highest perfection. The urticating organs in
Pelagia itoctiluca, as described by Professor Wagner, are placed in
warts or tubercles on the skin of the Animal. These warts contain
aggregations or small red pigment granules, amongst which there
are numerous little round vesicles, the largest being about -j-ou"! of
a line in diameter. Within these little capsules a spiral thread is
to be seen, which bursts out of its case on the slightest pressure ;
these barbed capsules are always found in the urticating mucus
exuded in such quantities by the McduscB, to which they are con-
sidered to communicate this property. One or two, at least, of our
British species sting most severely, although others are perfectly
harmless. It is from this stinging power that the Alcdusce have re-
ceived the name of "sea-nettles," which appears to have been
applied to them in all ages and in all languages. The ancient
Greeks called them AKaXi)0ai, or nettles — a name which was adopted
into modern scientific language to designate the class of Animals to
which the Medusce belonged.
The class Acalepha, of authors, includes not only the Animals
of the present class, but also those of the two following ; and the
whole presents so few characters in common, that Eschscholtz, in
his work upon this department of the Animal Kingdom, was obliged
to confess that the Acalej>h(S could only be described as Radiated
Animals, furnished with distinct organs of nutrition and motion.
W^e have, accordingly, preferred following the example of some
recent zoologists, who have abolished the class Acalephez alto-
gether, and raised the three orders into which those Animals
were divided, to the rank of distinct classes. The phosphorescence
of the Medusce has already been alluded to ; and we shall not, there-
fore, recur to it in this place.
But the most singular incidents in the biography of Meduscs are
the circumstances connected with their reproduction. Ihey are all
propagated by eggs, which the females (for these Animals are uni-
sexual) produce in glandular organs, sometimes arranged in bands
or patches on the surface of the sub-umbrella, and sometimes in the
cavities at the base of the peduncle. But these ova, when excluded
from the body of the parent, develop an Animal quite different in
form from that from which they sprang ; and it is only in the second
generation that the original Medusa is reproduced. The eggs are
developed, to a certain extent, in small pouches, placed beneath the
body, and in the arms of the mother, whence they are not excluded
until they have acquired the form of an active infusory animalcule
furnished with cilia, enabling them to swim freely in the water.
After a time, the little Animal attaches itself by one extremity in
some suitable position and awaits its further development. Arms
are soon formed at its upper extremity ; and it now presents the
appearance and takes its food in the manner of Hydrafomi polype.
At this stage of its growth, buds are often produced, just as in a true
Hydra. The body now increases considerably in length, and be-
comes constricted, or divided by wrinkles of the surface into
numerous segments ; these become more and more distinct, their
edges become notched, and at length the Animal resembles a pile
of jagged saucers placed one upon another and surmounted by a
crown of tentacles. At length these separate and swim about like
Y\tt\e Medusce ; and, after undergoing some changes, they acquire
the form and colouring of the common Medusa aurita (see Fig.
2222) of our coasts. So completely do, what for want of a better term,
we must call the preparatory states of these Animals, resemble
Hydroid polypes, that their connection with the Meduscs has only
been but recently discovered; and the species just referred to has
been described under the name of Hydra tuba. Amongst the
smaller Meduscs, a somewhat different mode, or rather a modifi-
cation of the former method of reproduction, prevails. In these, as
in the larger species, the ova, when excluded, produce Polypes,
from which Animals resembling the parent arise by a process of
gemmation ; but instead of the young Meduscs being produced by
the division of the whole substance of the Polype into a series of
superposed cups, they spring from its body like true buds, which
gradually become perfect Medusiform Animals. They stand in
much the same relation to the polype stock, from which they are
produced, as the flower to its parent plant ; and if we imagine a
plant in which the flowers, when fully formed, are cast off to perfect
their seed, whilst floating in the medium which surrounds them, we
shall obtain a very good idea of the mode of development of these
small Medusce. The Polype stages of these Animals resemble the
Tubularian and Sertularian Polypes. From these circumstances,
some zoologists have proposed the removal of the whole of the
Hydroid Polypes into the present class, of which many of them are
certainly only stages of development. Opinions are still so much
divided, however, as to the true affinities of these Animals, that we
have preferred leaving the Hydroid polypes in their old position to
placing them where few of our readers would think of looking for
them.
These facts have led to the establishment of the theory of the
"alternation of generations." Steenstrup, who was the first naturalist
to put forward this idea, as a " general fact dependent on a law,"
defines it as follows: — "The jundamental idea e.xpressed by the
THE MEDUSJE, Gfc.
819
•kotAs A/fernafion of gencrafwus," is " the remarkable, and till
now, inexplicable phenomenon of an animal producinjr an off-
spring, which at no time resembles its parent ; but which, on the
other hand, itself brings forth a progeny which returns, in its form
and nature, to the parent animal, so tliat the maternal animal does
not meet with its resemblance in its own brood, but in its descendants
of the second, third, or fourth degree of generation. And this al-
ways takes place in the different animals which exhibit the pheno-
mena in 3. determinate generation, or with the intervention of a
determinate number of generations. This remarkable ^precedence
of one or more generations, whose function it is, as it were, to pre-
pare the way for the later succeeding generation of animals destined
to attain a higher degree of perfection, and which are developed
into the form of the mother, and propagate the species by means of
ova, can, I believe, be demonstrated in not a few instances in the
animal kingdom."
At least four British species of Medusae (two of Lizzia and two of
Sarsia) have the power of producing young Animals by direct gem-
mation, and their development from a zoophytic form has not yet
been observed. In Lizzia and Sarsia gem»iifera, the buds are
produced from the stomachal peduncles ; but in the other species of
Sarsia S. ;proli/era) they originate from the bulbs at the base of
the tentacles, where they may be seen attached in all stages of de-
velopment.
Sub-divisions. — Much still remains to be done to the subordinate
classification of these Animals, Professor Forbes divides the
MedusEe into two great divisions, which we shall adopt as orders.
In the first of these, the ocelli, or eye-like spots, surrounding the
margin of the disc are naked (Fig. 2224) ; whilst in the others
Fig. 2224.-
I. The Sarsia tubulosa.
■Ocelli of the Meduscs.
2. The Pdagia panopyra.
these organs are protected
hoods or lobed coverings
called Gymnopfhat?nata
phthatmata (or covered-
present, are always placed
and frequently also on the
group, on the contrary, th
ginal tentacles.
by more or less complicated membranous
(Fig. 2224 — 2). Hence the former are
(or naked-eyed) ; the latter, Stegano-
eyed). In the former, the ocelli, when
on the bulbs at the base of the tentacles,
interstices between these. In the second
ey are always placed between the mar-
Order I.— Gymnophthalmata.
Sub-divisions. — Professor Forbes, in his work upon the British
species of this order, to which we are so largely indebted, divides
this group into six families, charac-
terised principally by the number and
position of the vessels and ovaries.
The first of these, the Sarsidce, in-
cludes, together with several other
genera, the Sarsics and Lizzi(S, al-
ready mentioned as producing young
Medusas by gemmation from their
central peduncle, and from the base
of the marginal tentacles. In these,
the ovaries are imbedded in the sub-
stance of the peduncle. They have
four simple vessels, and generally
only four tentacles, each bearing an
ocellus at their base. In Lizzia, the
margin of the umbrella bears eight
bulbs, each containing an ocellus ; of
these, four are larger than the others,
and to each of these three tentacles
are attached ; the other four bear two
tentacles each. In Modeeria, al-
though there are but four tentacles,
Fit;. 2225.— TlieiJ/tf,/c'm«/c;/v«(;OT. an additional ocellus is placed be-
tween each pair. The Alodeeria
'g-
2226. — The Thaumantias
pilosella.
formosa (Fig. 2225), of which we have given a figure, is one of the
most charming of these charming little creatures.
In the second family, the Geryonidce, the vessels are also simple
and four in number ; but the ovaries, of which there are also four,
instead of being imbedded in the peduncle, arc placed in the course
of the vessels on the sub-umbrella. The tentacles vary greatly in
number. In some species there are only four of these organs, each
bearing an ocellus ; in others, the number of both organs is increased,
until in the Thaiitnantias pilosella, of which a magnified figure is
here given (Fig. 2226), there are about a hundred principal exten-
sible tentacles, springing from ocelliferous bulbs ; whilst in each of
tho intervals between these, si.\ or seven shorter fibres, or secondary
tentacles are placed.. Different
species of Thaumantias are most
important agents in producing the
luminosity of the European seas.
The third family, Circcidcs, in-
cludes only a single genus of which
the few species are scattered over
very distant parts of the world.
One is found on the coast of Kamt-
schatka, two on the African coast,
and a fourth has been discovered,
by Professor Forbes, off the Sliet-
land Isles. In this, there are
eight radiating vessels, and eight
small ovaries, placed on the sub-
umbrella in the course of the
vessels.
In the ^quoridce, amongst which are included some of the
largest species of naked-eyed Medusae, the vessels are simple and
generally numerous (never less than eight) ; and the ovaries are
linear, and placed on the course of the vessels on the sub-umbrella.
The Medusae, composing the fifth family (the Oceanidae), are
amongst the most delicate and beautiful of the class. They con-
sist of a little conical or globular glassy body, within which a
variously coloured peduncle may be seen. The lower margin is
fringed with tentacles, which vary greatly, both in number and
colour. They possess four simple vessels ; and the ovaries are
placed in the upper part of the stomachal peduncle, in the form of
convoluted membranous tubes, which render themselves noticeable
through the clear substance of the Animal by their brilliant colour.
In Turris, one of the genera of this family, the tentacles are ex-
ceedingly numerous ; whilst in another genus {SaJ>henia), their
number is reduced to two.
The sixth family, IVillsidcB, is distinguished from all the rest by
the branched form of the radiating vessels. These are six in num-
ber. After running some little distance from the centre of the sub-
umbrella, they fork, and each of the branches again forks before
reaching the margin ; so that the marginal vessel receives the ter-
minations of twenty-four radiating vessels. From the point of
junction of each of these, a tentacle takes its rise. There are si-t
ovaries placed round the base of the stomach.
Order II.— Steganophthalmata.
Sub-divisions. — This order includes two families. The Afcdu.
sides have a central mouth, surrounded by four tentacles, and the
remainder of their organs arranged in fours, or multiples of fou .
The margin of the disc is also generally furnished with tentacles.
Several of these inhabit the British seas. The Medusa aurita,
already described, the Pelagia cyanella, and the Cyancea capillata,
may serve as examples.
In the second family, the RhizostomidcB , there is no apparent
mouth, and the Animal is said to derive its nourishment by a species
of absorption through numerous minute canals which permeate the
stomachal peduncle and tentacles. The latter are usually branched,
so as to be apparently rather numerous at the extremities. The
margin is never furnished with tentacles. One species of this family,
the Rhizostotna cuvieri, is found on the British coasts.
Class III.— Ctenophora.
General Characters. — We now come to a class of Animals,
the real nature of which is still to be made out. They are gela-
tinous transparent creatures, generally of an oval form, enabled to
swim freely by the action of variously arranged rows of cilia. The
body of these Animals has so much more of the bilateral than of the
radiate type in the arrangement of its parts, that their place amongst
the Radiata has been disputed ; and M. Vogt has placed them in
the neighbourhood of the Bryozoa, or MoUuscoid Zoophytes, as low
forms of Mollusca. The radiate arrangement of the bands of cilia,
in most cases, and still more the presence of urticating organs in the
tentacles, may justify our retaining them for the present in this
position.
The cilia in the bands are arranged in transverse lines, and the
cilia of each line are frequently united at the base, so as to form
minute lodes, which are moved rapidly to and fro, and thus enable
830
THE ECHTNODERMATA.
the creature to swim backwards and forwards, or in any other direc-
tion, at pleasure. Numerous and minute as these organs are, each
of them appears to be individually under the control of the Animal.
When in action, they produce the most beautiful iridescent colours,
so that it is easy to detect the means by which the creature varies
its course — now paddling with one, and now with another, of its
mimic wheels. The mouth leads sometimes immediately, sometimes
through a narrow canal, into a large stomach, which opens again
into a funnel-shaped cavity at the opposite extremity of the axis of
the body. The rudiment of a nervous system, consisting of a single
ganglion, giving off a few branches in various directions, is said to
exist in these Animals; and a sort of vascular system, apparently
for the conveyance of water, rising from the anal funnel, runs along
the course of the bands of cilia. The mode of reproduction of the
Ctc7iophora is still enveloped in mystery. They arc supposed to be
hermaphrodites, and ova have been found in the neighbourhood of
the aquiferous vessels ; but where these are produced is not yet as-
certained. These singular Animals form but one order, which is
divided into two families.
The Beroida:, which form the first family, may almost be said to
possess no true stomach, the body being so formed as to inclose a
great cavity, of which the hinder portion serves as a digestive organ.
When the Animals have much food in this cavity, they constrict the
middle of the body, so as to prevent any of it from escaping. The
body is oval or roundish, with eight rows of cilia running from end
to end of the body throughout. The mouth is large, and opens
and shuts with facility ; it is gene-
rally held open when the creature is
in motion. The tentacles are wanting
in this family.
The CalliatiiridcB are distin-
guished from the preceding family
by the small size of the stomach and
mouth, and by its possession of fila-
mentous tentacles. The little Cy-
dippe, which is common in the
British seas, is a good example of this
group. The most singular of these
Animals is the Cestain veneris, or
girdle of Venus (Fig. 2227), which
inhabits the Mediterranean, and
Fig. 2227.— The Cesium veneris, -which at first sight would be taken
for anything rather than a near re-
lation of the little globular Cydippe. In this curious creature, the
sides of the body are produced into a long ribbon, which sometimes
attains the length of four or five feet : the mouth and digestive
organs being, however, confined to their original position in the
middle of the body. This Animal is one of the most beautiful in-
habitants of the ocean.
Class IV.— Siphonophora.
The Siphonophora form another group of Animals, of which we
have still much to learn before their true nature and relations can
be ascertained. They are at present divided into two orders — the
Chondrograda and Physngrada.
Order I.— Chondrograda.
These Animals are called Chondrograda, from the circumstance
that the circular or oval disc, of which their body is composed, is
supported upon a somewhat cartilaginous plate, which sometimes
even contains a calcareous deposit ; the lower surface of this disc
is furnished with cirri, many of which are tubular. The cartila-
ginous plate is somewhat cellular in its texture, and the cells are
filled with air, which assists the Animal in floating on the surface of
the water. In the middle of the lower surface of the disc, there is
a larger tubular tentacle-like organ, which has been taken for the
mouth by some observers ; by others, for the orifice of the aquiferous
system. This central opening is surrounded by many smaller ones,
the offices of which are as uncertain as those of the principal tube.
Many of these creatures are exceedmgly beautiful, blue being their
prevailing colour. In Porpita, one species of which is found in, the
Mediterranean, the disc is surrounded by a beautiful fringe of ten-
tacles ; but the most remarkable structure is presented by the
Velclla, in which an oblique upright crest is developed upon the
upper surface of the disc, serving as a sort of sail to waft the little
mariner from place to place. One species of this genus is found on
the coasts of Ireland.
Order II.— Physograda.
The characteristic of the Animals forming this order is, that they
are furnished with a vesicular organ containing air, which serves as
a float to buoy them up in the water. They are divided into two
families. In the first, the PhysalidcB, the Animals are composed
of large vesicular gelatinous bodies, bearing on their lower surface
a quantity of vermiform tentacles and suckers, intermixed with fili-
form tentacles of great length. The float consists of two bladders,
placed one within the other ; the inner one is completely closed, and
filled with air ; the outer possesses a crest at its upper part, which
serves, like the sail of Velella, for its propulsion whilst floating at
the surface of the water. The tentacles can also be retracted within
this outer bladder at the pleasure of the Animal. The best known
of these Animals is the PJiysalia atla?!tica, which has received from
our sailors the name of the Portuguese Man-of-War. They swim in
great crowds at the surface of the water, and possess a very strong
urticating power.
The Animals forming the second family, the DiphyidcB, are com-
pound creatures, whose structure has always been a fertile source of
discussion amongst Naturalists. They have formed the subject of
several excellent papers from the pen of Professor Huxley, who con-
siders them to be nearly allied to the common Fresh-water Polype
{Hydra), whose singular history has already been described. In
their simplest form they consist of two transparent pieces, one or
both of which contains a cavity, by the contraction of which they are
propelled through the water. The union between these pieces is
very slight ; and, when detached, each piece moves independently
for a considerable time. From this circumstance they have been
regarded as two distinct Animals, which, however, are always found
inserted into the cavity of the other. They have been divided into
numerous genera ; the characters of which are principally derived
from the form of the component pieces. In some of these Animals
(as Stephanomia), the complication becomes most extraordinary.
Class V.— Echinodermata.
General Characters. — The Echhwdermafa, the fifth and
highest class of Animals included by naturalists in the Radiate divi-
sion, exhibit a considerable advance, in complexity of structure,
over the simple gelatinous creatures which we have hitherto had
under consideration. They are at once distinguished from these by
the structure of their skin, which, instead of the delicate membranous
texture, so characteristic of the other Radiaia, presents a more or
less leathery consistency, and always contains a larger or smaller
amount of a calcareous deposit, which frequently increases to such
an extent as to form a complete shell or crust inclosing all the soft
parts of the Animal. The skin is also destitute of the curious urti-
cating organs (thread cells) which are so constantly present in all
the other Animals of this division. The amount of the calcareous
deposit in the skin varies greatly in the different Animals composing
the class, as will be seen in the description of each of the following
species.
In their form the Echinodermata vary greatly. They generally
present a radiate arrangement of their parts, with great distinct-
ness ; some, of which the well-known Star-fish of our coasts may be
taken as an example, actually assuming the form of a star. In the
globular Sea-eggs, also, the same stellate structure may be ob-
served.
The organs of motion are very similar throughout the class ; they
consist of a multitude of minute feet, called ambulacra, which are
protruded through a number of perforations left for this purpose in
particular plates (hence called ambulacral plates), or through the
interstices of the calcareous pieces composing the covering of the
Animal.
The existence of a nervous system in the Echinodermata is
generally admitted by zoologists. It is said to consist of a series of
Fig. 222S. — Anatomy of ihe Echinus.
a, mouth surrounded by the teeth and jaws, c c -l, oesophagus ; .r stoniach.
or first portion of the intestine ; d, uitestinal tube ; e, ovary ; f,f, ambula-
cral vesicles ; f, shell.
SEA-LILIES, HAIR-STARS, STARFISHES, Gfc.
8ji
ganglia, or knots of nervous matter surrounding the oesophagus,
united by a nervous ring, and giving off a set of nerves to each ray
of the body The presence of special organs of sense is very doubt-
ful. The sense of touch is evidently exercised by the ambulacra,
which are also employed in seizing prey. Some red spots, which
occur at the extremities of the arms of Star-fishes, and on the upper
surface of Sea-eggs, have been called eyes by some observers, but
apparently with but little ground. The general anatomy of the
Echinus is shown in Fig. 2228.
The sexes, contrary to the rule which we have seen to prevail in
the lower Radiata, are always separate. The ova, when impreg-
nated, become converted into ciliated embryos, which, breaking
through the egg-shell, swim freely about in the water. The
changes which these undergo in their progress towards maturity are
exceedingly remarkable ; but our space forbids us from describing
these with any minuteness.
The Echinodermata are divided into four orders. In two of these,
the body is more or less flattened or discoid in its form, and usually
furnished with five or more arms. These, in the first order, the
Criiioidea, are slender, and formed of complete calcareous rings or
cylinders ; whilst, in the second, the Stellcrida, the calcareous
covering of the arms is composed of separate plates. In the third
order, the Echtnida, the calcareous plates have become united into
a regular shell ; and the fourth includes the Worm-like forms, the
Holothurida,
Order I. — Crinoidea.
The Crinm'dea, or Sea-lilies — so called from the resemblance
which many of them present to flowers (Fig. 2229 ) — were exceed-
ingly abundant in former ages of the world ; and
their remains often form the great bulk of large
masses of rock. During the whole or a part of
their existence, these Animals are attached to
submarine bodies by a longer or shorter stalk,
composed of calcareous rings similar to those of
which the arms are composed. The body is of a
cup shape, its lower convex surface — to the centre
of which the stalk is attached — being composed of
calcareous plates, whilst the upper disc is closed
by coriaceous skin. In the centre of this is the
opening of the mouth, and to one side is the anus.
The arms spring from the edges of the cup. They
are either five or ten in number at their origins,
although often branched higher up, formed of cy-
lindrical or bead-like calcareous joints, furnished
with slender jointed appendages, or cirri, one on
each side of every joint ; and, as the whole of
these organs are exceedingly flexible, they are
of the greatest importance to the Animal in the
capture of its prey.
Divisions. — An exception to this general structure is presented
by the Cystocriiiidce — a fossil family which only occurs in some of
the oldest formations. In these the body was round or oval, and
entirely composed of numerous calcareous plates. They were at-
tached by a short flexible stalk ; the mouth was situated at the
centre of the upper part, which projects a little from the general
surface, with the anal opening a little to one side of it.
The family Encrinidce, or the Sea-lilies, includes an immense
number of fossil forms, and one or two are still to be found in the
West Indian seas. These Animals were all supported upon a long
stalk, at the extremity of which they floated in the waters of those
ancient seas, spreading their long arms in every direction in search
of the small Animals which constituted their food. Each of these
arms, again, was feathered with a double series of similarly jointed
appendages ; so that the number of separate calcareous pieces
forming the skelelon of one of these Animals was most enormous.
It has been calculated, that one species, tlie Fentacrinus briareus,
must have been composed of at least 150,000 joints; and " as each
joint," according to Dr. Carpenter, "was furnished with at least
two bundles of muscular fibre — one for its contraction, the other for
its extension — we have 500,000 such in the body of a single Pen-
tacri?ius — an amount of muscular apparatus far exceeding any
that has been elsewhere observed in the Animal Creation."
The third family, the Comalulidcc, or Hair-stars, includes a con-
siderable number of Animals, which bear a great resemblance,
both in form and structure, the Eiicriiiida:. They are, however,
only furnished with a stalk during their young state ; and on arriv-
ing at maturity they quit their attachment, and crawl about freely
at the bottom of the water, in the same manner as other Star-fishes.
The body is flattened, and covered with separate calcareous plates ;
the lower, or ventral surface, bears the mouth and anus ; and the
ten slender arms are often branched to such an extent as to appear
very numerous. They are furnished throughout their length with
slender jointed cirri, similar to those of the Eiicri?iidcs ; hy the
assistance of which, and the short ambulacra, the Hair-stars are
enabled to grasp any object firmly, and creep about easil}'.
Order II.— Stellerida.
General CirARACTERS.— The second order, the Slclhrida, is
composed of Animals with a flattened and more or less pentagonal
body, usually bearing five arms of variable length, which, however,
are not distinctly separated from the body, as in the Crinoidea,
and into which processes of the stomach are usually continued.
The mouth opens in the centre of the lower surface of the disc ; and
the anus, when present, is always situated on the back. In the
neighbourhood of the mouth of the Animals of this and the follow-
ing order, some curious prehensile organs are always to be found,
which, from the peculiarity of their structure and actions, have been
regarded as independent parasitic organisms, and described as
such under the name of Pedicellarics.
The True Star-fishes do not occur in the earliest fossilliferous
formations. They first make their appearance in the Muschelkalk,
and continue increasing in numbers in the more recent strata.
The Stellerida are usually divided into three families. The first,
the Euryalidcv, or Gorgo?i's Head, present a considerable resem-
blance to the Animals of the preceding order; the arms being dis-
tinctly separated from the body, and the internal organs entirely
confined to the disc, which is of a roundish form. These Animals
are principally found in the Tropical seas, although some species
exist even in the icy waters of the Arctic regions. They arc all
rare.
In the second family, the Ophiiiridcs, so called from the resem-
blance of their arms to serpents' tails (Gr. Ophis, a snake ; otira, a
tail), the body forms a roundish or somewhat pentagonal disc, fur-
nished with five long simple arms, which, like the branched organs
of the preceding family, have no furrow for the protrusion of tlie
ambulacra.
We next come to the family (the Astcridcs) of which the common
Star-fish, so abundant on our coasts, is an example. In this family
the arms appear to be merely prolongations of the disc ; they are
usually five in number, and the plates from which the ambulacra
are exserted are placed in deep furrows, which run along the lower
surface of the arms.
Order III.— Echinida.
General Characters. — In this order the development of cal-
careous matter in the skin attains its maximum. The plates,
instead of being distinct, as in the Star-fishes, are firmly attached
to each other, forming a convex shell, more or less complete, which
prevents all flexion of the body of the Animal. This shell presents
two openings, a mouth and an anus ; the latter is generally situated
at the top of the shell, opposite to the mouth, and is surrounded by
movable plates. The division of the Animal into five parts is as
distinct here as in the Star-fishes, notwithstanding the total ab-
sence of arms ; the holes through which the little sucking-feet are
protruded being arranged upon five rows of plates, which usually
run from the centre of the top of the shell to the angles of the oral
opening; or, when they are confined, as is sometimes the case, to
the dorsal surface, they form a distinct five-rayed star surrounding
the apex of the shell. The mode in which the capacity of the shell is
increased, is exceedingly curious and interesting. Ne.xt to this pecu-
liarity in the form of the shell, the most striking character of the
Echinida consists in the numerous spines, frequently of large size, with
which the shell is covered. These are articulated to the numerous
tubercles presented by the surface of the shell ; the base of the
spines being hollowed for the reception of the convex surface of the
tubercle. These spines appear to be used as locomotive organs ;
they also serve to bury their owner in the sand when circumstances
require this concealment ; and some species appear, by the same
means, to excavate hollows even in hard rocks.
Sub-divisions. — The Echinida are divided into four very distinct
families. In the first, the Sea-eggs (Cidaridcs), the body is nearly
globular (Fig. 2230), with the mouth in the middle of the under sur-
face, surrounded by a naked or warty skin. The anus lies in the
middle of the dorsal surface opposite the mouth, surrounded by a
rosette of curious plates, which form the orifices of the generative
apparatus. It is in this family that the masticatory apparatus
attains its highest development. The ambulacrial spaces run from
the mouth to the anus; and the intervening plates are covered with
tubercles and spines, the latter of which are sometimes several
inches in length, and as thick as a man's finger. These Animals
inhabit the seas of all parts of the world ; and some species are
used as food, even on the European coasts of the Mediterranean.
They are abundant on the West coast of Scotland.
The Animals of the second family, the ClypcastridcB, have the
body of a somewhat discoid form ; the shell is very thick, and
covered with small tubercles, from which short, thin, hair-like
spines take their rise. The apex of the shell is occupied by genital
plates ; and the rows of ambulacra form a five-rayed star, sur-
rounding these on the dorsal surface of the shell.
The Cassidulidcs, forming the third family, are of a roundish or
832
THE PROTOZOA.
oval form, generally convex, and covered with very fine spines. The
mouth is placed in the middle of the lower surface, with the anus
behind it, sometimes on the margin. But these Animals are es-
Fig. 2230. — Shell of Echinus, or Sea-urchin ; on the right side, covered
with spines ; on the left the spines removed.
pecially distinguished from the two preceding families by the total
absence of any masticatory apparatus in the mouth. This is equally
deficient in the fourth family, the SJiafangidcs — sluggish Animals,
which are usually found imbedded in sand, and with their intestines
full of the same savoury and nourishing substance; taken in, no
doubt, for the sake of the minute particles of organic matter which
it might have contained.
Order IV.— Holothurida.
In the fourth and last order the body acquires a Worm-like form,
thus apparently leading us towards the lower groups of the Articti-
lata.
Sub-divisions. — This order is divided into two families. The
first, the Syjiaptidce. are characterised by the total absence of am-
bulacra, the motions of the Animals being assisted by peculiar
anchor-like processes of the calcareous grains, which project from
Fig. 2231. — The Holothurida.
the skin, and roughen the surface of the Animal. In the Holothu-
r/irfts (Fig. 2231), on the contrary, the ambulacra, although short,
exactly resemble those of the other Echiiiodermaia in their structure
and action. The mouth is surrounded by a ring of calcareous plates,
serving for the attachment of the longitudinal muscles, by which the
contractions of the body are effected. These Animals inhabit the
seas of most parts of the world. Some of them are eaten even by
European populations; ^xv&.\\\e.1re.-^-a.Xi^ {Holothurida ediilis)\'s,SiX^
article of luxury amongst the Chinese.
CHAPTER XLV.
DIVISION v.— THE PROTOZOA.
ENERAL CHARACTERS.— This divi-
sion of the Animal kingdom includes a
number of creatures of a very low type of
organisation, which appear almost to oc-
cupy a sort of neutral ground between
Animals and vegetables. The bodies of
these Animals consist either of a simple
elementary cell, with its contents, or of an
aggregation of several of these cells ; each,
■' however, still appearing to retain its inde-
pendent existence. They are generally of
very minute size, and only to be observed
with the microscope.
It is in vain to seek in these creatures for any
T^V^^}^ internal organs. They are entirely destitute of
4^^^^=^ nervous and vascular systems ; and the highest form
of alimentary apparatus which is to be found in
them, consists only of a mouth and a short oeso-
phagus. In many of them, however, no trace' of
any alimentary canal is to be discerned ; and they
either live by imbibing fluids through their outer
surface, or by the amalgamation of solid substances
with the gelatinous mass of which they are composed.
This gelatinous matter, which has been termed
sarcode, frequently has vacant spaces, like small
bladders, in various parts of its substance : these appear and dis-
appear according to circumstances, or the will of the Animal.
Almost all these creatures live in water : a few only inhabit the
intestines of other Animals. They generally present the appear-
ance of a transparent gelatinous cell, in the midst of which, a more
or less distinct nucleus is to be observed. In addition to this nucleus,
one or more clear pulsating spaces may be distinguished in the
interior of the cells. These appear, in some degree, to effect a sort
of circulation of the soft substance of the body, and may, therefore,
be regarded as the first shadowing forth of a circulatory system.
Many of them approach very closely in their structure to the germs
given off by some of the lowest forms of aquatic plants, which, sin-
gularly enough, possess quite sufficient locomotive power to enable
them to pass for Animals when the observer is unable to trace their
development ; indeed, many of them have been described as belong-
ing to the present group.
Sub-division. — The Protozoa are divided into three classes. In
the first, to which the name of RhizOPODA has been given, the body
is composed entirely of the gelatinous matter above-mentioned.
The second class, including the Sponges, consists entirely of asso-
ciated cell Animals ; the individual cells resembling those of the
preceding class in their power of extending the substance of their
bodies in all directions ; but in this class they are united by a
mucilaginous intercellular substance, and supported upon a horny
framework. From the masses formed by these creatures being per-
forated in every part with minute orifices, they have received the
denomination of PoriferA.
The Animals constituting the third class of the Protozoa have
been called Infusoria, from the circumstance that they were
originally discovered in infusions of vegetable matter, exposed to
the air for a short time. They are generally solitary unicellular
Animals, and differ from the Rhizopoda in having the outer surface
of the body of a somewhat firmer consistence than the rest of their
substance.
Class I.— Rhizopoda.
In the deposit formed at the bottom of fresh-water ponds, we may
often meet with a singular minute gelatinous body, which constantly
changes its form even under our eyes, and moves about in its native
element by means of finger-like processes, which it appears to have
the power of shooting out from any part of its substance. This
shapeless gelatinous mass is an Animal, the Amaba difflue7is (see
Fig. 2232), well known to microscopic observers under the name of
the Proteus, from the continual changes of shape which it presents
to our notice. It consists entirely of the granular gelatinous matter
already mentioned as sarcode, and appears to be nearly homogeneous
THE SPONGES
833
2232. — The Amaba,
380 diameters.
in its texture ; that is to say, the outer surface exhibits no signs of
being- bounded by any distinct membrane or layer of a firmer consis-
tence than the rest of tlie body.
The Rhizopoda are all Aquatic Animals. Some live in fresh
water, but by far the greater number inhabit the sea. Although a
few of them, like the Amcgba, are
solitary, the class consists principally
of associated Animals ; that is to say,
of masses of individuals, forming, as
it were, a common body, but each
still retaining its independent exist-
ence. This difference of habit affords
us the means of dividing the class into
two orders. The first, the Monoso-
matia, contains those Rhizopoda
which only consist of a single
Animal; they are either entirely
naked or inclosed in a capsule with a
single opening, for the extrusion of
the motor filaments. Of the naked
forms, constituting the family Pro-
teidcc, we have already had an ex-
ample in the ^w<g3^; and the other members of the group pre-
sent very similar characters. The Solitary Rhizopoda, furnished
with a horny shell or capsule, forming a more or less complete case
for tlio Animal, constitute the family ArcellidcB. In the genus
Arcella, from which the family derives its name, the shell is some-
what of a bell-shape, with a very large round opening. In Euglypha
it is of an oval or flask-like form, with the opening at the smaller
end. In this genus the shell appears as though formed of a sort of
mosaic of small horny pieces. In Difflugia the shell is often
globular.
The Animals constituting the second order, the Polythalaniia,
are all inclosed in calcareous shells. These creatures are social ;
the shells consisting of a series of distinct chambers, which some-
times communicate one with another, and sometimes appear to be
completely closed up ; each of them is supposed to contain a
separate and probably independent Animal. It is not improbable,
however, that the individual Animals may be so connected with each
other, through the medium of the openings communicating between
the cells, as to constitute a common mass, with which each Animal is
partially amalgamated. In some instances each chamber of the com-
mon shell presents only a single external opening; but, as a general
rule, the substance of the shell is pierced, like a sieve, with numerous
minute pores, through which very delicate filaments are protruded.
The stone, which is universally employed in Paris as a building
material, is almost entirely composed of the fossil shells of an Animal
belonging to this order, the Miliola ; so that this great city, of which
its inhabitants used to say that he who had not seen Paris had seen
nothing, owes its architectural beauties, at all events, to these minute
creatures, of which many thousands would scarcely weigh an ounce.
From the extremely elegant structure of the shells of these Animals,
IM. Alcide d'Orbigny, who was the first to call the attention of
modern naturalists to them, was led to regard them as microscopic
forms of Cephalopodous Molluscs, as they presented at first sight a
considerable resemblance, on a small scale, to the chambered shells
formed by many of those creatures.
In one, the StlchostegidcB, the chambers are placed end to end in
a row, so as to form a straight or but slightly curved shell. In the
second family, the Enallostegidcs, the chambers are arranged alter-
nately in two or three parallel lines ; and as the construction of the
sliell is always commenced with a single small chamber, the whole
necessarily acquires a more or less pyramidal form. The third
family, the HelicostegidcB, presents us with some of the most beau-
tiful forms that we meet with in these shells. They commence by a
small central chamber ; and each of the subsequent chambers, which
are arranged in a spiral form so as to give the entire shell much the
aspect of a minute flattened Snail, is larger than the one preceding
it. It is in this family that we find the nearest approach, in external
form, to the large chambered shells of the Cephalopodous Molluscs,
of which the Nautilus and the Argonaut are examples. The fourth
family, the EiitoinostegidcE, stands in the same relation to the pre-
ceding, as the Eiialloslegidai to the Stichostegidce ; that is to say,
the chambers are also arranged in a spiral form, but in a double
series. A fifth family includes those shells in which the chambers
are arranged round a common perpendicular axis, in such a manner
that each chamber occupies the entire length of the shell. The
orifices of the chambers are placed alternately at each end of the
shell, and are furnished with a curious tooth or process. The
ililiola, already mentioned as constituting the Parisian building
stone, will serve as an example of this family. It is probable,
although by no means certain, that the Animals whose fossil shells,
termed Nu7n?nuUtes, are found in great quantities in the chalk
and lower tertiary strata, are also to be regarded as members of this
class. No living example of the form of Animal has yet been met
with, but in a fossil state, while mountains in the neighbourhood of
the Mediterranean, consist chiefly of their shells.
Class II.— Porifera, or Sponges.
Sponge, in the state in which wo usually see it, consists of a con-
geries of horny filaments, interlaced in every direction so as to form
a most intricate network of intercommunicating cells. According
to some observers, these filaments arc hollow, constituting, in fact,
so many horny tubes ; but the researches of Dujardin and of Mr.
Bowerbank tend to prove that this view was erroneous, and that
the threads, of which sponge is composed, are solid throughout.
Imbedded in these threads in the majority of Sponges, are a number
of very minute needle-shaped siliceous or calcareous particles of
various forms : these are called spicula (Fig. 2233). In most cases,
the spiculae are simply of an aci-
cular form, slender and cylindrical
and pointed at both ends. In
other instances they have a small
knob at one end ; whilst the oppo-
site extremity is pointed, giving
them exactly the appearance of
minute pins : in others again, we
find one end transformed into a
fork with two or even three prongs ;
or the whole spicula consists of
three or four spines of equal
length.
The framework, with its con-
tained spicula, is, however, only a
sort of horny skeleton, on which the
true living portion of the Sponge
of a coating of gelatinous matter,
which is spread over all the fibres of the reticulated skeleton ; its
consistence is very like that of the white of an ^Z'g, and it runs
freely away from the Sponge when the latter is taken out of the
water.
