THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 THE HISTORY OF 
 THE LITHUANIAN NATION
 
 The History of 
 The Lithuanian Nation 
 
 AND 
 
 Its Present National Aspirations 
 
 By 
 Kunigas Antanas Jusaitis 
 
 Master of Laws of the University of Fribourg, Switzerland 
 
 Translated from the Lithuanian 
 
 Published by 
 
 The Lithuanian Catholic Truth Society 
 1918
 
 Copyright, 1918, by 
 LITHUANIAN CATHOLIC TRUTH SOCIETY. 
 
 Translated from Lithuanian as published in a weekly maga- 
 zine, Zvaigzde, in 1917, by A. Milukas & Company, Philadel- 
 phia, Pa.
 
 < >5K 
 
 * 5 I \ 
 
 PROEM 
 
 >j Out of the depths there comes a cry from a 
 (J nation which for centuries has been forced to 
 be inarticulate. It is not a demand for privi- 
 lege, for territory to which it might have only 
 a historical claim; it is a cry for life, and if we 
 really believe in our own professions, if the 
 traditions of 1776 have not been effaced, if the 
 )k definition of self-determinism with which Pres- 
 c^ ident Wilson is changing the evil systems of 
 ^v ^ lust and avarice in Europe and the rest of the 
 ^^^ world — we Americans must listen to this cry 
 from the core of the hearts of the Lithuanians. 
 We cannot close our ears to it. 
 
 We know the story of Poland — when a 
 King's mistress stifled the protests of France, 
 and even the cynical Frederick of Prussia won- 
 dered how the Empress Maria Teresa could 
 square her conscience to her confessor; we 
 know the story of Ireland, of the terrible 
 wrongs which liberal-minded Englishmen re- 
 ?^ gret as deeply as the Irishmen themselves, we 
 are beginning to understand by what horrible 
 ^ oppression in Schleswig-Holstein the German 
 ^ Empire made itself dominant, and developed 
 that system of autocracy toward which at times 
 every European nation has had tendencies; 
 but the story of the Lithuanians — blood- 
 brothers with us in their love of freedom — is 
 new to most of us. 
 
 191708 
 
 •^
 
 vi PROEM 
 
 To me, dwelling in the centre of diplomatic 
 "conversations" for many years, it is an old 
 and appalling story. No man can know a 
 Lithuanian without discovering that a never- 
 dying passion for the independence of his 
 country is eating into his soul. And Why .? 
 This book tells us, with a simplicity and power 
 which no man who beheves in a national, as 
 well as an individual conscience, ought to 
 resist. This volutp e is short; it contains.^no 
 idle words, no mere rliet6nc;~TrTi=tts'TFiestory 
 of~a"v£ron^ed nation so convincingly that any 
 analysis of its contents in this little Preface 
 would be utterly superfluous. There is no 
 statement in it that is not true^ 
 
 I, whom three Presidents of the United 
 States — Mr, Roosevelt and Mr. Taft and 
 President Wilson, have trusted to represent 
 the American people in a little nation, that of 
 Denmark, because both by inheritance and 
 conviction I believed that democracy could 
 only be true to its principles when it so applied 
 them that these little nations might be free to 
 develop their own culture — have a right to 
 speak for Lithuania as a nation, and to voice 
 the belief that, in the great reckoning which 
 the world awaits to-day, the demand of this 
 most oppressed of little countries shall receive 
 the tenderest sympathy and the most practical 
 support from her just and generous brethren, 
 the American people. 
 
 Maurice Francis Egan.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Nations of the Lithuanian (Aistian) Race; Their 
 Territory, Origin, Language, Religion, Char- 
 acter, Culture Before the Beginning of Their 
 History (Before 1200 A. D.) I 
 
 CHAPTER n 
 
 The History of the Lithuanian Nation and State 
 
 to the Death of Vitautas 11 
 
 CHAPTER HI 
 
 The Relations with the Poles which Began Under 
 Grand Duke Jagela; the Rulers of the same 
 Lithuanian Dynasty for both States; the Long- 
 Continued Personal Union of both States Re- 
 peatedly Renewed; Alliances with Poland Con- 
 tracted many Times; Weakening of the Supreme 
 Power of Government in Lithuania by the Intro- 
 duction OF Polish States Laws; the Spread of 
 Polonization in Lithuania and with It the De- 
 moralization of the National Consciousness of 
 THE Lithuanian People. The Consequences of 
 these Relations is the Polish-Lithuanian Union 
 AT Lublin 23
 
 viii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Juristic Appraisement of the Bonds Between 
 Lithuanian and Polish States which Existed Be- 
 fore AND After the Union of Lublin .... 38 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 The Causes of the Downfall of the Polish (and with 
 It the Lithuanian) State; the Union with Lithu- 
 ania Is THE True Reason for the Growth of the 
 Polish Nation and State, but, at the same Time, 
 THE Cause of Internal Anarchy and the Down- 
 fall of that State 52 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 The Survival of the National Consciousness of the 
 Lithuanians up to the Present Day Through the 
 Preservation of Their Own Language, Traditions, 
 and the Expression of that Consciousness in Their 
 Literature; the Rise and Expansion among the 
 Lithuanians of the Idea of National Indepen- 
 dence from Dangerous Foreign Influence; the 
 Present Cultural and Economic Growth of the 
 Nation 63 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 The Present National Aspirations of the Lithu- 
 anians: THE Political Unity and Independence 
 of All Parts of the Lithuanian Nation now Un- 
 der Different Governments (Russian and Ger- 
 man); Freedom from Foreign Influences; the Pres- 
 ervation OF One and Sole Lithuanian Language 
 as the National Tongue; Relations with the 
 Poles, White Russians, and Letts 81
 
 CONTENTS ix 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Is Lithuania, as a State, Possible ? Ability of Lithu- 
 anians FOR Statesmanship; the Right to Inde- 
 pendence OF Nations which Have Lost or Have 
 Never FIad Their Own Government; the Fate of 
 Small Nations in Foreign States (viz., Russia); 
 Have the Lithuanians a Sufficient Number of 
 Educated Men to Conduct the Government of 
 State ? Area and Population of Lithuania Com- 
 pared with the Different Independent European 
 States 91 
 
 Appendix 109
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE NATIONS OF THE LITHUANIAN (AISTIAN) RACE; 
 THEIR TERRITORY, ORIGIN, LANGUAGE, RELIG- 
 ION, CHARACTER, CULTURE BEFORE THE BE- 
 GINNING OF THEIR HISTORY (BEFORE 1200 A. D.) 
 
 THE Lithuanians are among the smaller 
 nations of Europe. In the latter part 
 of the nineteenth century this nation 
 was so humiliated by the Polonization of its 
 higher classes and by suppression of its nation- 
 ality by the Russian Government that even its 
 name has been denied a place among the na- 
 tions of the world. Yet there was a time, in 
 the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when 
 Lithuania was one of the largest empires in 
 Europe. 
 
 In speaking of Lithuania one must consider 
 it in these three aspects: First, the mighty 
 Lithuanian state of the fifteenth century, the 
 historical Lithuania, which extended from the 
 Baltic Sea at Polangen and the mouth of the 
 Niemen River to the Black Sea between the 
 Dnieper and Dniester rivers, where now is
 
 2 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 situated the city of Odessa, and from the Bug 
 River in the west to the river Oka in the east. 
 Second, Lithuania taken as a territory popu- 
 lated with descendants of the Lithuanian race, 
 where now a part of them use the White Rus- 
 sian language and a few, who live in scattered 
 groups, use the Polish, but where in the earlier 
 centuries the people were of the same Lithu- 
 anian blood, the same Lithuanian language, and 
 of the same Lithuanian religion and customs 
 peculiar to themselves — such is Lithuania in 
 a wide ethnographical sense. It embraces the 
 former Russian governments of Kovno, Vilna, 
 Suvalki, and Grodno, and East Prussia to 
 the River Alle and the city of Labiau on the 
 Baltic coast. 
 