But when examined under the microscope, this gelatinous co.iting
is found to consist entirely of an immense number of aggregrated
sarcode cells, exactly resembling the Animal described under the
name of Amceba, as the simplest type of the Rhizopoda. Like
that curious creature, each of these cells appears to possess a per-
fectly independent existence ; each presents one or more contractile
spaces ; and even when detached from the mass of its fellows,
enjoys the faculty of motion by the extension of its substance in
various directions.
A glance at a piece of common Sponge, will show that its surface
is everywhere perforated with an infinite number of minute holes,
amongst which a considerable number of large openings is scattered.
When a sponge is examined in a living state, a rapid stream of
water may be observed issuing constantly from these larger orifices.
This excurrent stream of water is rendered observable by the fact,
that it bears with it a number of minute particles from the interior
of the sponge (Fig. 2234). This water is imbibed through the minute
Fig. 2233. — Forms of Spiculcc.
is supported. This consists
Fig. 2234. — Section of a Living Sponge.
pores distributed in such profusion over the entire surface of the
Sponge ; after passing through these, and traversmg the cavities
formed in every direction by the reticulated structure of the mass,
it is collected into canals, by which it is finally conducted to the
larger openings of the surface.
The primary objects of this continual flow of water, through the
substance of the Sponge, appear to be two-fold: first, the convey-
ance to the individual cells of which the living portion of the Sponge
consists, which may be regarded as so many stationary Animalcules,
the minute particles of nutritive matter necessary for their support
and that of the general mass; and, secondly the removal of facal
matter from the interior of the Sponge. But nutrition and the re-
moval of effete materials are not the only purposes to which it is
applied-respiration, which, judging from analogy, is as necessary
to the Sponges as to other Animals, must be effected by the medium
of this current; and it also fulfils a very important part in the pro-
pagation of the species. . ^ J • • T„
The propagation of the Sponge is effected m various ways. In
834
THE INFUSORIA.
some cases, little ciliated gemimiles are produced in the gelatinous
mass coatinn- the fibres of the Sponge ; which, after a certain
period, becoming detached from the parent, are borne out through
the large orifices by the action of the current already described.
After tills exclusion they swim about for some time, presenting a
pretty close resemblance to some of the infusorial animalcules. But
this life of freedom is not of very long duration ; the little gemmule
selects its place of attachment, fixes itself, and gradually becomes
developed into a perfect Sponge.
Sponges grow attached to almost everything which may serve
them as a point of support, whether fixed or floating ; some cover
rocks, shells, and other submarine objects, with a close spongy in-
crustation ; whilst others shoot up a branched stem in the water ;
and others again hang freely from the sea-weeds floating in the ocean.
Sometimes they select very unexpected objects on which to take up
their abode. Not the least wonderful circumstance connected with
this history of the Sponges, is the power possessed by certain species
of boring into substances, the hardness of which might be con-
sidered as a sufficient protection against such apparently con-
temptible foes. Shells, both living and dead, coral, and even solid
rocks, are attacked by these humble destroyers, gradually broken
up, and, no doubt, finally reduced to such a state as to render sub-
stances which would otherwise remain dead and useless in the
economy of nature, available for the supply of the necessities of
other living creatures. These boring sponges constitute the genus
CUo7ia, and some allied genera. They are branched in their form,
or consists of lobes united by delicate stems ; they all bury them-
selves in shells or other calcareous objects, preserving their com-
munication with the water by means of perforations in the outer wall
of the shell. The Sponges vary exceedingly in form ; and even the
same species often assumes shapes the most different, without any
apparent cause. The forms under which the common Sponge
occur, must be familiar to all our readers. Some Sponges are
arborescent, or, at all events, more or less branched, like the
Halicliondria oculata ; whilst others are of a cup shape. Sponges
occur in all seas, from the equator to the poles ; but it is in Tropical
climates that they attain their greatest development and exist in the
greatest abundance.
Class III.— Infusoria.
General Characters.— In passing from the consideration of
the preceding classes to that of the present group, we are not called
upon to witness any very great advance in organisation. Neverthe-
less, the differences between the two classes are all of a nature to
show that the Infusoria certainly constitute a step in our progress
towards the higher forms of Animals.
The microscopic creatures constituting this class, consist, it is
true, of the same granular gelatinous matte?, or sarcode, which we
have seen to constitute the entire substance of the Rhhopoda ; but
this no longer presents itself in the form of a mere mass of jelly:
each Animal appears to be enclosed in a membrane, or layer of
matter of a firmer texture than the rest of its substance ; and motion,
which cannot be effected as in the preceding class by the mere ex-
tension of portions of this substance in any desired direction, is now
produced by the action of special organs. These organs are of very
various construction. In some families we meet with long, thread-
like appendages, which the Animal twitches about in the water.
These organs are sometimes single ; in other instances the Animal
possesses two or more of them.
The most usual mode in which motion is effected in \\\(i Infusoria,
is by means of cilia. The cilia are fine lappets or hairs, which exist,
either scattered or arranged in regular series, over the whole surface
of the body, or are collected in considerable numbers round the
orifice of the mouth. They are movable at the will of the creature,
and serve, according to circumstances, either as organs of loco-
motion, or for the production of whirlpools or eddies in the water,
by means of which, the minute particles on which the Animal feeds,
are brought within its reach. In some of the most highly organised
creatures of this class, these ciliary hairs become converted into
movable bristles and hooks, by means of which the Animal is en-
abled to crawl upon fixed objects in the water, and even to execute
distinct leaps.
Like the Rhi-Mpoda, many of these Animals are provided with a
shefl or shield ; this, however, is never of a calcareous nature, but
generally coriaceous or horny. In one family, the Animals are in-
closed in silicious or flinty cases, of which great numbers are to be
met with, in a fossil state, in the flints which occur in such quantities
in the Chalk hills.
The mode in which nutrition is effected in those Infusoria which
possess a mouth, will clearly show that they do not possess a
stomach. These creatures feed upon small microscopic Animals and
plants, and probably upon such minute particles of decaying Animal
and vegetable matter as may be suspended in the water, which
they constantly inhabit. The mouth is situated either at the an-
terior extremity of the body, where it generally forms a round open-
ing, or at a greater or less distance from that extremity on the ven-
tral surface ; when in this position, it is generally in the form of an
oval or twisted slit. It is usually bounded by ciliated lips, capable
of protrusion and retraction at the will of the Animal: so that the
mouth is frequently visible only during the act of eating. The cavity
of the mouth is continued into a short cesophagus, and both are
always clothed with delicate cilia. The minute particles of which
the food consists, are collected together by the action of the stream
produced by the cilia of the oesophagus, until they form a small ball,
which then passes through the end of the oesophagus into the yield-
ing substance of the body.
Most of these Animals inhabit water ; a few exist as parasites in
the bodies of other Animals. The aquatic species prefer clear to
foul water, and are always to be met with in greatest profusion in
places where Conferva; and other forms of aquatic vegetation are
abundant. They are produced in great abundance in certain vege-
table infusions when exposed to the air ; and this circumstance,
discovered by Leuvvenhoek in 1676, has always been regarded as one
of the principal evidences in favour of the doctrine of spontancons
generaiion — a doctrine which was at one time in considerable
repute, and which is not without its supporters even in the present
day. Bacteria, minute organisms, which are considered to be in
part, the cause of certain diseases, are found in Animal and vege-
table liquids undergoing decomposition.
Minute as these creatures are — and some of them are said not to
exceed the i-200Q0th of an inch, whilst the giants of their race are
not more than i-5oth of an inch in length — they are not without
their importance in the economy of the world. By their prodigious
numbers they amply compensate for their want of size. Every drop
of water on the face of the globe appears to contain them in greater
or less profusion ; and this, coupled with their great fecundity (for
it has been calculated that the progeny of some animalcules would
amount to upwards of 268,000,000 in four weeks), may readily con-
vince us of the vast quantity of food furnished by these creatures to
others a little higher in the scale, which in their turn become the
prey of larger Animals.
StJB-DlvisiONS.^The classification of the Infusoria presents
considerable difficulty, partly arising from their excessive minute-
ness, which renders the assistance of our best microscopes necessary
to enable us even to see many of them, and partly from the impos-
sibility of avoiding confusion from their intermixture of the germs
of more highly organised animals, and some plants in various stages
of development.
The class of Infusoria, as circumscribed by Ehrenberg in his
Infusionst/iiereiien, published in 1838, included a curious mixture
of heterogeneous elements. It was divided into two great groups,
the Polygastrica and the Rotifera, with the latter of which we have
nothing to do here and have already been described. But even in the
Polygastrica, a vast number of species, and especially the whole
families of Closfcrina, Bacillaria, and Voivocina, are found to be
true plants ; and after the rejection of these, we find a considerable
quantity of creatures, in which the possession of a movable filiform
appendage, and the existence of a red spot, are the only characters,
on account of which they can be referred to the Animal kingdom.
Many of these have been already found to be truly the active germs
of Confervce ; and it is probable that more extended investigations
will, before long, show that many, about which we are still doubtful,
are also to be referred to the vegetable kingdom. These species
belong to Ehrenberg's families Monadina and Cryptomonadina.
Lastly, his family Vibrionina, including the well-known eels of paste
and vinegar, must be rejected altogether, as it includes a hetero-
geneous assemblage of microscopic plants and embryonic forms of
Worms. After the separation of these, the Animals still referable
to the class of Infusoria are sufficiently numerous and interesting.
They may be divided into two orders, characterised by the presence
or absence of a mouth, in the Animals composing them.
The first order, the Astomata, or moutliless Infusoria, includes
all those in which the mouth is wanting. They appear to be
nourished entirely by the absorption of fluid matter through their
outer surface, and have never been seen to take solid food. The
first family of this order, the Astasidce, is distinguished by an ex-
tremely contractile body, generally of a green or red colour ; most
of them possess one or two red points. The Animals belonging to
one of the genera of this family [Euglena), which are generally of a
green or red colour, frequently cause the water they inhabit to
appear of one of these colours, in consequence of their sudden ap-
pearance in myriads. It is not improbable, however, that some of
the creatures included in this group may prove to be vegetable
organisms. The family Dinobryida: very closely resembles the pre-
ceding ; but the Animalcules of which it is composed are furnished
with a horny case, within which they can retract themselves at
pleasure. In another family, the Peridinidce, the Animals are also
furnished with a horny or silicious shell or carapace ; but in these the
shell has a transverse or oblique slit furnished with a circlet of cilia ; it
is also frequently produced into very remarkable horn-like processes.
Motion, in these Animals, is effected not only by means of these cilia,
but also by the aid of a filiform appendage, which can be protruded
from a particular spot in the carapace. The silicious coats of
THE INFUSORIA.
835
these creatures are found in great profusion in the flints of our chalk
hills.
The fourth family of the astomatous Infusoria, the Opolinidcc,
consists entirely of Animals which have hitherto only been found
living as Parasites in the intestines of Frogs, and of some Worms.
The bodies of these creatures are colourless, and of a perfectly
glassy transparency, so that their structure may be studied with the
greatest ease ; and there can be no doubt as to the complete absence
of anything like a buccal orifice.
From these simple creatures we turn now to the consideration of the
far more numerous and interesting forms of Infusorial Animalcules, in
which the presence of a mouth indicates a higher degree of organi-
sation and a more extended sphere of action. They form the order
Sfumatoda. The first family of this order, the MonadidcE, consists
of roundish or oval Animalcules, whose minute size renders their
examination difficult even with our very best glasses. Their motions
are generally produced by means of filiform appendages, of which
each Animal possesses one or more. Some of them measure only
i-20oooth of an inch in length; and it has been calculated that
a cupfal of water may easily contain a number of these Animalcules
considerably larger than that of the entire human population of the
earth. Such an assertion as this may well raise our astonishment
to the highest pitch, when we consider that each of these living
creatures possesses a mouth well furnished with cilia, through which
it is able to introduce into its substance particles of solid matter of
a size so small that, until collected by these little creatures, our
highest magnifying powers will fail to reveal their existence.
We now come to a family which includes some of the most beauti-
ful of the Infusorial animalcules and in which we meet with very
curious phenomena. This is the family of the Vorfice/lid<s, or Beil-
ajiima/cuies. The Animals of which it is composed are cha-
racterised by the possession of a fringe of rather long cilia, surround-
ing the anterior extremity, which can be exserted and drawn in, at
the pleasure of the creature. By the vibration of these cilia, the
little Animal, which usually has somewhat the appearance of a
miniature wine-glass supported upon a very long stalk, can produce
a sort of vortex in the water, by which smaller Animals and minute
floating particles of alimentary matter are drawn into the mouth.
Some of these little creatures are furnished with a horny case for
the protection of their delicate bodies, whilst others are quite naked.
In these, as in all other Infusoria, the simplest mode in which
propagation is effected, is by the division of the individual into two
or more parts. This division, as we have already stated when
speaking of the Protozoa in general, commences in the nucleus,
which, in the Vorticella, is of a band-like form. Before, and
during this division of the nucleus, the body of the creature acquires
a considerable increase in breadth. A constriction afterwards
makes its appearance in the middle, which, continually increasing
in depth, at last divides the body of the Animal into two halves,
each of which is now found to constitute a perfect VorticcllcB. Only
one of these, however, is to remain in quiet possession of the original
stalk ; the other, consequently, develops a fringe of cilia at its lower
extremity, detaches itself, and swims away to seek a new home.
Having fixed upon a convenient spot for its purpose, it attaches
itself, by the hinder part of its body, to the place it has selected ;
the cilia then disappear, and a new stalk is gradually developed,
until the new Animal exactly resembles that from which it sprang.
The Vorticella also possess another means of propagation which is
denied to all the other Infusoria, with the exception of a few nearly
allied genera, although we may meet with it again in other classes of
Animals. This mode of reproduction is called gemination. It
consists in the production of a sort of bud, which gradually acquires
the form and structure of the perfect Animal. In the VorticellcB,
these buds, when mature, quit the parent stem after developing a
circlet of cilia at the lower extremity, and fix themselves in a new
habitation, in exactly the same manner as the individuals produced
by the division of the bell.
It might be thought that Animals endowed by nature with the
power of increasing their numbers by the continual division of their
very substance, would stand in no need of any further provision for
the continuance of their species ; that these means of reproduction
would amply suffice to enable them to fulfil the scriptural injunction
to " increase and multiply, and replenish the earth." \Ve find,
however, that other and more complicated contrivances are employed
for the same end ; so that we need not wonder at the great rapidity
with which these creatures multiply in situations favourable to their
development. The limits of our space, however, forbid our entering
into more detailed description.
We liave already seen that each Vorticella is supported upon a
flexible stalk; and that when a bud is produced from any part of the
Animal, it is cast off by its parent to shift for itself as soon as the
organs necessary for its separate existence are developed. This
character serves to distinguish the True Vorticellcs from the other
members of the family ; in which, however, we meet with consider-
able diversity of form. Thus in the genus Carchesiicm the stalks
are still flexible, and, as in the Vorticellcs, coil themselves up in an
instant at the slightest alarm ; but each main stalk, instead of being
surmounted only by a single bell, bears several branches equally
irritable with itself, and each terminating with a separate, and, to a
certain extent, independent Animal. In the Epistylis nutans the
stem is also branched; but here, instead of a flexible contractile
filament, we find a stiff bristle-like tube, at the extremity of which
the creature is situated. During its contraction, it turns back with
a sudden jerk, and hangs down from the stalk as if broken.
In another curious genus {0^///-j'f//«w), the Animals, instead of
being supported freely upon a stalk, are imbedded in the substance
of a gelatinous mass, from the surface of which, the anterior ex-
tremity of each Animal projects more or less. The gelatinous
masses, in which the Animalcules are thus imbedded, may be met
with of all sizes, from that of a pea to that of a small apple. In
some nearly allied species forming the genus Vaginicola (Fig.
'^^Ti^)' the body of each Animal is inclosed in a separate minute
horny sheath, within which it can retract at pleasure.
In the Stcntor, or Irunipct-animalcule (Fig. 2236), which is also
generally referred to this family, the Animal doesnot consist exactly
of a bell supported upon a distinct stalk ; its body is of a trumpet-
shape, and adheres to its point of attachment by its smaller ex-
tremity. The body, in these Animals, is entirely covered with cilia,
and the creature generally possesses the power of retracting the
elongated tail-like portion by which it attaches itself to other objects,
and swimming away in search of a new habitation. Lastly, the
Tricliodincc, or Urn-animalcules, are never attached to a stalk,
but generally swim about freely, by means of the cilia with which
the extremities of their bodies are fringed.
Fig. 2235.' — ^The Vaginicola cryslallina.
350 diameters.
Fig. 2236. — The Slcnlor muUer!,
75 diameters.
The remaining families of the Infusoria present us with few
points of interest at all comparable to those exhibited in the history
of the Vorticellidcc, although even in these many curious and in-
teresting forms occur. They may be divided into two great families
• — the IriclwdidcE and the Setifera. The former of these contains
all the mouth-bearing Infusoria not belonging to either of the pre-
ceding families, in which motion is entirely produced by the agency
of cilia ; whilst the Animals included in the second, possess, besides
these, bristles or hooks adapted for climbing or creeping upon
aquatic plants. The Animals forming the first of these families
exhibit a great diversity of form and structure. In some, the surface
of the body is naked, and the cilia are confined to the anterior ex-
tremity of the body, where they form a circlet surrounding the mouth.
They constitute the sub-family E?iclielina. In these, the opening
through which the fajcal matters are ejected is situated at the hinder
extremity ; whilst in the VorticellcB, to which they present the
greatest resemblance, the remains of the food are cast out, either
through the mouth itself, or by an opening in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the mouth. The anterior portion of the body is some-
times produced into a long flexible neck, which the Animal twists
about in every direction ; and it appears to serve, in some respects,
as an aid in its motions.
A second sub-family, the Trachelina, is distinguished by having
the whole or greater part of the body covered with fine cilia, gene-
rally arranged in longitudinal series, of which those surrounding the
mouth are a little longer than the rest. The anal opening is variable
in its situation. The Paramecium is an example of this group.
In a third group we meet with a very singular apparatus, consisting
of a cylinder of fine horny fibres, which surrounds the mouth. The
food of the Animal is seized by this apparatus, and drawn gradually
into the cesophagus. These form the sub-family Nassulina. In
the last great family, the Setifera, we meet with a very singular
modification of the ciliary structure. In addition to the cilia, which.,
as usual, surround the mouth, the ventral surface, in these creatures,
is furnished with a number of bristles or hooks, by means of which
they are enabled to run or creep upon fixed objects in the water.
Before quitting the consideration of the Pro/oio;?, we must refer
836
THE INFUSORJA.
to a curious group of minute Parasitic creatures, which appear to be
more nearly allied to the Infusoria than to any other class in the
Animal king-dom. These microscopic Parasites, called GregarincB,
are found in a situation where, probably, few of our readers would
dream of seeking for such creatures. They inhabit the intestines of
the Common Garden Worms, Insects, and many other members of
the Articulate division of Animals, and are but rarely to be met with
in Animals of any other group. These Animals are generally of
a cylindrical or somewhat elliptical form, although sometimes a sort
of head appears to be produced by the constriction of the anterior
extremity of the body, and this head-like portion is occasionally
furnished with a curious soft process and lobes. The body, in all
cases, however, consists entirely of a sort of transparent homogeneous
cell, containing an albuminous fluid, in which a nucleus and a
number of minute granules may be observed. They are exceed-
ingly sluggish in their movements, which are effected by the con-
traction of the body, although a few possess true cilia, and others
are furnished with stiffer immovable hairs.
Curious as the habitation selected by these creatures may appear,
we shall find something still more singular in the method appointed
by the Creator for the continuance of the race of these simple cells.
It had long been known to Naturalists that many GrcgarincB con-
sisted only of a single cell, whilst others appeared to be composed of
two separate complete cells, each containing a nucleus. Upon this
character, and the differences in the forms of the cells thus united,
many genera, and even families, have been established amongst the
Gregariiicz, — the authors describing these various forms no doubt
building high and flattering hopes of immortal reputation upon their
microscopic labours. But more recent observers have ruthlessly
dashed these hopes to the ground, by showing that these double cells,
with all their diversity of form, only represent different stages in the
history of the propagation of the simple Animals. The mode of
reproduction which prevails here is one which we meet with in no
other group of Animals ; although something very analogous takes
place in some low forms of plants. It is effected in the following
manner : — Two GregarincB become united by some part of their
bodies, and cling together so firmly that their separation appears
impossible. By degrees they lose their original form, until at length
they constitute an oval mass, slightly constricted in the middle, but
still divided into two distinct cells by a transverse partition. Now, a
transparent capsule is formed round the compound body, whilst the
two nuclei, which have hitherto retained their original appearance,
gradually disappear, and the bodies of the Animals become con-
verted into a number of granules. The process of development
continues within the capsule ; the granules, or germs, become
smaller and more numerous ; the partition between the two cells
finally disappears ; and the mature sac either passes entire from the
body of the Animal in which it is contained, or bursting within its
intestine, allows the numerous germs to be evacuated at once.
So far careful and patient investigations have traced the history
of these minute Parasites ; but the ulterior development of the
germs, and the mode in which the young GregarincB again find
admittance into the bodies of their destined victims, are still, to
some extent, enveloped in mystery.
We have thus endeavoured in this work to trace, by slow degrees,
"Animal Life" from its highest forms in Man, to its lowest forms,
nearly verging on plants, as described, certainly to a very imper-
fect extent, in this chapter. In each division, each class, each
order, each genus, and each species, with all their varieties, it is
impossible not to notice in their study a beautiful adaptation of
means to an end, a perfection in each object for the purposes of
existence, a design and suitability not only for the individual but
also for the collective existence of Animals at large. The one is de-
pendent on the other, for food or other purposes. The death of one
supports the life of its fellows, and yet, despite this almost infinite series
of changes in form, structure, &c., one general design is apparent.
We have endeavoured as far as possible to avoid any entanglement
with the theories that have been advanced to explain the changes
which both Recent and Fossil Animal forms have undergone,
simply because our knowledge is of far too limited a character to
permit of anything like exactness in interpreting the works of
Creation. It is natural that a remarkable new discovery should lead
us to theorize on limited premises. Hence we have had such ideas
forced on us as involve "spontaneous generation," "development
of species by natural selection," and many other suggestions of the
kind. But the careful student of Natural History, simply bent on
the examination of facts presented to him, would prefer to learn
rather than to theorize, to admire rather than to criticise. If we
compare the intelligence of some of the lower Animals with our own,
we cannot but feel humbled. Has Man the providence or economy
of the Bee or Ant ? has he not to trust even in his every day life to
the sagacity and docility of the very Animals he too frequently ill-
treats, and yet on which he depends for sustenance and other pur-
poses ? Much as we may pride ourselves on our extended know-
ledge of the so-called great things of Creation, still the same
knowledge, prescience, and design are equally found in the most
minute objects. In fact the real philosopher cannot refrain from
using the words of old, " O Lord, how manifold are thy works ; in
wisdom hast thou made them all : the earth is full of thy riches."
THE END.
INDEX.
Aarbvauk, or ground pipr, orycteropus ca-
pcnsis, 211.
Aardwolf, or Earthwolf, 130.
Abdomen, the, 9.
Abdominalia, a sub-division of physostoma-
tous tishes, G81.
Abu-havb, an antelope, 25f>.
AcalcpliJEjOr sea-nettle?, S28.
Acanthion jayanicum, a porcupine, 189.
Aeanthocephala, an order of ncmatehnia. 7G0.
A(anthodi(lx, a family of panoid fishes, 717.
Acantlinpttra (Acanthopteryeii), a sub-order
of fishes, order telcostia. 702.
Acanthurus chirurpus, the ** Surgeon," a
species of acanthopterons fish, 706.
Acaiida?, or true miles, 7SS.
Acarina, or monomerosoniata, an order of
arachnida, 787.
Acarus domesticus, or cheese-mite, "88.
Accentor modularis, the hedge-sparrow, oi
■warbler ; A. alpinus, the Alpine accentor.
479.
Accip.ter ni-sup, the common sparrow-hawk,
head of the, 399.
Accipitiinee, the sparrow-hawks, 399.
Aceipenser sturio, the common sturgeon,
718.
Acephala, a family of molluscs, 731.
Achetina, a tribe of orthopieia, including the
crickets. 802.
Acineta-forms of vorticellidx, 835.
Acipenser helops and ruthenus, species of
the sturgeon tribe, 718.
Acipenser huso, the beluga, a kind of stur-
geon, 718.
Acipensei idae, the sturgeons, a family of
ganoid fif^hes, 718.
Acouchi, the, 195.
.\crocerida?, a faiiiily of diptera, 809.
Actinia cratsicornis, a spec.es of polypi, 827.
ActiniadiB (sea-anemones), a family of
helianthoida, .827,
ActiniiE, (^e:l-:^llL■mones), a genus of heli-
anthoida, 826.
Actinice, organs, propagation, &c., of, 827.
Actinia parasitica, a species of polypi, 827.
Aculeata, a division of the hymeno])ti.r;!,
81G.
Aculeate species of bymcnoptera, 817, 818.
Adapis, the, 333.
Addax, the, orjs nasomaculata, a species ot
antelope, 255.
Adder, the, 628, 634.
Adelanhrosomata, an order of arachnida,
788.
Adjutant, or gigantic crane, 574-
Adjutant, the African, leptoptilus marabou,
the source of marabou feathers, 575.
.ffigotheles, the Greek name of the goa'.-
sucker, 419.
,15olida3, a family of gasteropods, 745.
-iipyornis maximus. a gigantic species of the
osirich family of Madagascar, 562.
.SHquoridaj, a family of medusre, 829,
African foxes, 105.
African lions, 113.
African varieties of man, 18.
Agamides, or Old World iguanas, 648.
Agassiz's system of fish-classifiuation, 715.
Agoutis, the, dasyprocta, a genus of rodents,
194.
Ai, the, or common sloth, bradypus tridac-
tylus, 202.
Air-bladder of fishes, 678,
Air-bugs (aurocorisEe), 800.
Alauda arborea, the wood-lark, &c., 509, 510.
Alauda arvensis, the sky-lark, 509, 510.
Alaudinee, the larks, 507.
Albatross, the, diomedea exulans, 602.
Albumen, 7.
Alcaimpennis, the great auk, 5S9.
Alcedinidse, the kingfishers, a family of fiss>
rostres, 432 et seq.
Alcedo alcyon, an American species of king-
fisher, 433.
Alcedo ispida, the common kingfisher, 432.
Alces palmatus, the elk, or moose deer, 236.
AlcidcD, the auks, a family of natatorial birds,
588 et seq.
Alcyonidse, a family of asteroida, 826.
Alcyonium, a genus of asteroida, 82ti.
Alcyonium poculum, or Neptune's cup, 826.
Alectrures, or Alectrurinse, a sub-family of
flycatchers, 463.
Alccirurus, tricolor, a species of flycatcher
463.'
Alimentary organs of the vertebrata, 9 et seq.
Alligator Mississipiensis, a species of croco-
dile, &c., 661.
Alpaca, or Paco, the auchenia paco, 227.
Alutets of the diptera, 795.
.-Vmbergris, source of, 344.
Amblyopsidffi, a family of abdominal pbyso-
istomata, 683.
Amblyrhynchus cristatus, a species of iguana,
648.
Ameividee, a family of American Lizards,
646.
American elk, 237.
Ameiican foxes, 106.
American monkeys, or Platyrrhinse, 48 et seq.
American varitties of man, 18.
American wolf, i03.
Amctabola, a sub-tlass of insects, embracing
three orders; the anoplura, mallophaga,
and thysanuia, 707.
Amia marmorata, a ganoid fish, 716.
.\mniodvtes lancea, a species of spineless
fi.'-h, 698.
Ammodytes tobianus, a species of anacanthi-
nous tishes, 098.
.\mmodytid», a family of anacanthinous
fishe-s 698.
-Vmmonitcs nodosus, a species of ccpbalopo-
dous moUusca, 757.
AnimonitidfP, a family of cephalopodous mol-
luscs, including the fossil ammonites, 757.
Ammophila sabulosa, a species of hymcnop-
tcni,817.
Ama-ba, the, a type of the rhizopoda, f^32.
Auipelida*, or chatterers, a family of denti-
rostral bird-J, 457.
Ampelis carolinensis, the cedar-bird, 458.
Ampelis garrula, the waxwing, foot of the,
457.
Amphioxus lanceolatus, the only fish of the
order leptocardia, 679.
Amphipnousta, an order of batrachin, 668.
Ainphipoda, an order of Crustacea. 779,
Amphisha?nidse, a family of lizard-like rep-
tiles, 641.
Amphisyle, a genus of acanthoptalous fish,
Amphitherium, a fossil marsupial, 367.
Amphiuma tridactylum, a species of batra-
chia, 669.
AmphiumidiP, a family of hatrachia, GG9.
Ampuliaria, a genus of gasteropodous mol-
luscs, shell of the, 749.
Amimllarice, a genus of gasteropods, 749.
.\nabas seandens, the climbing perch, 711.
.Anabatidie, a family of acanthopterons fishes,
711.
Anablebs tetrophthalmus, the four-eyed loach,
a species of cypvinidao, 698.
Anacanthina, a sub-order of spineless fishes of
the order teleostia, 698.
Anaconda, a species of serpent, 636.
Anarrhicas lupus, the sea-wolf, 713.
Anastomus lamelliger, a species of open-bill
of the stoik tribe, 576.
Anatidaj, the duck family, 604.
Anatinfe, the true ducks, 607. .
Anchovy, the, engraulis encrasicolus, 686.
AndienidaB, a family of hymenoptera, 817.
\neiuoucs, sea (actinia) 827.
Angel or monk-fish (see Squatina), 722.
Angler, a fish (see Fishing-frog), 713.
Anguilla, the eel, 6S1.
Anguillulidoe, or paste eel, 770.
Auguis fragilis, the slow-worm, 642.
Animals, distribution of, 15 et seq.
Animals, primary divisions of, 1, 2, c( seq,
Anis, a sub-family of the cuckoos, 515.
Annelida, a class of articulata, divided into
two groups— the abranchiate, comprising
the order suctoria and scolecina ; and the
branchiferous, having two orders, tuhicola
and errantia, 770, et seq.
Anoa, the, 283.
Anobium striatum, the death-watch, acoleop-
tereous insect, 822.
Anomura, a sub-order of decapod Crustacea,
783.
AnoplotheridEP, a family of fossil mammalia,
333.
Anoplura, ah order of ametabolous insects,
including lice, 797.
Anser ferus, albifrons, &c., various species of
geese, 614 et seq.
•AnserinoB, the geese, 614.
Antarctic wolf, 104.
Ant-eater, the banded, a species of opossum,
364.
Ant-eater, the great, myrmecophaga jubata,
212; the little, 213.
Ant-eater, the porcupine, a species of mar-
supials, the echidna, 355.
Antelope, the sable, 258.
Antelopes, various, 247 et seq.
Antennoo of dipterous insects, 794.
Antenn£8 of insects, 774, 793, 808.
AntennEE of the true articulata, 793.
Antheacereus, a species of polypi, 827.
Authophila, a tribe of hymenoptera, 819.
Anthracida?, a family of diptera, 809.
Anthromorphous apes, 23.
Anthropoidcs virgo, the demoiselle, 585.
Ant-thrushes, or formicarinse, 469.
Anthua pratensis, the titlark, or meadow
pipit ; A. petrosus, the shore or rock pipit ;
A. arboreus, the tree pepit. 473 ei seq.
Antlers of stags, 235.
Vnt-lioiis, myrmeloBontidce. 806.
Ants, habits, nests, &c., of, the trae, a tribe
of hymenoptera, 818.
Ants* milch-cows i^see Aphides), 799.
vnts, the visiting, hymenopterous insects.
618.
.Ants, white, a tribe of neuropterous insects,
the termiditee, 804.
Anura ; frogs and toads ; characteristics,
organs, &:c., of the, 666 et seq.
.\nusof the vertebrata, 9.
Aorta, the, 8. ^
Aoudad, a species of goat, 262.
Apathus, a species of bee, 819.
-Ape, the Ilaibary, 45. .
Apes, Catarrhina?, or Old World, and Piatyrr-
nira?, or New World, 23.
Aphaniptera, an order of metabolous insects,
including the fleas, t07.
Aphides, or plant-lice, a species of homop-
tera, 799.
Aphis humuli, the hop-fly. 799.
Aphodiidse, a family of coleoptcra, 822.
Aphroditida;, sca-micc, a family of errantia,
772.
Aphrojihora spumaria, and bifasciata, a
species of homoptera, 799.
Apidae, the family of bees, hymenopterous
insects, 819.
Aplacentaha, a sub-class of mammalia, pos-
sessing no placenta, and including the
opossums, &c., divided into the monotre-
mata and marsupialia, 351 et seq.
Aplysi ids, a family of gasteropodous molluscs,
the sea-hares, 745.
Apoda, a group of anacanthinous fishes, 681.
Apoda, an order of batrachia, 668,
Apoda, a sub-division of the physo-stoma-
tous fishes, 698.
Apodidje, a family of phyllopoda, 778.
Aporrhais pes pelecani, a species of gas- '
teropod, 750.
Aprasia, a genus of saurians, 612.
Apterygida;, a family of cursores including
the apterix, of New Zealand, 562.
Apterys, a wingless bird, of New Zealand,
562.
Apu^, a genus of phyllopoda, 778.
Aqueous humour, the, 10.
.\quila chrysaetos, the golden eagle, 379.
Aquila, various species of, 379 et seq.
Aquilina?, the eagles, a sub-family of the fal-
cons, 379 et seq.
.\ra, the macaws, 525.
Arabian dog, 96.
Arabian horses, 295.
.\racaris, a genus of scansorial birds, of the
toucan family, 530.
Arachnida (spiders, &c.), a class of articulata,
divided into two sub-classes, the trachearia
and pulmonaria, 786.
Araguato, the, an American monkey, 50.
Arainaj, or maccaws, a sub-family of parrots,
524.
Aranea domestica, the house spider, 790.
.\raneidoo, a family of spiders, 790.
Arcacea, a tribe of molluscs, 734.
Arcellida?, a familyof the rhizopoda, S33,
Arctic fux, lOJ.
Arctomys marmota, the marmot, 170; A.
bobac, 171.
Ardeidoe, or herons, a family of grallatorial
birds, 572.
Arenicola pistacorum, the lob-worm, 772.
Arenicolidae, a family of errantia, 772.
Argala, or Adjutant, 573.
Argali, the, a species of sheep, 263.
Argonaut, the, a species of cephalopod, 760.
Argonautidce, a family of octopodous eephalo-
pods, including the paper nautilus, 760, 704,
.Vi-gulidiO, a family of parasita, 778.
, ArgJ'nnis, a genus of butterflies, 815.
Argyunis paphia, a species of butterfly, 815.
Ariel gazelle, the, 249.
Armadillos, or dasipodidse, 207 et seq.
Arm-bone, or humerus, the, 2.
"Arm," or analogue of, in fishes, 237.
.Arms of mammalia, 2 et seq.
Arnee, the, a species of buttalo, 284.
Arrindy, silkworm, the, 813.
Artemia salina, a species of phyllopoda, 778.
Arterial blood, 8.
Arteries and veins, 8.
Athropoda (joint-footed), or true articulata,
774.
Articulata, organs, senses, &c., of the, 767,
774. I
Articulata, sub-divisions of into vermes, or
worms, and anthropoda, or true articulata,'
767 et seq.
Articulata, true, or anthropoda, divided into
four classes— viz., the Crustacea, arachnida,
myriapoda, and insects, 774 et seq.
Arvicola agrestis, the short-tailed field mouse ;
A. amphibia, the water-rat; arvicola, or
voles, 178, 182.
Asiatic lemuroids, 61.
Ascaris, a genus of nematelmia, 769. i
AscidiEO, an order of tuoicated molluscoids,'
729.
Ascidlidffi, a family of tunicated moUuscoids,
729.
Asellidae, a family of isopoda, 780.
Asiatic lions, 113. |
Asinus, a genus embracing the ass, zebra, &c.,
293, et seq. I
Asiphonata, an order of lamellibranchiate '
molluscs, including the oyster, mussel, &c.,
733.
Aspergillum vaginiferum, or watering-pot
shell, 738.
Ass, the, equus asinus, 297, et seq.
Assimilation of food, 9.
Astacida?, a family of raacrurous decapods,
including the lobster, &c., 782.
Astacus fluviatilis, the cray-flsh, 782.
Astasida;, a family of infusoria, 834,
AstevidoD (star-fi^h) a family of stellerida, 831.
Asteroida, an order of the polypi, divided Into
four families — viz., tubiporidje. alcyonidaa,
gorgonidte, and pennatulida, 825.
Astomata, an order of the infuaoiia, 834.
Astraea vlridis, a species of polypi, 827.
Astrceida?, a family of helianthoida, 827-
Astur palumbarius, the goshawk, 400.
Ateles, the spidor-monkcTB, 48.