 But in a strict ethnographical sense, and this 
 is the third aspect of the case, Lithuania is a 
 country where the population even now speaks 
 the Lithuanian language, has not forgotten its 
 glorious historical past, and is animated by the 
 same national ideal — the political unity of the 
 entire Lithuanian territory under one national 
 government, their own state authorit3^ 
 
 That land which is even now Lithuanian in 
 its language and is the kernel of historic Lithu-
 
 BEFORE 1200 A. D. 3 
 
 ania comprises the entire government of Kovno, 
 Vilna (except two counties in the east, Disna 
 and Vileika), a part of Grodno north of the 
 Niemen, Suvalki (except the county of Augus- 
 tovo), parts of the government of Courland, 
 and the northeastern part of Eastern Prussia 
 extending to the Pregel River. 
 
 The Lithuanians, together with their kins- 
 men, the Letts, who live in the governments of 
 Courland, Livonia, and Vitebsk, and the old 
 Prussians* (Borussi), who occupied the territory 
 to the west of the Lithuanians up to the river 
 Vistula, but a part of whom were annihilated 
 by the Teutons in the wars in the thirteenth 
 century and the remnants of whom were 
 definitely Germanized about the end of the 
 
 * The Prussians mentioned here are not to be identified with 
 the Prussians of modern times. Whenever the term Prussians is 
 used in this book it refers to the Borussians or Prussians from 
 whom the name of the modern Prussians is derived but with 
 whom they have no racial connection. The name came to the 
 present Prussians by conquest. The Encyclopaedia Britannica 
 in its article on the Lithuanians gives the Borussians or Prus- 
 sians as one of the three main branches of the Lithuanian stem in 
 the tenth century; but it states: "The Lithuanian territory thus 
 lay open to foreign invasions, and the Russians as well as the 
 German crusaders availed themselves of the opportunity. The 
 Borussians soon fell under the dominion of Germans, and ceased 
 to constitute a separate nationality, leaving only their name to 
 the state which later became Prussia."
 
 4 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 seventeenth century, all belong to the Indo- 
 European nations. The Lithuanians are not of 
 the Slavonic race, nor are they of the German 
 race, with which they have as Httle in common 
 as they have with the Latins, Persians, or 
 Greeks. Their Lithuanian language with its 
 old forms is so important to the science of lin- 
 guistic study that it is placed in a class with 
 the Sanscrit. They are the aboriginal inhab- 
 itants of their land; no other race inhabited it 
 before them. Anthropological researches show 
 that the human skulls unearthed in the grave- 
 yards of Lithuania belong to people of the same 
 anthropological class as the present Lithua- 
 nians. The latest theory in history about the 
 first Indo-European settlements, supported by 
 archaeology, anthropology, and linguistic re- 
 searches, places these settlements in the middle 
 of Europe and in the south Russian steppes; it 
 rejects the first accepted supposition about the 
 coming of Indo-Europeans from Asia; they had 
 emigrated to Asia from Europe. The sup- 
 positions of some Lithuanian writers that Lithu- 
 anians had come from Asia Minor are not 
 sound. 
 
 Before their adoption of Christianity the
 
 BEFORE 1200 A. D. 5 
 
 Lithuanians, together with their kinsmen, the 
 Letts and the Prussians,* had their own rehgion, 
 with an estabhshed hierarchy, in which were 
 different ranks of divines ruled over by a single 
 high priest. The supreme god was Perkunas, 
 god of the heavens and of thunder. He cor- 
 responds to the Roman Jupiter or the Greek 
 Zeus. There were other gods who were the 
 personification of nature and of places — of 
 homes, rivers, forests; and guardian deities of 
 the people's industries, such as farming and 
 hunting; and gods of love and of war. 
 
 Lately a foreigner who visited Lithuania, 
 which is now occupied by German armies,t 
 wrote of the character of Lithuanians: 
 
 **They are a quiet, polite people, peacefully 
 following their occupations of farming and other 
 work about their homes, and seeing them no 
 one could even think that this was the same 
 nation that in the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 centuries showed itself so valiant, that it cre- 
 ated such a great kingdom and conquered such 
 an extent of land." 
 
 * Not to be identified with the modern Prussians (see footnote, 
 
 P- 3)- , 
 
 fThis article was written in 1917 when the German armies 
 were still occupying Lithuania.
 
 6 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 In the beginning of the thirteenth century 
 the Lithuanians united in one state so as to 
 defend themselves from attack by the Slavs 
 and Germans, and began a fierce war with 
 their aggressors to save a place for themselves 
 in the world. During the thirteenth century 
 the Slav and German writers called the Lithu- 
 anians "the pagan-Lithuanians, wildmen, cruel, 
 plunderers, living as animals." Relying on 
 this statement a great many Poles of our day 
 remind the Lithuanians that they should be 
 grateful to them, because they, the Poles, 
 uniting with the Lithuanians, made them a 
 civilized people. 
 
 To this we may reply that these writings are 
 not the unbiassed opinions of neighbors but the 
 calumnies of enemies, who, attacking and mur- 
 dering the Lithuanians, received from them the 
 same treatment. We have reports concerning 
 the character of Lithuanians and their civiliza- 
 tion of those days from other more unbiassed 
 sources. 
 
 Duesburg writes (Script, rer. prus. I, 52) 
 that Zambia and particularly Sudavia were 
 wealthy and thickly populated (opulenta et 
 populosa). Sudavians occupied the southern
 
 BEFORE 1200 A. D. 7 
 
 part of the government of Suvalki and a part 
 of Prussia farther to the west. Adam of 
 Bremen (De situ Daniae, cap. 227), in the elev- 
 enth century, and Helmhold (Chron. slavor., I, 
 cap. i) in the twelfth century, writing about 
 the same Lithuanians and Prussians,* call them 
 "homines humanissimi" and only regret that, 
 although they are so good, they are not Chris- 
 tians. Jornandes, Bishop of the Goths, who 
 wrote about the year 550 A. D., calls the Ais- 
 tians "pacatum hominum genus omnino" (De 
 rebus Geticis, V, 25). Tacitus (Germania, cap. 
 45) calls the Aistians (those same Lithuanians 
 and Prussians) peaceful and more industrious 
 than the Germans, and testifies that they em- 
 ploy themselves in growing grain and vegeta- 
 bles (frumenta ceterosque fructus), and also 
 navigate the seas. 
 
 The archaeology of the present day gives us 
 an idea of the culture of the old Lithuanian na- 
 tions. It is known that in the Neolithic times 
 (between 3000 and 1500 B. C.) all kinds of 
 grain — barley, rye, and oats — ^were grown in 
 Lithuania (Sitzungsberichte d. Altertumsgesell- 
 
 * Not to be identified with the modern Prussians (see footnote, 
 p. 3).
 
 8 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 schaft, "Prussia," 1909, Heft 22, p. 502). In 
 the ruins of Mikenai, in Greece (about 1500 
 B. C.)) a quantity of beads made of Baltic am- 
 ber were found. Most of the amber is found 
 on the Baltic coast, where was the home of the 
 old Prussians and Lithuanians; a clear proof of 
 the commerce of the Lithuanians with these 
 far-ofF lands, the lands of early culture, if not 
 directly, then through intervening nations. S. 
 Mueller, Schumann, Oskar Montelius showed 
 that in the Hallstatt's period, in the first da3^s 
 of iron in Europe (1000 to 400 B. C.) not only 
 was grain grown in Lithuania but domestic 
 animals were kept, and linen as well as woollen 
 clothing was worn. In the cemeteries of middle 
 Europe of the Hallstatt's period likewise were 
 found ornaments made of amber. 
 