Athatia centifulia^, the black catorptllar or
nigger, 810.
Athene cunicularia, the burrowing owl, 412,
Athene scutulata, a species of owl, 413.
Aiherina presbyter, the oaml-smell, 692.
Ailantidtc, a family of bctcropodous moUuscs,
745.
Atolls, or coral lagoon-re efn, 827.
.Vtnichclia, a tribe of coleoptcra, S22.
Atropos, pulealoriuo, the de;ilh-watch, R05.
Atta cephalotCR, the vihiUng ant, 818,
Auchenia guanaco, the guanaco ; A. glnmni
the llama; A. paco, the paco or alpftca; A,
vicunia, the vicugna, 223 et »rq.
Auk, the great, alea iinpennis, 5b9.
.-Vuk, the liillc, nuM-Kutus alle, 5U1,
.Auks, or alcidte, 588 et seq.
Aulostomidae, sca-snipcK, trumpet, and bel-
lows fishes, a family of aeanthuptcra, 702.
Auricle, the receiving chamber of the litart,
the, 8.
AuricuHdaB, a family of pulmonifcrous gas-
teropods, 750.
Aurochs, the, a species of bison, 2S5.
Australian dog or dingo, 91.
Autopha^'i. a section of bit da embracing the
orders natatore?, grallatores, cursorcs, and
rasorcs, 37S.
AvcB, or birds, the class of, 369 et seq.
Aviculacca, a tribe of molluscs, including the
pearl oysttr, 733.
Avicularia, a species of bryozous moltu8coldi>.
728.
Avocet, recurvirostra avocctta, 571.
Axis, cerebro-spinal of man, 233 et seq.
Axis, or hog deer, the, 24J.
Axolotl, siredon pisciforme, a Mexican species
of batrachia, 663.
Aye-aye, the, chiromys madagascariensis,
58. 63.
Aythya ferina, the common pochard, 006.
Aythya vallisneria, the canvas-backed duck,
606.
Babbleri, or timftlinro, 465.
Baboons, the cynocephalus. &c., 46.
Babyrus^a, a kind of hog, 326.
Bacteria, M4.
Baculites, a species of ammonite, a cepha-
lopodus mullusc, 757.
Badger, the common, melcs taxus, 141.
Badgers, or melidie, the, a family of car-
nivora, 87, 141.
Balanidae, a family of cirrhopoda, 777.
Balaena australis, the si>uthi-rn wii;df. 312.
BalfEua mystycetus, the Greenland whale,
341.
BalErniceps rex, a species of heron, 573.
Balrenidae, the true whales, 341 et s-q.
Balsenoptera btiops, and B. museulus, species
of fin-backed whales, 343.
Balistcs, geographicus and penicilligcru^,
species of plectognaihous fish. 714.
Bandicoot rats, or peramelidse, 363.
Ban-dog, the 99.
Banxritigs, 84.
Barasingha, a species of deer, 247.
Barbaiy ape, or Magot, 45.
Barbary deer, 217.
Barbary lion, 114.
Barbary mouse, 177.
Barbel, the common, barbus vulgaris, a
species of cyprinidte, 695.
Barbets, or capitoninaa, 52.
Barnacles, or lepadidee, a family of cir-
rhopoda, 777.
Barn-owl, 413.
Barrier reefs (coral), formation of, 82r«
Basilisk, the basiliscus americanus, 647
Batking-shark, 721.
Basse, the labrax lupus, 704,
Bateleur eagle, 412.
Bats, order of, or chiroptera, 67 et seq.
Bat, the kaloiig, pteropus.edulis, 73.
Bat, the horse-?hoe, 71.
Bat, the fruit-eating, 72.
Bat, skeleton of, 08.
Bat, vampyre, 69.
Bat, specimens of in the British Museum, 73.
Bat-lice, a family of diptera, 808.
Batrachia, skeleton, limbs, skin, nervous
system, organs of sense, reproduction, cir-
culatory system, &c., of the, OGOc' 3fy.
Bats, or cheiroptera, an order of maiumalia,
the skeleton, skull, limbs, &c., of the, 67
et seq.
Bats, or vesperlUionidte, the true, 71.
Beagle, the, 96.
Beak of birds, the jer-falcon, toucan, and
hornbill. (See Birds.)
Bear, brown, black, grisly, jungle, sun,
white, &c., 145 et seq.
Bears, or ursidn?, 88, \\5,
Beavers, building, 183.
Beavers, castorida?, a family of rodents, 182
et seq.
Becards, the, 462.
llee, larviB and pupa of the, 819.
Bee, Sling of, 815, 816.
Bee, the carpenter, mason, upholsterer, leaf-
cutting, cuckoo, and humble, 819.
Bee (the common), 819.
Bee-eaters, or meropidie, a family of Assi-
rostral birds, 438,
838
INDEX.
Beech-marten, the, 13G.
Beehives, 819.
Beetle, hlack. 803.
Beetle, burvingr, 822.
Beetle, ehurch-yari], 822.
Beetle, Colorado, 821.
Beetle, diamond, 821.
Beetle, dung, 822.
Beetle, great water, 823.
Beetle, helmet, 821.
licetle, mimic, 823.
Beetle, pill, 823.
Beetle, rose, 822.
Beetle, sacred, 822, 823.
Beetle, stag, 822.
Bt'CiIe, typographic, 822.
Beetles, coleoptera, 820.
Beetles, lamelUcorned, 8S2.
Bt kr-el-wash, or wild ox of the Arabs, 257.
Belemnitidte, a family of cephalopods, 761.
Belone vulgaris, or mackerel-guide, 701.
Beluga, acipenser huso, 718.
Bi-luga, or white whale, phoccena leucas, 346.
Bt'roidie, a family of m* dusee, 830.
Bhunder, a species of monkpy, 4o.
Bicelluli, a group of bugs, 8U0.
Bimana, an order including only man, \etscq.
Binlurong, the, 135.
Biphora, order of tunicated molluscoids, 730.
Biid-lice, 797.
Birds, divi^ion of the class into two great
sections— viz., autophagi and incessores
(for the orders of these sections see name ol
each), 369, 379 (Vicj.
Birds, flight of, 15.
Birds, general characters of the class, their
organs, locomotion, &c., 369 et seq.
Birds, locomotion of, 15, 370 et seq.
Birds, raptorial, 379 et seq.
Birds, voice or song of, 13.
Birgus latro, a species of hermit-crab, 783.
Biijon, the various, 285 et seq.
Bittern, the botaurus stellaris, 577.
Bivalve mollusca, 731 et seq.
Bivalve molluscs, shells of the, 731 et seq.
Blackbeetle, 803.
Blackbird, lurdus memli, 4G7.
Blackcap, curruca artiic ipilla, 483.
Black caterpillar, or nigger, 816.
Black-cock, the, tetrao tetrix, 542, 543.
Black-crested monkey, 40.
Bladder and urinary organs of mammalia, 8
et seq.
Elai)s mortis^ga, church-yard beetle, 822.
Blatta americana, a species of blackbeetle,
803.
Blatta gigantea,'a species of cochroach, 803.
Blatta onentahs, the blackbeetle, 803.
Blatliiiii, a tribe of cursorial orthopetra. 803.
Blauwbuk, a species of antelope, 255.
BlcLik, leuciscus alburnus, a species ofcypri-
nitlae, G97.
Blenniidte, the blennies, a family of acan-
thopterous fish, 712.
Blennius pholis, the shanny, 712.
Blenny, ocellated, blennius ocellaris, 712.
Blepharis, a genus of acanthopterous fish, 707.
Blesbok, a species of antelope, 249.
Blister-fiy, the, 822.
Blood, and blood corpuscles, 7.
Blood, circulation of, 8.
Bloodhounds, 92, 97.
Blood of fishes, 679.
Blood of vertebrata, 7, 8.
Blood, temperature of, in mammalia, &c., 9.
Blow-holes of the whale, 338.
Blubber of the whale, 338.
Blues, the (butterflies), 815.
Boa constrictor, the, 636.
Boar, the wild, 323.
Boat-bill, cancruma cochlearia, 577.
Boat-fly, a species of water-bug, 800.
Boat-tails, or quiscalinae, a sub-family of the
starlings, 500.
Bohemian chatterer, or waswing, 458.
Boida;, a family of colubriue snakes, includ-
ing the pythons, boas, &c., 636.
Bombus lapidarius, humble bee, 819.
Bombycina, a tribe of lepidoptera, including
the silkworm, &c., 812.
Bombyliidfe, a family of diptera, 809.
Bombyx cynthia, the Arrindy silkworm of
India, 812.
Bombyx mori, the silkworm, a lepidopterous
caterpillar, 182.
Bonasia umbellus, the ruffed grouse, 543.
Bonasus bison, the auroch ; B. americanus,
the American bison, 285, et seq.
Bones of mammalia, 2 et seq.
Bones of the face in mararaalia, 2 et seq. (See
also " Skeleton*' and *' Skull.")
Bones of the head of the perch, illustrating
those of other fish, G77.
Bones of the vertebrated animals (see also
names of each), 2 et seq.
Bonito, the, thynnus pelamys, 708.
Bonlebuk, the species of antelope, 253.
Bony arches of vertebrated animals (see also
names of each), 2 et seq.
Bony pike, the, lepidosteus osseus. a eanoid
fish, 717.
Booby, soland goose, or gannet, 597.
Bopyridae, a family of isopoda, 7S0.
Borlasia, a species of planaridn, 7G9.
Bosulaphus oreas, the eland, 25G.
Bos scoticus, the Chiilingham bull, 271.
Bos tauru.-, the donle^tic ox, 2GU et seq.
Botaurus stellaris, bittern, 577.
Bothriocephalus latus, a species of cestoidca,
768.
Botryllidee, a group of ascidian molluscoids,
729. '
Boiile-nose seal, 161.
Bovidas, a family of ruminants, including the
antelopes, cattle, sheep, &c., 247, 2G9 et
seq. (specimens in the British Museum and
Zoological Gardens).
Boviform antelopes, 247 et seq.
Bower-bird, the satin, of Australia, 493.
Bower-birds of Australia, 493.
Bos-tortoises, 6G4.
Br.achelytra, a tribe of coleoptera, 823.
Brachycera, a sub-order of dipterous insects,
808.
Brachystoma, a tribe of diptera, 809.
Brachyura, a sub-order of decapod Crustacea,
784.
BradypodidEe, or sloths, 201 et seq.
Bradypus trydactylus, the common sloth, 201
ef seq.
Brahmm bull, or zebu, 280.
llrain of birds, 375.
Hrain of fishes, 678.
Brain of vertebrata, 10 et seq. (see Ethno-
logy, 15).
Bruin-coral (maandrina cerebriformis), 827.
Braraa, a species of acanthopterous fishes,
G95; B. raii, 706.
Branchial aperture in fishes, G78.
Brancbifera, an order of gasteropodous mol-
luscs, divided into the sub-orders opistho-
branchiata and prosobranchiata, 745.
Branchiostegal bone of flshes, 678.
Hranchipodidtp, a family of phyllopoda, 773.
Bream, tbe, G95.
Bream, K^y's, 695.
Breeze-flies, or gad-flies, 809.
Brill, the, rhombus vulgaris, 700.
Bristles of mammalia, 6 j of birds, 419.
Brocket-deer, 245.
Bronchial tubes, 8.
Brush-turkt'y, 557.
Bruta, or Edentata, order of, 201 et seq.
Bryozia, a class of mollusoida, consisting of
the orders of infundibulata and lophopoda,
727.
Bryozoa, reproduction, &c., of the, 727.
Bryozoon, tbe young of the bryozous mollus-
coids, 728.
Bubalus bubalis, the common buffalo, 284.
Bubble-shells, orbullidre, gasteropodous mol-
luscs, 745.
Bubo bengalensis, an Indian species of the
owl family, 416.
Bubo maximus, the great eagle owl, 415.
Bubo virginianus, the American horned owl,
416.
Buboninee, or horned owls, 415, 416.
Buccinum, or whelks, 751.
Bucconiuic, or puff"-birds, 43G.
Buceridae, or hornbills, a family of coniros-
tral birds 486.
Buceros, the honibill, a genus of conirostral
birds, 486.
Budcng, or negro monkey, 40.
Buttalo, the common, bubalus bubalis, &c.,
284.
Bufonida;, the family of toads, G73.
Bufo vulgaris, the common toad ; Bufo cala-
mita, the natter-jack; Bufo obstetricans,
the accoucheur load, 673, 674.
Bug, the common (cimes lectularius), 800.
Bugs, land and water, 800.
IJulbuls, the pycnonotiniE, 4G3 et seq.
Bull, the Brahmin, or zebu, 280.
Bull, the Cbill-ng.iam, bos scoticus, 271.
Bull-dog, the, 99.
Bull fights in Spain, 275.
Bull-finches, the, pyrrhulinre, 510.
BuU-frog, the, rana pipiens, 674.
Bull-head, or miller's thumb, a fish of the
genus cottu-, 703.
Bull-head, the armed, 703.
BuUid^, or bubble-shells, 745.
Bullocks used for draught purposes, &c., 277.
Buntings, the, emberiziuae, a sub-family of
the finches, 509.
Buphaginse, or ox-peckers, a sub-family of
starlings, 499.
Buprestidte, a family of coleoptera, 822.
Burbot, tbe, lota vulgaris, 698.
Buiying-beetles, the, 823.
Bush antelopes, 253.
Bush-creepers, mniotiltinae, a sub-family of
sylvidse, 474.
Bush-ahrikes, thamnophilinae, 456.
Bustards, the family of the otididge, various
species of, 583.
Butcher-birds, or nine-killers (see Shrikes),
455.
Buteoninffi, the buzzards, a sub-family of fal-
conida, 404.
Buteo vulgaris, the common buzzard; B.
lagopus, the rough-legged buzzard, 403,
404.
butterflies, British, 812.
Butterflies, the rhopalocera, 814.
Butterflies, transformations of, 810.
Butterfly, the cabbage, 814.
Butterfly, the peacock, 815.
Buzzards, or buteonince, a sub-family of fal-
conida, 403.
Buzzard, the common, buteo vulgaris, 404.
Buzzard, the honey, or bee-hawk, head of the,
404.
Buzzard, the turkey, or turkey vulture, an
American species of the vulture family, 406,
407.
Byrrhidae, a family of coleopterous insects,
823.
Byssus of the mollusca, 725.
Caama, an African fox, 105.
Cabassou, the dusypus cinctus, 207.
Cabbage butterflies, 614.
Cabrit, or prongbuck, the, 254.
Cacajao, an American monkey, 52.
Cacatua galcrita, the great sulphur-erested
cockatoo, 523.
Cacatua sulphurea, the small sulphur-crested
cockatoo, 523.
Cacatuina", or tree cockatoos, 523,
Cachalot, or sperm-whale, 343.
Caecum, the, 9.
Cjelogenys, the pacas, 193.
Coerebina;, or Ruitguits, a sub-family of the
sun-biids, 451.
Caiman, the, CGI.
Calamaries, or squids, the loligidoe, a family
of cephalopods, 761, 764.
Calamodyta arundiiiacea, the reed warbler,
485.
Calandra granaria, the corn-weevil, 821.
Caligids, a family of parasita, 778.
Callreatinoo, a sub-family of crows, the tree
crows, 491.
CallianiridtC, a family of medusa, 830,
Callichromamoschata, a British beetle, 821.
CallidK, a group of bugs, 800.
Calling-crabs, 786.
Calling-hares, 200.
Calliomymus, tbe dragonets, 712.
Callithrix, a genus of American monkeys, 54.
Caliorhynchus australis, a species of selachia,
or shark-like fish, 720.
Caltetepon, heloderma horridum, 646.
Calymene blumeubachii, a trilobite, 773.
Calypterix Virgo, a dragon-fly, 806.
Calyptomena viridis, a manakin, 459.
Calvptorvnchus banksii, the Banksian cocka-
too, 523.
Calyptrgeidte, a family of gasteropods, 743.
Camas, pouched-rat, 185.
Camel, skeleton of the, 5.
Camelidse, or camels, 218.
Camelopardidce, the camelopards or giraffes,
227.
Camels, or camelidae, 218 et seq.
Camelus dromedarius, the dromedary, 218 ;
C. baclrianus, the Bactrian camel, 218, 223.
Campanularina, a sub-family of hydi'oidEe,
.825.
Campephaginae, or caterpillar-eaters, 457.
Canada land-rat, 185.
Canadian wolf, 102.
Canary bird, the carduelis canaria, 508.
Canceridce, or crabs, 784.
Cancroma cochlearia, or boat-bill, 577.
Canidse, or dogs, 86, 88 et seq.
Canine teeth, 4, 5.
Canis familiaris, the common dog, 88, 101 ;
C. lupus, the wolf, 101 ; C. aureus, the
jackal, 104 ; C. nubilus, the North Ameri-
can cloudy wolf, 103 ; C. mesomelas, the
black-backed jackal, 104 ; Canis lycaon, or
black wolf, 103; Canis vulpes, the fox, 104.
Canna or eland, 256.
Cape buffalo, 285.
Cape elephant, shrew, 77.
Cape hunting dog, 103;
Cape leaping hare, 175.
Cape lions, 114.
Cape ratel, the, 140.
Capercailzie, or wood grouse, tetrao urogal-
lus, 542.
Capillary blood-vessels, 9.
Capitonince, or barbets, a sub-family of scan-
sorial birds, 521.
Capra cegagrus, the wild or Bezoar goat ; C.
hircus, the common goat ; C. Jemlahica,
the Jemlah goat ; and C. jharal, the jharal ;
C. ibex, the ibex ; C. pyrenaicas, the
PyrenaBitn ibex, &c., 259 et seq.
Caprellidas, a family of cdriophthalmata, 779.
Capreolus caprjea, the roe, 245.
Caprifoim antelopes, 253.
Caprimulgidas, or goat-suckers, a family of
fissirostral birds, 420 et seq.
CaprimulginiB, the true goat-suckers, 422.
Caprimulgus europosus, the goat-sucker, 420.
Caprimulgus vociferus, the whip-poor-Will,
a species of goat-sucker, 421.
Capybara, the, hydroch£erus capybara, 196.
Carabus, a genus of coleoptera, 822.
Caracal, the, felis caracal, 125.
Caracaras, or polyborinae, a sub-family of
raptorial birds, 403.
Carapace, or outer shell of the chelouia, 662.
Caravans and camels, 220.
Carcharias glaucus, the blue shark, 721.
Carcharias vulgaris, the common white shark,
721.
Carcharias vulpes, the fox shark, or thresher,
720.
Carcharidae, or true", sharks, a family of sele-
chia, 720.
Carchesium, a genus of vorticellidae, 835.
Cardiacea, a tribe of molluscs, including the
cockles, 737.
Cardisoma carnifex, a kind of land-crab, 785.
Cardium edule, the common cockle, 737, 738.
Carduelis canaria, the Canary bird, 508.
Carduelis elegaus, the goldfinch, 507.
Caribou, a species of deer, 239.
Carinai'ia, a genus of heteropodous molluscs,
745.
Caruivora, an order of mammalia, embracing
the lion, tiger, dog, cat, &c., 85 et seq.
Carnivora divided mto digitigrada, plantig-
rada, and s'?ini-plantigrada, 86.
Carnivora, fossils of, 155, 156.
Carotid arteries, the, 8.
Carp, the common, cyprinus carpio, 694.
Carpal bone, the, 2, 3.
Carpenter bee, the, 819.
Carps, tbe family of, cyprinidee, G94.
Carrancha, a South American species of rap-
torial birds, 389.
Carrier-pigeon, the, 537.
Cashmere goat, 259.
Cassida viridis, a species of coleoptera, 821,
Cassididae, or helmet beetles, 821.
Cassidulidac, a family of echinida, 831.
Cassis,,the helmet-shell, 751.
Cassowary, the, casuarius galeatus, 5G1.
Castoridpe, the beavers, 182 et seq.
Casuarius galeatus, the cassowary, 561.
Cat, or felida?, 87, 109 et seq.
Cat, the wild and domesticated, 120; the
pampas, 122.
Cataphracta, a family of fishes, 703.
Catarrhina?, a division of the quadrumana,
embracing the simiidao, or Old World apes,
23, 48 et seq.
Caterpillar-eaters, campephaginae, 457.
Caterpillars, the larvoa of lepipoptera, 810 ct
seq.
Catoblepas gnu, species of gnus, 258.
Catometopa, or ocypodidse, a family of bra-
chyurous decapods, 785.
Cats, or felidae, the family of the, embracing
the lion, tiger, cats, &c., 116 et seq
Caucasian variety of man, 19.
Caudal vertebras, 2.
Cavia apersea, the Guinea-pig, 196.
Cavicornia, or hollow-horned ruminants, in-
cluding the ox, sheep, &c., 247 et seq.
Cavies, or cavida?, 196 ct seq.
Cebidfe, .\meric^m monkeys, 51.
Cebus, a genus of American monkevs, 51.
Cecidomyia destructor and tritici, 809.
Cedar-bird, ampelis carolinensis, 458.
Cenchris, a genus of enakes, G39.
Centetes, a genus of hedgehogs, the tanrecs,
75, 82.
Centipedes, a family of myriapoda, 791.
CephalaspidiE, a family of fossil ganoid fishes,
Cephalemyia ovis, a dipterous insect, 808.
Cephalopoda, a class of molluscous animals,
including the cuttle-fishes, ice, divided into
two orders, the tetrabranchiata and di-
branehiata, 75G.
Cephaloptera, giorna, a species of ray, 723.
Cephalopteridae, a family of rays, 723.
Cephalothorax, nature of the, 775.
Cephalothorax, of Crustacea, 775.
CepuUdae, or ribbon-fishes, 710.
Cerastes, hassclquistii, the horned snake, 629.
Cercoleptes caudivolvulus, the kinkaiou. 88.
154. ^
Cercoleptidae, a family of the carnivora, 83,
154. ■ '
Cercomys, a genus of rats, 186.
Ccrcopida;, or cicadellina, a family of homop-
tera, 799.
Cercopithecus, a genus of African monkeys,
42 et seq.
Cerebellum, the, 10.
Cerebellimi and cerebrum of the vertebrata,
10.
Cereopsis novce hoUandice, a species of the
goose tribe, 617.
Ceriornis satyra, the tragopan, 553.
CerithiidEB, a family of gasteropods, 750.
Cermatiid®, a family of myriapoda, 491.
Certhidte, or creepers, a family of tenuirostral
birds, 444.
CerthiDce, or true creepers, the, 441,
Cervical vertebrEB, 2.
Cervidre, or deers, a family of ruminantia,
235 el seq ; specimens in the British Museum
and Zoological Gardens, 288, 289.
Cervus elaphus. the stag, or red deer ; C.
canadensis, the wapiti ; C. axis, and porcin-
us, the axis, or hog deer; C. campestris, the
guazuti, &c., 242 et seq, 247.
Cestoidea (girdle-like), an order of the platy-
elmir, including the tape-worms and other
parasites, 768.
Cestraciontidae, a family of shark-like fishes,
721.
Cetacea, an order of mammalia, embracmg the
whales, &c., 338 et seq ; fossils of, 350, 351.
Cete, a sub-order of the cetacea, embracing
the whales, 340.
CetochilidiE, a family of copepoda, 778.
Chacma, the, a species of batoon, 46.
Chaetodontidae, a family of acanthopterus
fishes, 706.
Chafiinch, the, fringilla coclebs, 503.
Chaja, cbauna chavaria, a species of rail, 566.
Chalcididaj, a family of hymeuoptera, 818.
Chamacea, a tribe of molluscs, including the
clam-shell, 736.
Chamaeleo alricanus, the common chameleon,
650.
ChamaeleontidaD, the chameleon family, be-
long to the lizurds, 648.
Chameck, the, au American monkey, 48.
Chameleon, cause of the change of colour,
peculiarities, organs, &c., of the, 649.
Chamois, rupricapra tragus, 253.
Channel-bill, scythrops novas hollandiae, 515,
Chanting-hawk, 401.
Char, the, salmo salvelinus, 690.
Characinidte, a family of fishes resembling the
carp, 697.
Charadiiida), or plovers, a family of gralla-
torial birds, 578.
Charadrinoe, or tree plovers, 580.
Chati, a species of cat, 123.
Chatterers, ampelidac, a family of dentiros-
tral birds, 456 et seq.
Chaus, the, felis chaus, 126.
Cheese-hopper, the, 803.
Cheeta!, or axis de<.'r, 244.
Cheetah, or hunting leopard, 119.
Cheliferidse, a family of arachnida, 788.
Chelmon ro^tratus, a species of acanthopte-
rous fish, 706,
INDEX.
8J9
Chelonia, an order of vertebratat including
the tortoises, turtles, &c., 662.
Chelonia carctta, the lo^ercrhcad turtle, 661.
Chtlonia imbricata, hawk's-bill turtle, 663.
Chelonia midas, green turtle, 662.
Cheloniidoe, or turtles, 663.
Chelydea serpentina, the alligator tortoise,
664.
Chclydidfe, a family of turtles, 664.
Clielys mataniata, a turtle, G64,
Ciiewing of the cud, 216 et seq.
Chigoe, or jigger, a kind of flea, 807.
Chillinghani cattle, £71.
Chilodon cucuUus, a species of infusoria, 835.
Chiloguatha, an order of oiyriapoda, 791.
Cliilopoda, an order of myriapoda, embracing
three families, the cermatiida;, scolopen-
dridx, and geophilida;, 79].
Chimaera monstrosa, the sea-cat, or king of
the herrings, a shark-like fish. 719.
Chimaera, the southern, a species of selachia,
719.
Chima;ridae, a family of fish, belonging to the
order selachia, 719.
Chimango, milvago chimango, a raptorial
bird, 402.
Chimpanzee, the, or troglodytes niger, gene-
ral characters of, 27 ; skeleton and ekull,
2.S.
CtiinehiUa, the eriomys laniger, 190.
CliinchillidsB, the chincliiUas, a family of ro-
dents, 190.
Chine^e, the, 18.
Chionididae, a family of rasorial birds, 541.
Ciiinnis alb:i, the sheath-bill, 541.
Ciiiromydee, chiromys madagascariensis, the
_ aye-aye, 58.
Ctiiroptera. an order of mammalia, embracing
tlie bats, 67 ei seq.
Cliirotes, a genus of saurians, 641.
Chiroteuthis bonelli, a species ol cephalopods,
761.
Chitonidae, a family of gasteropods, the chi-
tons, 747.
Chhimydera maculata, the spotted bower-bird,
498.
CliluTuydosaurus kingii, a species of iguana,
64S.
Cliocropus, a genus of marsupialia, 362, 363.
Chondropterygious, or cartilaginous fishes of
CuTier, correspond with the order selachia,
719.
Chondrostea, or loricata, a sub-order of gan-
oid fishes, divided into two families, the
acipenseridae, or sturgeons, and the spatu-
larida?, 717.
Chorda dorsalis of fishes, 676.
Chorda dorsalis of the vertebrata, 2 et seq.
Clioroides of the eye, 10.
Chough, Cornish, fregilus graculus, 494.
Chromidce, a family of acauthopterygious fish,
701.
Chrysilides, the pupa of the papilonaceous
butterfly, 796.
Chrysis ignlta, a species of hymenoptera, 818.
Chrysochloris, a genus of moles, 75, 81.
Chub, the Icuciscus cephalus, 697.
Chuck-WiU's-widow, caprimulgus carolinen-
sis, a goat-sucker, 422.
Chuich-yard beetle, the, 822.
Chvle, 9.
Chyme, 9.
Cicada, and cicada septendecim, 800.
Cicadaria, a tribe of homoptera, 7i»9.
CicadeUina, or cercopidte, a family of homop-
tera, 799. *
Cicindelidx, a family of coleoptera, 824.
Ciconina?, the storks, various species, 574
et seq.
Cidandas, sea-eggs, and soa-urcluns.831.
Cdia, nature of, in infusoria, &c., 834.
Cinclin?e,a sub-family of the plovers, 579.
Cinclus aquaticus, the water-ouzel, or dipper,
470.
Circaetus gallicus, and C. cheela, species of
eagles, 391.
Circeida?, afamilyof medusx, b29.
Circina?, or harriers, a sub-famify of raptorial
birds, 405.
Circulating system of batrachia, 667.
Circulating system of birds, 375.
Circulating system of Crustacea, 770.
Circulating system of infusoria, 834
Circulating system of insects, 796.
Circulating system of mammalia, 8.
Circulating system of moUusca, 725.
Circulating system of reptiles, 623.
Circulating system of vertebrata, 8.
Circulation of the blood, 8.
Circus cyaueus, the ring-tailed harrier ; C.
jeruginosus, the marsh harrier, or moor
buzzard ; C. cineraceus, Montagu's harrier,
405 et seq.
Cirrhobranchiata, a group of gasteropods,
746.
Cirrhopoda, a sub-class of cru?tacea, has two
families— viz., lapadidiic andbalanidic 776,
777.
Cistudo, a genus of turtles, 664.
Civet, the viverra civetta the rassc, &c.,
130 et .^eq.
Civets, or viverrida?, the family of, 87, 130.
Clam-shell, the, 736.
Classt s, definition of the term, I et seq.
Classification of birds, 378.
Classification of the vertebrata, 1 et seq.
Classification, principles of, 1 ct seq.
Clave llinida^, a group of ascidian molluscoids,
729.
Clavicle, 2 ct seq.
Clavicle of vertebrata, 2.
Clavisof felido-, 110.
ClepsinidaD, a family of suctorla, 770.
Climacteris, a species of creeper, 446.
Climbing-birds, or scansores, 513.
Climbing perch, the anabi*: ■^candens, 711.
Clio, a genus of sponges, 834.
Clio borealis, a species of pteropodous mol-
Iu>ca, 742.
Clothes'-moth, the, 812.
C:lupea alba, the white-bait, Gl^G.
Clupca aloso, the twaite shad, 6Sfi.
Clupea harengus, the herrini;. 6St.
Clupea pilchardus, the pilchard. 683.
Clupea Sardinia, the sardine, (;s(i.
Clupea sprattus, the sprat, Gh.i.
Clupeidir, or herring family, '183 et seq.
Coaita, the, an American monkey. 49.
Coassus, a genus embracing the brocket deer,
215.
Coast-rat, 186.
Coati, the, of the genus nasua, 152.
Cobites, the.louches, 680.
Cobra di capeUo,-the, 630.
Coccina, a genus of homopterous insects,
799.
Coccinella*, a species of coleoptera, including
the lady-bird, 820.
Coccothraustes vulgaris, the common gros-
beak, or haw-finch, 505.
Coccothraustinnj, the sub-family of gros-
beaks, 505.
Coccus cacti, the cochineal insect, 703.
Coccus lacca, 798.
Coccystes glandarius, spotted cuckoo, 515.
Coccyzina?. birds of the cuckoo family, 515.
Cochin-China monkey, 40,
Cochineal insect, the, 798, 817.
Cockatoo, various species of, including the
sulphur-crested, the galeated, &c., 523
ct seq.
Cockatoos, the true, cacatuinoe, 523.
Cockchafer, the melolontha vulgaris, 822.
Cockle, the common edible, 737.
Cock-of-thc-rock, rupicola aurantia, a species
of nianakin, 349
Cockroach, the common, 803.
Cock's-comb oyster, the, 733.
Cocktails, the aleetrurina, 463.
Cocktails, coleopterous insects, 823.
Cod family, or gadidte, 698.
Cod-fish, the, morrhua vulgaris. 693.
Coectliidae, a family of apodous batrachia, 663.
Coecum, the, 7.
Coleoptera, or beetles, divided into trimera,
letramera, pentamera, and heteromera, S20
et seq.
Coliidse, or colies, a family of conirostral birds,
489.
Collared white-eyelid monkev, 44.
Collared ai, 203.
Collocalia esculenta, the esculent swallow,
producing the edible birds'-nests of China,
431.
Colobus, a genus of African monkeys, 4 1 .
Colon, the, 9.
Colorado beetle, the, 819.
Colossochelys atlas, a gigantic fossil species
of tortoise, GOG.
Colour of negroes, 6.
Culnber teaculapii, the ^sculapian snake,
635.
Coluber constrictor, the black snake, 636.
Coluber elaphis, a species of snake, 635.
Coluber natrii, the British ringed snake,
633.
Colubrida?, the common harmless snakes, 633.
Colubrina, or colubrine snake?, 629.
Culumba tcnas, the stock-dove ; eolumba
p.ilumbas, the ring-dove, or cushat; eol-
umba turtur, the turtle-dove ; eolumba
livia, the rock-dove, various other species,
532 et seq.
Columba^, the doves,' an order of birds, in-
cluding pigeons, the dodo, &c., 532 et seq.
Columbida?, oi true pigeons ; chai'acteristics,
habits, &c., of the, 533.
Colugo, the, 64.
Colymbida;, the divers, a family of natorial
birds, 591.
Colymbinir, a sub-family, or true divers, 393.
Ci)lymbus glacialis, the great northern diver,
593.
Comatutida?, a family of crinoidca, '31.
Cocnb of the hive-bee, 819.
Condor, sarcorhamphus gryph'is, 410.
Condylura, a genus of moles, 81.
Conidfc, a family of gasteropads, 752.
Conirostres, a sub-order of passerine birds,
divided into cij^ht families, 4SG.
ConopidiD, a family of diptera, 809.
Constrictor, the boa, 636.
Conurus caroUnensis, or Carolina parroquet,
525.
Coot, the, fulica atra, 565.
Copepoda, an order of crustacea, 778,
Coppers, the (butterflies), 815.
Coracidae, or rollers, a family of fissiroslral
birds, &c., 438 el seq.
Corallium rubrum, a species of asteroida, 826.
Ciral-reefs, production of, 827.
Curdylophora lacustris,a species of hydroidtc,
Curcodca, a group of bugs, 800.
Cormonmt, the European, 595.
Cormorant, the fishing, 506.
Cormorants, various species of, 525 ct seq.
Corn-crake, the, 566.
Cornea of the eye, 10.
Cornish chouch, 494.
Cum- weevil, the, calan'dra granaria, 821.
Corvido;, or crows, a family of conirostral
birds, 489 et seq.
Corvinrc, the true crows, 489.
Corvus, species of; C. coronr*, the carrii>n
crow ; C, splcndcns, the Indian crow ; C.
corax, the raven; C. comix, the hooded
crow; C. frugilegus, the rook; C. mone-
duh, the jackdaw, 489 et seq.
Corvmorpha nutans, a species of hydroidto,
825.
CorynidsB, a sub-family of the hydroidfp, 825,
Coryphrona hippurus, the dorado, 700.
Coryphnenidii , a family of acauthoptcrous
fishes, 709.
C^ryphiuni longicorne, a species of Crustacea,
779.
Corythaix, a genus of conirostral birds, the
touracos, 487.
Cottus, a genus offish, the bull-heads, 703.
Coturnix, dactylisonans, the common quail,
548.
Couroucous, or trogonidaj, a family of fissi-
rostral birds, 43G.
Coursers, the cursonnaa, a sub-family of plo-
vers, 578.
Couscous, or cuscus, a species of phalanges,
361.
Couxio or jacketed monkey, 53.
Cow-bird, the, or American yellow-billed
cuckoo, 501.
Cow-pen bird, molothrus pecoris, a species of
starling, 461.
Cowry, or cowrie-shells, 752.
Ci)w-troopials, 501.
Coypu, the, myopotamus coypu, 183.
Crab, the calling, 786.
Crab, the common edible, cancer pagurus, 7S4.
Crab, the hermit, 783.
Crab, the king, or Molucca, 783.
Crab, the land, gegarcmus, 785.
Crab, the pea, pinnotheres, 785.
Crab, the porcelain, 783.
Crab, the small common, carcinus mcenas,
785.
Crab, the spider, 784.
CracidiB, or curassow family, rasoriol birds,
553.
Crake, the corn, cres pratensis, 566.
Crane, the crowned, 535.
Crane, the Numidian, or demoiselle, 585.
Cranes, or gruida;, various species of, 584.
Crangonidfc, a family of macrurous decapods,
including shrimps and prawns, 782.
CraniidiB, a group of mollusca, 742.
Cranium or skull of vertebrated animals, 3, 4.
Crax alector, the common cutSssow ; eras
rubra, the red curassow; and crax globi-
cera ; rasorial birds, 558.
Cray-fish, the, 775, 782.
Creeper, the brown ; foot, wing, head and
tail of the ; the wall, tichodroma muraria,
441 et seq.
Creepers, or certhid(e, a family of tenuiros-
tral birds, 441,444.
Creseis subulata, a pteropodous mollusc, 731.
Crested seal, I'iO.
Crex pratensis, the corn-crake, 566.
Cricetus vulgaris, the common hamster, 180.
Cricket, the common, acheta domcstica, 802.
Cricket, tlie field, acheta campestris, 802.
Cricket, the mole, gryllotalpa vulgaris, 802.
Crinoidea, or sea-lUies, an order of the echino-
dermata, 831.
Cristaiella, a species of bryozous molluscoids,
728.
Crocodiles, anatomy, &c., of, 657 et seq.
Crocodiles, Dr. Gray's remarks on distinguish-
ing various species of, G59.
Crocodilus vulgaris, the Nilotic crocodile, &c.,
659.
Crop of rasorial birds, 541.
Cross-bill, the common, parrot and white-
winged, 511, 512.
Cross-bills, the, or loxina?, 511.
Crotalidto, the family of rattlesnakes, 627.
Ciotalus horridus, the rattlesnake, 627.
Crotophagina?, or anis, a sub-family of the
cuckoo?, 515.
Crow-blackbird, the quiscalus versicolor, a
species of starling, 500.
Crows, or corvidEO, 489 ct seq.
Crow, the Alpine, a species of chough, 494.
Crow, the carrion, corvus corone ; the Indian,
corvus splendens; the hooded, corvus cor-
nix, 491.
t I'ow, the king, a species of chatterer, 457.
Crow, the New Zealand, callxas cinerea. 401 .
Crows, the piping, or streperintc, 489.
Crows, the true, corvinm, 491 et seq.
Crows, the fruit, a species of chatterer, 457.
Ciows, the tree, 491.
Crustacea, a class of true articulata, 774 etseq.
Crustacea, circulatory and respiratory organs,
&c., of the, 775.
Crytoprocta, the, 132.
Cryt^talline lens of the eye, 10.
Cteniztc, a kind of spider, the trap-door
spider, 790.
Ccenoid-scale fishes amongst the teleostia,
630.
Cteuophora, a class of radiala, consists of one
order, including two families— viz., the
bcroido; and callianiridce, 829.
Cuckoo family, the cucuhda), ^3.
Cuckoo-fly, a hymeno[>tcrous insect, 202.
Cuclvoo-spit, cause uf, 799.
Cuckoo, the American yellow-billed, or cow-
bird, coccyzus americanus, 515.
Cuckoo, the ground, saurotherinto, 516.
Cuckoo, the pheasant, or lark-heeled, 516.
Cuckoo, the song ; habits, &c., of the, cuculus
canorus, 513.
Cuckoo, the spotted, coccystes glandarius,
Cuculidae, the cuckoos, a family of scansorial
birds, 513.
Cuculina?, the true cuckoos, j15.
Cuculus canorus, common cuckoo, 5l3.
Cud, chewinff of the, 216.
Culcx pipiens, the common gnat, 810.
Culicidif, the gnata, 810.
Cuniculus, the rabbit, 199.
Cup-corals, or cyathophyllidsB, 827.
Curassow, the, crax, 558.
Curassow, the red, crax rubra, 558.
Curlew, the land or stone (see Thick-knco).
Curlew, the, numcnius arquata, 567.
Curruca, species of, C. atricapilla, the black-
cap ; C. hortensis, the garden warbler ; C.
cinerea, the white-throat ; C. BylvielU, iho
lesser white-throat, 483 et seq.
Carsoros, an order of runninfc birds, includ-
ing the ostriches, &c., 559 et aeq.
Cursorial birds, or cursorcs, characteristics,
Fkeleton, plumage, &c., of, 559 et seq.
Cursorius eijropa'us, the crcam-colourcd or
European courser, 578.
Cuscus, or cousous, a species of phalanger, 361.
Cushat, or ring-dove, the eolumba palumbuHi
Cuticle, and cutis, the, 6.
Cuttle-fish, the common, sepia officinalis, 7GG.
761.
Cyauuda", or whale-Hce, a family ofcdriop-
thalmata, 779.
Cyathophyllid:!?, or cup-corals, a family of
helianthoida, R27.
Cyclifera, a group of ganoid fish, 716.
Cyclobrauchiata, a group of gasteropods, 74G.
Cycloid-scale fishes amongst the teleostia, 680.
Cyclometopa, or canceridro, a family of bra-
chyurous decapods (crabs) 784 et srq.
C velopidfp, a family of copepoda, 778.
Cyclopterus lumpus, the lump (i ,h, 712.
Cyclostomata, an order of (i-hes, having two
famiUes, the myxinidoj andpetromyzonido),
Cyclostomidfo, a family of operculated pul-
moniferous gasteropods. "54.
Cydippe, a genus of me<lus:e, 830,
Cygiiinfc, the sub-familv of swans, 611.
Cygnus, atratus, the bla'ck swan, GH.
Cygnus bewickii, a species of swan. 013.
Cygnus ferus, the hooping swan, 012.
Cygnus immutabilis, the I'olish swan, 611.
Cygnus olor, the tame swan, 613.
Cymindis, an eagle, 390.
Cymothoidae, a family of isopoda, 780.
Cynailurus jubatus, the cheetah, or hunting-
leopard, 119.
Cynictis, the, 134.
Cynips insana ; C. quercus ifolii ; C, tormin-
alis ; and C. galla) tinctoria ; species of hy-
menoptera, 817.
Cynocephalus, a genus of monkeys, .the ba-
boons, 46.
Cynomorphous monkeys, 38 ct seq.
Cvnthia cardui, the painted lady-but'.erflr,
815.
Cypra?a raoneta, th* money-cowry, 752.
Cypraea tigris, a species of gasieropods, 752.
Cypr^idaj, a family of gasteropois, "52.
Cypridte, a family of ostracoda, 778.
Cyprinidte, the family of carps, 691.
Cyprlnus auratus, a species of cyprimdfc, the
gold and silver fish, 694.
Cyprinus carpio, the common carp, 694.
Cypselida3, a lamily of birds, the swifts, vari-
ous species, 429 et seq.
Cypselus apus, the common swift, 430.
Cystic worms (cestoidea), 7G3.
Cystophora, proboscidca, the bottle-nosed
seal, or sea-elephant ; C. cristata, the
hooded seal (see Seals).
Cytherea spinosa, a species of mollusc, 732,
738.
D.4E, a fish, C99.
Dabchick, or little grebe, 593.
Dace, the leuciscus vulgaris 69C.
Daceio giga-«, a species of kingfisher, 433.
Daetyloptera, mcditerranca,a species of spiny
fishes, 703.
Daddy-long-legs, the, tipula, 809.
Dama, the fallow-deer, 239.
Daman, or hyrax, 320.
Danais plexippa, a lepidopterous insect, 814.
Dapediidaj, a familv of ganoid fishes. 717.
Daphniada?, a family of ostr^^da, 773.
Darters, the, plotinro, a sub^family of nata-
torial birds, 598.
Dartford warbler, 484.
Dasypodidic, the armadillos, 207 et seq.
Dasvprocta, a genus of rodents, the igoutis,
Id^ct seq.
Dasypus cinctus, the cabassou ; D. gigas, the
great armadillo, or tatu ; D. minutus, 207
et seq.
Dasyurida?, or dasyures, a family of marsu-
pial animals, 306.
Dasyurus ursinus, the "devil," a species of
marsupial animal, 367.
Day-flies, or May-flies, a species of n-urop-
tera, 805. , , . .
Dead se'-applos, a result of the puncture or
an insect, the cynips insana, 818.
Death's-head moth, the, 813.
Dciili-watch, the, a neuroplerous insect, 805,
Death-watch, the, anobium striatum, 820
Decapoda, an order of Crustacea, includinir
the sub-orders macrura, anomura, auv.
brachvura, 781. . . ,
Decapoda, -i section of dibrauchiated cepha-
lopoda, 760.
Dcciduou- teeth, 4, 5.
D^er, or cervidtc, a family of ruminantia, 235
et seq.
Deer, musk. 271 f( .v*/.
Deer, speciin.>n3 of, in the Zoological Gardens,
Loudon, 247.
840
Deilephila elpenor, the elephant hawk-moth,
814.
Delphinidic, or dolphins, 315, SiO.
Dilpliinus dc'lphia, the common dolphin, 316.
Dclundun^, the, 131.
Demoiselles, or dragon-flies, 804.
Demoiselles, or Numidian cranes, 585.
Dcndrolagus, the tree kangaroos, 359.
Beutalirtsc, a family of gasteropods, the com-
mon tooth-shells, 74G.
Dentirostros, a sub-order of paesserine Dirds,
general characters of the, 454 et scrj.
Dentition, see also Teeth.
Dentition of carnivora, 85.
Dentition of felidcc, 109.
Dentition of gibbons, 34.
Dentition of man, &c., 4, 5.
Dentition of monkeys, 38.
Dermestes lardarius, 823.
Dermestida?, a family of coleoptera, 823.
Desmans, or musk-rats, 70.
Devil's coach-horses, 823.
Diamond-beetle, the, curculio imperialis,
822.
Diana monkey, the, 43.
Diaphragm of mammalia, 2 efseq.
Dibranciiiata, an order of cephalopoda,
divided into decapoda and octopoda, 760.
Dicholcstidtc, a family of parasita, 778.
Dicnylcs, the peccavy, 326.
Dieru'rinje, or drongo shrikes, a sub-family
of the chatterers, 457.
Dicrurus niacrocercus. the king-crow, a
species of chatterer, 457.
Dicrurus paradiseus, the kuzar dustan of the
Hindoos, 457.
Diclyoptera, a sub-order of neuropterous
insects, 804
Didelphidic, or opossums, a family of mar-
supial mammals, 3G3.
Didelphys caucrivora. the crab-eatmg opos-
sum ; D. Virginia, the Virginian opossum,
363 et scg.
Diciida;, the dodo, a family of columbcc,
533
Didunculidffi, a family of the columbto, or
doves, 633.
Didunculus strigirostris, 633.
Didus ineptus, the extinct dodo ; didus soU-
tarius, the solitaire; didus nazarenus, a
bird resembling the dodo, 633 et seQ.
Difflugia, agenus of rhizopoda, 833.
Digestive apparatus of birds, the common
fowl, 375.
Digestive organs of fishes, G78.
Digestive organs of insects, 796.
Digestive organs of man, 9.
Digestive organs of birds, 375, 541.
Digitigrada, a section of tlie cavnivora, em-
bracing the dogs, fox, lion, &c., 86.
Dimerosomata, an order of pulmonary arach-
nida, including the spider tribe, 789
DinobryidtE, a f.iniily of infusoria, 834.
DinornidEe, a family of extinct birds, 502.
Dinornis giganteus, ormoa, a gigantic extinct
bird of tlie cursores of New Zealand, 662.
Dinotherium, the, an extinct cetaceous
animal, 333.
Dindon, a genus of plectognathous fish, 714.
Diomedea exulans, the albatross, 602.
Dipioptera, a tribe of hymenopterous insects,
818.
Diplozoon paradoxum, a species of trematoda,
769.
Dipodidte, or jerboas, 172.
Dipper, the, or water-ouzel, 469.
Dipsadidae, a family of colubrine snakes, 633.
Dipteva, divided into three sub-oiders of in-
sects, including flies, &c., the pupipara,
brachycera, and nemocera, 807.
Dipiera, structure and characteristics of the,
807, 808.
DipteridlB, a family of fossil ganoid fishes,
'I'- c ■ ^
Dipus monotarsus, a species of jerboa ; D.
ffieyptius, the Egyptian jerboa, 172 et seq.
Disco'phora, a class of the radiata, 828.
DisMphora, orders of (seeMedus!e),828.
Distomidac, a family of trematoda, 769.
Distribution of animals and plants, 14.
Diurnal Icpidoptera, the rhopalocera, 814.
Diurnal, raptorial birds, 379 et seq.
Diver, the great northern, colymbus glacialis,
593.
Divers, or colymbidcc, 591.
Djiffgetai, the, equus liemionus, 293.
Dodo, the, didus ineptus, an extinct bird of
the dove kind, 533.
Dog, generally, see name of each.
Dog and wolf, hybrid of, 90.
Dog, .Australian, or dingo, 91.
Dog-fish, egg-case and young of the, 719.
Do^'-lishes, or scyllidEC, a family of selachia,
720.
Dog-nosed monkeys, or cynomorpha, 38.
Dog, Cape hunting, lycaon pictus, a species
of fox, 108.
Dog, domestic, canis familiaris, 83 et seq.
Dog, penny, or miller's, a species of shark,
galeus vulgaris (see Sharks).
Dog, prairie, arctomys ludovicianus, 170.
Dog, ray-mouthed, a species of shark muste-
lus laj'vis (see Sllarks).
Dogs, or canidce, 88 et seq.
Dog, origin of, 89, 90, 91.
Dogs, wild, 90.
Dolphin, the common, delphinus delphis, 346.
Dolphin, the Gangetic, or soosook, platanista
gangetica, 346.
Dolphins, or delphinidre, a family of cctacca.
345, 346.
Dorado, the, or dolphin, corypbo-'naliippurus,
709.
INDEX.
Dorcas gazelle, the, 2i9.
Doree, or John-dory, Z'.'us faber, a fish of the
mackerel funnly, 707.
Dorids, a family of gasteropods, 745.
Dormice, or myoxidre, 171 et seq.
Dormouse, mvosus avellanarius, 172.
Dorsal fins of'fishes, G81.
Dorsal vertebra, 2, ct teq.
Douc, or duk, the Cochin-china monkey,
Douroricouli, a species of monkey, 51.
Doves ; head, skin, gizzard, feathers, and
other characteristics of the order, 532.
Doves, or pigeons, various species of, 532
et seq.
Draco, volans, the flying dragon, a species of
lizard, 64S.
Dragonets, callionymus, a genus of acanthop-
terous fish, 712.
Dragon-flies, transformation of the, 806.
Dragon-fiy, illustration of the, 804.
Dragon-fly, the larva of the, fHOG.
Dragon, tiie flying, draco volans, a species of
lizard, 64S.
Dreissena polymorpha, a species of mollusc,
735.
Drill, the, 47.
Dromaius nova:! hollandiEB, the emeu, 5G1.
Dromcd.uy, camelus dromedarius, 218.
Droniiida?, a family of anomurous decapods,
784.
Drone bee, the, 820.
Drongo shrikes, the, 457.
Drum, or tympaum of the ear, 11.
Drummer, blatta gigantca, 803.
Dryobates major, the spotted woodpecker,
519.
Duck, catching the wild, 608.
Duck, family, or anatidie, various species of,
604.
Duck, the canvas-backed, 606.
Duck, common, 608.
Duck, eider, somateria, mollissima, 607,
Duck, gargarney, GU.
Duck, king, somateria spectabilis, 607,
Duck, the mandarin, 611.
Duck, long-tailed, 606.
Duck, piu-tail'ed, 6U9.
Duck, the wild, anas boschas, 603.
Dugong, skeleton of the, 339.
Dugong, the,* ..alicore cetacea, 349.
DLing-beetles, 788, 822.
Duodenum, the, 9.
Dusky paca, 194.
Dynastes hercules, a coleopterous insect,
823.
Dytiscus marginalis, or great water-beetle,
823.
Eagle, golden, aquila cbrysaetos, &'^., 379.
Eagles, Pondieherry, and harpy, 379 et seq.
Eagle, owl, 415.
Eagle, the Bateteur, 412.
Ears of birds, 12, 376.
Ears of crustacen, 775.
Ears of fishes, 678.
Ears of mammalia, 11.
Ears of man 12.
Ears of moles, 74.
En-sof owls, 412.
Ears of vertcbrata, 11.
Earth-wolf, or aardwolf, 136.
Earth-worm, a species of annelidoB, 771.
Earwig, the, 804.
Echidna hystrix, and E. setosa, species of
porcupine-eaters, 355.
EchidnidtD, a family of aplaceutal mammals,
the porcupine-eaters, 355.
Echinida, families of; sea-urchins, embrac-
ing cidarid^, clyncastrida?, cassidulidte,
and spatangida?, 831.
Ecbinodermata, a cCass of radiata, divided
into four orders— viz., the crinoidea, stcl-
lerida, echinida, and holotburida, 830.
Echinoinys, a genus of sanrt-i-ats, 185.
Echinus, anatomy of the, 830,'
Ectopistes migratorius, the passenger pigeon,
539.
Edentata, an order of mammalia, embracing
the armadillo.^, ant-eaters, sloths, &c., 201
et f^eq.
Edentala, insectivorous, 207 et seq.
Edriopbthabnata, a sub-class of Crustacea,
with orders leemodipoda, amphipoda, and
isopoda, 779.
Eel-pout, or burbot, a species of spineless
fish, 698.
Eel, the conger, 6S2.
Eel, the electrical, 682.
Eels from paste, anguillulidEe, 770.
Eels, the common edible, the miu'cenidce,
681.
Eggs and embryo of birds, 37G, 377.
Egyptian cat, 121.
Egyptian fox, 105.
Eider-down and the eider-ducli, G07.
Eland, the, boselaphus oreas, 25G.
Elaphus or cervus, the stag tribe, 242
et seq.
Elapidae, a family of colubrine snakes, 629.
Elateridse, a family of coleoptera, 821.
Electrical eel, the gymnotus elcctri' us, 682.
Electrical organs of the torpedo, 723.
Eli'Ctric rays, or torpedinidcc, 723.
Elephant hawk-moth, the, 813.
Elephant, trunk of the Indian, 306.
Elephantidse, or elephants, a lamily of thick-
skinned animals, 304 et seq.
Elephant's tooth, a species of gasleropod, the
dcntaliura entalis, 74G.
Elephants, the Indian and African, 304 ct
I seq. ; white 311.
Elephant-seal or bottle-nose, IGl.
Elephas indicus and E. at'ricanus, the Indian
and African elephants, 304 et seq.
Elephas primigenius, the mammoth, 313.
Elk, or raoosedeor, 236, and the Irish, 240.
Elytra of insects, 795.
Elytra, the horny wing of the coleoptera, or
beetles, 820.
Eraberiza miliaria, the corn bunting ; em-
beriza hortulana, the ortolan, 509.
Emberizinae, or buntings, 509.
Emeu, dromaius novcD boUandice, 561.
Empidae, a family of diptera, 809.
Emydidffi, a family of the turtles, 664 .
Enaliosauria, a group of fossil reptiles, 650.
Enallostegidffi, a family of rhizopoda. 833,
Enchelina, a sub-family of infusoria, 835.
Encrinidce, or sea-lilies, a family of ecbi-
nodermata, 831.
English hound, the, 97.
Engraulis encrasicolus, the common anchovy,
GSG.
Enhydra lutris, the sea otter, 145.
Entellus, or sacred monkey, 39.
Entomophaga, a tribe of hymenoptera, 818.
Entomostraca, a sub-class of Crustacea,
776,777.
Entozoa, or internal parasitic verme.=!, 769.
l^peira diadema, the garden spider, "89.
Ephemera vulgata, the May-fiy, 808.
EphemeridaJ, neuropterous insects, 805.
Epidermis, the, 6.
Epimacbus, a genus of tenuirostral birds,
resembling, in plumage, the birds of para-
dise, 453.
Epistyiis nutans, a genus of vorticellidae, 835.
Equida?, the horse family, or solidungula,
various species, 291.
Equus asinus, the ass, 291.
Equus caballus, the horse, 291 ef seq.
Equus hemionus, the djiu'setai, 298.
P^quus zebra, the zebra, 300,
Erinaceiiis, or hedgehogs, the 75, 82.
Erinaceus, europceus, the common hedgehog,
82.
Eriomys laniger, the chinchilla, 190.
Ermine, or stoat, the, 136.
Errantia, an order of annelida, having the
following families — viz., arenicoUdte, aph-
roditidaj, nercidEe, eunicid^, peripatidae,
and polyophthalmida?, 771 et seq.
Erythacin®, the robins, 478 et seq.
Erythacus rubecula, the robin-redbreast, 478.
Eryx, a genus of snakes, 639.
Esocida3, the family of pikes, 693.
Esox lucius, the common pike, 693.
Esquimaux, the, 17.
Esquimaux dog, 92, 93.
Ethnology as a science, 15.
Englena, a genus of infusoria, 834.
Euglypba, a genus of rhizopoda, 833.
Eunice, a genus of annelida, 770.
Euuicida>, a family of errantia, 772.
European wolf, 102.
Euryalidce, a family of stellerida, 831.
Eurybia, gaudichaudii, a species of pteropo-
dous mollusc, 743.
Eurvlaiminae, a sub-family of fissirostral birds,
432.
Eustachian tube of the ear, 11.
Evaniidse, a family of hymenoptera, 818.
Excretions, animal, 10.
ExocoGtus exiliens, &c., the flying-fishes, 701.
Eyes of birds, 11, 12, 376.
Eyes of felida, HI.
Eyes of fishes, 678.
Eyes of insects, 11, 793.
Eyes of mammalia, 11. "',
Eyes of man, 10.
Eyes of moles, 74.
Eyes of reptiles, 624.
Face, and facial angle, 3, 4.
Ealco peregrinus, the peregrine falcon; F.
gyr-falco, the gyr, jer, or Iceland falcon ;
F. subbuteo, or hobby ; F. a^salon, ^the
merlin; F. vcspertlnus, the red-legged fal-
con ; F. tinnunculus, the kestrel ; F. pere-
grinator, the sultan falcon, or shahecn ;
F. juggur, the luggur or juggur; and
F. lanaiius, the lanner, 393 et seq.
Falcon, the peregrine, 393.
Falconidco, or hawks, a family of diurnal
raptorial birds, 379 et seq., 303.
Falcouina?, the true falcons, 393.
Falconry, 395.
Falcons, the true, or noble, falconinae, various
species of, 393 et seq.
Fallow-deer, 239.
Families, definition of the term, 2 et seq.
Fangs of venomous snakes, 622.
Fat vesicles, 7.
Feather, anatomy, &c., of a bird's, 371 et seq.
Feet and toes of birds; the falcon, bustard,
parrot, gannet, and fowl, 374.
Feet of banxiing, 84.
Feet of camel, 219.
Feet of llama, 223.
Feet of mammalia, 2 et seq.
Feet of oxen, 269.
Feet of reindeer, 233.
Foet of shrews, 7 4.
Keet of water-birds, 5S8.
Fclida;, or cats, a family of carnlvoia, era-
bracing the lion, tiger, &c., 85, 109, ct scg.
116.
Fehs tigris, the tiger ; F. Icopardus, the
leopard ; F. onca, the jaguar ; F. concolor,
the puuia ; F. catus, iho Biiiish wild cat ;
F. maniculata, the Nubian wild cat; F.
caracal, the caracal ; F. scrval, the scrval ;
F. chaus, the chaus, &c., 116 et seq.
Femur, or thigh-bone, the, 2, S.
Fennec, the megalotis, a species of fox, 107.
Fern-owl, or nightjar, 420.
Ferret, the, mustela furo, 136.
Fibrine, 7.
Fibula of the leg, 2, 3.
Fieldfare, the turdus pilaris, 467.
Field mouse, the, 178.
Filaria medineusis, a epecies of nematoidea,
770.
Finches ; foot, wing, head, and general
characteristics of the, 502.
Finches, the true, 506.
Finch-larks, the, pyrrhulaudee, 510.
Fin-fish, or rorqual, a species of whale, 343.
Fingers, phalanges of the, 2, 3.
Fins of fishes, 677 et seq.
Fire-flies, 799.
Firolidaj, a family of heteropodus molluscs,
745.
Fishes, characters of the class, including their
organs, locomotion, nervous, respiratory,
and circulating systems, &c. (see also
names of each), 676 et seq.
Fish, gold and silver, cyprinus auratus, a
species of cyprinidfe, or carp, 694.
Fish-hawk, or osprey, the, 384.
Fishing-frog, the angler, or sea-devil; the
lophius piscatorius, 713.
Fishes, locomotion of, 14.
Fissirostres, a sub-order of passerine birds,
having a large gape, usually furnished
with bristles, 419 et seq.
Fissirostres nocturnae, a name given to the
goat-suckers, 420.
Fissurellida?, »family of gasteropoti=, 748.
Flamingoes, or pbcenicopterinee, 618.
Flat-fishes, or pleuronectidce, 699,
Flea, pulex irritans, the common, 807.
Flesh-fly, the, a dipterous insect, 803.
Flounder, the, platessa flesus, 699.
Fluke, dlstoma hepaticum, 7G9.
Flustra^, or sea-mats, 728.
Flycatchers, or muscicapida?, various species
of, 460 et seq.
Flying-fish, the, a species of triglidae, 703.
Flying-fish, the, exoccetus, a genus of mala-
copterygious fish, 701.
Fly, flc>h, a dipterous insect, 808.
Fly, house, a dipterous insect, 808.
Flying lemur, 58, 64.
Flying phalangcr, 361.
Flying sqirrel, 168.
Fcenus, a genus of hymenoptera, 820.
Forficula, the earwig, a species of cursorial
orthoptera, 804.
Forficulina, a tribe of cursorial .orthoptera,
including the earwig, 804.
Foot-jaws of the crustacea, 775.
Foot of the felidiP. 109.
Forest-fliea, a family of diptera, SOS.
Formicarinae, or ant-thrushes, 669.
Fossil-lizard, 650.
Fossil marsupials, 367.
Fossils of carnivora, 155, 156.
Fossils of cetacea, 350.
I ossils of horse, 301.
Fossils of pacbydermata, 333, 337.
Fossils of quadrumana, 80.
Fossoria, a tribe of hymenoptera, 81S.
Fowl, the gallus domesticus, 553.
Fowl, the jungle, gallus baukivus, 553.
Fox-hound, the, ^JG.
Fux-shark, ithc, or thresher, carcharias
vulpes, 721.
Fox, the commc ., 104; Arctic, 106; Cape, &c.
{see names of each), 104-108.
Francolins, franeolinus vulgaris, &c., a genus
of grouse, 548.
Fratercula arctica, the puffin, 590.
Fregilus graculus, cornish cliough, 494.
Friar-bird, tropidorbyncbus corniculatus, 449.
Frigate-bird, the, tachypetes aquilus, 597.
Fringiila ca-lebs, the chaftinch, 503.
FiingillidcB, or finch family, 502.
Fringillina?, the true finches, 506,
Frog, development of the, 674.
Fiog-rains, cause of supposed, 674.
Frog, the bull, rana pipiens, 674.
Frog, the edible, rana esculenta, 674.
Frog, the fishing, 713.
Frogs, the tree, hylides, 674.
Frontal arch of vertebrated animals, 2 et seq.
Fruit crows, the, 457.
Fulgorina, a tribe of homoptera, 799.
Fulica atra, the coot, 565.
Fuliguliiiic, or pochards, 606.
Fulmar, the, fulmarus glacialis, 604.
Fuugije, a species of coral polypi, 827.
Fungida;, a family of helianthoida,.827,
Furnariua?, or oven birds, 445.
Fur of some mammalia, 6.
Furzeling, furze wren, or Dartford warbler,
484.
G.A,D-rLiES, or breeze-flies, 809.
Gadidie, a f;imilv of spineless fishes, including
the cod-fish, 698.
Galagos, agenus of African lemuroids, 62.
Galaxiida?, a family of salmon-likc fish, 692.
G.ilbuUno3, or jacamars, a sub-family of the
kingfishers, 434.
Galcida;, a family of shark-like fishes, 721.
G ik-opithecidas, or flying lemurs, 33, G4.
Galeus vulgaris, the tope, a species of shark,
721.
Gail-bladder, the, 9.
G.dl-bladder of fishes, 679.
Gad-fly, the, cynips quercu^-folii, 817.
Gallico'la, a tribe of hymenoptera, 817.
Gallinule, galliuula chloropus, a gridlatorial
bird, 5G5.
INDEX.
G-illiwasp, the West Indian, oelestus occi-
duu!», ;i species of lizard, 643,
Gall-nuts produed on the oak. &c., 817.
G.iUus bankivu«, the jungle fowl, 553.
Callus domcsticu^, the common fowl, a mem-
ber of the pheasant familv, 5o3.
Gamasidae, a family of acarina, 783.
Gammarida?, a family of amphipod;^, 770.
Gantjlia, and the nervous system of molluscs,
725.
Ganglia of the nervous syBtem of insects, 795.
Ganuets, the, 597.
Ganoidea, an order of fishes, divided into two
sub-orders, the holostea and chrondrostea,
715.
Garangan, the, 134.
Garden warbler, 483.
Garfish, or sea-pike, sea-needle, a malacop-
terygious fish, 701.
Garrulincp, or jays, a sub-family of crow?, 490.
Gastcrophilus cqui, a dipterous insect, 803.
Gasteropoda, a class of niollusca, di\1dcd into
two sub-cLisscs, the heteropoda and gas-
teropoda prop'?r, 713.
Gasteropoda proper, a sub-class of moUusca,
divided iuto the branchifera and pulmoni-
fera, 745.
Gasterosteus, a genus of fish, the stickleback,
703.
Gasterosteus spinachia, or fiftcen-spiued
stickleback, 703.
Gastric juice, the, 9.
Ga=tropacha quercifolia, the oak-lappet moth,
813.
Gavial, or Gangetic crocodile, 660.
Gayal, 282.
Gazella dorcas, the gazelle; G. euchore, the
springbok; G. pygarga, the bontcbok ; G.
albifrons, the blesbok, &c., 249 ct scq.
Gecininre, a sub-family of woodpeckers, 516.
Geckos, the, geckotid03, a family of pachy-
glossal liz irds, G16.
Gecko verus, the true gecko, 646.
Geese, the sub-family, anserinio, various spe-
cies of, 614 et seq.
Gegarcinus, or land crab, 785.
Gelasimi, a kind of land crabs, 786.
Gemmation, a process of propagation, 727.
Gemmiparoits zooids, 835.
Gemmules 834.
Genet, genetta vulgaris, IJl.
Genus and genera, definition of the terms, 1 et
seq.
Gecuies, or land bugs, 800.
Gcodephaga, a tribe of colooptcra, 820.
Geophilidcc, a family of mynapoda, 791.
Georhycidte, the mole-rat; G. capensis, the
Cape mole-rats, 184.
Geosaurus, a fosMl lizard, 652.
Geospiza, a genus of birds of the grosbeak
kind, 505.
Gooiiupidac, a family ofcoleoptera, 821.
Gephyrea, a proposed order of annelida, 771.
Gerbilles, the, or merionides, a genus of ro-
dents, 175.
Gerres rhoinbeus, a speeies of acanthoptcvous
fish, 706.
Geryonido?, a family of medusa;, 829.
Gibbons, the, hylobates, 34.
Gibbon, agile, 36.
Gibbon, silvery, 36.
Giblon, white-handed, 36.
Gills of fishes, office and connection of, 8, 6*8.
Giraffe, or camelopard, 227.
Giraffe, skeleton of, 217.
Gizzard of birds, 375, 541.
Glandular organs, 6. »i
Glareola, pratincola, the collared pratincole,
582.
Glareolince, the pratincoles, 582.
Gla^s-snake, the, 643.
Glaucus lorsteri, a species of gasteropodous
mollusc, 745.
Glomeridte, s family of myriapoda, 792.
Glow-worm, the, lanipyris noctiluca, 822.
Glutton, or wolverine, the gulo luscus, 138.
Gtyptodon, the, an oxtiuct species of eden-
tate mammalia, 207.
Gnat, the common, cuius pipiens, 810.
Gnu, the, catoblcpas gnu, 258.
Goat, the eommon, and other species of the,
259 et seq.
Goatsucker, bristles on the head, 419.
Goatsuckers, caprimulgidae, a family of fi.ssi-
rostral birds, 419.
Gobadse, a family of acanthopterous fishes,
712.
Gobius, an acanthopterou? fish, 712.
Godwit, the, limosa melanura, 570.
Gocrius olens, a coleopterous insect, 823.
Gold and silver fish, cyprinua auratus, a
species of cyprinidee, 694.
Gold-crested wren, 4S5.
Golden eagle, foot of the, 379.
Goldfinch, the, carduelis elegans, 507.
Goosander, mergus merganser, 605.
Goose, the grey, anser ferus ; the white-
frontod, anser albifrons ; the bean, anser
segetum; the bernicle, anser bernicla, &c.,
614 et seq.
Goose, the soland, or gannet, 597.
Gordiacea. an order of nematelmia, 769.
Gorgonidoo, a family ofasteroida, 826.
Gort;on's head, euryalidEB, a species of echi-
noderniata, 831.
Gonlla, general cnaracters, foot, &c., of the,
2 J et seq.
Gorilla and man, compared anatomically, in
the skeleton, &c., 20,22.
Goshawk, the, astur palumbarius, 400.
Gour, thp, 283.
Gourami, o&phromenuBolfax, an acanthop-
terous fi»b, 711.
GouridEB, or ground-pieeons, a family of the
columbtB, or doves, 535.
Gorinda, a species of kite, 403.
Graculinas, the gralkes, a sub-family of the
starlings, 499.
Grallatores, or wading birds, an order of the
class aves, embracing the rails, snipe.'',
herons, &c., 56 i.
Grampus, phociona orca, a cetaceous animal,
338, 345.
Grantia compressa, a species of sponge, 833.
Graphiurc, the Cape, 172.
Grasshoppers, British, 801.
Grayling, the, thymallus vulgaris, 692.
Gi'obes, the, podicipin?e, a tribe of natatorial
birds, 592.
Green-bone, or mackerel-guide, the, belone
vulgaris, 701.
Greenland shark, scymnus borealis, 721.
Greenlets, the, vireoniniE, 460.
Green monkey, the, 43.
Gregarinaj, a parasitic infusoria, 836.
Greyhound, the, 9t, 95.
Grey mullet, the, mugil capito, 711.
Griffon, the, gvpaetus barbatus, 403.
Giison, the, 139.
Grosbeak, or hawfinch, cocothraustcs tuI-
garis, 505.
Grosbeak, the cardinal, cardinalis virgiai-
anus, 506.
Ground-cuckoos, 516.
Ground-pigeons, or gouridee, 535.
Grouse, or tetraouidae, various species of,
511 et scq.
GruidsB, the cranes, 534 et seq.
Grus cinerea, common crane, 535.
Gryllina, a tribe of orthoptera, SOI.
Guacbaro, steatornis caripeiisis, or South
American oil-bird, 422, 423.
Guan, the, peuelope, a species of curassow,
558.
Guanaco, the auchenia guanaco, 224.
Guazuti, a species of deer, 245.
Guenons, a species of monkey, 42,
Gudgeon, the, 695.
Guereza, a species of monkey, 41.
Guillemots, a bird of the genus uria, 5^0.
Guinea-fowl, the numida meleagris,550,
Guinea-pig, the cavia aperaea, 196.
Guitguits, or coeribinae, the guitguits, a sub-
family of sun-birds, 451.
Gulls, the laridcc, 600 et seq.
Gulo luscus, the glutton, 133.
Gurnard, the, 703.
Gyall, the, 2H2.
Gymnetrus banksii, a' species of ribhon fish,
710.
Gymnoderinje, or fruit crows, 457.
Gymnophthalmata (naked-eyed), an order of
the jnedustB (discophora), ol which the
families are six— viz., the sarsidse, geryo-
nidoe, cireeidae, cequondcc, oceanidae, and
wiilsidae, 829.
Gymnorhina tibicea, or flute-player, a species
of crow, 641.
Gyranosomata, an order of pteropodous mol-
luscs, 742,
Symnotidse, a family of physostomatous
fishes, including the gymnoti, or electrical
eels, 682.
Gymnure, a species of insectirora, 83.
Gypaiitinee, the bearded vultures, 408 et seq.
Gypaetus barbatus, the griffon, or bearded
vulture, 337.
Gyps fulvus, the tawny vulture, 408.
Gyr-falcon, the, 397.
Gyrini, or whirligigs, 824.
Haddock, the, morrhua asglefinus, 693.
Ha>matopodinse, a sub-family of the plovers,
578.
Hajmatopus ostralegns, the oyster-catcher,
573.
Hsematornis, a genus of eagles, 385.
Hag, the myxine glutinosa, a fish, 680.
Hairs of mammalia, 6.
Hair-stars, aspccies of crinoidea, 831.
Hake, the foiked, thycis furcatus, 6J3.
Haliaetus albiciUa, the white-tailed sea-
eagle ; H. leucocephalus, the bald eagle
(see Eagles).
Halibut, the, 699.
Halicliondria oculata, a marine species of
sponge, 834.
Halicore cetacea, the dugong, 350.
Haliotidae.a family of gasteropods, 743.
Haltercs, or balancers of insects, 495.
Hammer-headed shark, 721.
Hammer-oj'ster, malleus vulgaris, 731.
Hamsters, the cricetus, a genus of rodents,
180.
Hapalidae, or marmosets, a family of American
monkeys, 55.
Hare, the Cape-leaping, 175.
Hare, the common, lepus timidus ; the Alpine
hare, L. variabilis, 193 et seq.
Hares, or Icporidse, a family of rodent mam-
maha, 198 et seq.
Hares, the calling, lagomye, 200.
Harp-seal, the, 159.
Harpyia destructor, the harpy eagle of South
America, 385.
Harrier, dogs, 90.
Harriers, or circinse, a sub-family of rap-
torial birds, 405.
Harvest-men, (see Spiders).
Harvest-mouse, 179.
Iliwk-owls, 416.
ILiwtinch, orcnsbeak, 505.
iiawking, or falconry, ancient history, laws,
illustrations of, 395.
Hawk's-bill turtle (see Turtles).