 The archaeologists, Tischler, Lissauer, Bez- 
 zenberger, and others show that, judging by 
 excavations of the cemeteries of Lithuania and 
 Prussia, beginning with the times of Christ and 
 up to the invasion of Prussia by the Teutonic 
 Crusaders, the wealth and culture of the Lithu- 
 anians stood very high. The Lithuanians had 
 weapons, farming and industrial implements, 
 and all kinds of expensive ornaments. The
 
 BEFORE 1200 A. D. 9 
 
 number and variety of articles found in the buri- 
 al-grounds are astonishing ("unser Staunen er- 
 regen" — Tischler): iron knives, chisels, sickles, 
 spears, swords, bronze bridles, spurs, bracelets, 
 buckles, clasps, glass beads, and a number of 
 gold and silver ornaments. Especially well- 
 made things of bronze and other metals show a 
 highly perfected technic in metal-working (Hey- 
 deck). Tischler writes that excavations in the 
 cemeteries of the period when Prussian pagan- 
 ism was coming to its end — about the time when 
 the Crusaders made their appearance — furnish 
 evidences of a magnificent Lithuanian culture 
 (Ueber die GHederung der Urgesch. Ostpreu- 
 sens, p. 7); and Heydeck asserts that the Lithu- 
 anian and Prussian culture of those days was in 
 no way lower than that of Teutonic Crusaders. 
 If according to testimony quoted Lithuanians 
 in the sixth and also in the eleventh centuries 
 were "pacatum hominum genus omnino," 
 "homines humanissimi," then they were not 
 robbers, nor wildmen, nor were they living 
 as animals. If before the coming of Teutonic 
 Crusaders to Prussia Lithuanian culture was 
 not inferior to that of Crusaders, then the 
 Lithuanian culture of twelfth and thirteenth
 
 lo THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 centuries could not have been low. But the 
 continuous wars, during centuries, with Slavs 
 (Russians and Poles) and with Germans, and 
 then with Tartars, greatly weakened the Lithu- 
 anians, diminished their numbers, destroyed 
 their material welfare, and lowered their cul- 
 ture.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE LITHUANIAN NATION AND 
 STATE TO THE DEATH OF VITAUTAS 
 
 THE Lithuanians, according to archaeol- 
 ogy, have Hved in the region they 
 now occupy for several thousand years. 
 The ancient writers called the Lithuanian na- 
 tion "Aistians." We find in Ptolemy's writ- 
 ings (III, 5) in the second century A. D. the 
 mention of Gahndae (Prussians) and Sudeni 
 (Lithuanians) as the names of two Aistian 
 tribes — names later used among Lithuanians. 
 
 The Lithuanians did not take part in the mi- 
 grations of the nations, except perhaps one or 
 another of the smaller tribes on the outskirts 
 of the inhabited territories of Lithuania which 
 may have joined the emigration of the larger 
 Teutonic tribes. The cause of this was the 
 state of the culture of the Lithuanians at that 
 period. The main occupation of all the Lith- 
 uanian nation was agriculture, which always 
 requires fixed settlements; and the wealth of
 
 12 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 the nation, stored up in peace through many 
 centuries of hard labor, could not be taken with 
 them from one place to another after the 
 manner of barbarous nomadic tribes. On this 
 account, as we see in history, the civilized and 
 settled nations often are conquered by others less 
 civilized, but never change their settlements in 
 order to move away from the conquerors or to 
 conquer another country. For instance, the 
 civilization of Sumerians on the plains of Meso- 
 potamia in ante-Babylonian times was con- 
 quered several times by the nomadic hordes 
 from Arabia, until finally these people had 
 mixed with their conquerors and accepted 
 their Semitic\ language; the civihzation of 
 Greece and Rome was destroyed by the bar- 
 baric Teutons (Germans); the little kingdoms 
 of Chanaan were conquered by the nomadic 
 Hebrews; and the great civilized Chinese Em- 
 pire was conquered by the Mongolians. 
 
 During the first centuries of the Christian 
 era the Lithuanian nations had intimate deal- 
 ings with the German Goths. This is shown 
 by the various words, with a Gothic stem, which 
 are found in the Prussian and Lithuanian lan- 
 guages. Until the tenth century the Lithu-
 
 TO THE DEATH OF VITAUTAS 13 
 
 anian nations lived without larger political or- 
 ganization. The one thing in common was the 
 same faith, similar language, and the same 
 customs. But during the tenth century the 
 Slavs began to harass the peaceful Lithuanians 
 from the south and east and this forced them to 
 form military organizations under the leader- 
 ship of their Dukes-Kunigas. At the beginning 
 of the thirteenth century we see from chron- 
 icles that in Lithuania proper, not including 
 Prussia, there were about twenty powerful 
 Dukes. 
 
 Duke Mindaugas (Mindove) was the first to 
 organize the greater part of the Lithuanian 
 territories in one state. He was the first author 
 of the Lithuanian state and the first organizer 
 of the Lithuanian nation. 
 
 Mindaugas did not succeed, however, in 
 uniting all the nation. There remained Jac- 
 vingi in the south and Samogitians in the 
 west who were not under his domain. He 
 pushed the boundary in the east beyond Smo- 
 lensk. His work of organizing was delayed by 
 the unceasing attacks of the German hordes 
 and the wars with the Galician Dukes, which 
 caused his untimely death. He was baptized
 
 14 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 a Catholic; received the King's crown from 
 Pope Innocent IV, becoming the King of 
 Lithuania in the year 1253 A. D. He died in 
 1263, treacherously assassinated during a cam- 
 paign, just when he had arranged everything 
 for the hberation of Samogithians from the op- 
 pression of the Teutonic Order of Crusaders and 
 for uniting them under his rule. 
 
 After the death of Mindaugas a quarrel 
 arose among the local Dukes in Lithuania, but 
 the idea of a Grand Duke proved to be ineradi- 
 cable. Chaos did not cease until the beginning 
 of the fourteenth century. From 1315 to 1340 
 Gediminas ruled as the Grand Duke. Lithu- 
 ania had become so strong a nation during his 
 reign that all the neighboring states had to 
 acknowledge Gediminas. He united the entire 
 nation except the Lithuanians at the mouth of 
 the Niemen and by the river Pregel, who were 
 for a long time under the rule of the German 
 Knights. Through him Lithuania reached her 
 natural boundaries in the south and east to the 
 rivers Pripet and Dnieper. 
 
 The aim of the heirs of Gediminas should 
 have been to collect all of Lithuania's strength, 
 to overpower both Teutonic knightly Orders,
 
 TO THE DEATH OF VITAUTAS 15 
 
 to free the Lithuanian neighbors, Letts and 
 Prussians, to unite all into one state. The 
 nation as it was left by Gediminas was suffi- 
 ciently powerful to accomplish these aims. The 
 Prussians and the Letts from the very time of 
 their subjection to the German Knights re- 
 volted more than once against them. Shortly 
 after Gediminas's death all the Letts revolted 
 against the Germans. It was the most sue 
 cessful revolt; with a few exceptions all the 
 towns were taken by the Letts. By the de- 
 struction of the Livonian Order and the free- 
 ing of the Letts the expulsion of the German 
 Order from Prussia would have been assured. 
 But the Lithuanians did not lend a hand to 
 their kinsmen, the Letts; the German Knights 
 from Prussia came to assist their brother 
 Knights in Riga, and they both suppressed the 
 revolt. 
 
 The successor of Gediminas, Algirdas, made 
 a capital error by not envisaging his true ob- 
 jective. Instead of occupying for Lithuania 
 the seashore from the Vistula to the Narva and 
 uniting the Prussians and Letts to Lithuania, 
 and thus strengthening the foundation of the 
 state by nations of the same race and similar
 
 i6 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 language, he deputed his brother, the knightly 
 Kestutis, to protect Lithuania with the Samo- 
 gitians from the robber Orders, while he him- 
 self turned all the remaining strength of the 
 state to the east against the Slavs and Tar- 
 tars. True, b}' his victories he made Lithuania 
 a great empire, which covered almost half of 
 modern Russia, extending from the Baltic to 
 the Black Seas, but bv doing this he renounced 
 nearly half the nations of the Lithuanian race 
 and part of it, the Prussians, he left to per- 
 dition. On the other hand, he brought into the 
 state a greater proportion of foreigners than of 
 his own people and placed the Lithuanian na- 
 tion in peril of becoming a non-Lithuanian 
 state. 
 
 The son of Algirdas and his successor, Jagela 
 (Jagello), committed a great political error, if 
 we may so mildly define his dealings with the 
 Lithuanian state. The neighbors, the Poles, 
 of that time were ruled by a Queen, a j^oung 
 maiden, Hedwig. The Poles under the reign 
 of Louis the Hungarian had gained such ex- 
 perience by electing the ruler of another nation 
 their King as to know that if he continues to 
 live in his former state their nation is at best
 
 TO THE DEATH OF VITAUTAS 17 
 
 as one without a King, and uprisings result, I 
 say at best, for the result may be more serious: 
 for instance, the territory may fall under the 
 influence of another nation and may lose its 
 independence. 
 
 The Polish magnates gave their Princess 
 Hedwig's hand in marriage to Jagela (Jagello) 
 on condition that he be King of the Poles. 
 The duty of the King of the Poles was to be 
 King of the Poles only, that is, to live in Cra- 
 cow, Poland, and to unite Lithuania to Poland; 
 to be definite, this meant that Lithuania would 
 be annexed to Poland as a Polish province. This 
 appeared to Jagela a small price, for as King of 
 Poland he would also govern the provinces. 
 To introduce the Catholic faith into Lithuania 
 v/as demanded by ordinary political wisdom, 
 for Poland being a Catholic nation would be 
 stronger if all her provinces should have one 
 and the same faith. That it was not an ideal- 
 istic task to destroy paganism in Lithuania we 
 gather from this, that various later privileges, 
 for instance, the citizenship of Lithuania, were 
 granted to Catholics only and the Lithuanians 
 of the Eastern rite (orthodox) were not granted 
 this privilege and were forbidden even to enter
 
 1 8 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 into matrimonial relationship with Catholics. 
 Jagela agreed, and for the kingdom of Poland 
 he gave the Poles his native country, Lithuania, 
 founded by the works of the great leaders, 
 Algirdas and Gediminas, his father and grand- 
 father, and by the blood of Lithuanians. Hav- 
 ing been crowned King of the Poles, but not of 
 the Lithuanians, and having settled in Poland, 
 Jagela appointed a Viceroy to rule Lithuania, 
 and even stationed a Polish garrison in Vilna. 
 To call the ruler of a nation a traitor is not 
 befitting, and as it did not seem possible to the 
 Lithuanians of those times, but that they thus 
 understood the act of Jagela we see from the 
 fact that they arose against the King's Viceroy, 
 wishing to give the throne of Lithuania to 
 Vitautas, their leader, and by this to show that 
 they acknowledged Jagela as having been de- 
 prived of the Grand Duke's office. Jagela was 
 forced to recognize Vitautas as the Grand 
 Duke of Lithuania; with Poland there was left 
 only an agreement of mutual assistance in case 
 of war. The reign of Vitautas (i 392-1430) con- 
 stitutes the period of the greatest manifesta- 
 tion of Lithuanian power abroad. He combined 
 into one powerful state the whole empire of
 
 TO THE DEATH OF VITAUTAS 19 
 
 Algirdas and all the Lithuanian dukedoms; the 
 authority of Grand Duke he made autocratic, 
 even toward the magnates. In the very be- 
 ginning of his reign opposition was made by 
 the more influential Dukes; but the more dan- 
 gerous of these he dispossessed, and those re- 
 maining were forced bHndly to obey his orders. 
 Having strengthened his power at home he 
 wanted to unite the Russians and their lords, 
 the Tartars, to Lithuania; but he was utterly 
 defeated by the Tartars at Vorskla in 1399. 
 Hedwig, wife of Jagela, died in that year. The 
 Poles, receiving no benefit from Jagela, their 
 King through marriage to Hedwig, could have 
 removed him from the rulership of Poland; but 
 this would have caused Vitautas uneasiness, 
 for Jagela might then have become a pretender 
 to the Lithuanian throne, and so, to assist him, 
 Vitautas, in 1401, made a treaty by which he 
 acknowledged Jagela his successor to the throne 
 of Lithuania. 
 
 Shortly after the Vorskla defeat Vitautas 
 succeeded in strengthening his power, and by 
 his diplomacy he so managed that the Tartars 
 were kept as his vassals during his reign; he 
 kept their Khans under his protection and they
 
 20 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 accorded him their mihtary support. Now he 
 set his face against the deadly enemies of 
 Lithuania in the west, the Teutonic Knights 
 of the Cross. Within a few years he collected 
 his forces for the decisive war. It was difficult 
 for him to induce the Poles to wage war, but 
 the Knights of the Cross themselves helped 
 him in that respect by attacking the Poles. 
 Finally Jagela declared war. Vitautas drew 
 not only the Lithuanians into this war but the 
 Russians, the Tartars, and hired the army of 
 the Czechs from western Europe. He even 
 helped the Poles by sending them necessary 
 provisions for the war. The battle was fought 
 at Gruenwald and Tanenberg in Prussia (1410). 
 Vitautas arranged the armies for battle. He 
 was the most active leader in the battle, and by 
 his strategy victory was won. The power of 
 the Teutonic Order was crushed. 
 
 If this victory had been made the most of, 
 the Order of the Knights of the Cross would 
 have been completely destro3'^ed. But the Poles 
 occupying the Prussian cities immediately 
 united with Poland, and by their greediness 
 forced Vitautas to opposite action. Vitautas 
 himself saved the Order from utter ruin by not
 
 TO THE DEATH OF VITAUTAS 21 
 
 assisting the Poles to wage war, and while tak- 
 ing part in the treaty of Thorn he arranged 
 the easiest terms possible for the Order. He 
 had to contend with the Poles in the future, 
 who continuously exhibited pretensions to- 
 ward the state of Lithuania. He did not wish 
 the Poles to grow considerably in strength. 
 The Order was necessary to him in his relations 
 with the Poles. 
 
 On October 2, 141 3, an important union was 
 made in Horodlo between the Lithuanians and 
 the Poles by which both parties remained 
 equal; both promised at the death of either 
 ruler to elect a new one in his place. At the 
 death of a PoHsh King his successor was to be 
 elected by the Polish magnates together with 
 the magnates of Lithuania and their Grand 
 Duke; and, vice versa, the Grand Duke of 
 Lithuania was to be elected by the Lithuanian 
 magnates together with the magnates of Po- 
 land and their King. Here the rights of both 
 were equal. Lithuania was second by title 
 only; Poland was a kingdom, Lithuania a 
 grand duchy. In a protocol, Lithuania as a 
 duchy was joined to Poland, a kingdom. Lithu- 
 ania's title was lower, although that duchy was
 
 22 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 thrice larger than the Polish Kingdom and 
 much more powerful. But in the opinion of 
 those times the title meant much. This join- 
 ing of their country to a foreign country the 
 Lithuanians, as their attitude in the near future 
 showed, did not consider seriously. 
 