Hawks, the American swallow-tailed, nau-
clerus furcatus, and other species, 899
et seq.
Head, jaws, Mornf!, stomach, &c., of the
ruminantta, 210 et seq.
Head of camel, 220,
Head of camelopard, 22S.
Head of crocodiles, &3., 657.
Head of whale, porpjisc, &c., 33^.
II earing, organs of, in vcrtebrata, 11.
Hearing org ns (see names of animals).
Heart of fls .-3, 678.
Heart of ma.i. 8.
Heart of vertc -pated a .imals, 8 et s*q.
Hedgehogs, the, or crin*ceinae, 81,
Hedge-sparrow, 479,
Helianthoida, divided into seven families—
viz., the madroporidtB, cyalhophillidte,
astrexidte, fungidre. zoauthidte, octiniadce,
and lucernaridce, 826.
Helictdco, land-snails, 751.
Helmet-shells, the cassis, 751.
Helmintha (see Vermes) 767.
Hemimctabola, a sub-class of insects, 793.
Helocera, a tribe ofcoleoptera, 823.
Heloderma horridum, the calictepon, 616.
Hemerobiidco, a family of neuropterous in-
sects, 806.
Hemimetabola, a sub-class of insects, 802,
Hemippe, a species of ass, 298.
Hcmiptera (sec llhyncota) 798.
Hemiiamphus, or under sword-fish, a genus
of malacopterygii, 701,
Heniochus monocerus, a species of acantho-
pterous fish, 706.
Hermellidiu, a family of tubicola, 771.
Hermit crabs, 783.
Heron family, or ardeidae, grallatorlal birds,
various species of, 572 ct seq.
Herons, the true, ardcinae, a sub-family of
grallatorlal birds, 576,
Herpestes griseus, the mungoo, 630.
Ilerpestes ichneumon, the ichneumon, 133.
Herring (common), clupea harengus, migra-
tion, fishery, &c., 634.
Hessian fiy, cedidomyia destructor, 810.
Heterocera, a sub-order of lepidopterous in-
sects, 812.
Heterogyna, a tribe of aculeate hymenoptera,
813.
Heteromera, a section of colefjwf ?ra, divided
into trachelia and atrachelia, T2.
Heteropoda, a sub-class and order of gastero-
podous molluscs, 744.
Heteroptera, a sub-order of insects, 800.
Himantopus melanopterus, the stilt, 571.
Hippidae, a family of anomurous decapods.
783.
HippohoscidsB, or forest-flies, 808.
Hippocampus, or sea-horse, the, 713.
Hippoglossus vulgaris, the halibut, 699.
Hippopotamidae, a family of thick-skinned
animals, the hippopotamuses, or river
horses, 314 et seq.
Hippopotamus amphibius; H. senegalensls,
314 et seq.
Hippopus maculatus, a species of mollusc, 736,
HirudinidsB leeches, a family of suctoria, 770.
Hirundinidae, the swallow family, various
species of hirundo, 426.
Hirundo rufa and H. viridis, two American
species of swallow, 427.
Histeridffi, a family of coleopterous insects,
820.
Hive bees, 819.
Hoatzin, opisthoconus cristatus, a conlrostral
bird, 489.
Hobby, the, a kind of falcon, 397.
Hog-tribe, or suidaB, 325, et seq.
Hollow-horned ruminantia, or cavicomia,
247 et seq.
Holocephata, a sub-order of fishes, of the
'order selachia, 719.
Holostea, a sub-order of ganoid fishes, 716.
Holothurida, an order of echinodermatu, 832.
HomalopsldSB, a family of colubrine snakes,
633.
Homolidae, a family of anomurous decapods,
784.
Honioptera, a separate, or suh-order of
insects (see Rhyncota), 798.
Honeycomb of bees, 819.
Honey-dew (see Aphides), _
Honey-eaters, or meliphagidce, 447.
Honey-guides, or indicatorinae, 516.
Hooded snakes, 632.
Hoofs of animals, 6.
Hoolook, a species of quadrumana, 37.
Hoonuman, or sacred monkey, 39.
Hooter, the wild swan, 012.
Hooting owls, 415.
Hoopoes, or upupidse, a family of tenulrostral
birds, 452.
Horns of animals, 6, see also names of horned
animals.
Hornbills, or buccridEB, a family of conlros-
tral birds, 486.
Horned snakes, cerastes hasselquistil, 629.
Hornet, the, 818.
Horns of stag, 236.
Horse-shoe bats, 71.
Horse, the, cquus caballus, wild, Arabian, &c,,
291 et seq.
Hounds, various species of dog, 96.
House dogs, Koman, &c., 100,
Howlers, the, mycetes, a genus of American
monkeys. 50.
Humble bee, the, 819.
Humerus, or arm bone, the, 2 et seq.
Humming-birds, or trochilidse, a family of
lenuirostres, 443 et seq.
Hungal, or Cashmenan deer, 247.
HysBua striata, the striped, or laughing
841
hyotna, 127 ; n. crocuta, the spottec
hvoena, 129; II. villosa, the vlllose hy«na,
129 ; H. spcloeus, the cave hyiena. 129.
Hyeenas, iho 127 et seq.
Hyienida), the hyDonad, 87, 127 el seq.
Hyalea, pteropodous mollusc, 743.
Hyboiidto, a family of diptcra, 809.
Hybrid of dog and wolf, 90.
Hybrid of lion and tiger, 114.
Hydatina senta, a species of roUfcra, 773.
Hydra, tentacles, organs, propagation, &c.,
of the, 825.
Ilydracbnida;, or water-mltci', 788.
Hydradcphaga, a tribe of calcoptera, 823.
Hydrochicrus capybara, the capybara, 190.
Hydrocores, or water-bugs, 800.
Hydroida, divided Into three families— vir.,
the hydrldae, scrtularidas, and tubutarido?,
824,
Hydromya, the, 181.
Hydrophidao, or sca-snakcp, 033.
Hydrosaurus bellii, a species of lizard, 616.
Hydrous piccus, a tribe of coleoptcra, 823.
Hyla tincioria, a frog, 075.
Hylides, the tree frogs, 674.
Hylobates, the, or gibbons, 34 et seq.
Hylurgus piniperda, 821.
Hymenoptera, characteristics of insects ar-
ranged under the order, divided into two
suborders, the securifcra and pctiolat.i, 815.
Hyoid bone, the, 2 et seq.
Hyperidte, a family of ainphipoda, 779.
Uypochthon anguinus, or proteus, 663.
Ilypsiprymnus, the kangaroo rats, 359.
Hyracida), the family of the hyrax, 320.
Hyras capensis, the Cape hyrax or badger ;
hyrax arboreus ; hyrax doroalis ; and hyrax
syriacus, the bhaphan or *' cony " of the
Uible, 320, 321.
HysiricidiB, or porcupine.', 189.
Hystrix cristata, the common porcupine, 189.
Ianthinid.b, a family of gasteropodous mol-
luscs, 748.
Ibex, the common, capra ibex, 261.
Ibij.iu, a kind of goatsucker, 420.
Ibises, the, tantalinra, a eub-family of the
heron tribe, 573.
Ibis falcinellus, the glossy ibis, 573.
Ibis religiosa, the white or sacred ibis, 573.
Ibis rubra, the scarlet ibis, 574.
Ibycter, the aquilme, 388.
Ichneumon, the, a mammal, various species.
133.
IchneumonidEO, a family of hymenoptera,
818.
Ichthyosaurus, a genus of saurian fossil rep-
tiles, G'.3.
Icterins, a group of American starlings, 500.
Idotheidae, a fannly of isopoda, 780.
Iguanidaj, a family of lizards, various species
of, 647 et seq.
Ilium, the, 2.
Imago state of an insect, 796.
Impophoo, or eland, a species of antelope.
256.
Incubation of eggs of birds, 377.
Indian varieties of man, Asiatic, African, &c.,
19-21.
IndicatoriufB, or honey-guides, various spe-
cies of, 516.
Indri, indris brevlcaudatus, a species of
lemur, 60.
Infundibulata, an order of bryozous moUus-
coids, 723.
Infusoria, a class of the protozoa, general
characters, &c.,,834.
Ink-bag of the cephalopoda, 757.
Insecta, or insects, a class of articulata, di-
vided into three sub-classes— viz., the
ametobola, hemimetobola, and metabola,
7d2etseq.
InsectiTora, an order of mammalia, embracing
the moles, shrews, hedgehogs, &c., 74 et
seq.
Insectivorous edentata, armadillos, &c., 207.
Insects, their organs, functions, general cha-
racteristics, &e., 793 ct seq.
Insects, larva, pupa, and imago conditions of.
796.
Insects, sub-classes, orders, &c,, o., 7i)7,
Insessores, a section of birds, embracing the
orders columb^-E ; scansorcs ; pa.-iseres ; and
raptures (see also Passeres), 378, 419 etteq.
Incisor teeth, 4, 5.
Intestines of vertebrata, 8 et seq.
Intestines, the small, 9.
Irishelk, the, 241.
Ins of the eye, 10.
Ischium, the, 3,
Islands, coral, formation oi, 827'
Isopoda, an order of edriophiualmata, divided
Into three sections, the cureoiial, natatorial,
and sedentary, 779.
Italian wolf-dogs, 97.
Itch-mite, tJie.733.
lulidas, a family of myriapoda, 791.
Ivory from the tusks of ek-phauts, 303.
Ixodidffi, a family of acarina, 733
jADtnus, a species of hcrou, 575.
Jacamars, or galbulinre, a <:ub-family of the
kingtishers, 434.
Jacana, parra jacana, 560.
Jackal, the cutumon, and black-backed, 104.
Jack-iss, penguin, 588.
Jackdaw, the, corvus monedula, 49^.
Jacketed m()nkey, or couxio, 53.
Jack-snipe, 567.
Jaoulus laDradorius, the Lafcrad*. •* jumpinf-
mouse, 174.
842
TNDEX.
Jag^uar, the, felix onca, 121.
Japanese, the, 18.
Jaws of carnivora, 85.
Jaws of mammalia, 2.
Jaws of veitebraied animals, 2.
Jay, the blue, cyanums cristatus, 490.
Jay, the common European, 490.
Jay, the sub-family of, garruliiiCB, 489.
Jemlah goat, the, 2C1.
Jerboas, the, or dipodidse, a family of rodents,
various species, 172 c/ &eq.
Jer-falcon, the, 393.
John Dory, a fish of the mackerel family,
tlio zeus faber, 7U7.
Juggur, the, a kind of falcon, 394.
Jugular vein, the, 8.
Kahatt, or proboscis monkey, 39.
Kagu, the, a crane, os7.
Kakapo, strigopshabroptilus, a kind of parrot,
523.
Kaleege, a species of pheasant, 533,
Kalong bat, the, pteropus edulis, 72.
Kanchil, the, tragulus kanehil, a species of
musk deer, 234,
Kangaroo ratf^, 359.
Kangaroo?, species of, 356 ci seq.
Keitloa, the, 319.
Kerodon, a species-of aovy, I9fi.
Kestrel, the, a kind of falcon, 393.
Kiang, a species of ass, 298.
Kidneys (human) of mammal::., &c., 9 et scq.
King-bird, the tjr.innus intrepidus, 4G2.
King-crabs, 778.
King-cruw, the, 457.
King-fish, or opah, 707.
Kingfishers, the alcedinidae, 433 et seq.
King honey-eater (see Kegent-bird), 501.
Kinglet, or golden-crested wren, 485.
King-Tulture, 411.
Kinkajous, the, or cercoleptidiE, 88, 154.
Kites, or milvina?, a sub-family of raptorial
birds, various species, 402 et scq.
Kittacincla macroura, the Indian nightingale,
a species of redstart, 481.
Kiwi-kiwi, the native name of the apterys,
562.
Kleenbok, a species of antelope, 253.
Klippspringers, the, oreotragus, a genus of
antelopes, 255.
Koala, the, phascolarctos cinereus, 362.
Koba, or sing-sing, a species of antelope, 255.
Koodoo antelope, the, strepsiceros koodoo, 256.
Kooloo-kamba, the, a kind of gorilla, troglo-
dytes kooloo-kamba, 2S.
Labium, and labrum of insects (see Insects),
794.
Labrax lupus, the basse, 704.
Labrador dog, 95,96.
Labrador jumping-mouse, 174.
Labridas, a family of acanthopterygious fishes,
701.
Labrus maculatus, the ballan wrasse, 702.
Lac, dye, shell, &c., 798.
Lacerta agilis, lacerta viridi^, and lacerta
ocellata, G44 et srq.
Lacertidffi, the common lizards, 641.
Lady-bird, coccinella 7-punctata, 820.
litemodipoda, an order of Crustacea, 779.
Lagomys, the calling hares (see Hares).
Lagoons (coral), formation of, 827.
Lagopus scoticus, the common or red grouse ;
lagopus vulgaris, the ptarmigan, 515, 546.
Lagostomus trichodactylus, the viscacba, 192.
Lagotps (Cuvier's), or mountain visacha, 191.
Lamellibranehiata, a class of the mollusca
proper, including the oyster, mussel, cockle,
fro., divided into asiphonata and sipUonata,
731.
Lamellicornia, a tribe of coleoptera, 822.
Lammergeyer, a German-Swiss name for the
bearded vulture, 387.
Lamna cornubica, the porbeagle, 721.
Lamna monensis, Beaumaris shark, 721.
Lamnidre, a family of fish, of the order sela-
chia, 721.
Lamprey, the river, 680.
Lamprey, the sea, 680.
Lampris guttatus, opah, or king-fish, 707.
Lampyris noctiluca, the glow-worm, 819.
Land-bugs (see Geocores).
Land-crabs (see Gecarcinus). ' "^
Languages of the human race, 21.
Laniidae, or shrikes, a family of dentii'ostral
birds, 454 et seq*
Lanius coUurio, the red-backed shrike ; L.
excubitor, the gray shrike, 455.
Lanius rutilus, the wood-chat, 456.
I,aplanders, the, 17.
Larino?, or gulls, 600.
Larino", the true gulls, or sea-mews, 601.
Lapwing, crested, vanellus cristatus, 581.
Lark-buntings, plectrophanes, 509.
Lirk, meadow, sturnella, ludoviciana, 500.
Lark, the, sky, shore, and wood, 509.
Larks, the, alaudinsc, 509, 510.
Larva-stale of an insect, 796.
Larynx, the, 8.
Laughing-hawk, 401.
I^aughing jackass, a penguin, 583.
Leaf-cuttmg bee, 819.
Leap of the Kangaroo, 358.
Lecanium ilixis, a species of coccus, 798.
Leech, sanguisuga officinalis, the, 14, 770.
Legs of mammalia, 2 et s- q.
Leiothiii, a genus of dentirostral birds, 460.
Lcipoa ocellata, the native pheasant of Aus-
tralia, 557.
Lemmings, or myodes, a genus of rodents (see
Rodents).
Lemuridw, or lemurs, various, 57-59.
Lemurs, flying, or galeopithecidee. 58, 64.
Lemuroids, Asiatic, 61 ; African, 62.
Leo africanus ; L. goojrattensis, &c., species
of the lion, 111 et seq.
Leopard, the, felis leopardus, 117.
Leopardus, a feline genus, 121.
Leopard, the hunting, or cheetah, 119.
Lepadidte, or barnacles, a family of cirrho-
poda, 777.
Lepidoptera, an order of insects, divided into
the hcterocera and rhopalocera, general
characters, &c., 810 ct seq.
Lepidoptera, mouth, scales, &c., 810.
I-ei)idopus argyreus, the scabbard-fish, 7 10.
Lcpidosiren paradoxa, and lepidosircn an-
nectens, species of batrachia, 668.
LepidosteidiG, a family of ganoid fishes, 717.
Lepidosteus osseus, the bony pike, a ganoid
fish, 716, 717.
Lepidota, an order of batrachia, 668.
Lepidotidic, a family of ganoid fishes, 717.
Lepismidce, a family of ametabolous insects,
797.
Leporidnp, or hares, a family of rodent mam-
malia, 198 et seq.
Leptocardia, an order of fishes having no
heart, and including but one species, the
amphioxus lanceolatus, 679.
Leptoglossa, a division of the-saurian or lizard
order, with the tongue divided, 641.
Loptoptilus argala, a species of adjutant, 575.
Leptoptilus marabou, a species of stork, 575.
Lcpus timidus, the common hare ; L. euni-
culus, the rabbit; L. variabilis, the Alpine
hure, 198 et seg.
Lernjcida;, a family of parasita, 778.
Lcsot, or garden dormouse, 172.
Lestris, a genus of gulls, 602.
Leuciscus, a genus of cyprinida?, including
the roach, dace, chub, and bleak, 696.
Libellula cancellata, the dragon-fly, 806.
LibellulidcD, a family of neuropterous insects,
the (iragon-flies, 806.
Limacidffi, the slugs, a family of pulmoniferous
gasteropods, 755.
Limacina rostra, a species of pteropodous
mollusc, 743.
Limbs of mammalia, 2 ei seq.
Limnieidffi, or pond-snails, a family of pul-
raoniferou***',;asteropods, 755.
Limnoria teu'brans, a species of isopoda, 786.
Limosa melanura, the godwit, 570.
Limpets, a family of gasteropods, the patel-
lida?, 746.
Limulus, a genus of Crustacea, 778.
Ling, lota molva, a spineless fish, 693.
Lingula anatina, a species of mollusc, 731,
Lingulida?, a group of mollusca, 742.
Linnet, the, liiiota cannabina, 507.
Linota linaria, the lesser redpole, 507.
Lion, skeleton of, 85.
Liun, the, of the genus leo ; species, leo afri-
canus ; L. goojrattensis, &c., Ill et seq.
Liotheidffi, a family of mallophaga (bird-lice),
797.
Littorina littorea, the periwinkle, a gastero-
pod, 749.
Lituites breynii, a species of cephalopoda,
758.
Liver of animals generally, 9. |
Liver of mammalia, 9. ]
Lizard, organs of circulation in a, 640. I
Lizard, the scaly, zootoca vivipara; the 1
green, lacerta viridis, 644.
Lizards, or sauria, 639 et seq.
Lliima, the, auchenia, a genus of the camel
family, 223 et seq.
Llama, the true, auchenia glama, 223.
Loach, the, cobitis, a genus of cypvinidcc,
694.
Loach, the four-eyed, anablebs tetroph-
thalmus, 698.
Lobster, ttie, 782. |
Liibster, the spiny, palinurus, 783. 1
Lob-worui, arcnicola piscatorum, 772. I
Locomotion of animals generally, 13 et seq.
Locomotion of fiahes, 14 (see also Fi-hcs).
Locusta cristata, a species of locust, 801. |
Locusta niigratoria, the common locust, 801. I
Locustina, a tribe of orthopterous insects, I
801. 1
Locust, seventeen-year, 800.
Loligidte, calamaries, or squids, 761,
Longicornia, a tribe of beetles, 821.
Lophiidae, a family of acanthopterous fishes,
713.
Lophiodon, 325.
Lophius piscatorius, the fishing-frog, 713.
Lophobranchi.a a sub-order of fishes, order
teleostia, 713.
Lophoda, an order of bryozous moUuscoids,
728.
LoricariidEe, a family of physostomatous
fishes, 698.
Loricata, an order of vertebrata, including
the crocodiles, alligators, &c., 6o7 etseq.
Loricata, or chondrostea, a sub-order of
ganoid fishes, 717.
Lories, or lorinse, a sub-family of parrots,
524.
Loris, a genus of quadrumana, 61.
Loto molva, the ling, 698.
Loto vulgaris, the burbot, or eel-pout, 693.
Louse, the common, 797.
Loxia curvirostra, the common crossbill ;
L. pityopsittacus, the parrot crossbill ; and
L. Icucoptera, the white-winged crossbill,
511, 512.
Losinae, or crossbills, the, 511.
Lucanus cervus, the stag-beetle, 623.
Lucernarida?, a family of heliiuithoida, 827.
Lucioperca saudra, the sander, 701.
Lumbar vertebrfe, 2.
Lumbricidfe, a family of scolecina, 771.
Lump-flsh, the, cyclopterus lumpus, 712.
Lungs of the apteryx and ostrich, 375.
Lungs of man, &c., 8.
Lungs uf vertebrated animals, 8.
Lurcher, a species of dog, 94.
Lutra vulgaris, the common otter, 143 ; and
L. canadensis, the Canadian otter, 145.
Lycrena?, a butterfly (the blues), 815.
Lycaon pictus, the Cape hunting-dog, 108.
Lycosa tarantula, a species of spider, 79U.
Lycosidir, a family of spiders, 790.
Lyga?Qdea, a group of bugs, 800.
Lymexylon navale, 822.
Lymph and lymphatics, 9.
Lynx, the, 114 ; booted lynx, 125; European
and Canadian, 126.
Lyre-bird, menura superba, 442.
Lytta vesicatoria, the blister-fly, 822.
Macacus, a genus of monkeys, 44.
Macacus inuus, or magot, the Barbary ape, 45.
Macaws, a genus of parrots, various species of,
524 et seq.
Mackerel-guide, the, belone vulgaris, 701.
Mackerel-fishing, methodsof, 707.
JIackerel, the common (scomber scomber),
705-707.
Macrocercu.«, or ara, a genus of parrots, in-
cluding the macaws, various species, 525.
Macropodida?, or kangaroos, 356 ct seg.
Macropus giganteus, the great kangaroo , M.
nemoralis, and M. fruticus, species of kan-
garoo, 356 et seg.
Macroscelides rozeti, a species of animals re-
sembling the shrews, the Sat-a-trompe of
Algeria, 75.
Macrura, a sub-order of decapod Crustacea,
781.
Madagascar monkeys, or lemurs, 57.
Madaoqua, a species of antelope, 252.
Madreporido?. or tree-corals, a family of heli-
anthoida,827.
Ma?andriua ccieDriformis, brain-coral, 827.
Magot, or Barbary ape, 45.
Magpie, 493.
MaiadfB, or sea-spiders, 734.
Maid, the, a kind of ray, 723.
Malacobdellida?, a family of suctoria, 770.
Malacopterygii, or soft-finned fishes, includ-
ing the scombercsocidte, 700.
Malapterurus electricus, a fish of the family
siluridtp, 698.
Mallard, or wild duck, anas boschas, 608.
Malleus vulgaris, the hammer-oyster, 734.
Mallophaga, an order of nmetabolous insects,
including the bird-lice, 797.
Mammalia, a class of vertebrated "animals,
including the whale, &c., quadrupeds, and
Man (see chapter 1, page 1, et seg.).
Mammalia divided into two great sections —
viz., aplacentaria, or those without a pla-
centa, and placentaria, or those possessing
one, 1 et seq.
Mammalia, locomotion of, 1 et seg. ,
Mammalia, skelton, bones, skull, teeth, verte-
brae, &c., and general characteristics of the
class, 1 ct seq.
Mammai-y, or milk-glands of mammalia, 2
et seq.
Mammoth, the, elephas primigenius, 313.
Manakins, or piprma), a sub-famity of the
chatterers, 459.
Manatees, sea-cows, or lamantins, 349.
Manatidce, or sea-cows, a family of sirenia,
349 et seq.
Man, brain and cerebro-spinal axis of, 2 et seg.
Man compared with the gorilla, &c,, 22 et seg.
Man, digestive apparatus of, &c. (see chapter
1, generally, page 1, et seq.),
Man, languages of, 21.
Man, skeleton of, 2, 3, 23.
Man, the sole species and genus of the order
bimana, 1, 2, 22.
Man, varieties of, 15 et seq. (see also Ethno-
logy).
Mandibles of insects, *94.
Mandrill, the, 46.
Mangabey, or collared white-eyelid monkey,
44.
Mango-bird, or golden oriole of India, 465.
Mangue, the, 133.
Manis, a genus of edentata, including the
pangolins, 214.
Mantina, a tribe of cursorial orthoptera, 803.
Mantis, sea, the 780.
Mantis, the, 803.
Mantispidee, a family of neuroptera, 806.
Mantle of the mollusca, 725.
Marabout, the, 575.
Maracawa, or green macaws, 525.
Mareca penelope, the widgeon, 610.
Marikina, an American monkey, 57.
Marimonda, an American monkey, 49.
Markhore, a species of goat, 262.
Marmosets, a family of American monkeys,
55-57.:
Marmot, arctomys marmota, &c., 170-171.
Marsupial bones of the aplcaentaria, 351, 355
et seg.
Mai-supialia, an order of aplacental mammals,
embracing kangaroos, opossums, &c., and
divided into the phytophagous and rapa-
cious, or carnivorous, 355 et seg. ; fossil,
367.
Marten, common, an animal of the weasel
kind, martes foina; the pine marten, or M.
abietum, 137, 138.
Martes foina ; M. abietum ; M. zibellina ; and
M. leucopuB, vaiious species of martens,
137, 138.
Martin, house, hirundo urbica, 428,
Martin, purple, progne purpurea, 429,
Martin, sand or bank, hirundo riparia, 428
Mason bee, the, 819.
Mastitf, the, 99.
Mastodon, the, an extinct species of the
elephant family, 313.
Mataco, the, 209.
Matamata, a species of turtle, 664,
Maxilla; of insects, 794.
May-flies, a species of neuroptera, 805.
May-fiies, transformation of, 605.
Mazama, or American fallow-deer, 245,
Meadow-lark, the, 500.
Meal-worm, 822.
Medusa aurita, a species of discophora, 828.
Medusae, development of, 828,
Medusae, divided into two orders — viz.,
gymnophthalmata (naked-eyed), and stega-
nophthalmata (covered-eyed, 828, 829.
Medusida; (see also Mcdusee), 828.
Megaderma frons, the horse-shoe bats, 70.
Megalonyx, an extinct genus of the sloth
family, 20G.
Megalops, a species of brachyurous decapods,
Megalosaurus, a fossil lizard, 6.J3.
Megalotis, the fennec, an African species of
fox, 1U7.
Megapodiidffl, a family of rasorial birds, in-
cluding the mound-birds, &c., 556.
Megapodinaj, or mound-buds, a sub-family of
rasorial birds, 556.
Megapodius tumulus, the mound-bird, or
jungle-fowl of Australia, 55'>.
Megatherium, an extinct genus of the sloth
family, 205.
Melanerpes erythrocephalus, the red-headed
woodpecker, 518.
Melanerpina?, a sub-family of woodpeckers,
Meltagrina margaritifera, the pearl oyster, a
species of mollusc, 733.
Meleagrince, the tub-family of turkeys, 543.
Meleagris gallopavo, the common turkey, 548.
Mek'S taxus, the common badger, 141.
Melidse, or badgers, a family of plantigrade
carnivora, 87.
Meliphagidee, or honey-eaters, 447.
MelithreptiuiP, a sub-family of honey-eaters,
447.
Melizophilns dartfordiensis, the Dartford
warbler, 484.
MelUsuga minima, the smallest species of
humming-bird, 451.
Mellivora capensis, the ratcl, or honey-
badger, 140
Meloe, a speeies of coleoptera, 822.
Melophagus ovinus, or siicep-tick, 803.
Melopsittacus undulatus, the warbling grass-
pai'akeet, 527.
Membracina, a tribe of homoptera, 799.
Membranacea, a group of heteroptera, 800.
Meminna, a species of musk-deer, 233.
Menobranchus, a genus of batracbia, 668.
Menura superba, the lyre-birds, 442.
,Mephitis putorius, the skunk, 140.
Merganser, natatorial birds, 605.
Mtrgina;, a sub-family of the ducks, 605.
Mergus cucuUatus, the hooded merganser,
605.
Mergus merganser, the goosander, 605.
Merionides, or the gerbilles, a genus of rodents,
175.
Mi-rlangus vulgaris, the whiting, 698.
Merlin, the, a J ind of falcon, 397.
Meropidae, or' oee-cateis, a family of fissiros-
tral birds, various species, 435.
Mesenteric glands, 9.
Mtsothorax of insects, 795.
Metabola, a sub-class of insects, including
those which pass through tae stages of
larva, pupa, and imago, having the meta-
morphosis complete, such as the silkworm,
butterflies, &c,, 807.
Metacarpal bone, the, 2, 3
Metamorphosis of insects, 796,
Metatarsal bone, the, 2, 3.
Metathorax of insects, 795.
Mice, or muridte, 176 et scq.
Milan-royal, or milvus regalis, 380
Miliola, a genus of rhlzopoda, 833.
Millepedes, a species of myriapoda, 791,
Milvago chimango, the chimango, a raptorial
bird, 402.
MilvinoE, the kites, a sub-family of raptorial
birds, 402 et seg.
Milvus niger, the black ; and M. govinda, the
govinda kites, 403.
Mimic beetles, 823.
Mink, the, vison lutreola, a species of weasel,
136.
Mite, the cheese, 788.
Mites, the true (acaridfc), 788.
Mites, water, "8S.
MniotiltinEE, or bush-creepers, 474.
Moa, or dinomis gigantcus of New Zealand,
562.
Mocking-bird, the North American, mimua
polyglottus, 468.
Modeeria lormosa, a species of medusse, 829.
MohoU, the, 62.
Molar teeth, 4, 5.
Mole-cricket, the, gryllotalpa vulgaris, 802.
Mole-hills, how produced, 80.
Mole-rat, the, spalas typhlus, 184.
Moles, or talpidee, a family of insectivora, 74,
78,
Mole, the common, talpa europoca, the golden,
chrysochloris aurea, 78-81.
Mollusc, anatomy of a bivalve, 726, 731,
Mollusca, a division of animals, including
creatures having a soft body enclosed in a
I
INDEX.
^43
mantle universally, and generally with a
shell, as the oyster, &c , 723 et seq.
MoUusca, cloak or mantle of the, 725.
MoUusca, intestinal canal of tlie, 725,
Mollusci, list of the families, of which shell-
specimens may he found in the British
Museum, 765, 766.
MoUusca, naked, 726.
MoUusca, organs, habits, nervous system,
shells, and other characteristics of the, 725
et teq.
MoUusca, divisions of, 727 ; moUusca proper,
731 ei seq.
MoUusca, sheU of the, 725.
MoUusca, testaceous, 726.
Molluscoida, a sub-division of moUusca, di-
vided into two classes, the bryozoa and
tunicata, 727.
Moloch horiidus, an Australian species of
li/.ard, 613,
Molossus, a genus of bats, 72.
MomotinfF, nioimots, a sub-family of fissiros-
tral bird>, 43S.
MonaLiid^, an order of infusoria, 834.
Monal, or Impeyan phe;isant, 552.
MungoUan, variety of man, 19.
Monitors, monitor niloticus, genus and species
of lizards, (:.4(3.
Monkeys, dog-nosed or Cynomorpha, 33.
Monkeys, various species of, as the long-
taUed ; sacred; Hooauman ; &c., 3S et seq.
(see names of each ) .
Monkeys, teeth of, 38.
Monk-fish (see Squatina).
Mona, a species of monkey, 42.
Monodon nmnoceros, the narwhal, or sea-
nnicom, 347.
MoiioMierutomata, or acarina, an order of
arachnida, 7S7.
Monosomata, an order of rhizopoda, 833.
Monotremata, an order of aplactnial mam-
mats, 35J.
>[oon-flsh, or sun-fish, orthagorisci, 715.
Moor-hen, the, 565.
Moose deer, 237.
More-pork-bird, an Australian speciesof goat-
sucker, 420.
Miiirhua ceglefinus, the haddock, fiOS.
Morrhua vulgaris, the cod-fish, 698.
Morse, sea-horse, or walrus, 163.
Mosasauridic, a family of fossil lizards, 652.
Moschiiia?, or musk-deer, a family of rumi-
nantia, 231.
Moscbus aquations, and M. moschiferus, spe-
cies of musk-deer, &c., 231 et seq.
Motacilia, or wagtail ; various speciesof, 472
et seq.
Motacillinge, or wagtails, a sub-family of the
sylvidEp, 472.
Mother Carey's chickens (see Petrel), 603.
Mother-of-pearl, source of, 734.
Moth of the silkworm, 813.
Moth, the clothes', 812.
Moth, the elephant hawk-moth, 814.
Moth, the goat, 813.
Jloth, the magpie, 814.
Moth, oak-lappet, 813.
M'.ths, the plum-:-, 811.
Motmots, momotince, the, asub-family of fissi-
rostral birds, 438.
Moufflon, the, a species of sheep, 263.
Mouiid-bird, or junsle-fowl of Australia},
niegapodius tumulus, 556.
Mountain visacha, 191.
Mouse-birds, or colies, 4S9.
Mouse family, or mundae, 176. ^
Mouse, the common, mus inuscuius, 177.
Mouse, the harvest, mus messorius, 179.
Mouse, the Labrador jumping, jaculus labra-
doiius, 174.
Mouse, the long-tailed field, mus sylvaticus,
i:8.
Mouse, the short-tailed field-mouse, arvicola
agresti^i, 179.
Mouth of insects, 794.
Rlugil capito, the gray mullet, 710.
Mugilidse, a family of spiny-tinned fishes, in-
cluding the gray mullet, &c., 710.
Mule, the, 299.
Mullet, the gray, mugil capito, 710.
Mullet, the red, mullus surn/uUetus, 705.
Mullets, the muUidce, 705.
Muntioo, the, herpestes griseus, a snake, 630.
Muntj.iC!=, stylocerus, a genus of cervidie, or
deer, 246.
Murjeiudaf, or eels, 681.
Murex, stiull of the, 751-
Muricuiae, a fan.ily of gasteropods, 751.
Muridte, or mice, &c,, a family of rodent
mammalia, 176 et seq,
Musca domestica, the iiouse-fly, 803.
Musical sounds, 12.
Muscicapidae, the flycatchers, 460 et seq.
MuscidiE, a family of dipterous insects, the
flies, 808,
Muscles of vertebrata, contractility of, &c., 6.
Muscular system of animals, 5 et seq.
Mus decunianus, the cnmnion rat; Mus mus-
culus, the mou.-e ; M. rattus, the black rat ;
M. giganteus ; M. sylvaticus, the long-tailed
fieUi-mouse ; M. messorius, the harvcbt
mouse, 176 e( seq.
Mu-k-deer, moschidBB, a family of niminanlia,
231 et seq.
Mu^k-ox, the, 287.
Musquash, American bear, 147.
MusK-rats, or desmans, species of shrews, 76.
Musophagidaj, or plantam-caters, a family of
conirostral birds, 487.
Musquash, or ondatra, the fiber zlbethicus, a
rodent animal, 183,
Mussel, the commoa edible, mytUua edulls,
735.
Mustda vulgaris, the weasel; M. putorius,
the polecat ; M. ermines, the stoat, or
ermine ; M. furo, the ferret, 136 et seq.
Musiflidje, or weasels, a family of semi-plan-
tigrade carnivora, 87, 135.
Mycete::!, a genus of American monkeys, the
Howlers, 50.
Mycteria, the jabinis, 575.
Mydasidro, a family of diptcra, 809.
Mygalc, a species of spider, 774.
Mygale pyrenaica and moschata, the desmans,
or musk-rats, 75, 7G.
MygalidcB, a family of spiders, 723, 774.
Myliobatis aquila, the eagle ray, a fish of the
ray kind, 723.
Mylodon, an extinct genus of the sloth family,
204.
Myopotamuscoypu, the coypu, 183.
Myosidce, or dormice, 171.
Myoxus avellanarius, the dormouse, 172.
Myriapoda, a class of articulata, embracing
two orders, the chilopoda and chilognatha
791.
Myrmecobiidse, the banded ant-eaters, in-
cludmg the species myrmecobius fascia-
lus, 366.
Mynnecophaga jubata, the great ant-eater,
212,213.
Myrmecophagida?, the ant-eaters, a family of
edentata, 212, 213.
Myrnieleoiitidae, or ant-lions, 806.
Mysidoe, a family of stomapoda, 781.
Mytilacea, a tribe of molluscs, including the
mussel, 734 et seq.
Mytilus edulis, the common mussel, 734.
Myxine glutinosa, the hag, a species of fish,
order cyclosiomata, 680.
MyxinidcD, a family of fishes, of the order cy-
clostomau, 630.
NAcrNDA, 426.
Naia hajp, the Egyptian hooded snake, 631,
Naia tripudians, or cobra di capello, 630.
NaididfE, a family of scolecina, 771.
Napu, the, 233.
Narwhal, or sea-unicorn, the monodon mono-
ceros, 347.
Nassulina, a sub-family of infusoria, 835.
Nasua narica, the coati, 152.
Natantia, an order of rotifera, having the
families polytrocha and zygotrocha, 773.
Natatores, an order of birds, the swimmer:^,
including the auk, pelican, cormorant, gulL-,
ducks, ifcc, 588 et seq.
Naticidse, a family of gasteropodous moUusca,
748.
Natural history and classification, 1 et seq.
Naucrates ductor, the pilot fish, 70S.
Nautilidre, a family of cephalopods, including
the nautilus, &c., 757, 759.
Necrophaga, a tribe of coleoptera, 823.
Necrophori, a genus of coleoptera, 823.
Negro-monkey, or budeng, 40.
Negroes, colour of, 6.