 At the end of his reign, having no son as an 
 heir who should insure Lithuania's indepen- 
 dence, making her in all things equal to Poland, 
 Vitautas decided to crown himself as King of 
 Lithuania; but the act of coronation did not 
 occur, as robbers sent by the Polish politicians 
 opposing Vitautas took away the crown, which 
 was being carried to Vitautas by the emissaries 
 of the Emperor Sigismund, and Vitautas died 
 suddenly during the festivities of his coro- 
 nation.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE RELATIONS WITH THE POLES WHICH BEGAN 
 UNDER GRAND DUKE JAGELA; THE RULERS OF 
 THE SAME LITHUANIAN DYNASTY FOR BOTH 
 STATES; THE LONG-CONTINUED PERSONAL 
 UNION OF BOTH STATES REPEATEDLY RE- 
 NEWED; ALLIANCES WITH POLAND CON- 
 TRACTED MANY TIMES; WEAKENING OF THE 
 SUPREME POV/ER OF GOVERNMENT IN LITHU- 
 ANIA BY THE INTRODUCTION OF POLISH STATES 
 LAWS; THE SPREAD OF POLONIZATION IN LITHU- 
 ANIA AND WITH IT THE DEMORALIZATION OF 
 THE NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE LITHU- 
 ANIAN PEOPLE. THE CONSEQUENCES OF THESE 
 RELATIONS IS THE POLISH-LITHUANIAN UNION 
 AT LUBLIN 
 
 THE Lithuanian magnates did not desire 
 the union that was madebyjagela and 
 Vitautas at the instigation of Poles, and 
 at the first opportunity they showed that they 
 did not acknowledge it. 
 
 After the death of Vitautas the Lithuanians, 
 disregarding the Horodlo union, elected as 
 their Grand Duke, in 1430, Svitrigaila with- 
 out the PoHsh participation and against their 
 
 23
 
 24 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 wishes. Svitrigaila did not acknowledge the 
 union during all his reign, and even made 
 King Jagela a prisoner because the Poles 
 took some cities of Podolia. He released Ja- 
 gela only after his promise to restore those 
 cities to Lithuania. 
 
 His rival for power, Sigismund, son of Kes- 
 tutis, in order to obtain the Polish aid in the 
 war with Svitrigaila, renewed the union in 
 1432; but this union was broken by the 
 Lithuanians after the death of Sigismund, 
 son of Kestutis, when they elected as their 
 Grand Duke, Casimir, son of Jagela. And 
 so it went on: the union was continually being 
 patched up by the Poles and always, at the 
 first opportunity, it was broken by the Lithu- 
 anians. Sometimes during the reign of the 
 same ruler these unions were made several 
 times, and there were innumerable quarrels 
 between Lithuanians and Poles at the special 
 conventions called expressly for the forma- 
 tion of these unions. That was so until the 
 last union at Lublin in 1569. 
 
 The Poles wanted a complete union of 
 Lithuania and Poland by the conversion of 
 Lithuania into a Polish province. This they
 
 1430-1569 25 
 
 expressed openly at the convention at Lublin 
 in 1448; they proposed to make of both states 
 one Polish Kingdom; to make of Lithuania 
 a Polish province, the Lithuanians to become 
 Polish subjects on the same footing as true 
 Poles; all the gentry to enjoy the same priv- 
 ileges. The Lithuanians, on the contrary, did 
 not wish to renounce the independence of their 
 state; they only agreed to an alliance with Po- 
 land and to the defensive bond against their 
 foes. 
 
 But the continual proposals by the Poles 
 of union, the personal union with Poland of 
 a hundred years, except for two intervals, the 
 weakening of the government in Lithuania by 
 the privileges of the gentry, the long-established 
 relations of Lithuanian and the Polish gentry, 
 accomplished its purpose: the Polish designs 
 upon the independent prerogatives of Lithuania 
 as a separate state were partly successful. 
 
 The Polish magnates were very anxious to 
 gain possession of lands in Lithuania, but the 
 laws of Lithuania denied ownership to for- 
 eigners. Importunate demands by Poles that 
 Lithuanians give them Volinia and Podolia,
 
 26 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 their nearest and most fertile lands, resulted; 
 and when the Lithuanians refused so to diminish 
 their state, the Poles demanded the abolition 
 of the boundary between Poland and Lithuania. 
 Here lies the true significance of the continual 
 PoHsh demands to unite Lithuania to Poland. 
 We find that having obtained at the Lubhn 
 union the most fertile lands of Lithuania, all 
 territory south of the Pripet River, the Poles 
 no longer approach the Lithuanians with proj- 
 ects for new unions. 
 
 After the death of King Vladislaus III in 
 1444, the Poles invited the Grand Duke of 
 Lithuania, Casimir, son of Jagela, to be their 
 King. Only after three years did the Lithu- 
 anians grant him permission to go to Poland; 
 and for forty-five years, till his death in 1492, 
 they remained without their ruler. In this 
 policy the Polish politicians must have seen 
 the easiest way to extinguish the separate rule 
 in Lithuania; for, as they proclaimed as their 
 King every Grand Duke elected by the Lithu- 
 anians, they deprived Lithuania of a ruler. 
 Polish privileges were constituted a bait with 
 which the Poles caught Lithuanian noblemen, 
 and kept them attached to themselves; a most
 
 1430-1569 27 
 
 successful policy to render Lithuania power- 
 less, and thus to sweep aside all her opposition, 
 although used perhaps unwittingly by the 
 Poles only to weaken the supreme authority 
 of the state. 
 
 The first privileges were accorded to Lithu- 
 anian noblemen by Jagela in 1387. In the 
 union of 141 3 those privileges were confirmed: 
 the ownership of large estates; the release 
 from all active duties toward the Grand Duke, 
 excepting war service, and that of restoring 
 the fortified cities; the right to take part in 
 the council of the Grand Duke, and to choose 
 a ruler — the occupation of the throne was now 
 to be determined by election. These rights 
 served as a constitution for the country. At 
 first they were given to the Catholics, although 
 under Sigismund, son of Kestutis, they were 
 extended among the Orthodox; but later the 
 Orthodox were always isolated and wronged. 
 This separation between Catholics and Ortho- 
 dox had sown antagonism in Lithuania be- 
 tween the Catholic and the Orthodox citi- 
 zens; and from this had arisen in a short time 
 a civil war between Svitrigaila and the ad- 
 herents of Sigismund — in truth, between the
 
 28 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 parties of the Catholics and Russians. Later 
 it served the Russians as a pretext to cHng to 
 Moscow. 
 
 Every later Grand Duke or King distributed 
 new privileges in order to keep himself on both 
 thrones — for example, by the renunciation of 
 fees, the state collected for the peasants be- 
 longing to noblemen; by the gift to the land- 
 owners of the right to administer justice to 
 their peasants and to exact the pecuniary penal- 
 ties; by forbidding peasants to possess land, 
 and so benefiting of noblemen; by the inter- 
 diction of children of bond-slaves from at- 
 tending schools and learning trades. 
 
 These privileges were diminishing the Grand 
 Duke's power and wealth by making noble- 
 men the absolute lords over their subject peas- 
 ants. About 1550 slavery in Lithuania and 
 Russia had already reached its highest degree: 
 in some places the peasants had to work for 
 their masters six days a week, and they be- 
 longed entirely to them. The nobleman did 
 with the peasant slave as he wished, and took 
 from him what he wished. Within twenty- 
 six years after the union of Lublin, there arose in 
 the Russian Provinces of Lithuania a formida-
 
 1430-1569 29 
 
 ble insurrection of slaves against noblemen, the 
 insurrection of Nalivaika in 1595. 
 
 These privileges made peasants always more 
 dependent on the noblemen, and the noble- 
 men always less dependent on the supreme 
 government of the state. After the distribu- 
 tion of the Grand Duke's wealth and income, 
 the treasury of Lithuania was empty. Before 
 the Lublin union, the Lithuanian minister 
 of finances, Paul Naruszevicz, complained to 
 the King that the Lithuanian treasury needed 
 immediate help as means were lacking to keep 
 the fortresses on the boundary-line and their 
 garrisons. There was no income in the treasury; 
 he himself had even pawned his estates and 
 loaned money wherever possible. There were 
 no means to keep up the army; to defend the 
 borders of the state; to punish wrong-doers. 
 The state organization and discipline created 
 by the works of Gediminas, Algirdas, and Vitau- 
 tas was destroyed by the Polish unions and the 
 privileges; anarchy was spreading. This dis- 
 organization was encouraged by the fact that 
 Lithuania actually was without a ruler. The 
 Grand Duke resided in Poland, and was in- 
 terested in Lithuania's affairs only so far as
 
 30 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 to distribute to his Polish favorites the estates 
 in Lithuania — the Lithuanian offices or towns. 
 
 During this time the Poles were trying by 
 various means to force themselves into Lithu- 
 ania. Polonism was spreading more and more 
 among Lithuanians, and began to undermine 
 Lithuanian nationalism. 
 
 At the convention in Brest, in 1542 and 
 1544, the Lithuanians complained to King 
 Sigismund I that the government offices in 
 the Lithuanian and Russian provinces were 
 distributed among the Poles. The greater 
 part of the clergy in Lithuania at that time 
 were Poles: the religious orders were under 
 the jurisdiction of provincials in Poland. At 
 the same time there was in Lithuania the 
 greatest religious anarchy. The Polish or 
 Polonized priests it seems were endeavoring 
 to locate themselves in Lithuania, but were 
 not taking the trouble to learn the Lithuanian 
 language but simply scorned it. They preached 
 in Polish to the Lithuanian-speaking people.* 
 What the condition of the Catholic faith was 
 among the people we may see from the letter 
 
 * Postilla Katholicke per Kun. M. Dauksa, Wilniiii, 1599, vide 
 preface.
 
 1430-1569 31 
 
 of the saintly bishop of Varniai, Melchior Gie- 
 draitis, 1576 A. D., who wrote to the superior 
 of the Jesuits asking that he send to him at 
 least a few priests who were able to speak 
 Lithuanian, as in the greater part of his diocese 
 the people not only did not know the "Our 
 Father," nor how to bless themselves, nor 
 even to what faith they belonged.* 
 
 Protestantism, which began in the latter 
 part of the reign of King Sigismund, spread 
 from Poland into Lithuania, and during the 
 time of Sigismund August, reached its highest 
 pinnacle. Only the smaller part of the clergy 
 in some parts of Lithuania remained Catholic. 
 There sprung up several sects of Protestantism 
 patronized by different magnates; each sect 
 disturbed all the others. The people not know- 
 ing whom to believe, and not understanding 
 the Catholic faith, in many places returned to 
 paganism, and again started the holy fires to 
 the pagan god Pekunas on the summits of the 
 hills. The Polish order, the PoHsh speech, 
 and the Polish customs spread in Lithuania, 
 not because of any superior Polish culture or 
 
 * Lithuanicarum Soc. Jesu historiarum libri decern auctore 
 Stanislos RostOTski, Wilna, 1768.
 
 32 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 civilization; from the beginning the speech, 
 customs, and methods of Lithuania were in 
 no degree inferior.* 
 
 The Lithuanians, having acquired so much 
 Slavic territory in such a short time, found it 
 impossible to impose on the inhabitants the 
 Lithuanian language. The whole Lithuanian 
 class, not excepting Grand Dukes, who were to 
 govern the conquered territories, were obliged 
 to learn the Russian (White Russian) language,, 
 and being continually among foreigners be- 
 came Slavonized. When after the transfer of 
 the Grand Duke's court to Cracow, Lithuanian 
 aristocracy was compelled to mix with the 
 Poles, its members, knowing the Russian lan- 
 guage, which is similar to Polish, and being 
 used to foreign customs and also to the foreign 
 language, were Polonized with greater rapid- 
 ity than the Slavs or Russians; so that the con- 
 quests in Russia prepared the Lithuanian aris- 
 
 * The Catholic Encyclopaedia, vol. 12, p. 184, states that at 
 the time of Kazimcr the Great, who died in 1370, the clergy was 
 the only educated class in Poland. Writing of the battle of 
 Gruenwald, the author of the article deems it necessary to men- 
 tion the following: "Until then Poland had been looked upon as 
 a semi-civilized country, where the natives were little better 
 than savages, and culture was represented by the German clergy 
 and colonists."
 
 1430-1569 33 
 
 tocracy for a hastier Polonization. The first 
 and main cause of the spread of Polonism in 
 Lithuania was the transfer of the Grand Duke's 
 court to Poland. With the Polonization of the 
 aristocracy through the court of the Grand 
 Duke, the lesser gentry at home followed their 
 example in speech and other matters. Still fur- 
 ther, the Polonization of the Lithuanians was 
 advanced in the churches. The Lithuanian 
 writer of those times, M. Dauksza, in his pos- 
 tilla, published in 1599, complains of the 
 scorning of the Lithuanian language by the 
 upper class. 
 
 To such a peril Lithuania came, while the 
 nobility was rejoicing over their Polish privi- 
 leges and the aristocracy loaned their Grand 
 Duke to the Poles as a King. At home in Lithu- 
 ania there was no ruler. The wealth of the 
 Grand Duke, identical with that of the state, 
 was distributed and the treasury was empty, 
 for the taxes had been renounced in favor of the 
 nobility. The enemy, generally Moscow, threat- 
 ened Lithuania. The Polish King, though the 
 Grand Duke of Lithuania, looked only after 
 the interests of Poland. Instead of defending 
 Lithuania he knew only how to advise the
 
 34 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 Lithuanian Convention that Lithuanians in- 
 stead of waging war should make one additional 
 union with the Poles; so did Casimir, son of Ja- 
 gela, on the occasion of the Moscovites occupy- 
 ing Novgorod, in 1478. Therefore the Grand 
 Dukes of Lithuania were only Polish Kings; 
 they did not reside in Lithuania, and were 
 solicitous only about Poland. Every one of 
 them made assignments presenting Lithuania 
 to Poland and forced the Lithuanian magnates 
 to sign these unions; the acknowledgment of 
 Lithuanian delegates at the convention for the 
 union in Parczevo, 1451, supports this. 
 
 So did even the last of those who for years 
 wore, unworthily, the Grand Duke Vitautas's 
 
 crown. 
 