Nematelmia, or round worms, a class of
\Vmes, including the orders acanthoce-
phala, gordiacea, and nematoidea, 769.
Nematus grossulariae, a species of hymeuop-
tera, 816.
Nemertida?, or ribbon-worms, 769.
Nemocera, a sub-order of diplera, 809.
Xepa cinerea, a species of water-bug, 800.
Nepaul tiger-cat, 119,
Nereidee, a family of errantia, 772.
Nereis phosphorescens, a species of errantia,
772.
NeritidEB, a family ef gasteropods, 748.
Nervous system, the, 6,
Nervous system of articulata (the true), or
arthropoda, 767, 775.
Nervous system of Crustacea, 775,
Nervous system of echinodermata, 830.
Nervous system of fishes, 678.
Nervous system of insects, 114. 1.78.
Nervous system of mammalia, 6,
Nervous system of moUusca, 725.
Nervous system of I'eplilcs, (i24.
Nervous system of rotifera, 772.
Nervous system of star-fish, 831.
Nervous system of vertebrata, 6.
Nests of birds (see names of birds).
Neuroptera, an order of hemimetabolous
insect?, 804.
Newfoundland dog, 95, 96.
Newt, development of the, 671,
Nigger, or black caterpillar, 815.
Night-hawk, 421.
Night-jars, or goatsuckers, 420.
Nightingale, the, philomela luscinia, 482.
Nightingale, the Indian, 481.
Nine-killers, butcher-birds, or shrikes, 451.
Nocthora, a genus of American monkeys, 54.
Nocturnal lepidoptera, 812.
Noddy, the, 600.
Nodosaria, a genus of rhizopoda, 832.
Nomadas, cuckoo-bees, 819.
Notacantha, a tribe of diplera, 809.
NothosauridtB, a family of fossil saurians,
650.
Notodelphys ovifera, a species of tree-frog,
675.
Notonectida, a tribe of water-bugs, 800.
Notornis, a New Zealand bird of the rail kind,
56G.
Nshiego-mbouvc, a kind of gorilla, troglo-
dytes calvus, 28.
Nucifera caryocatactes, or nut-cracker, 494.
Nucleobranchiata, or hetcropodous muUuscs,
744.
Nucleus of the protozoa, 832,
Nudibranchiata, a group of gasteropods, 745.
NumeniuB arquata, the curlew, .')C7.
Numida meleagris, the Guinea fowl, 550.
Nummulitcs, a species of rhizopoda, ft33.
.Vut-crackcr, the, 494.
Nut-hatches, the, or sittinoo, 443.
Nutrition, 9.
Nut-weevil, the, balanJnus nacnm, f'll.
Nycticebus, a genus of 1 ■ nuroids, Cl.
NycteribridfT, or bat-h^i, 808.
N'yctoris, a genus of bats, 71
Nyctibius jamaicen l-^, orpotuj, 121.
Nycticebidic, or lon^, 61.
Nycticorax gardeni, the night-heron, 577.
Nyctipithecus, a genus of American monkeys,
54.
Nyl-ghau, the, portax picta, 254.
Nymphonida>, a family of arachnida, 787.
Oak-t,appet moth, the, 813.
Oared-shrew, 76.
Occipital arch of vertebratcd animals, 2 et seq,
Occipitals of fishes, 230.
OceanidiP, a family of medusae, 828, 829,
Ocelli of insects, 703.
Ocelli of medusa, 828.
Ocelot, a species of cat, 123.
Octodon, Cuming's, 186.
OctopodidiB, a family of ccphalopods, the
cuttle-fishes, 761,
Ocypoda, a genus of crabs, 786.
Odontophorinte, a sub-family of the grouse
kind, 546.
(Edicnemince, or thick-knees, 582,
(Esophagus, the, 2 et seq.
Oesophagus of mammalia, 9.
(Estridre, a family of diptera, 808.
(E>trus bovis, a dipterous insect, 808,
Oil-birds, steatomince, 422.
Onager, a species of ass, 298.
Oncidiid^, a family of pulmoniferous gastero-
pods, 755,
Ondatra, or musquash, 183,
OniscidEB (wood-lice), 780.
Onychoteuthis, a cephalopod, 763.
Opah, or king-fish, lampris gutiatus, 707.
Open-bills, a species of heron, 576.
Operculum, or gill-cover of fishes, 677.
Operculum of the gasteropoda, 744.
Ophidia, an order of reptiles, including snakes,
serpents, boas, pythons, &c,, 'Jivided into
viperine, or venomous, anc'^olubrine,
chiefly harmless snakes, 625, et seq.
Ophidiidffi, a family of spineless fishes, 698.
Ophiophagus, the snake-eater, 639.
Ophisaurus ventralis, glass snake, '^43.
Ophiuridce, a family of slellerida, 831.
Ophrvdium versatile, a species of infusoria,
835.
Opisthobranchiata, a sub-order of gasteropo-
dous molluscs, 745.
Opisthocomidce, a family of conirostral birds,
489.
Opisthocomus cristatus, the hoatziuj 489.
Opolinids, a family of infusoria, 835.
Opossum shrimps, 781.
Opossum, the Australian, 361,
Opossums, or didclphidee, a family of Ameri-
can marsupialia, 263 et seq.
Optic nerve, the, 10,
Orang-outan, the simia satyrus, general cha-
racters, 30 ct teq ; skeleton, 23 and 32:
skull, 31.
Order, definition of the term, 1 et seq.
Organs— (see name of each).
Organic functions, 9.
Oriole, the Baltimore, yphantes Baltimore,
500.
Oriole, the orchard, icterus spurius, 501.
Oriolus galbula, the golden oriole ; O. kun-
doo, the mango-bird ; O. melanocephalus,
the black-headed oriole, 464 et seq.
Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, an Australian
aplacental mammal, 352.
Orthagoriscus mola, the sun-fish, 715.
Orthagoriscus oblongus, a species of sun-fish,
715.
Orthoceras, a genus of cephalopoda, 757,
Orthonyx, the, 446.
Orthoptera, cursorial, an order of insects, 801
et seq.
Orthoptera, saltatorial, 801 et seq.
Onhotomus, a genus of sylvidte, 485.
Ortolan, the, emberiza hortulana, 509.
Ortyx virginiana and californica, the Ameri-
can quails, 54G-547,
Orycteropus, a genus of edentate mammalia,
211.
Oryx nasomaculata, the addax, 255.
Os coccygis, the, 2.
Osmerus eperlanus, the smelt, 691.
Osmja, the mason-bee, 819.
Osprey, or fish-hawk, 384.
Os pubis, the, 3.
Osseous fishes, Cuvier's section of (see Tele-
ostia), 680.
Ossifragus giganteus, the giant petrel, 603.
Ostracea, the oyster tribe, 733.
Ostracion, or tvunk-fish, the, 714.
Ostracoda, an order of crustacca, 778.
Ostrea edulis, the common oyster, 733.
Ostrich hunting, method of, 560.
Ostrich, skeleton of the, 559.
Ostrich, the American, rhea americana, 561.
Ostriches, or f truthionida;, 559 et stq.
Otaria, the eared seals; O. jubata, the sea-
lion; O. ursina, the sea-bear, 15G etseq.
Olididce, the family of the bustards, 583.
Otinie, or owlets, 414.
Otocoris alpestris, the shore-lark, 510.
Otolithe of the moUusca, 725.
Otolitic vesicles of the medusa, 328.'
Otter, the common, Indian, Canaaiao, and sea,
143-145,
OtuB brachyotnd, Bhort-eared owl, 415.
Olua TulgariR, the t^ng-cared owl, 415.
Ounce, a ftpecies of felido?, 118.
Ouzel, the water, or dipper, 470.
Ovcn-birdfl, or fumarina*, 415.
Ovibo^ mi-chatuB, the muek ox. 2ft7.
Oviform granules of the hydra, 825.
Qvipo.sitor of the hymenoptcra, 81G, fil7.
Ovis aries, the common Bbeep; O. munimon,
the moufllon; O. montann, the bighorn;
O. argali, the argali, &c., 262 ct teq.
Ovo-vivi parous Tcr;ebrata, 235.
Owlets, 41i.
Owl, little homed, scops Aldrorandi, 410,
Owls, or strigida), the famUy of the, 412.
Owls, various species of, 412 et seq.
Ox-peckors, or beef-caters, a epccics of star-
ling, buphaga afrlcana, 4'fX
Ox, the domestic, bos laui us 272 et seq.
Ox, the muKk, ovibos m' -chaius, 287.
Ox, the wild, 271.
Oxyrhyncha, a family of bracbrurouB deca-
pods, 784.
Oxystomata, a family of brachyurous deca-
pods, 784.
Oxyuris, a gcnui? of nematelmia, 7C9.
Oyster-banktf, 733.
Oyster-catcher, hajmatopuB ostralcgus, 578.
Oyster, the cock's-comb, 733.
Oyster, the common edible, 733.
Oyster, the hammer, 734.
Oyster, the pearl, 733.
PACA, the, 193.
Pachycephalinae, or thick-heads, a snb-family
of chatterers, 4G0.
Pachydermala, an order of mammalia, includ-
ing the elephants, hippopotamus, rhino-
ceros, boar, &c., 302,
Pachydcrmata, fossil, 333, 337.
Pachyglossa, a division of the saurian or lizard
order, 641, 646,647.
Paco, or alpaca, the, aucbcnia paco, 227.
PfficiliidEe. a family of fishes resembUng the
carp, 694.
Pagundnp, or hermet-crabs, a family of ano-
murous decapods, 783.
Paille-en-qti€ue, or straw-tail, the tropic bird,
Pairing of birds, 378.
Palceoniscidce, a family of heterocercal ganoid
fishes, 717.
Palajornis alexandri, the Alexandrine paxa-
keet, &c., 526,
Pala3ornis barrabandi, Barraband's parakeet,
526.
Palajomis torquatus, the rose-winged paiap-
keet, 526.
Palieosaundoe, a family of fossU lizards, 650.
PalEBOtherium, an extinct genus of pachydcr-
mata, 323.
Palamedeidie, a family of grallatorial bird-,
566,
Palinurus, the spiny lobster, 783,
Pallah, a species of antelope, 252.
Pallial line of muscles of a mollusc, 731,
Palliobranchiato, a class of moUusca, divided
into three groups — the craniidro, terebratu-
lidop, and Imgulidje, 731, 741.
Palpi of insects, 794,
Paludina vivipara, a gasteropod, 749.
Pampas cat, 124,
Pancreas, the, 9,
Panda, or wah, 152.
Pandion haliaetus, the osprey, 334.
Pangolin, the, of the genus mani^, 2U.
Panorpida?, a family of neuroptera, 808.
Panther, the, 118.
Papilionidae, a family of lepidoptera (butter-
flies), 814.
Paradisea apoda, the great emerald bird of
paradise, 496.
Paradisea superba, the superb bird of para-
dise, 495,
Paradise, the twelve-threaded bird of. 453.
Paradiseidte, the birds of paradise, 494,
Paradoxure, the, 135.
Parakeets, or parroquots, pezoporintc, varioua
species of, 526 et seq.
Paramecium, a genus of infusoria, 835.
Parasita, an order of Crustacea, 777.
Parasitic worms, 763 etseq.
Pariah dogs of India, 101.
Parietal bones of vertebrated animals, 2.
Parinm, or titmice, 474.
Parr, a kind of salmon, 692.
Parrot-crossbill, the, 512.
Parrot-fishes, 702.
Parrots, or psiltacidto, a sub-famUy of scan-
Eorial birds, various species of, 521 et seq.
Parrots, true, psittacinre, 524,
Parson, orpoe-bird, 447,
Partridge, the common, perdix clnerca ; the
Guernsey, perdix rubra, 547,
Partridges, various species of, 547 et seq.
Parus major, the great titmouse; P. cceru-
leus, the blue tit; P. cristatus, the crested
tit, 474 f^ seq.
Paseng. the, 2Gl.
ra^senger-pigeon, the, 539.
Passeres, or incessores, an order of birds, di-
vided into four sub-orders— Tiz , the coni-
rostres ; dentiro^tres ; tcnuirostres ; and
fiisirostres, 419 et seq.
Pastc-ecls, anguillulidie, 770,
Pastor roseus, the rose coloured pastor, a epe-
cies of starling, and P. tristis, 499, 500.
Patas, a species of monkey, 45.
Patella, the, 2, 3,
Patellidee, a ^famUy of gasteropfids, the liiu*
pels, 748.
Puvo cristatus, the common peacock, 555.
844
INDEX.
Pavoninaa, the pea-fowl, a sub-family of the
plieasan*.^, 555.
Peiicock-batierdy, the, 815.
Peacock, the common, pavo cristatus, 555.
Peu-crat), pinnoiheres, 786.
Pe III oyster, tbe, 733.
Peba, the, 209.
Peccary, the, dicotylcs, a kiU'l of ho^, 326.
Pectens, the ^enus of, a mollusc, 733.
Pectinibranchiata, a group of gasteropoda,
743.
Pedicellarise, orfranisms of the stellerida,831,
Pediculi (lice), 797.
Pedipalpi, or polymerosomata, an order of
pulmonary arachuida, 788.
Peewit, the, 5S2.
Pela^ia cyanella, species of meduste, 629.
Pela^ria noctiluca, species of discophora. R24.
Pelaijia panopyra, species of medusae, 829.
Pelecanidce, the pelicans, 594 etseq.
PelecanioEc, 595.
Pflecrtuus ouocrotalu^, the peUcan, 594, 595.
Peli ans, the, 594 et seq.
Pt'ivis of echidna, aa aplacental mammal,
351.
Pelvis, the, 2, 3.
Penguin, the jackass, 5SS.
Penguins, a family of birds of the auk kiild,'of
the genus aptenodytes, 583.
Pennatuhdae, a family nl astcroida, 826,
Pentacrinus bnurLU-, 8^1.
Pentacrinus europceus, or cnmatula, 831.
Peniamera (see Coieuptera) 820.
Peracyon, or pouched-wolf, 366.
Peraraeles lagotis, a marsupial mammal, 362.
Feramelidae, or b.indicoot rats, 3:2.
Perca fluviatilis, the common peicii, 704.
Perch, bones of the head of the, 677.
Perch, tbe common, perca fluviatilis, 704.
Perch, the climbing, 712.
Perchmg birds, or insessores, 419 et seq.
Percida, or perch family of fishes, 7U3.
PerdicmjB, a sub-runily of grouse, embracing
the partridges, &c., 547.
Perdii cinerea, the common, and pcrdix
rubra, the Guernsey partridge, 547.
Peridinidffi, a family of infusoria, 834.
Pcripatidas, a family of errantia, 772.
Periwmkle, littorina Uttorea, 749.
Pcriidce, a family of neuropterous insects,
805.
Permanent teeth, 4, 5.
Perspiration, 6.
Persian lion, 114.
Petaurus, the Hying phalangers, 362.
Petrels, the, 602.
Petromyzon fluviatiUs, the river lamprey,
680.'
Peiromvzon marinus, the common sea lam-
prey, 680.
Petromyzjnidao, a family of fishes, order cy-
clostom ta, 630.
PezoporinEB, parakeets, or parroqnets, 526.
Phicochoerus, a genus of hogs, 325, 331.
PhuetoninEB, a sub-family of natatorial birds,
599.
PnaIacrocor.ix, carbo, European, and P. sin-
ensis, fishing cormorants, 595, 596.
Phalanger-, tbe, or phalingistidce, a family of
marsupial mammals, 360.
Phalanges of tlie fingers and toes, 2, 3.
Phalangidse, a family of arachnida, 788.
Pbalangisca cavifrons, the cuscus, cousous, or
capoul ; P. vulpina, the Ausualian opos-
sum, 360 et seq.
Phalangi ~tidae, or pha'.angers, marsupial mam-
mals, 360.
PhilaropiiiED, a species of snipe, 570.
PliarvnirngimihA, a sub-order of fishes, order
teleostia, 700.
Pbascugaie, marsupial animals, 367.
Phascoiarctos cint'ieus, the koala ; P. sci-
ureus, species of flying phalangers, 302.
PhascolomydCD, a family of marsupial mam-
mals, embracing the wombat, 356.
Phascolomys fossor, the wombat, 356.
Pbasianidee, or the pheasant family, with
various species, .548 et $fq.
Phasianmae, the true pheasants, 551 et seq.
Ph;i«midffl, a family of cursorial orthoptera,
802.
Pheasant family, or phasianidse, with various
species, 548 et seq.
Pheasants, tne true, phasianinsB, various spe-
cies of, 551.
Philhydiidj, a tribe of coleoptera, 823.
Philomachus pugnax, the ruff, 569.
Pbilomela lusciuia, the nightingale, 432.
Pbiloptendae, a family of mallophaga (bird
lice), 797.
Polaothriop, a genus of hemimetaholous in-
sects, 800.
Phoca vitulinii, the common seal ; P. green-
landica, the harp seal ; P. barbata, the
great seal ; P. caspica (see Seals), 157
Phocaena communis, the porpoise, i>33, 345.
Pboceena orca, the grampus, 333, 345.
Pbocidae, a family of mammalia, embracing
the seals, 157 el seq.
PhojnicoptennED, the flamingoes, 618.
Puocnicopterus ruber, the fl.imin^o, &c., 619.
Pholadacea, a tribe of molluscs, 733.
Phoias, a genus of molluscs, 733.
Pfiosphorescence, marine, chiefly caused by
the species thautaautias, of the medusa;,
829. V
Pbragmocone, sh^ of belemnitc, 761.
PtiyllidEe, a family of cursorial orthoptera,
802.
Phyllididre, a family of gasteropodous mol-
luscs, 745. .
Phyllophaga, a tribe of bymeuopterous insects,
816.
PhyllosomidsE, a family of stomapoda, 780.
PhvUo5lo^la spectrum, the varapyre-bat (see
Bit^}, 67.
Phyllostom-dcB, or vampyre bats, GO.
Physeter tursio, tbe hiuh-finned c i halot ; P.
ra&crocephalus (see Whales).
Physograda, an order of siphonophornus ra-
diata, including the families physalidsD and
diphyida, 830.
Physopoda, an order of hemimetabolous in-
sects, 800.
Physostoraata, a sub-order of the teleostia
(fishes), 631.
Phytophaga, a tribe of coleoptera, 821.
Phytophthiria, or plant-lice, a species of hom-
optera, 799.
Phytotomina?, or plant-cutters, a sub-family
of conirostral birds, 512.
Pica eaudata, the majpie, 493.
Picathartes gymnocephalus, the bare-headed
crow, 493.
Pichiciaso, the, 210.
Pichy, the, 209.
Piciiia, or woodpeckers, a family of scansorial
birds, 516.
Picinse, a sub-family of picidcD, various species
of, 515.
Piculets, or picumninae, a sub-family of scan-
sorial birds, 521.
Picus martius, the great black woodpecker,
517.
Pig {see Hog), 329.
Pig, the R-round, or aardvark, 211.
Pig, the Guinea, 196.
Pigeon, the carrier, 537.
Pigeon, crowned or ground, goura coronat.a,
535.
Pigeons, or doves, various species of, 532 et
S''q. ; collection of, in the Museum and the
Zoologicjl Gardens, 540.
Pigeons, passenger, immense flights of, in the
United States, 539.
Pigeons, the tree, treronida?, 540.
Pigeons, the true, or columbidae, 536.
Pika, or calling hare, 200.
Pike family, the, esocidx, 693.
Pike, habits, growth, &c., of the, 693.
Pilchard, the, clupea pilchardus, 633.
Pill beetles, coleopterous insect>, 822.
Pilot-iish, n'jJ»^rates ductor, 703.
Pine bullfiuf J, or pine grosbeak, pinecola
enucleator, 511.
Pine-marten, the, 136.
Pinnipedia, an order of mammalia, including
the seals and walrus, 86, 156 et seq.
Pinnotheres, or pea-crabs, 736.
Pintadoes, or Guinea-fowl, Numida, 550
Pipa americana, the Surinam toad, 673.
Piper-biid, or umbrella bird, 457.
Pipe-fish, syngnathus, 714.
Pipidte, the toads, 672.
Piping crows, 439.
Pipits, anthus, a genus of sylvidee, 473.
Piprinoe, or manakins, a sub-family of ampe-
lidae, or chatterers, 459.
Pisces, or fishes, 676 et seq.
Piscicola, a genus of suctoria, 771.
PisicuUure, 676 et seq.
Pithecia, a genus of American monkeys, 52.
Placenta of mammalia, 10.
Placentaria, a section of mammalia, embrac-
ing the whales, quadrupeds, &:a., divided
into the cetacea ; pachydermata ; soliduu-
gula ; ruminautia ; edentata ; rodencia ;
pinnipedia; carnivora; insectivora ; chito-
ptera ; quadrumana ; and bimana, 1 to 351.
Plagiosiomata, a sub-order of fishes, of the
order selachia, including the sharks and
rays, 720.
Plaice, platessa vulgaris, 699.
Pianaiida, an order of the platyelmia, includ-
ing the families nemertids, turbellarids,
&c., 769.
Plauipeunia, a sub-order of neuropterous
insects, 903.
Plantain-eaters, or rausophagidaB, a family of
conirostral birds, 4S7.
Plant-cutters, a family of birds, 512.
Plantigrada, a section of carnivorous mam-
malia, including the badgers, bears, tS:c.,
86, 145.
Plant-lice, a species of homoptera, 799.
Plastron, a shell of the chelonia, 662.
Plataleinae, a sub-family of the herons, the
spoonbills, 572.
Piatessa vulgaris, the common plaice, 699.
Platyelmia, or fiat-worms, orders of the, are
cestoidea, trematoda, and planarida, 763
et seq.
Platyribinto, a division of the apes, i^ et s'^q.
Plectognattia, a sub-order of fishes, of the
order teleostia, 714.
Plectrophanes, the lark-buntings, 509.
Plesiosauridse, a family of fossil saurian rep-
tiles, 655.
Plestiodon laticeps, a lizard, 643.
Pleurobranchidae, a family of gasteropodous
molluscs, 745.
Pleuronectid®, or flat-fish family, the, 699.
Ploc(niu"0. or weaver-birds, 602.
Ploceus pensilis, a weaver-bird, 502.
Piotei'es, a group of bugs, 800.
Plotmae, the darters, 593.
Plover, the gray, squatarola cinerea, 530.
Plover, the Norfolk, or great, 532.
Plovers, the family of the, charadriidae, 578
et seq.
Plover, the stilt, 571.
Plovers, the true, charadrinCB, 5S0.
Plumage of birds. 369 et seq.
Plume-moths, the pteropliorina, 822.
Pochards, or fuUgulinae, 606.
Pochard, the commnn, 60Q.
Podagerlufls, a sub-familv of fissirostral birds,
426.
Podargus humer.alis, and P. cuvierii, Austra-
lian species of goatsuckeri^, 423, 424.
Podicipinae, the grebes, a family of natatorial
blrda, 592.
Podophthalmata, a sub-class of Crustacea, era-
bracing two orders— the stomapoda and
decapoda, 776, 780.
Podosomata, a genus of spiders, 737.
Poduridae, a family of ametabolous insects,
797.
Poe-bird, the, prosthemadera, novae zelandiae,
a species of honey-eater, 447.
Poephagus grunniens, the yak, 283.
Pointer, the, 96.
Poison-organs of venomous snakes, 622.
Polecat, the, mustela putorius, 136.
PolyborintD, or caracaras, asub-family of rap-
torial birds, 339.
Polydesmidoe, a family of rayriapoda, 791.
Polygastrica, a supposed division of the infu-
soria, 834.
Polymerosomita, or pedipalpi, an order of
pulmonary arachnida, 783.
Polyommati, a species of butterfly, 815.
PolyophthalmldEB, a family or err.intia, 772.
Polyphemus stagnorum, a species of ostra-
codd, 778.
Polypi, a class of radiata, divided into three
orders— viz., the hydroida, asteroida, and
helianthoida, 824.
Polypidum of the helianthoida, 826.
Pdlvoidum, the common stock of the polvpes,
824.
PolypteridfE, a family of ganoid fishos. 717.
Polystomella, a genus of rhizopoda, 833,
Pulythalamia, an order of the rhizjpo^la, 833.
Polyxenidte, a family of myriapoda, 791.
Pomacentndse, a family of acanthopterygious
fishes, 701.
Pomeranian dog, 94.
Pontia brassicae and rapae,;the common butter-
flv, 820.
Poodle, the French, 96.
Porcellanidce, a family of anomurous deca-
pods, 783.
Porcupine ant-eaters, or echidna, 355.
Porcupines, or hystricidse, 189 et seq.
Pores of the skin, 6.
Porifera, or sponges, a elass of the protozoa,
.833.
Porpoise, the, phocaena communis, 333, 345.
Porpoise, the round-headed, phocaena melas,
345.
Portax picta, the nyl ghau, 254.
Potamochcerus, a genus of hogs, 325.
Potoroo, or k>ingaroo-rat, 359.
Poucti of the aplacentaria, 355.
Pouched wolf, 366.
Poulpe, octopus vulgaris (see Cephalopods) .
Prairie wolf, 104.
Pratincoles, the, glareolineB, 582,
Prawn, the (crangonidos), 780, 732.
Presbytes, the sacred monkeys, 33.
Prey, birds of, or raptores (see Riptores).
Prinia, a genus of tailor-hirds, 4S5. *
Pristis antiquorum, the saw-fish, 723.
Proboscis ol insects, 794.
Proboscis monkey, or Kahau, 39.
Procel!arida?,the petrels, I'c, 602.
Procellarmae, tbe petrels, 603.
ProctotrupidcB, a family hymenoptera, 818.
Procyon lotor, the racuon, 151.
Progne purpurea, the purple martin, 429.
Promeropidac, or sun-birds, a family of tenui-
rostral birds, 451 et seq.
Prongbuck, antilosapra furoifera, 254.
Proscopia, a species of orthoptera, SOI.
Prosobranchiata, a sub-order of gasteropods ,
745.
Proteidse, a family of hatrachia, 663.
Proteidce, a family of the rhizopoda, 833.
Proteles lalandii, the aardwolf, or earth-wolf,
130.
Proteus, or hypochthon anguiaus, 618.
Prothorai of insects, 795.
Protozoa, divided into three classes— the
rhizopoda, porifera, and infusoria, 832.
Psammoryctidce, or sand-rats, a family of ro-
dents, 135.
Psammosaurus scincu?, an Egyptian species
of lizard, 616.
Pseudopus pallassii, the scbeltopusik, a spe-
cies of Hz ird, 613.
Pseudotetramera, a section of coleoptera,
820.
Psittacara, a genus of birds, between the
mac-iws and parrots; P. guianensls, the
Giiianx parroquet, 525.
Psittacidte, or parrots, a family of scansorial
biids, various species of, 521 et S'^q.
PslttaciufE. or true parrots, 521.
Psittacus eryth:icu==, the gray p.irrot, 524.
PsiicidCE, a family of neuropterous insects,
805.
Psophinre, or trumpeters, asub-family of the
cranes (see Cranes).
Ptarmigan, the, lagopus vulgaris, 545.
PtcracUs, a genus of acanthopterous fishes,
709.
Pterlcthys, a fish of the order ganoidea, 717.
Pterocles arenarius, and ptcrocles alchata,
species of sand-grouse, 543.
Pteroclidae, or sand-grouse, 543.
Pterodactyles, a group of fossil reptiles, like
the lizards, 651.
Pteroglossus, a genus of scansorial birds, of
the toucan family, 530.
Pteromys, the flying squirrels, 163.
Pteron;u"cys, a genus oi neuroptera, 805.
Pternphorina, a tribe of lepidopterous insects,
312.
Pteropidfe, rou^settes, a family of bat';, 72.
Pteropoda, a class of moUusca, divided into
the gymnosomata and thccosomata, 742.
Pteropus edulis, the kalong bat, 73.
Ptilonorliynchinte, or glos-;y starlings, 493.
Ptiloris para-^tdeus, a species of Australian
rifle-birds, 454.
Puff-birds, or bucconinao, 436
Puffin, the, fratercula Arctica, 590.
Pug-dog, 100.
Pulex irritant, the common flea, 807.
Pulex penetrans, or jigger, 807.
Pulicidae, the fleas, 807.
Pulmonaria, a sub-class of arachnida, em-
bracing two orders— the pnlymeresomata, ur
pedipalpi, and the dimerosoinata, or true
spiders, 788.
Pulmonary arteries and veins, 8.
Pulmonifora, an order of gasteropods divided
into the opfrculated and inoperculated, 754.
Pulvilli of insecLs, 795.
Puma, the, felis concolor, 122.
Papa state of an insect, 796.
Pupil of the eye, W.
Puoipara, a sub-order of dipterous insects,
808.
Purple dye of the ancients, obtained from the
buccinidae, or whelk family, 751.
Pvcnodontidae, a family of fossil ganoid fishes,
"717.
Pycnogonidae, a family of arachnida, 787.
Pycnonotincc, the bulbuls. a sub-family of
thrushes, 463.
Pyg.ipus lepidopodus, a species of lepto-
glossal saurian, 642.
Pylorus of the vertebrata, 9.
Pyralidina, a tribe of lepidoptera, 812.
Pyralis vttis and farinalis, species of lepido-
pterous caterpillars, 812.
Pyrochroa rubens, 822.
PyrosomatidEB, a family of tunicated mollus-
coids, 729.
Pyrrhocoraeinae, the choughs, 494.
Pyrrhulaudffl, the finch-Urks, 510.
Pirrhula vulgaris, the buUfincu, 510.
Pvthons, a group of f angless colubrine snakes,
'636.
QcADEUMANA, an order of mammalia, embrac-
ing tbe monkevs, apes, lemurs, &c., 2, 5,
22 et seq. ; fossils of, 66.
Quadrupeds, included in the cla-ss mammailaj
1 et seq.., 85.
Quagga, the, equus quagga, 301,
Quail, the American, 546-
Quail, the Andalusian, 547.
Quail, the Californian, 546.
Quail, the common, 543.
Queen bee, the, 819.
Querquedulacrecca, the teal, 609.
Quills of animals, 6; of birds, 371 et seg
QuiscahnEB, a sub-f.iinily of the dtarliugs,
called boat-taiis, 500.
Quiscalus ferrugineus, and quiscalus versi-
color, t!ie crow-blackbird, a soecies of star-
ling, 500.
Rabbit, the, lepus cuniculus, 199.
Racoon, the, of the g^nus procyon, family
ursidae, 151.
Radiata, five classes of— viz., the polypi, dis-
cophora, ctenopiiora, sipli mopixora, and
ecbmodermita, general characteristics, &c.,
824. et seq. C.
R-idiUs of the arm, 2, 3.
Raia clavata, the tbornback ; riia maculata,
the homelyn ray, or maid; raia oiyrhyn-
chus, the sharp-nosed ray, 723.
Raiidae, the true rays, 723.
Raiina, the rays, a group of fish, of the order
selachia, 723.
Rails, the family and sub-family of, 564.
RalUnce, or true rails, 566.
Rillus aquaticus, the common rail, 566,
Rma esculeuta, the edible froj, 674.
Rina paradoxa, the jakie, a kind of frog, 674.
Rana pipiens, the buU-IVog, 674.
Rina temporaria, the common fro?, Q1i.
Rmgifer tarandus, the reindeer, :;37.
RinidcE, or frogs, 674.
llmimdae, a family of anomurous decapods,
784.
Riptorial birds, or Riptores, characteristics
of the ; divided into twj sections, the noc-
turnal and diurnal, with famiiies falconidas
and vulturidae, 379 et seq.
Rasoi*es, or scrapers, an order of birds, in-
cluding domestic poultry, grouse, par*
tridges, &c., 548 et seq.
R'it~a-tro I'pe, the, a kind of shrew, 76.
Rit, the true English, or black, inus rattus,
&c., 177.
Ru, tbe water, arvicola amphibia, 182.
Rit, the common, mus decuminu-^, &3., 177.
Ritel, the, or honey b-idger of tbe C ipc, mel-
livora capeusis, 140; Indian, 141.
Rits, the family of muridaj, 176 et seq.
Rits, the mole, georhycuidffl. a family of
rodents, 134.
Rits, kangaroo, 359.
Rits, the sand, a genus of rodents, 135.
Rittle of the rattlesnakes, 027.
Rittlesuake, head, poison-fang?, jaws, &3.,
626.
Riven, tbe, corvus corax, 491.
Riy, the cramp, or electrical, 723.
Riy, the homelyn, or maid; and the sharp-
nosed, 723.
Riys, characteristics of the, a group of fish,
of the order selachia, 723.
Riys, eagle, o.' myliobatidiB, 723,
INDEX.
lUjs, electric, or torpedinidic, 725.
lUvs of the fins in the lelcoptia (fishes), 680.
Kavs, the stin^, or irygonidce, 723.
llay?, the whip, 723.
Razor-bill, the, uiamania tordn, 589^
Razor-shell, the, or solen, a species of mol-
lu5c, 741.
Rectum, the, 9.
Recurvirostra avoccttn, the avocet, 571.
Red admiral butterfly, the, 815.
Redbreast, the robin, erylhacus rnbccula,479.
Red coral (cnrallium rubrum), 826.
Red-deer, 243.
Redstart, the, ruticilla phoDnieuiM, 481.
Reduvina, a group of bugs, 800.
Redwing, the, turdus iliacus. 4t)7,
Reef?, coral, production of, 827.
Reeves, the fcMuale of the rutf, 569.
Regent-bird, or king honey-eaicr, a species of
oriole, sericulus chrysocephalu?, 5ul.
Regulus cristitus, the golden-crested wren
or kinglet, 485.
Reindeer, the, rangifer tarandu=, 237 etseq.
Reiibok, a species of antelope, 252.
Remora, or sucking fish, the, 712.
Reproduction, general remarks on, 10.
Reproduction of batrachia, 6G7.
Reproduction of birds, 3G9 et seq.
Reproduction of fi^hes, 679.
Reproduction of mammalia, 2 et seq.
Reproduction of moUuscn, 727. 728.
Reproduction of protozoa, 832,
Reproduction of reptiles, 624.
Reptilia, a class of vertebrated animals, the
reptiles, including serpents, lizards, croco-
diles, tortoises, &c, : divided into ophidia,
or snakes; eauria, or lizards ; loricata, or
crocodiles ; and chelonia, or tortoises, 621
et seq.
Respiration of bati"aclua, 667.
Respiration of birds, 309 et seq.
Respiration of fishes, 678.
Respiration of mainin;d)a, 2 ef seq.
Respiration, &c., of moHusca, 725.
Respiration of reptiles, 624.
Respiration of vertebrated animals, 8.
Rete mucuosum, 6.
Retina of the eye, 10.
Rbamphastidce, the toucans, a family of scan-
soiial birds, 527 et seq.
Rhamphastos, the true toucans, 530.
Rhen americana, the American osLrich, 561.
Rhesus, a species of monkey, 45. .
Riman-dahan, a species of felis, 119.
RhindophidEe, the horse-shoe bats, a family
of chiroptera {see Bats), 71.
Rbinobatidae, a family of fish, belonging to
tlie rays, 722.
Rhinobii'tus electricus, a fish belonging to the
rays, 722.
Rhinoceridae, the rhinoceroses, a family of
pachydermata, 316 et seq.
Rhinoceros unicornis, the one-horned, "or
Indian rh noceros ; R. sondaicus, the Ja-
vanese kind; R. eumatranus, a species
found in Sumatra ; R. bicornis, the bor^le,
316 et sfq.
Rhinolophus, the greater and lesser horseshoe
bat, 71.
RliiZ'ipoda, two orders of the, 832.
Rliiz'istoma cuvieri, a species of medusa?,
829.
Rhuinbifera, a section of fossil ganoid fishes,
717.
Rhombus maximus, the turbot, 699.
Rhombus vulgaris, the briUf 00.
Rbopdocera, a sub-order of lepidoptera, in-
cluding buiterflicj^, 814.
Rhyncophora, a tribe of coleoptera, 821.
RUynchops nigra, the shearwater, 600.
RiynchopsinsD, a sub-family of gulls, 600.
Rhynctita, an order of insects, corresponding
with the hemiptera of Latreille, 798.
Rbytinidee, a family of sirenia, including the
species rhj tina stclleri, or northern mana-
tee, an extinct species of sirenia, 349.
Ribbon-fishes, or cepolidie, 710.
Ribbon-worms, ov nemertidae, 769.
Ribs of mammalia, 2.
Ribs of vertebrated animals, 2, 3.
Rire-bird, or Java sparrow, oryzonis oryzi-
vora, 508.
Rifle-birds, Australian, pliloris, 454.
Ringed sn^ke, the common British, coluhei"
natrix, 633.
Riparia, a group of bugs, 800,
Ro.ich, the, Icuci^cus rutilus, 696.
Rubins, the, erjthacince, various species, 478.
Roc, the f ibulousbird, supposed to have been
the condor, 410.
Ruck-dove, 537.
Rock-fish (see Wrasse), 702.
Rodentia, an order of mammalia, including
the hares, porcupines, beavers, rats, &c.,
1C6 et seq.