 * * * 
 
 The efforts of the Poles, from the very be- 
 ginning of the reign of Sigismund August, to 
 make one more union, were not successful until 
 in 1562 the Polonized Lithuanian and Russian 
 small gentry formed a federation in the war 
 camp near Vitebsk for the purpose of a com- 
 plete union of Lithuania with Poland, so that 
 they might be equal in all privileges to the 
 Polish gentry. To satisfy their desire they
 
 1430-1569 35 
 
 abandoned the Lithuanian aristocracy and 
 went over to the Polish side. At the Diet of 
 Lublin in 1569, when, after lengthy discussions 
 since January, the last loyal Lithuanians went 
 home on the ist of March, these conspirators 
 against the independence of Lithuania peti- 
 tioned the King that he, relying solely on their 
 consent, affirm the union according to the 
 wishes of the Poles. At the demands of the 
 Poles that Podlachia and Volinia be turned 
 over to them, the King, on the 12th of March, 
 published a proclamation which gave these 
 two Lithuanian provinces to Poland. The 
 magnates of Podlachia and Volinia, Dukes 
 Czarotoryski, Ostrozski, Visznewski, and Os- 
 taphius Volovicz, resisted, but receiving no 
 help from Lithuania and under penalty of be- 
 ing dispossessed swore their allegiance to Po- 
 land. The Lithuanian aristocracy, after break- 
 ing away from the convention, sent out a war 
 proclamation to all Lithuania, in order to main- 
 tain b}^ arms the independence of their coun- 
 try. On March 23 the Poles also announced 
 "pospolite ruszenie," mobilization. At the de- 
 mands of the Poles by the other proclamation 
 of June 5 the King gave to Poland the provinces
 
 36 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 of Kiev and Braclav. The magnates of Lithu- 
 ania, seeing that war was impossible, as the 
 state funds from taxes had been distributed 
 and the treasury was empty, and the Polonized 
 gentry refusing to support war against the 
 Poles, even threatening revolt, they sent back 
 their delegates who on July I signed the union 
 demanded by the Poles. 
 
 By this last union Lithuania and Poland were 
 united forever. There was henceforth one 
 ruler for both, at the same time Polish King and 
 Grand Duke of Lithuania; one convention for 
 common interests. The treaties with foreign 
 states were made by both parties. But the ad- 
 ministration, laws and courts, army, and trea- 
 sury remained separate. 
 
 This union truly accomplished more than 
 any former one. It tore away from Lithuania 
 and gave to Poland all Russian land south of 
 the Pripet River. By acquiring this territory 
 Poland was more than doubled and Lithuania 
 was reduced to the boundaries of Gedimin. 
 
 The Poles finally received from Lithuania 
 such desirable Russian lands that they did 
 not suggest any further union; therefore, this 
 Lublin union was the last.
 
 1430-1569 37 
 
 But the Lithuanians received this union 
 as former unions. Soon after the death of 
 King August the}^ endeavored to secure a 
 separate ruler, and invited Theodor, the son of 
 John IV of Moscow, to be their Grand Duke; 
 but the Czar promised to be ruler of Lithuania 
 in place of his son. Then the Lithuanians with- 
 drew. Failing to procure a separate ruler the 
 Lithuanian Convention of Vilna sent a delega- 
 tion (Christopher Radziwill) to Paris to Henry 
 of Valois, who had been lately elected Polish 
 King. 
 
 The Lithuanians asked him to be at the 
 same time the Grand Duke of Lithuania, with 
 the condition that he do not decrease the 
 independence of Lithuania and return to her 
 the provinces seized by Poland. From that 
 time Lithuania and Poland always had one 
 ruler for both. 
 
 191708
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE JURISTIC APPRAISEMENT OF THE BONDS BE- 
 TWEEN LITHUANIAN AND POLISH STATES 
 WHICH EXISTED BEFORE AND AFTER THE 
 UNION OF LUBLIN 
 
 BY what legal terms of our time can we 
 describe the bonds between Lithuania 
 and Poland before the union of LubHn 
 and those existing after that union ? It would 
 not suffice only to examine the words of the 
 protocol of this or that union as well as the 
 terms of the treaty of the Lublin union of 
 1569, for we have seen that the Lithuanians 
 were not disposed to observe these unions 
 strictly. We would do better to remark in 
 the course of history how these agreements 
 were observed by both sides. This will show 
 us not only the relations desired by either side, 
 which were written into the agreement, but 
 the relations that existed in fact between the 
 two states. 
 
 The Poles would like to call Lithuania a 
 38
 
 APPRAISEMENT OF THE BONDS 39 
 
 Polish province. They maintain that Jagela 
 gave Lithuania to the Poles by the pact of 
 1385 at Krevo. But when, soon afterward, 
 Jagela had ascended the throne of Poland 
 and sent his viceroy to Vilna, the Lithuanians 
 did not acquiesce; they rose against him and 
 proclaimed Vitautas as their ruler. Vitautas 
 becoming Grand Duke of Lithuania, a 
 friendly treaty was made in Ostrova, 1392, be- 
 tween Poland and Lithuania. This treaty we 
 might call the alliance of our times. There 
 was no submission of Lithuania to Poland 
 during all the reign of Vitautas. In 1398 the 
 Poles in the name of Hedwig had demanded 
 from Vitautas the payment of dues as ac- 
 knowledgment that Jagela had given Lithu- 
 ania to Poland. Vitautas called together all 
 the Dukes and nobility on October 2, of the 
 same year, 1398, proclaimed himself King of 
 independent Lithuania, and made a treaty with 
 the Crusaders for war against Poland. 
 
 In 1401, in order to strengthen Jagela on 
 the Polish throne after the death of his wife, 
 Hedwig, Vitautas acknowledged him and his 
 successors as his own successors on the Lithu- 
 anian throne by the treaty of Vilna. This
 
 40 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 meant only the promise of a real union. In 
 141 3, when the Poles were importunate about 
 the union, a substantial friendly treaty was 
 made between Poland and Lithuania, by which 
 it was agreed that both nations should elect 
 together the rulers of their separate states. 
 This might be taken to mean duarchy in the 
 style of Rome under two Emperors, one ruler 
 to have the title of King, the other that of 
 Grand Duke, but in reality it was a shrewd 
 move on the part of Polish politicians to elect 
 always the same ruler for both states (Horodlo 
 Union). During the remammg part of the 
 reign of Vitautas this union proved to be 
 ** Confederation d'Etats," but very loose, the 
 mutual relations of its parts being of an in- 
 ternational character. 
 
 After the death of Vitautas, the Lithuanians 
 elected their Grand Duke, Svitrigaila, without 
 the Poles, and by doing this, they broke the 
 Horodlo agreement. All the reign of Svitri- 
 gaila (1430-1432) was hostile to Poland. Sigis- 
 mund, son of Kestutis, becoming Grand Duke 
 of Lithuania in 1432, the union of 1401 between 
 Poland and Lithuania was renewed; this meant 
 that even the Poles themselves had repudiated
 
 APPRAISEMENT OF THE BONDS 41 
 
 the union of Horodlo. In 1440 the Lithuanians, 
 by electing their ruler, Casimir, son of Jagela, 
 broke the treaty with the Poles of 1432; in 
 1447 the Lithuanians allowed their ruler, Casi- 
 mir, son of Jagela, to become also the King 
 of Poland, and by this they agreed to a simple 
 personal union. At his death in 1492 the 
 union with the Poles was dissolved, the Lithu- 
 anians electing as their ruler, Alexander, and 
 the Poles, John Albrecht. In 1499 the treaty 
 of Horodlo was renewed for the mutual aid 
 in wars — that of Lithuania with Moscow and 
 that of the Poles with the Turks and Tartars. 
 In 1 501 the Poles elected the Lithuanian ruler, 
 Alexander, as their King; again there was a 
 personal union until the death of Alexander 
 in 1506. When in October of that year the 
 Lithuanians elected as their ruler the younger 
 brother of Alexander, Sigismund, the Poles 
 hastened to proclaim him as their King in 
 December of the same year, and again a per- 
 sonal union subsisted. 
 
 During the reign of Sigismund, the Lithu- 
 anians elected his son, Sigismund August, as 
 their Grand Duke, but not till 1544 did the 
 ruler allow his son to take the reins of the gov-
 
 42 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 ernment in Lithuania. After the death of 
 Sigismund, in 1548, the Poles proclaimed the 
 Lithuanian ruler, Sigismund August, as their 
 King, and again renewed the personal union. 
 