Hoe, the, capreolus caprooa, 215.
Rollers, or coracidBB, a family of fissirostral
birds, 438 el seq.
Rouk, the, corvus frugilegus, 492.
Rorqual, a species of whale, 3 13-
Kost-beetle, tho, cetonia auiata, 822.
Rotifera, a cIjss of articulata, divuicd into the
Eessi-ia and natantia (formerly placed
amongst infusoria), 772.
Royston crow, 491.
Ruby-tail, clirysis ignita, 813.
Riirt', the, pbilomachus pugnas, 569.
Ruffe, the acerina vulgaris, a species of perch,
704.
Ruminantia, an order of mammalia, embrac-
ing the ox, sheep, goal, camel, &c. ; organs,
«:c., of the, 216 el seq.
HumierSf or cusorcsj 559 el seq.
Rupicapra tragus, the chamois, 253.
Rupicola aurantia, the cock of the rock, a
species of manakin, 460 ; the Peruvian, 460.
Rusa, or Asiatic deer, 244.
Kuticilla phconicuta, the redstart, 481.
Sabf-Lltdj:, afamily of tubicola, 771.
Sable, the fur of a kind of marten, the martes
zibellina, 137.
Sacral vertebrfp, 2.
Sacred beetle, the, scaraboDOS jEgyptiorum,
822.
Sacred monkeys, 33.
Sacred ibis, the, 573.
-"■acrum, the, 2
Saffittid^, a family of heteropodous molluscs,
745.
St. Bernard dog, 95.
Sajou, the horned, yellow-breasted, &c., 51,
52.
Saki, the white-headed, or yarke, 53.
Sakis, a genus of American monkeys, 52.
Salamander.-, land, or salamandraj, e'Hi.
Salamanders, the aquatic, or tritons, 669.
Salamanders, the true, 672.
SalamandridOB, a family of batrachia, 669.
Salangane, or esculent swallow, 431.
Salarias scandens a species of bleuny, 713.
Salivary glands, the, 9.
Salivary organs of mammalia, 9.
Salmon, artificial breeding of, 687.
Salmon, growth, habits, spawning, migration,
&c., of the, 686 et seq.
Salmo fario, the common trout, 689.
Salmo rossii, the Arctic salmon, 689.
Salmo salar, the common salmon, 686.
Salmo salvelinus, the char, 690.
Salmo trutta, Salmon-trout,, 689.
Salpte, organs, reprod'iction &:c., 7-8, 730.
Salpingidcc, a family of coleoptera, 822.
Samiri, or squirrel monkey, 54.
Sand-eels, or sand-lances, 69S.
Sander, the, lucioperca sandra, a species of
perch, 704.
Sand-grouse, or pteroclidse, 548.
Sand-hog, or Indian badger, 142.
Sand-hopper (talitras locusta), 779.
S tnd-hoppci', the, a species of articulata, 774.
Sand-piper, the, a grallatorial bird, 570.
Sand-rats, the, a family of rodents, psam-
raoryctida?, 185.
Sand-smelt, the, alherina presbyter, 692.
Sand-wasps, a species of hymenoptera, 820.
Sanguisuga officinalis, the leech, 770.
Sapajous, or capucins, a genus of American
monkeys, 51.
Sapbenia, a genus of medusa?, 829.
Sarcode, the chief substance of the protozoa,
S32.
Sarcophaga carnaria, the flesh-fly, 808.
Sarcoptes scabiei (itch-mite), 788.
Sarcorhamphus gryphus, the condor, 410;
S. papa, the king vulture, 411.
Sardine, the, clupea Sardinia, 686
>Sarsice, a family of medusas, 829.
Sii "" - - ■ ■
iturnia prometheus, a lepidopterous iDsect,
813.
Sauria, an order of reptiles, including the
lizards, &c., 639 et seq.
Saurothcrinae, a sub-family of cuckoos, 516.
Saw-flies, ovipositor or saw of the, 816.
Saw-fish, the, pristis antiquorum, 723.
Saxicolarubetra, the wincUat, 479,
Saxicola rubicola, the stopechat ; saxicola
oenanthe, the wheatear, 479.
Scabbard-fish, lepidopus argyreus, 710.
Scales, horn, fire, of animals, 6, 7.
Scalesof fishes, 677, 716.
Scales of the lepidoptera, 810.
Scallops, a species of pecten, 733.
Scalops aquations, shrew-mole, 78.
Scansores, divided into the cuculidce, or
cuckoos ; picidae, or wood-peckers ; psit-
tacidse, or parrots; and rhamphastidse, or
toucans, 513 et seq.
Scapula of man, &c., 2.
Scarus, a genus of acanthopterygious fish, 702.
Scclidothcrium, a fossil edentata, 205.
ScheUopusik, pseudopus pallasii, a species of
hzard, 643.
Sciajna aquila, the maigre, 705.
Scianidee, a family of fishes, allied to the
perches, 705,
Seincids, a family of saurians, 642.
Scincus officinalis, the skink, 612.
Scissors-bill, a bird, 600.
Sciuridae, or squirrels, a family of rodents,
167.
j Sciurus, various species of squirrel, 167 et seq.
Sclerodermata, a family of plectognathous
fishes, 714.
Sclerotica of the eye, 10.
Scolecina, an order of annelida, comprises two
families, the lumbricidrc, and naididae, 771.
Scolopacidaj, or snipes, 507.
Scotopas gallinago, common snipe, 567.
Scolupax rusticola, the woodcock, 568.
ScolopendridtB, a family of myriapiula, 791.
Scolyius destructur, a coleoptera, 821.
Scomber scombrus, the mackerel, 7U7.
ScomberesocidEB, a family of malacopterygious
fishes, 700.
Sconiberidre, or mackerels, a family of acan-
thopterous fishes, 706.
Sconiberides, or true mackerel, 706, 707.
Scooper, or avocet, a'grallatorial Liid, 571.
Scops aldrovandi, an owl, 416.
Scorpion-fly, the, 806.
Scorpionidffi, a family of arachnida {scorpions),
789.
Scutata, a group of bugs, 800.
Scutellum of the bcetltt, 620.
ScyllidsB, or dog-flshes, a familv of eelaehU,
720.
Scymnidce, a family of fishes, of the order se-
Inchia, 721.
Scymnus borcalis, the Greenland shark, 721,
Scythrops, novre hollanditr. the channel-bill,
a bird of the cuckoo family, 515.
Sea-acorns, balanidte, n family of cirrhopoda,
Sea-anemonea (actiniae), 827,
Sea-bear, sea-lion, and sea-elephant, species
of seals, 101, 162.
Sea-cat, or king of the herrings (see Chimxra
monstrosa).
Sea-cows, or manatees, 319.
Sea-devil (see Fishing-frog), 713.
Sea-dogs, a name applied to seaN, 156.
Sea-fox, or sea-ape {sec Fox-shark).
Sea-hares, the aplysiadce, 745.
Sea-hogF, hog-fi^h (see Porpoise), 345.
Sea-horse, the, hippocampus, 713,
Sea-horse, morse, or walrus, 163.
Sea-leopard, the, 159.
Sea-lilies, aspecies of echinodermata, 831.
Sea-lion, 162.
Sea-mantis, the, 780.
Se.i-mats, or fluslra;, 728.
Sea-mew, or gull, the, a natatorial bird, 001.
Sea-mice, 772.
Sea-needle, or sea-pike, 701.
Sea-nettles, the medusa?, a genus of disco-
phora, 828.
Sea-otter, the, 145,
Sea-pen, a species of asteroids, 826.
Sea-pike, or sea-needle. 701.
Sea-rushes, a species of asteroida, 826.
Sea-snakes, or hydrophidce, 633.
Sea-snipe, the, centriscus scolopax, 702,
Sea-snipes, trumpet fishes, bellows-fishes,
&c., 702.
Sea-spiders, 784.
Sea-unicorn, or narwhal, the, monodon mono-
ceros, 347.
Sfa-urchins, 831.
Sea-wolf, the, anarrhicas lupus, an acanthop-
terousfish, 713.
Seals, or phocid^,the family of the, and various
species, 156 el seq. ; seal hunting, 165,
Sebaceous follicles, 6.
Secretary-bird, the, serpentarir^ reptilivorus,
391. 4
Secretions, animal, 10.
Securifera, a sub-order of hymenopterous in-
sects, divided into two tribes, the phyllo-
phaga, and xylophaga, 815,
Segmentary natijre of the bodies of the ar-
ticulata, (see Articulata).
Selachia (sharks and rays), an order of fishes,
divided into two sub-orders, the hcloce-
phala and plagiostomata, 713 et seq.
Selachusmaximus, the basking shark, 721.
Semi-plantigrada, a section of the carnivorous
mammalia, 86,
Semnopithecus, the long-tailed monkeys ; 38
etseq.
Senses of felidoc, 111.
Senses of mammalia, 10 et seq.
Senses of reptiles, G23.
Senses of vertebrata, 10 et seq.
Sepia, a colour named after the cuttle-fish,
and produced by it, 762.
Sepia officinalis, the common cuttle-flsh, 764.
Sepiida!, a family of cephalopoda, 760.
Serpent, skeleton of the, 3.
Serpentorina), or serpent-eaters, a sub-family
of the falconidae, 3itl.
Serpentarius reptilivorus, the secretary-bird,
391.
Serpent-charming, 626,
Serpents, the, 625 et seq.
Serpula, a genus of tubicola,, 771.
Serrasalmoncs, a species of the fishes of the
family characinidCD, 698.
Serricornia, a tribe of coleoptera, 821.
SertularidtB, a family of hydroidae, 825.
Serum of blood, 7.
Scrval, the, felis serval, 119.
Setifera, a family of infusoria, 835.
Seventeen-year locust, 800.
Sexual characteristics of mollusca, 726.
Shad, the, clupea alosa, 6S6.
Shanny, the, blcnnius pholis, 712.
Shaphan, or cony of the Bible, a species of
hyrax, H. syriacus, 321.
Shark, mouth, teeth, fire, of the, 713.
Shark, the basking, sclachus maximus, or
sun-fish, 721.
Shaik, the Beaumaris, lamna monensis, 721.
Shark, the blue, carcharias glaucus, 719.
Shark, the common white, 720.
Shark, the fox, or thresher, 720.
Shark, the Greenland, 720.
Shark, the hammer-headed, 721.
Sharks, the true, carcharidoB, 719 et seq.
Shearwater, or skimmer, a gull, 600.
Shcathbill, the white, chiouis alba, 541.
Sheep, stomach of, 216,
Sheep, ovis, a genus of bovida, various soe-
cies, &c., 262 et seq.
Sheep, wool of various species of, 264 et seq.
Shell of the mollusca, 725 et seq.
Shells of the bivalve molluics, 732.
Shell of Crustacea, 776.
Shells of the gasteropodous molluscs, 744.
Sheldrake, the, 610.
Shephfrrds' dog, 94.
Saip-worm, the, teredo navalis, 738.
Surew-inole, the, scalops aquatici;s, 73,
Sbrew, the common, water, and oar^*d, 75, 76.
Shrews, or .soricidse, a family of insectivorous
mammalia, 75 et seq.
Shrikes, the drongo, dicnirinffi, 457.
Sbr.kcs, the fami y of, laniidoj, 444.
84s
Shrimps and prawni, 783.
Shrimps, oposiitim, 781.
SinmanfT, a species of qnndnimana, 35.
Sight, organs of, in vertebrata, 10.
Silkworm, the Arrindy, 813.
Silkworm, the common, 813.
SdphJdro, a famdy of coleoptera, 823.
SiUiridoe, a family of pbysostomatoas fiihcf.
G98.
Silurus glanip, a physostomntous fl«h,C98.
Simiro, or apes, the, divided into platyrrUiDO
andcatarrhino), 23.
Simia satyrus, the ornng-outan, 30.
Simoncidro, a family of acarina, 788.
Smging-bird^, organs of, 12, 13.
Sing-sing, or Koba, an antelope, 255.
Siphonata, an order of moltu^cs. 736.
Siphonophora, a class of radiata, containing
two orders; the chondrograda and phrso-
grada, 830.
Siphons of molluscs, 724 et »to.
Sipunculus, a genus of luctona, 771.
Siredon pisciforme, the axoloil, 608.
Sirenia, a sub order of cciacea, including the
herbivorous kmd, as the sea-cowe, dugone.
&c.,348tf( srq.
SireuidcD, a family of batrachia, 603,
Sirex gigas, aspecies of hymenoptera, 817.
Siskin, the, 509.
SittinjE, or nuthatches, the, 443, 444.
Skate, the, fishes of the ray kind, 723,
Skeleton of animals, 2 et seq.
Skeleton of bat, 67,68.
Skeleton of batrachia, 666
Skeleton of bear, 146,
Skeleton of camels. 216.
Skeleton of chelonia, 662.
Skeleton of chimpanzee, 28.
Skeleton of cow, 269.
Skeleton of crocodiles, 658.
Skeleton of dugong, 3jO.
Skeleton of elephant, 305.
Skeleton of giraff'e, 229.
Skeleton of gordla, 2.
Skeleton of hawk, 371.
Skeleton of bippopntamus, 302, 316,
Skeleton of horse, 290.
Skeleton of kangaroo, 359.
Skeleton of lion, Ul.
Skeleton of mammalia, 2 et seq.
Skeleton of man, 2, 23.
Skeleton of mastodon, 314,
Skeleton of musk-deer, 231.
Skeleton of mylodon, 204.
Skeleton of orang-outin, 23.
Skeleton of reptiles, 624,
Skeleton of rhinoceros, 316.
Skeleton of ruminantia, 216,
Skeleton of seals, 157, 158.
Skeleton of sloth, 203.
Skeleton of tapir, 322.
Skeleton of vulture, 369,
Skeleton of whales, 339.
Skimmer, or shearwater, GOO.
Skmk, the, scincus officinalis, 612.
Skin of animak, 6.
Skin of batrachia, 666.
Skin of crocodiles, 657.
Skin of fishes, 677.
Skinof horse, 290.
Skin of mammalia, 6.
Skin of reptiles, G24, 626.
Skull of albatross, 4.
Skull of armadillo, 201.
Skull of aurochs, 270.
Skull of an Australian, 4.
Skud of avc-aye, 64.
Skull of bat, 68.
Skull of carnivora, 85.
Skull of chelonia, 662.
Skuil of chimpanzee, 4, 28.
Skull of crocodile, 4.
Skull of dog, 4, 88, 89.
Skull of diigong, 350.
Skull of eagle, 369.
Skull of elephant, 303,305.
Skull of felidEE, 110.
Skull of fishes, 676.
Skull of giraffe, 228.
Skull of gorilla, 23. ^
Skull of hedgehog, 82. \
Skull of horses, 290. -- •
Skull of hyrcna, 123.
Skull of an idiot, 3.
Skull of insectivora, 74, 77.
Skull of jackal, 102.
Skull of jerboas. 173.
Skull of lion, 85.
Skull of man, 3.
Skull of monk-y, 38.
Skull of orang-ouian, 31.
Skull of porcupine, 166.
Skull of porcupine, 189.
Skull of poisonous snakes, 623,-
SkuU of reptiles, 625,
Skull of ruminantia, 216,
Skull of seals, 153.
Skull of whale, 333,
Skull of vertebrated animals, 4 et seq. -ice
al>o names of each).
Skunk, the, mephitis putorius, 140.
Slc^ider-billed birds, or tenuiroslres, charao
tciistics of the, 441.
Sloths, bradypodidie, family of, 201.
Slow-worm, the, unguis fragilis, 612.
Slugs, the, limacids, 755.
Smell, organs of, in vertebrata, 10 et seq.
Smelt, osmerus epcrlanuF, 691.
Smelt, sand, atherina presbyter, C92.
Smew, the, 605.
Snails, common land, helicid®, 754.
Snails, pond, 755,
Snake-fiies, a speclos of neuroptera, 102.
^46
INDEX.
Snake, poisonous, skull of a, 622.
Snake, black, coluber constiiclor, 636.
Snake-eatei', G39.
Snako, horned, cerastes hasselqni^tii, 629.
Snake, the ringed, or common British, 633.
Snake, various species of colubrine, G2S).
Snakes, lizards, serpents, crocodiles, &c., 621
et seg.
Snakes, sea, or hydrophidrc, 633.
Snakes, hooded, 631.
Snakes, venomous, 626.
Snipe, the common, 5G7.
Snipes, or scolopacidae, 5G7.
Social bees, 819.
Soland goose, or gannet, 597.
Sole, solea vulgaris, 700.
Solen, or razor-shell, 741.
Solenodon, a species of shrew, 78.
Solidiingula, an order of mammalia, including
the horse, ass, &c., 290 ct scq.
Solitaire, didus soUtarius, a bird allied to the
dodo, 535.
SolpugidsD, a family of arachnida, 788.
Somaieria. moUissiraa, eider-duck, 607.
Somalcria spectabilis, king-duck, 607.
Suosook (see Dolphin).
Soothsayer (see M intis).
Sores araneus, the common shrew ; S. fodiens,
the water shrew ; S. remifer, the oared
shiew, 75, 76.
Soricida>, or shrews, a family of insectivorous
mammalia, 75.
Sounds, musical, and voice, 12.
Spaniels, 95.
Sparidse, a family of acanthopterous fishes, 706.
Sparrow-hawks, the, or accipitrinse, 399.
Sparrow, common, passer domesiicus, 508.
Sparrow, hedge, or hedge warbler, 479.
Sparrow, the Java, or rice-bird, 5US.
Spat or fry of the oyster, 733.
Spatangidee, a family of echinida, 832.
Spatularla folium, a species of ganoid fishes,
718.
SpatularidsB, a family of ganoid fishes, re-
sembling the sturgeon, 718.
Specific centres of existence, 17.
Spermaceti, source of, 341.
Spermophiies, a genus of rodents, 169.
Sphaeridiidse, a family of colenptera, 823.
Spha3iomida), a family of isopoda, 780.
Spheniscidae, the penguins, 588.
Sphingin.i, a tribe of lepidoptera, embracing
the sphinxes, 814.
Sphinx, the, a species of lepidoptera, 814.
S])hyra;nidEe, a family of acanthopterous fish,
705.
Spicule of spongilla, 833.
Spider, diving, argyroneta aquatica, 790.
Spider, garden, 789.
Spider, harvest, 790,
Spider, house, 790.
Spider monkeys, the, 48.
Spider's nets, 789.
Spiders, or arachnida, 786 et seq.
Spiders, bird, mygale, 790.
Spiders, trap-door, 790.
Spine of the vertebrata, 2 et seq.
Spinneret of lepidoptera, 811.
Spinnerets of spiders, 789.
Spiny-finned, or acantliopterygious fishes, 702.
Spiny lobster, the, 783.
Spiralidce, a family of decapodous cephalo-
pods, 7G0.
Spleen, the, 9.
Sponges, growth and nutrition of, 833.
Spongilla, diVflojiment of, 834.
Spoonbill, various species of, 572.
Sprat, the, clupea sprattus, 685.
Springbok, the, a species of antelope, 251.
Squatarola cinerea, the gray plover, 530.
Squatina aculeata, a species of fish of the
order selaclua, 722.
Squatina angelus, angel, fiddle-fish, or monk-
lish. 722.
Squatinidee, a family of fishes, of the order
selachia, 722.
Squids, or calamaries, the loligidoB, a family
of cephalopods, 7G1.
SquillidfE, a family of stomapoda, 780.
Squirrel, common, sciurus vulgaris, 167.
• Squirrel, flying, pteromy>;, 168.
^ Squirrel-monkey, or Samiri, 54.
Squirrel, petaurus, 361.
Squirrels, or sciuridae, a family of rodents,
167, 720.
Squirrels, the earth, tamias, a genus of ro-
dents, 163.
Stag-beetle, the, lucanua cervus, 774, 823.
Stag-Uound, the, 97.
Stags, various species of, 238 et seq.
Star-fish, 831.
Starlings, the family of, sturnidSB, various
species, 497 et seq.
Starlings, the true, sturninoe, 499.
Star-nosed mole, 81.
Steatorime, or oil-birds, a sub-family of fissi-
rostral birds, 422.
Steatornis caripeusts, the guacharo or South
American oil-bird, 422.
Steganophthalmata, an order of raedusee,
divided into two families— viz., the medu-
sidae and rhizostomidoe, 829.
Stembok, oribes, 2G1.
Stelleiidae, an order uf echinodermata, 831.
Stellio vulgaris, a species of iguana, G48.
Stenops, a genus of lemuroids, 61.
Sientor muUeri, a species of infusoria, 835.
Slephanoraia, a genus of siphonophora, 830.
Sterlet, the, acipuniter ruthenus, 718.
Sterna hirundo, the sea-swallow, 6oO.
SterninEe, or terns, GOO.
Sternoxia, a sub-tribe of coleoptera, 822.
Sternum of birds, the golden eagle, 370.
Sternum of the vortebrated animal<=, 2, 3.
StiirhostegidfD, a family of rhizopoda, 833.
Stickleback, the common and fifteen-spined,
703.
Strigopinnp, a sub-family of parrots, 523.
Stilt, the, himantopus melanopterus, 571.
Sting of the bee, 815.
Stinging organs of the helanthoida, 827.
Stinging organs of the medusa, 828.
Sting-rays, 723.
Stoat, the, or ermine, 136.
Stock-dove, 530.
Stomach, and its organs, 9,
Stomach of birds, 375. 431.
Stomach of camels, 219.
Stomach of ostrich, 560.
Stooiach of ruminantia 216.
Stomapoda, an order of Crustacea, 780.
Stomatoda, an order of infusoria, 835.
Stonechat, saxicola rubicola, 479.
Stone-fly, perla bicaudata, H05.
Storks, various species of, 574 et seq.
Storm-birds (see Petrel.)
St. Peter's fish (see Haddock and Doree).
Street-dogs of Turkey, 9G ; of India, 101.
StreperinoD, or piping crows, a sub-family of
the corvidae, or crows, 489.
Strepsilas interpres, the turnstone, 579.
Strepsitera, an order of insects, 820.
Stridulantia, a tribe of honioptera, 800.
Strigidce, or owls, 412 et seq.
Striginte, the true owls, 412 et seq.
StrigopintD, a sub-family of parrots, 523.
Strigops habroptilus, the kakapo, a kind of
parrot, 523.
Strix flammea, the barn owl, 413.
Strombida^, a family gasteropods, 750,
Strongylus gigas, a species of nematoidea,
769.
Struthio camelus, the ostrich, 559.
Struthionidfe, or ostrich family, 559.
Sturgeon, the common, acipenser sturio, &c.,
718.
Sturnella, genus of the starling family, 500.
Sturnella ludoviciana, meadow-lark, 500.
Sturnidce, or starlings, the family of, 497
et seq.
SturniniE, or true starlings, 499.
Sturnus vulgaris, common starlings, 499.
Stylocerus, a Mipus of cervidte, embracing
the muntjacsj("16.
Sub-brachiate, anacanthinous, or spineless
fishes, divided into two families, the gadidae,
or cod-flsh, and the pleuronectidje, or flat
fish, 693.
Sublicornos, a tribe of neuroptera, 805.
Sucking-fish, or remora; echeneis reraora,
712.
Suctoria, the leeches, 770.
Suida;, the family of, swine, 325 et seq.
Sun-birds, promeropidiB ; the true, proraero-
pinjB, 451 et seq.
Sun-fi>h, a name applied to the basking
shark, 721.
Sun-fisb, or short sun-fish, the, orthagoriscus
mola, 715.
Surgeon, the, acanthurua chirurgus, a species
of acanthopterous fish, 70G.
Suricates, the, 132.
Surnia nyct^a, the snowy owl, 416.
Surnince, or f,v>wk-owls, 416.
Suspecta, a group of colubrine snakes, 633.
Sus scrofa, the common hog, 327 et seq.
Swallow, barn, an American species, 427.
Swallow, chimney, hirundo rustica, 426.
Swallow, esculent, coUocalia esculenta, pro-
ducing the edible birds'-nests of China,
431.
Swallow-hawk, 402.
Swallow, sea, sterna hirundo, 600.
Swallows, hirundinida;, 426 et seq.
Swans, the, a sub-family, cygninae, of nata-
torial birds, various species of, 611 et seq.
Swarming of bees, 820.
Sweetbread, or pancreas, the, 9.
Swift, the common, cypselus apus, 430.
Swifts, cvpselidoD, a family of fissirostral
birds, 427.
Swimming-birds, or natatores, 538.
Swimming of fishes, birds, &c., 14.
Swine, or suidie, 325 el seq.
Swine, South African, 331.
Sword-fishes, the, xiphiidoe, 254.
Syllis monilaris, a species of errantia, 772.
Sylvidae, or sylviadre, tHe warblers, a family
of dentirostral Grrjis, 472 et seq.
Sylvinaj, or true wai'blers, 482 et seq.
SymbranchidEe, a family of physostomatous
fi.^hes, 6S3.
Synallaxinee, a sub-family of creepers, 445.
SynaptidcB, a family of holothurida, 832.
Syngnathidfe, a .family of fishes, of the sub-
order lophobranchia,7l3;
Syngnathus acus, a British species of fishes,
sub-order lopUobranchia, 713.
Syrnium stcidula, the tawny owi, &c., 415.
Syrnium, the hooting owls, 415.
Syrphidffi, a family of diptera, 195.
Tabanid.e, a family of diptera, 809.
Tabanus bovinus,_Qi*-giid-fty, 809.
Table of moUustfbus shells in the collection of
the British Museum, 765.
Tacbornis phoBurcobia, the palm-swift of
Jamaica, 430.
Tachypetcs aquilas, the frigate-bird, 597.
Tadpole, development of.the, 667.
Taenia solium, a species of cestoidea, the com-
mon tape-worm, 768.
Tail and wings of birds, feathers in the, 371
et seq.
Tail of the carnivora, 86.
Tail of the whale, 338.
Tail, vevtebr® of the, 213 (see also the names
of Animals).
Tailed wasps (sirex gigas). 818.
Tailor-birds, of the genera orthotomus and
prinia, members of the family sylvidae, 485.
TalegalUi lathami, the brush turkey, 557.
Talitrus locusta, or sand-hopper, 779.
Tali)idED, or moles, a family of insectivorous
mammalia, 74.
Talpa europoea, the mole; T. ccoca, a species
of mole, 78, 79.
Tamias, a genus of rodents, the earth squir-
rels, IG9.
Tanagers, or tanagrinje, a sub-family of coni-
rostral birds, 506.
Tanrec, the, centetes, a genus of hedgehogs,
82.
Tantalintr, the ibises, a sub-family of the
heron tribe, 573.
Tanystoma, a tribe of diptera, 809.
Tape-worms, cestoidea, 768.
Taphozous, a genus of bats, 71.
Tapiridse, or tapirs, a family of thick-skinned
mammalia, 321.
Tapirus ameiic^mus, T. viUosus, and T. bico-
lor, &c., 322 et seq.
Tapoa, the sootv. 360.
Tarantula, the, '790.
Tarsal boue, the, 2, 3.
Tarsidae, a family of quadruraana, 62.
Tarsius, tarsiers, or Asiatic lemuroids, 62,
Taste, organ of, in mammalia, 9 et seq.
Tattlers, or totaninre, 571.
Tawney eagle, 387.
Teal, the, querquedula crecca, 609.
Tectibrancliiata, a group of gasteropodous
molluscs, 745.
Teeth (see also \ Dentition, also names of
animals), 4, 5.
Teeth of aard-vark, 212.
Teeth of babirussa, 327,
Teeth of badgers, 141.
Teeth of bears, 146.
Teeth of carnivora, 86.
Teeth of crocodiles, 622.
Teeth of dog, 88.
Teeth of dormouse, 171.
Teeth of elephant, 303.
Teeth of felids, 87, 109.
Teeth of glutton, 137.
Teeth of gorilla, 23.
Teeth of hare, 198.
Teeth of horse, 291.
Teeth of hysna, 127.
Teeth of ichneumon, 130.
Teeth of lemur, 58.
Teeth of mammalia, 4, 5.
Teeth of marmozet, 53.
Teeth of mice, 177.
Teeth of monkeys, 38.
Teeth of musquash, 184.
Teeth of oxen, 269.
Teeth of peccary, 325.
Teeth of pig, 329.
Teeth of porcupine, 189, 345.
Teeth of rodentia, 16G.
Teeth of ruminants, 217.
Teeth of seal, 157, 158.
Teeth of shrew, 74.
Teeth of vertebrata, 4, 5.
Teguexin, the, teius teguesin, 646.
Teleosauridae, a family of extinct loricata, or
crocodiles, 661.
Teleostia, an order of fishes, corresponding
with Cuvier's "Osseous Fishes," 680 etseq.
Telephori, soldier and sailor beetles, 822.
Tenobrio molitor, the, 822.
Tenrecs, a species of iusectivora, 82.
Tentacles of the polypi, 824.
Tenuirostres, or slender-billed birds, charac-
teristics of the, 441 et seq.
Terebella, a genus of tubicola, 771.
Terebrantia,a tribeof physopodous insects, 801.
Terebrantia,a divisioa of the hymeuopterai
816.
Terebratulidse, a group of moUusca, 741.
Teredro navalis, the ship-worms, a species of
mollusc, T33 ct seq.
Termes atrox, nest of the white ant, 805.
Termitidce, tlie white ant«, 804.
Tern, the great, or sea-swallow, 600.
Terns, sterninffi, sub-faiuily of gulls, 600.
Terriers, English and Scotch, 95.
Testaceous moUusca, 726.
Testudinidae, the land tortoises, GG5.
Testudo graeca, the common European tor-
toise, 6G5.
Tetrabranchiata, an order of cephalopodous
molluscs, 757.
Tetradon, a genus of plectognathous fish,
with species ; T. Iterigatus ; T. pennanti ;
T. lineatus, &c., 715.
Tetramera, a section of the coleoptera, 820
et seq.
Tetraonidse, or grouse, a family of rasorial
birds, various species, 511 et seq.
Tetraouinas, a sub-family of the grouse tribe,
542.
Tetris, a species of grasshopper, 801.
Teuthidao, a family of acanthopterous fish,
70G.
Thalassarctos martimus, Arctic bear, 147.
Thulassinidce, a faoiily of macrurous deca-
pods, 783.
Thamnophilinra, a sub-family of shrikes, 456.
Thaumantias pilosella, a species of medus£B,
829.
Theoosomata, an oi'der of pteropodous mol-
lusca, 743.
Thelphuste, a kind of land-crabs, 786.
Thelyphonidae, a family of arachnida, 789.
Therevidae, a family of diptera, 195.
Thick-heads, or pachycephalinje, a sub-family
of chatterers, 460.
Thick-knees, or oedicneminEO, various species,
582.
Thigh-bone, or femur, the, 2 et seq.
Thoracic cavity, 2 ; duct, 9.
Thoracic duct, the, 2 cf seq.
Thomback, the, raia clavata, 723.
Thresher (see Fox-shark), 12].
Thrips ccrealium, a species of physopodous in-
sects, 801.
Thrushes, or turdidOD, 463 et seq.
Thrush, species of ; White's thrush, turdug
whitei; the missel-thrush, turdus visci-
vorus ; the song-thrush, turdus musicus,
&c., 465 et seq.
Thrushes, the ant, formicarina?. 669.
Thrushes, the true, turdina?, 4G5.
Thylacinus cynocephalus, the pouched wolf, a
species of marsupial, 366.
Thylacotherium, an extinct marsupial animal,
367.
Tliymallus vulgaris, the grayling, G92.
Thynnus pelamys, thebonito, 708.
Thyimus vulgaris, the tunny, 708.
Thysanura, an order of ametabolous insects,
797.
Tibiaof theleg, 2, 3.
Tick, the sheep, a dipterous insect, 194.
Tiger, felis tigris, 116 et seq.
Tiger-cat, 119.
Tiger hunting, 117.
Ttmalince, or babblers, a group of dentirostral
birds, 465.
Tinamidae, the tinamous, 541.
Tineina, a tribe of lepidoptera, 812.
TipulidiD, a family of diptera, the daddy-
long-legs, 809.
Titlark, anthus pratensis, the, 473.
Titmice, various species of, parinae, 474.
TityrinsB, or becards, a sub-family of fly-
catchers, 462.
Toad, the accoucheur and natterjack, 674.
Toad, the common, bufo vulgaris, 673.
Toad, the Surinam, pipa americana, 673.
Toads, reputed lengthened tori)idity of, 673.
Todies, or todinas, a sub-family of fissirostral
birds, 432.
Todinre, the todies, 432.
Tody, the green, todus viridis, 432.
Toes, phalanges of the, 2.
Tomicus typographus, the typographic beetle,
821.
Tongue of giraffe, 228.
Tongue of vertebrata, the, 12, 13.
Tooth-shells, dentalidce, 746.
To_pe, the, galeus vulgaris, a species of shark,
Top-shells, the trochi, a genus of gasteropods,
746.
Toque, the, a species of monkey, 44.
Torpedinidae, or electric rays, 723.
Torpedo, electrical organs of the, 724,
Tortoise-shell butterfly, the, 815.
Tortoise-shell obtained, from the horny plates
■ covering the carapace of the hawk's-biil
• turtle, chelonia imbricala, 663.
Tortoise, skeleton of the, 661, 662.
Tortoise, alligator, chelydea serpentina, 664.
Tortoise, box, a species of turtle, 664.
Tortoise, common European, 665.
Tortoises, fossil, 666. .
Tortoise, Indian, testudo Indica, 665.
Tortoises, the land, testudinida?, 665.
Tortoises, the soft, trionycidte, 664.
Tortricidif, a fami* of serpents, 639.
Tortricina, a tribe of lepidoptera, 812.
Totaninie, the tattlers, a sub-family of gi-alla-
torial birds, 571.
Toucans, or rhamphastidae, a family of scan-
sorial birds, 523 et seq.
Tongue of felidie, lU.
Touracoes, a genus of birds, corythaix, of the
conirostral kind, 437.
Tosodon, the, 335.
Toxotes jaculator, a species of acanthopterous
fish, 706.
Trachea, or windpipe, 8.
Trachearia, a sub-class of arachnida, embrac-
ing three orders— the podosomata ; the
acarina, or monomerosomata ; and the
adelarthrosomata, 787.
Trachelia, a tribe of coleoptera, 822.
Trachelina, a sub-family of infusoria, 835.
Trachinida?, or weevers, a family of acanthop-
terous, fish, 705.
Trachinus draco, a species of fish, 705.
Tragopan, the, 553.
Tree-corals, or madreporidEB, 827.
Tree-frogs, hylides, 674.
Tree-kangaroos, 359.
Tree-pigeons, 540.
Trematoda, an order of platyelraia, with three
families — viz., the distomidae, tristomidcB,
and piilyslomidte, 768.
Trcpang, the, holothurida edulis, 832.
Treronidae, the tree-pigeons, 540.
Trichecas rosmarus, the walrus, 157, 163.
Tiichecidce, the walrus family, 157, 163.
Ticliiurus lepturus, a species of acanthop-
terous fish, 710.
Trichodida, a faoiily of infusoria, 835.
Trichodinae (urn-animalcules), a sub-family
of infusoria, 835.
Trichoptera, a sub-order of neuropterous in-
sects, 806.
Tridacna gigas, the clam-shell, 736.
Triglidcc, or cataphi'acta, a family of spiny
fishes, 703.
Trigoniacea, a tribe of moliuscs, 734.
Trilobites (fossil Crustacea), 778.
Trimera, a section of the coleoptera, 820.
Tringinas, a sub-family of the snipes, 570.
INDEX.
847
Trionycid6B, or soft tortoiseB, 664.
Trionyx feros, the enapping turtle, 664.
Tripodonotus, a genus of enakes, 635.
Tristomidre, a family of trematoda, 769.
Tritoniiils, a family of gasteropodous mol-
luscs, 745.
Triton palustrls; tviton aquaticus, &c., spe-
cies of batrachia, 669 et seq.
Trochilida?, or humming-birds, a family of
tenuirostrcs, 44S rt seq.
Trochus, a genus of gasteropods, 748.
Troglodytes gorilla, the gorilla, 23 ; T. nigcr,
the chimpanzee, 27 ; T. calvus,the nshiego-
mbouve, 28 ; T. koolorv-kamba, the kooloo-
kamba, 28 ; T. soko, 30,
Troglodytes vulgaris, the common wren, 411.
Troglodytinoo, the wrens, 441.
Trogonidre, or couroucous, 436.
TrombidiidiB, a family of acarina, 787.
Troopials, the, 500.
Tropic birds, phaetoninfp, 599.
Troupiale, the oriole, 4G4, 500.
Trout, salmon, salmo trutta, 690.
Trout, the common, salmo fario, 689.
Trumpeters, the, psophinEB (see Cranes).
Trunk-fi^h, the, ostracion, 714.
Trunk of the Indian elephant, 30G.
Trusalis, a species of orthoptera, 801.
Trygonidae, or sting-rays, the, 723.
Tubicola, an order of annelida, including the
families sabellidic and hermellida?, 771.
Tubiporidie, a family of asteroida, 826.
Tubularida?, a family of the hydroida, 825.
Tubulifora, a tribe of hymenoptera, 818.
Tubulifera, a tribe of physopodous insects,
801.
Tucutuco, a species of rat, 187.
Tunicata, a class of mnlluscoids, embracing
the orders ascidiae and bipbora, 728.
Tunic, nature of the, belonging to the order
tunicata moUuscoids, 728.
Tunis, a genus of medusae, 828.
Tunny the, thynnus vulgaris, 708.
Tupainto, or banxrings, the, a tribe of insec-
tivorous mammalia, 75.
Turanian variety of man, 19.
TurbellaridEe, a family of planarida, 769.
" TurbinidjB, a f iniily of gasteropods, 748.
Turbnt, the, rhombus maximus, 699.
Turdidffi, or thrushes, family of the, 463.
Turdinae, or true thrushes, 465.
Tardus, species of ; T. whitei, While's thrush;
T. varius, a Japanese kind ; T. raerula, the
blackbird; T. viscivorous, the missel-
thrush ; T. musicus, the song-thrush ; T.
pilaris, the fieldfare ; T. iliacus, the red-
wing ; and T. torquatus, the ring ouzel,
465 et seq.
Turkey, brush, talegalla lathami, 557.
Turkey-buzzard, 407.
Turkey, common, meleagris gallopavo, and
other species, 518 et seq.
Turkeys, sub-family of, meleagrince, 548.
Tuinicinias, a sub-family of grouse, 547.
Turnip-fly, the, haltica nemorum, 821.
Turnix pugnax, a Javanese species of grouse.
547.
, 664.
Turnix tachydromus, the Andalusian quai
547.
Turnstone, strepsilas interpres, 579.
Turrilites, a genus of cephalopods, 757.
Turriiellida?, a family ot gasteropods, 749.
Turtle-dove, 538. ,
Turtle, the green, chelonia midas, 664.
Turtle, the hawk's-bill, chelonia imbricata,
G64.
Turtle, the leathery, epharifc coriacea, 664.
Turtle, the snapping, trionj^ ferox,
Turtles, or chelonidre, 662*^ seq.
Tusks, see names of Animals.
Tusks of elephant, 303,
Tusks of narwhal, 317.
Tusks of walrus, 101.
Tympanum of the
Typholopidop, a i.
Typographic beet
Tyranninae, or tyj
Tyrannus intrc]
Tyrant, the ere.
Ulna of the arm, 2, 3.
Umbo, or beak of a bivalve mollusc, 726.
Umbrella-bird, the, cephalopterus ornatus,
457.
Umbrella, or disc of the mcduso', 828.
Unibrclla-shcll, the, a gasleropod, 745.
Unau, a species of sloth, 204.
Unio margaritiferus, a mollusc, 736.
Unionacea, a tribe of molluscs, 736.
Unio pictorura, a species of mollusc, 736.
Upholsterer bee, 819.
UpupidiE, or hoopoes, a family of tcnuiros-
tral birds, 4'>2.
Uria, a genus of auks, the guillemots, 591.
Urinary organs of mammalia, 2, 10.
Urodela, an order of batrachia, 669.
Ursida?, or bears, a family of camivora, 88,
145.
Ursus arctos, the brown hoar ; U. americanus,
the black bear; U. ferox, the grisly bear ;
U. epehrus, a fossil species, 1 16 et seq.
Ulamania torda, the razor-bill, 589.
Utia, a species of rat, 187.
Vacuoles of infusoria, 834.
Vampyre bats, or phyllostomidae, 69.
VanoUus cri:?tatus, crested lapwing, 581.
Vanessa atalanta, the red admiral butterfly,
818.
Vanessa io, the peacock butterfly. 815.
Vanessa urticoe, the tortoiseshell butterfly,
815.
Valves of the heart, 8.
Varanidee, a family of lizards, GIG.
Veins and arteries (see Circulation).
Velella, a genue of siphonophorous radiata,
830.
Vena cava, the, 8.
Venemosa, a group of colubrine snakes, 629.
Venous blood (see Heart), 8.
Ventral fins of fishes, 677.
Ventricle, the expelling chamber of the heart,
the, 8.
Venus' girdle (cestum Veneris), 142.
Vermes, nervous system of the, 7G7.
Vermes, or worms, classes of, are— platyelmia,
nematelmia, annelida, and rotifera, 767.
Vermetus, a genus of gasteropods, 749.
\'ertebra, nature of a, 2.
Vertebrse of birds, 370.
Vertebrae of reptiles (see Reptiles), 3.
Vertebrje of the skeleton, articulation of the,
2 et seq.
Vertebral column and vertcbrre of mammalia,
&c., 2, 3.
Vertebral column of the vertebrata generally,
2,3.
Vertebrata, characteristics of the functions.
organs, &c., of the (see the names of each ;
also of the bones, muscles, nerves, &c.), 2
et seq.
Vertebrata divided into five classes— viz.,
Pisces, or Fishes ; Batrachia, or Frogs;
Reptilia, or Reptiles : Aves, or Birds ;
and IMammalia, or animals giving suck to
their young, 1
ail, *\es'
pa holsatica, a species of wasp, 818.
Vespa vulgaris, the common wasp, 818.
Vesperlilio noctula, the noctulc, or great bat,
71.
VespertilionidiT, the true bats, a family of
chiroptera, 71.
Vibrissao, or bristles o f bj.
Vicugna, the,
Vidu
Virginian opossum, 864.
Virgularia mirnbilia, species of aeterolda. 826.
Viscacha, lagostomus trichodactylus, 192.
Viscacha, the mountain, lagidium cuvicri,
191.
Vitreous humour of the eye, 10.
Viverra civctta, the common civet, 130 ; V.
rasse, the rasee, or Javanese civet, 131.
ViverridiT, or civets, a family of camivora,
87, 130 et seq.
Voice and song of birds, 13.
Voice of mammals, 12, 13.
Voice of birdf, 12, 13.
Voles, or arvicola, a genus ofrodenUt, 178
et seq.
Volutidao, a family of gasteropods, 751.
Vomer of fishes (see Fishes).
Vorticcllidao (bell-animalcules), a family of
infusoria, 835.
Vulpes vulgaris, the common fox, 104 ; V. la-
gopuB, the Arctic fox, lOG.
Vulture, skeleton of the, 369.
Vulture, the Arabian, vultur monachus ;
cinereous, 40S ; the tawny, gyps fulvus,
408 ; Egyptian, 409.
Vulture, the black, 407.
Vulture, sociable, 408.
Vulture, turkey, cathartes aura, or turkey
buzzard, 407.
Vulturida?, the vultures, a family of raptorial
birds;, 405 et seq.
VuUurinjE, the true vultures, 405.
Wadino-birds, or grallatores, an order of
the class aves, or birds, 564.
Wagtail, the pied, white, gray, and other
species, 472, 473.
Walking-leaves, orthopterous insects, 802.
Walrus family, the, or trichccids, 1G3.
Wanderoo, a species of monkey, 45.
Wapiti, the, cervtis canadensis, 23G, 243.
Warblers, the true, 482.
Warbler, the garden, curruca hortensis ; the
grasshopper warbler, sibellatrix locuetella;
the Dartford warbler, nielizophilus dart-
fordiensis ; the reed warbler, calamodyta
arundinacea, 483 et seq.
Wasp, the common, vespa vulgaris, a hymcn-
opterous insect, &c., 817, 818.
Wasps, tailed, a tribe of hyn^'^noptera, 818.
Watch dog-s 96. #
Water-beetle, 823.
Water-bugs, the great, 800.
Water-dogs, 95.
Water-hens, or galinules, 565.
Water-newts, G70.
Water-pig, or capybara, 197.
Water-pot shell, the, 738.
Water-ouzel, or dipper, 469.
Water-rail, the, 566.
Water-rat, 182.
Water-shrew, 76.
Waxwing, the, 458.
Weasel, common, mustela vulgaris, 13G.
Weasels, or mustelidaD, 87, 135.
Weaver-birds, or ploceinae, 502.
Web-footed birds, or natatores, 588 et seq.
Wedge-tailed eagle, 387.
Weevcrs, the trachinidEe, 705.
Weevils, the nut and corn, 207.
Whale-hone, or baleen, 340,
" idishJiiT, pursuit of .341. ^^»<i
Whitebait, the, clupea alba, 686.
White elephants 311.
White-nosed monkey, the Ipbbct, 43.
Whiiothroat, the, curruca cincrcn; the lesser
wliitethrout, curruca nylvielli, 484.
Whiting the. mcrlangus vulgariR, 693.
Whyduh, or widow-birdH, vidua paradisea,
504.
Widgeon, the, marcca pcnelope, CIO.
Widow-bird (sec Whydah-bird), 501.
Wild cat, 120.
Willsidip, a family of mcdueie, 829.
Winchat, the, eaxicola rubetra, 479.
Windpipe, or Irachen, the, 8.
Wings and tails of birds, feathers in the, 371
et $eq.
Wings and wing-bones ofbtrdp, 371 et sfq.
Wings of beetles, 795.
Wings of hymenoptera, 795.
Wings of insect's, 795.
Wolf and dog, hybrid of, 90.
Wolf-dogs, 95, 9G.
Wolf, common, and other species (sea names
of each), 101-101.
Wolf, pouched, or zebra-wolf, pcracyon, or
thylacinus cyuucephalus, a marsupial ani-
mal, 3GG.
Wolverine, the, or glutton, 138.
Wombat, the, pha.«colomys fo?8or, 356.
Wonga-pigcon, 510.
Wood-chat, the, laniuR rutilus, 456.
Woodcock, Bcolopax rusticoli, 568.
Wood-louse, the (oniscus), 750.
Woodpeckers, or picidae, a family of ecan-
sorial birds, various species of, 516 et^teg.
Wood-pheasant (see Lyre-bird).
Wool, nature of, 6 ; of sheep, 264.
Working-bee, the, 819.
Worms (see Vermes), 7fi7.
Wou-wou, or silvery gibbon, 36.
Wrasse; rock-fi^i. ; old-wives; labrus (var-
ious species), 702.
Wren, the common, troglodytes vulgaris, and
other species, 441, 442.
Wren, the gold crested, 485.
Wrens, or troglodytinae, a eub-family of
creepers, 411, 442.
Wrynecks, or yuncinEE, a sub-family of scan-
Borial birds, 520.
XiPHiAS gladius, the sword-fish, 708.
XiphiidEE, the swordflshcs, 708,
Xylocopa, the carpenter bee, 8l9.
Xylophaga, a tribe of secunferous hymenop-
tera, 816.
Xyphosura, an order of crustacca, 776, 778.
Yak, the, poephagus grunniens, a Bpecies of
the bison kind, 283.
Yapock, the, chuonectes variegatus, 365.
Yprkc, a species of monkey, 53.
Yaphantes baltimore, the Baltimore oriole,
500.
Yuncinae, or wrynecks, 520.
Yuen, a species of quadrumani, 37,
Yunx lorquila, the wryneck, 520.
Zebra Burchell's, equus burcheUi; equus
zebra, 300.
Ze]
m^P^^'mm^^i^^^&'^'C!^^^ ' ■ -^
,AA/>A'^n^''/
^^^■^^A^rsi^-S
■^^<^^^^^'
-,-^,^^-^>
■t^^AAA^' '^C-A./S/S
SC^^^^Z^':^',^-'^'?:;'^.
-AaAA/^(
:^^l^o.;^^.«...:;«o8ss!toffiPii:22:2i:^
^'^^^'/^/^^^/^
'mpifs)
i^n^^'msi^/^^-
/■■^■■<^:-^'
opiralidte, a fa.uiUy oi aeccvijuuu'aw *^i,. ..;.,
pod-;, 760.
Spleen, the, 9.
Sponges, growth and nutrition of, 833.
Spongilla, dev'^lopment of, S34.
Spoonbill, various species of, 572.
Sprat, the, clupea spratlus, 6S5.
Springbok, the, a species of antelope, 251.
Squatarola cinerea, the gray plover, 580.
Squatina auuleata, a species of fish of the
order selachia, 722.
Squatina aiigelus, angel, fiddle-fish, or monk-
tish. 722.
Squatinidte. a family of fishes, of the order
selachia, 722.
Squids, or calainaries, the loUgidEG, a family
of cpphalopods, 7G1,
SquillidoQ, a family of stomapoda, 780.
Squirrel, comimm, sciurus vulgaris, 167.
• Squirrel, rtyin^, pteromy-, 16S.
Squirrel-monkey, or Sauiiri, 54.
Squirrel, petaurus, 361.
Sqtiirrels, or sciuridte, a family of rodents,
167, 720.
Squirrels, the earth, tamias, a genus of ro-
dents, 163.
Stag-beetle, the, lucanus cervus, 774, 823.
Stag-liound, the, 97.
Stags, various species of, 233 et seq.
Star-fish, 831.
Starlings, the family of, sturnidae, various
species, 497 et seq.
Starlings, the true, sturnintc, 499.
Stai-nosed mole, 81.
Steatorinre, or oil-birds, a sub-family of fissi-
rostral birds, 422.
Steatornis carlpensis, the guacharo or South
Americaii oil-i)ird, 422.
Steg.mophthaliriaUt, an order of medusce,
divided into two families— viz., the medu-
sidae and rUizostomida?, 829.
Steinbok, or iiies. 2G1.
StelljiidEP, an order of ecUinodermata, S31.
Stellio vulgaris, a species of iguana, 648.
Stenops, a genus of lemuroids, 61.
Stentor tuulieri, a species of infusoria, 835.
Slephanoraia, a genus of siphonophora, S30,
Sterlet, the, acipenser ruthenus, 718.
Sterna hirundo, the sea-swallow, GOO.
StcrnintD, or terns, GOO.
Sternoxia, a sub-tribe of coleoptera, 822.
Sternum of birds, the golden eagle, 370.
..•Qspecta,'i>,..' ^ - ---. . , ,-.rf/.-^— "
Sus scrofa, the common hog, 327 et seq.
Swallow, barn, an American species, 427.
Swallow, chimney, hirundo rustics, 426.
Swallow, esculent, collocalia esculenta, pro-
ducing the edible birda'-nests of China,
431.
■Swallow-hawk, 402.
Swallow, sea, sterna hirundo, 600.
Swallows, hirundinido?, 426 et seq.
Swans, the, a sub-family, cygnince, of nata-
torial birds, various species of, 611 et seq.
Swarming of bees, 820.
Sweetbread, or pancreas, the, 9.
Swift, the common, cypselus apus, 430.
Swifts, cvpseUdae, a family of fissirostral
birds, 427.
Swimraiug-birds,'or natatores, 538.
Swimming of fishes, birds, &c., 14.
Swine, or suida?, 325 et seq.
Swine, South African, 331.
Sword-fishes, the, xiphiidas, 254.
Syllis monilaris, a species of crrantia, 772.
Sylvidse, or sylviadce, tKe warblers, a fhmily
of dentirostral fin'jis, 472 ctseq.
SylvincD, or true warblers, 482 et seq.
SymbranchidcD, a family of physostomatous
fie.hes, 683.
Syn;iUaxiniB, a sub-family of creepers, 445.
Synaptidae, a family of holothurida, 832.
Syngnathidce, a .family of fishes, of the sub-
order lophobranchiu, 7l3^
Syngnathus acus, a British species of fishes,
sub-order lophobranchia, 713.
Syriiium stridula, the tawuy o_w], &c.> 415.
Syrnium, the hooting owls, 415.
Syrphidte, a family of diptera, 195.
Tabanid.t:, a family of diptera, 809.
Tabanus bovinus, ,ai'-gad-fiy, 809.
Tabic of mollu^c"dus shells in the collection of
the British Museum, 765.
Tachornis phoeurcobia, the palm-swift of
Jamaica, 430.
Tachypetes aquilas, the frigate-bird, 597.
Tadpole, development of the, 667.
Tcenia solium, a species of cestoidea, the com-
mon tape-worm, 763.
Tail and wings of birds, feathers in the, 371
et seq.
Tail of the carnivora, 86.
Teleosai
crocodiles, 661c ^^
Teleostia, an order of fishes, corPG&^k.^^
with Cuvier's ** Osseous Fishes," 680 e? sefj*-.
Telephori, soldier and sailor beetles, 822.
Tenebrio molitor, the, 822.
Tenrecs, a species of insectivora, 82.
Tentacles of the polypi, 824.
Tenuirostres, or slender-billed birds, charac-
teristics of the, 441 et seq.
TerebcUa, a genus of tubicola, 771.
Terebrantia,a tribeof physopodous ijisects, 801.
Terebrantia,a divisioa of the hymeaoptera;
816.
Terebratulidae, a group of raoUusca, 741.
Teredro navalis, the ship-worms, a species of
mollusc, 738 et seq.
Teruies atrox, nest of the white ant, 805.
Terinitida?, the white ant^, 804.
Tern, the great, or sea-swallow, 600.
Terns, sterninee, sub-faiuily of gulls, 600.
Terriers, English and Scotch, 95.
Testaceous mollusca, 726.
Testudiuidce, the land tortoises, 6G5.
Testudo grffica, , the common European tor-
toise, 665.
Tetrabraachiata, an order of cephalopodous
molluscs, 757.
Tetrudon, a genus of plectognathous fish,
with species; T. Iferigatus ; t, pennanti ;
T. lineatus, &c., 715.
Tetramera, a section of the coleoptera, 820
et seq.
Tetraonidce, or grouse, a family of rasorial
birds, vaiious species, 541 et seq.
TetvaoninjB, a sub-family of the grouse tribe,
542.
Teirix, a species of grasshopper, 801.
TeuthidcB, a family of acanthopterous fish,
7U6.
Thalassarctos martimus, Arctic bear, 147.
Thalassinidce, a family of macrurous deca-
pods, 783.
Thamnophilinaa, a sub-family of shrikes, 456.
Thaumautias pilosella, a species of medusro,
829.
Theoosomata, an order of pteropodous mol-
lusca, 743.
Theiphusffl, a kind of land-crabs, 786,
TbelyphonidcD, a family of arachnida, 789.
Therevidaa, a family of diptera, 195.
r
Totainw
turial bira^_
Toucans, or r^sn
sorial birds, 528^is.
Tongue of felida?, 111.^
Touracoes, a genus of birli
conirostral kind, 487.
Tosiodon, the, 335. \
Toxotes jaculator, aspecies ok
fish, 706. \
Trachea, or windpipe, 8. N
Trachearia, a sub-class of araclix
ing three orders— the podoa
acariua, or monomerosomata'i^
adelarihrosomata, 787. N^
Trachelia, a tribe of coleoptera, 822. ^^
Trachelina, a sub-family of infusoria, SS
TrachinidiE, or weevers, a family of acank
tevous, fish, 705.
Trachinus draco, a species of fish, 705.
Tcagopan, the, 553.
Tree-corals, or madreporidffi, 827.
Tree,-frogs, hylides, 674.
Tree-kangaroos, 359.
Tree-pigeons, 540.
Trematoda, an order of platyelmia, wli
families — viz., the distomidse, tristdi
and polyslomidEE, 763.
Trepang, the, holothurida edulis, 832,
Treronidfe, the tree-pigeons, 540.
Trichecas rosmarus, the walrus, 157
TrichecidJE, the walrus family, 157,
Tichiurus lepturus, a species of acantH
terous fish, 710,
Trichodidae, a family of infusoriJ, 835.
TrichodincB (urn-animalcules), a sub-fa
of infusoria, 835.
Trichoptera, a sub-order .of neuropterov
sects, 806. f
Tridacna gigas, the clam-shell, 736. /
Trighdte, or cataphracta, a family of
fishes, ,703.
Trigoniacea, a tribe of molluscs, 734.
Trilobites (fossil crustacean, 778.
Trimera, a section of the coleoptera,
Tringinte, a sub-family of the snipes
/
istOL
B32. S
57, 163. V
7, 163. «
'^^^\'
uJ^^JJ-
.'^^m^;^'
^vm^^^f^n
m^^^khfd^^:
l^Kf\rPp'
^SM^,:...^M.Z;.Ao.^'S::SXi:;/-'''
:fi^«^^?:j;s2ig???;^^
i^^^^:>'^^»5w
/-
li^
Q
Kv
■■"^^
*«.,
"-**'S]pwraUdse, a fami^ or adLauuav>ix« c.
pods, 760.
Spleen, the, 9.
Sponges, growth and nutrition of, 833.
Spongilla, direlo|iraent of, 834.
Spoonbill, various species of, .572.
Sprat, the, clupca sprattus, 685.
Springbok, the, a species of antelope, 251.
Squatarola cinerea, the gray plover, SSO.
Squatina aeuleata, a species of fish of the
order selachia, 722.
Squatina angelus, angel, fiddle-fish, or monk-
tish. 722.
SqualinidcB. a family of fishes, of the order
selachia, 722.
Squids, or calamaries, the loligidlB, a family
of cephalopods, 761.
Squillidte, a family of stomapoda, 780.
Squirrel, common, sciurus viilg.iris, 167.
* Squirrel, flying, pteromys, 163.
^ Squirrel-monkey, or .Samiri, 54.
Squirrel, petaurus, 361.
Squirrels, or sciuridsE, a family of rodents,
167, 720.
Squirrel.^, the earth, tamias, a genus of ro-
dents, 168.
Stag-beetle, the, lucinus oervus, 774, 829.
Stag-hound, the, 97.
Stags, various species of, 238 et sen.
Star-fish, 831.
Starlings, the family of, sturnidae, various
species, 497 et seq.
Starlings, the true, sturninie, 499.
Star-nosed mole, 81.
SteatoriniE, or oil-birds, a sub-family of flssi-
rostral birds, 422.
Steatornis caripensis, the guacharo or South
American oil-bird, 423.
Steganophthalmata, an order of medusje,
divided into two families— viz., the medu-
sids and rhizostoraidED, 829.
Steinbok, or ibex, 261.
Stelleiidse, an order of eihinodermata, 831.
Stellio vulgaris, a species of iguana, 648.
Stenops, a genus of lemuroids, 61.
Stentor mulleri, a species of infusoria, 835.
Stephanomia, a genus of siphonophora, 830.
Sterlet, the, acipenser rathenus, 718.
Sterna hirundo, the sea-swallow, 600.
Sterninte, or terns, GOO.
Sternoxia, a suh-tribe of coleoptera 822.
Sternum of birds, the golden eagle, 370. '
.'Uspectaf! _ . ^__ ^
Sus scrofa, the coininon hog, 327 et seq.
Swallow, barn, an American species, 427.
Swallow, chimney, hirundo rustica, 426.
Swallow, esculent, collocalia esculenta, pro-
ducing the edible biids'-nests of China,
431.
Swallow-hawk, 402.
Swallow, sea, sterna hirundo, 600.
Swallows, hirundinidrc, 426 et seq.
Swans, the, a sub-family, cygnin^, of nata-
torial birds, various species of, 611 et seq.
Swarming of bees, 820.
Sweetbread, or pancreas, the, 9.
Swift, the common, cypselus apus, 430.
Swifts, cypselidtD, a family of flssirostral
birds, 427.
Swimming-birds, or natatores, 588.
Swimming of fishes, birds, &c., 14.
Swine, or suidoa, 325 et seq.
Swine, South Afiican, 331.
Sword-fishes, the, xiphiidre, 254.
Syllis monilaris, a species of errantia, 772.
Sylvidie, or sylviadte, the warblers, a family
of dentirostral Bn-jls, 472 e^ seq.
Sylvina), or true warblers, 482 et seq.
SymbranchidfB, a family of physostomatous
fishes, 683.
Synallaxinte, a suh-family of creepers, 445.
Synaptidae, a family of holothurida, 832.
Syngnathidte, a .family of fishes, of the sub-
order lophobranchia,713;
Syngnathus acus, a British species of fishes,
sub-order lophobranchia, 713.
Syrnium stridula, the tawny owl, &o., 415.
Syrnium, the hooting owls, 41*5.
SyrphidtB, a family of diptera, 195.
T»BANiDffi, a family of diptera, 809.
Tabanus bovinus;,\Qr-gad-fiy, 809.
Table of mollusfbus shells m the collection of
the British Museum, 765.
Tachornis plicEnicobia, the palm-swift of
Jamaica, 430.
Tachypetes aquilas, the frigate-bird, 597.
Tadpole, development of the, 607.
Toenia solium, a species of cestoidea, the com-
mon tape-worm, 768.
Tail and wings of birds, feathers in the, 371
et seq.
Tail of the oarnivor,!, 86.
Tefeosa , _ .,
crocodiles, 661. ^-"k.
Teleostia, an order of fishes, corieo,,^.
with Cuvier's " Osseous Fishes," 680^,
Telephori, soldier and sailor beetles, 822
Tenebrio molitor, the, 822.
Tenrecs, a species of insectivora, 82.
Tentacles of the polypi, 824.
Tenuirostres, or slender-billed birds, charac-
teristics of the, 441 el seq.
Terebella, a genus of tubicola, 771. .
Terebrantia,atriheofphy3opodous insects, 801.
rerebrantia,a division of the hymenoptera;
816.
Terebratulidffi, a group of moUusca, 741.
Teredro navalis, the ship-worms, a species of
mollusc, 733 et seq.
Termes atrox, nest of the white ant, 805.
Termitidtp, tlie white ants, 804.
Tern, the great, or sea-swallow, 600.
Terns, sternina;, sub-faniilv of gulls, 600.
Terriers, English and Scutch, 95.
Tes.taceous mollusca, 726.
Testudiuidae, the land tortoises, 665.
Testudo grasca, the common European tor-
toise, 665.
Tetrabranchiata, an order of cephalopodous
molluscs, 757.
Tetradon, a genus of plectognathous fish,
with species ; T. lierigatus ; t. pennauti ;
T. lineatus, &c., 715.
Tetramera, a section of the coleoptera, 820
et seq.
TetraonidiB, or grouse, a family of rasorial
birds, various species, 511 et seq.
Tetraoninse, a sub-family of the grouse tribe,
542.
Tetrix, a species of gr.i5shopper, 801.
TeuthidiB, a family of acanthopterous fish,
706.
Thalassarctos martimus, Arctic bear, 147.
Thalassinidte, a family of macrurous deca-
pods, 783.
Tbamnophilinas, a sub-family of shrikes, 456.
Thaumantias pilosella, a species of medusae,
829.
Theoosomata, an order of pteropodous mol-
lusca, 743.
Thelphuste, a kind of land-crabs, 786.
Thelyphonidte, a family of arachnida, 789.
Therevidee, a family of diptera, 195.
Tot£3l_
torial oiV^
Toucans, or
sorial birds, 528?K.^
Tongue of felida;, 111?^
Touracoes, a genus of bin
conirostral kind, 487.
Toxodon, the, 335. ,,
Toxotes jaculator, aspecies oi
fish, 706. ^
Trachea, or windpipe, 8. .
Trachearia, a sub-class of araoB,
ing three orders— the podA^
acarina, or monomerosomatA
adelarthrosoraata, 787.
Trachelia, a tribe of coleoptera, 8:ia. ^
Tracbelina, a sub-family of infusoria, 84
Trachinidiie, orweevers, a family of acaiik
terous, lish, 705. ^
Trachinus draco, a species of fish, 705.
Tragopan, the, 553.
Tree-corals, or madreporidoe, 827.
Tree-frogs, hylides, 674.
Tree-kangaroos, 359.
Tree-pigeons, 540. i
Trematoda, an order of platyelmia, will
families— viz., the distomidae, tristo.
and polystomidEB, 768.
Trepang, the, holothurida edulis, 832. • »
TreronidEC, the tree-pigeons, 540. V
Trichecas rosraarus, the walrus, 157, 163. 1
Trichecidae, the walrus family, 157, 163. >
Ticliiurus lepturus, a species of acantt
terous fish, 710.
TrichodidiE, a family of infusoria, 835.
Trichodinre (urn-animalcules), a sub-fa
of infusoria, 855.
Trichoptera, a sub-order of neuropteroi
sects, 806. /
Tridacna gigas, the clam-shell, 736. /
Trighda;, or cataphracta, a family of
fishes, 703. »
Trigooiacea, a tribe of molluscs, 734. '
Trilobites (fossil Crustacea}, 773.
Trimera, a section of the coleoptera,
TringinfB, a sub-family of the snipes
V
\
\-
^'>'-W-VaA'^ '^
■■'a ' » '"■^. Aa.'^.^^^^'^ - ' '^
:.h!-'m
* -^'^ 0>*v - / Ij..' • R. 0i rs,.
I*. '^ ;^ ^ w^ - '* . ITS r* /\ '/v
>^^^^-'^^:^o:afe*g5^A:.^
j^^A^^^^
-^;«/'^'^^^?»
;?lgo.
ta.A'^-'^^
■M0«
A>,rv^;.A'^\o;" ■::;,'-;'
'^^aS"
'..„«5fl5^2^S^«^ ?^^'
Vri-^" -A. ^« ''^''/
oJMiMUlm
•^"f 1«K^
^ S«»^^
.f .
JO;
^:^^y,.nA'Nr
oj,.. uiiare, a lamuy oi ucx._r„^„^, *
pods, 760. '■' "'"~"
Spleen, the, 9.
Sponges, growth and nutrition of, 833.
Spongilla, deTelopraent of, 83i.
Spoonbill, various species of, 572.
Sprat, the, ciupea sprattus, (jSo.
Springbok, the, a species of antelope, 251.
Squatarola cinerca, tlie grav plover, 5S0.
Squatina aculeata, a species of flsli of the
order selachia, 722.
Squatina angelus, angel, fiddle-fish, or monk-
lish, 722.
Sqiiatinidee, a family of fishes, of the order
selachia, 722.
Squids, or calamaries, the loligidce, a family
of eephalopods, 761.
SquillidfB, a family of stomapoda, 780.
Squirrel, common, sciurus vulgaris, 167.
Squirrel, flying, pteromys, 168.
Squirrel-monkey, or .Samiri, 5i.
Squirrel, petaurus, 361.
Squirrels, or sciuriUffi, a family of rodents,
167, 720.
Squirrels, the earth, tamias, a genus of ro-
dents, 168.
Stag-beetle, the, lucanus cervus, 774, 822.
Suig-hound, the, 97.
Stags, various species of, 238 et seg.
Star-fish, 831.
Starlings, the family of, sturnidae, various
species, 497 et seq.
Starlings, the true, sturninEB, 499.
Star-nosed mole, 81.
Steatorinse, or oil-birds, a sub-family of fissi-
rostral birds, 422.
Steatornis caripensis, the guacharo or South
American oil-bird, 422.
Steganophthalmata, an order of medusee,
divided into two families— viz., the medu-
sidEE and rhizostomidae, 829.
Steiiibiik, or ibes, 261.
StelleiidiE, an order of eihinodcrmata, 331.
Stellio vulgaris, a species of iguana, 648.
Slenops, a genus of lemuroids, 61.
Stentor mulleri, a species of infusoria, 835.
Slephunomia, a genus of siphonophora, 830.
Sterlet, the, acipeuser rathenus, 718.
Sterna hirundo, the sea-swallow, 600.
SteminiB, or terns, 600.
Sterno.xia, a sub-tribe of coleoptera, 822.
Sternum of birds, the golden eagle, 370.
j./<lSpeCLaJ\i.^.-r ^-■^'ij^ _ ^iv
Sus scrofa, the common hog, 327 et sen.
Swallow, barn, an American species, 427.
Swallow, chimney, hirundo rustica, 426.
Swallow, esculent, collocalia esculenta, pro-
ducing the edible bii-ds'-nests of China,
431.
Swallow-hawk, 402.
Swallow, sea, sterna hirundo, 600,
Swallows, hirundinida?, 426 et seq.
Swans, the, a sub-family, cygnince, of nata-
torial birds, various species of, 611 et seg.
Swarming of bees, 820.
Sweetbread, or pancreas, the, 9.
Swift, the common, cypselus apus, 430.
Swifts, eypselidas, a family of fissifostral
birds, 427.
Swimming-birds, or natatores, 538.
Swimming of fishes, birds, &c., 14.
Swine, or suida?, 325 et seq.
Swine, South African, 331.
Sword-fishes, the, xiphiidm, 254.
Syllis monilaris, a species of errantia, 772.
Sylvida;, or sylviadre, the warblers, a family
of dentirostral Dh-.as, 472 e^ seq.
Sylvinaj, or true warblers, 482 et seq.
Symbranchidaa, a family of physostomatous
fishes, 683.
SynallaxinsB, a sub-family of creepers, 445.
Synaptidae, a family of holothnrida, 832.
Syngnathidffi, a .family of fishes, of the sub-
order lophobranchiii, 713;
Syngnathus acus, a British species of fishes,
sub-order lophobranchia, 713,
Syrnium stridula, the tawny owl, &o., 415.
Syrnium. the hooting owls, 415.
Syrphidoe, a family of diptera, 195.
TABANID.E, a family of diptera, 809.
Tabanus bovinus," m-gad-fiy, 809.
Table of molluscous shells in the collection of
the British Museum, 765.
Tachornis pTitenicobia, the palm-swift of
Jamaica, 430.
Tachypetes aquilas, the frigate-bird, 597.
Tadpole, development of the, 667.
Tienia solium, a species of cestoidea, the com-
mon tape-worm, 768.
Tail and wings of birds, feathers in the, 371
et seq.
Tail of the carnivor.1, 86.
Tereosatrnujt;-« .
crocodiles, 661.
Teleostia, an order of fishes, coiKa,,^
with Cuvier's " Osseous Fishes," 68o1?s
Telephori, soldier and sailor beetles, 822.
Tenebrio molitor, the, 822.
Tenrecs, a species of insectivora, 82.
Tentacles of the polypi, 824.
Tenuirostres, or slender-billed birds, charac-
teristics of the, 441 et seq.
Terebclla, a genus of tubicola, 771.
Terebrantia.atribeofphysopodous insects, 801.
rerebrantia.a division of the hymenoptera;
816.
Terebratulidae, a group of moUusca, 741.
Teredro navalis, the ship-worms, a species of
mollusc, 733 et seq.
Termes atrox, nest of the white ant, 805.
Termitidoe, tlie white ants, 804.
Tern, the great, or sea-swallow, 600.
Terns, sternin£E, sub-family of gulls, 600.
Terriers, English and Scotch, 95.
Tesjaceous mollusca, 726.
TestudinidiE, the land tortoises, 665.
Testudo grsEca, the common European tor-
toise, 665.
Tetrabranchiata, an order of cephalopodons
molluscs, 757.
Tetradon, a genus of pleatognathous fish,
with species ; T. laerigatus ; T. pennanti :
T. lineatus, &c., 715.
Tetramera, a section of the coleoptera, 820
et seq.
Tetraonidte, or grouse, a family of rasorial
birds, various species, 541 et seq.
TetraoninSB, a sub-family of the grouse tribe,
Tetrix, a species of grasshopper, 801.
Teuthidro, a family of acanthopterous fish,
ThaUassarctos martimus, Arctic bear, 147.
ThalassinidcB, a family of macrurous deca-
pods, 783.
Thamnophilinas, a sub-family of shrikes, 456.
Thaumantias pilosella, a species of medusae,
829.
Theaosomata, an order of pteropodous mol-
lusca, 743.
Thelphusffi, a kind of laud-crabs, 786.
Thelyphonidai, a family of arachnida, 739.
Therevidte, a family of diptera, 195.
A.'^'^^.
TotaH..
torial h:
Toucans,
sorial birds, 52$"
Tongue of felida;,
Touracoes, a genus
conirostral kind,
Toxodon, the, 335. -j^
Toxotesjaculator, aspeciesa
fish, 706. ' ', ■
Trachea, or windpipe, 8.
Trachearia, a sub-class of aracL
ing three orders— the podd.
acariua, or monomerosomata
adelarthrosomata, 787.
Trachelia, a tribe of coleoptera, 822. '
Trachelina, a sub-family of infusoria, 8:
Trachinidoe, orweevers, a family of acan
terous, fish, 705.
Trachinus draco, a species of fish, 705.
Tragopan, the, 553.
Tree-corals, or madreporidffl, 827.
Tree.-frogs, hylides, 674.
Tree-kangaroos, 359.
Tree-pigeons, 540. i,
Trematoda, an order of platyelmia, wii
families— viz., the distomidte, tristo
and polystomidas, 763.
Trepang, the, holothurida edulis, 832.
Treronidae, the tree-pigeons, 540.
Trieheoas rosmarus, the walrus, 157, 163.
TrichecidlB, the walrus family, 157, 163.
Ticliiurus lepturus, a species of aeantl
terous fish, 710.
Trichodidae, a family of infusoria, 835.
TriciiodinEe (urn-animalcules), a sub-fa
of infusoria, 835.
Trichoptera, a sub-order of neuropteroi
sects, 806.
Tridacna gigas, the clam-shell, 736.
Triglidae, or cataphracta, a family o
fishes, 703.
Trigoniacea, a tribe of molluscs, 734.
Trilobites (fossil Crustacea^, 778.
Trimera, a section of the coleoptera,
Ti-inginiB, a sub-family of the snipes
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