 Therefore, we see that the signature of Ja- 
 gela in 1385 at Krevo was annulled by the 
 Lithuanians through the rising of Vitautas, 
 and by his becoming the Grand Duke. Lithu- 
 ania was always an independent and sovereign 
 state, and did not wish to resign her sovereignty, 
 notwithstanding the signature of a ruler who 
 broke his fealty to the state. Until the union 
 of Lublin, Lithuania was never incorporated 
 with nor even vassal to Poland: not one of 
 her rulers took an oath as vassal of King of Po- 
 land, as did the last magister of the Crusaders, 
 Albrecht, on becoming the herzog of Prus- 
 sia. Not one of them was the vicer^^y of the 
 Polish King, although the Poles were demand- 
 ing that Casimir, son of Jagela, become such. 
 When the Lithuanians elected him their Grand 
 Duke the Poles themselves were complaining 
 that the Lithuanians broke their last treaty 
 of 1432, and the Grand Duke Alexander sent 
 to John Albrecht only the ordinary congratula- 
 tions of a friendly neighbor, by no means a
 
 APPRAISEMENT OF THE BONDS 43 
 
 vassal's submission, when the Poles elected 
 the latter as their King. From the very elec- 
 tion of Jagela as King of Poland until the 
 union of Lublin the common tie between Po- 
 land and Lithuania was the same Lithuanian 
 dynasty of Gediminas: for Poland the branch 
 of Algirdas, and for Lithuania, at the beginning, 
 the branch of Kestutis, in the persons of Vi- 
 tautas and Sigismund, sons of Kestutis, and 
 later, the same branch of Algirdas for both 
 states. All these unions made between Poland 
 and Lithuania during all those times were only 
 friendly alliances — defensive alliances — in order 
 that one should help another in need. Toward 
 the end, through the efforts of Poles during 
 the reign of several rulers, those alliances be- 
 came a personal union. 
 
 * * * 
 
 What did the union of Lublin accomplish ? 
 First, it tore away from Lithuania all the 
 southern Russians (Ukrainians), and Lithu- 
 ania remained within the boundaries of Gedi- 
 minas; she retained only the territories of the 
 Lithuanians and the White Russians. 
 
 There was a change also made in regard to 
 the legal standing of Lithuania. But regard-
 
 44 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 less of the wishes of Poles Lithuania was not 
 incorporated into Poland, even after the union 
 of Lublin. The treaty of Lublin, as well as of 
 other unions, in some of its parts expresses only 
 the desires of the Poles, which were not realized 
 later. Lithuania reserved to herself, complete 
 and separate from Poland, a state government 
 such as she had before the union of Lublin; a 
 complete administration with the highest gov- 
 ernmental institutions. This included the Con- 
 vention of Lithuania which, after the union of 
 Lublin, was called the General Convention of 
 Lithuania, apart from the common convention 
 of both states; her own separate code of laws 
 (the new revised third code of the Lithuanian 
 statute was published in 1588); her own courts; 
 a separate army and financial system. 
 
 After the union of Lublin, therefore, Lithu- 
 ania was not an autonomous province of Po- 
 land, but a sovereign and separate state as 
 before. Therefore, after the union of Lublin 
 we find in Lithuania all the essential character- 
 istics of a state; a separate territory under the 
 high dominion of the government of Lithuania 
 and even the rights of the international rela- 
 tions (jus foederum ac legationum).
 
 APPRAISEMENT OF THE BONDS 45 
 
 After the death of Sigismund August the 
 Lithuanians sent a delegation to Moscow ask- 
 ing the Czar's son to be their ruler, and again 
 they sent another delegation to France invit- 
 ing Henry of Valois to their throne. Even the 
 convention at Lublin recognized the indepen- 
 dence of Lithuania from Poland by separating 
 from Lithuania and joining to Poland, Podla- 
 chia, Volinia, Podolia, Kiev, and Braclav, up to 
 that time Lithuanian territories. This would 
 not have been necessary if Lithuania had be- 
 come a PoHsh province, as after the union of 
 LubUn Kiev and Volinia became. This conven- 
 tion of Lublin acknowledged the fact of a sepa- 
 rate allegiance to Lithuania and Poland. On 
 the transference of these provinces into Polish 
 hands, v/hen the union was being consummated, 
 the inhabitants were obhged to take an oath of 
 allegiance to Poland; this was demanded ex- 
 pressly to show the transition from the Lithu- 
 anian allegiance to a Polish allegiance — only 
 states, never provinces, have a right to de- 
 mand the allegiance of the inhabitants of a 
 territory. That Lithuania was not an auton- 
 omous province of Poland but a state quite 
 separate from Poland is shown by the very
 
 46 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 origin of the government of Lithuania over 
 her territory. Her territory and the power of 
 governing it Lithuania did not acquire from 
 Poland, as Poland did not possess them previ- 
 ously; but all this Lithuania as a sovereign 
 state possessed before the union of Lublin by 
 her own right, and in entering a convention 
 with Poland she reserved to herself that terri- 
 tory and jurisdiction over it. Therefore we 
 see at the unfortunate Lublin union that the 
 Lithuanian delegates, compelled to sign the 
 treaty of the union, on their knees begged their 
 Grand Duke that he should not destroy the 
 independence nor tarnish the honor of his own 
 native land, Lithuania. If Lithuania was a 
 sovereign state before the union of Lublin and 
 the Lithuanians did not wish to renounce her 
 independence, then the question is, how could 
 she become a Polish province, as Poles had 
 never conquered her ^ 
 
 Until the fall of Poland, therefore, the Lithu- 
 anians considered themselves as constituting a 
 separate nation, the subjects not of Poland but 
 of the supreme Lithuanian Government, ex- 
 pressing the will of the nation. Before the actual 
 subjection of Lithuania to Russia (in 1794)
 
 APPRAISEMENT OF THE BONDS 47 
 
 "the General Confederacy of the Grand Duchy 
 of Lithuania" speaks of "the will of the Lithu- 
 anian nation." Where is the province to be 
 found that expresses the will of the nation ? 
 The foreign diplomats even at the end of the 
 eighteenth century knew very well that Lithu- 
 ania was not a part of Poland, but an altogether 
 separate state. Prince V. N. Repnin, former 
 Russian ambassador in Warsaw, writes to 
 Dimitri Troschinski, a high Russian official, in 
 regard to territories acquired by Russia after 
 the partition of Poland-Lithuania: "Lithuania 
 should remain separate from Poland in her 
 government, in her domain and organization, 
 as she was before, a separate state from Po- 
 land." 
 
 * * * 
 
 What really was the bond between Poland 
 and Lithuania from the union of Lubhn until 
 the fall of these two states ? All that time both 
 states having their complete separate govern- 
 ments had in common only one ruler with the 
 double title — that of King of Poland and Grand 
 Duke of Lithuania. Each ruler was elected 
 for life at the common convention of both 
 states. The treaties of these sovereign states
 
 48 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 touching the affairs of both states had to be 
 made by both in common. General conven- 
 tions of the delegates of both states were called 
 together in common to pass on the common af- 
 fairs of both states; from 1673 they were con- 
 vened alternately, first in Lithuania then in 
 Poland. 
 
 From what has been said we see that Lithu- 
 ania, a sovereign state, then in a personal union 
 with Poland, joined Poland as an equal at the 
 union of Lublin; so the relations between them, 
 even after the Lublin union, were those of co- 
 ordination not of subordination, of equality 
 of rights. The bonds betvveen states enjoy- 
 ing equal rights sometimes may be very 
 loose and temporary, as, for instance, an al- 
 liance for a certain stated time. Here in the 
 relations of Lithuania and Poland we see a 
 stronger bond — a community of certain state 
 organs and interests — but this bond never be- 
 came the bond of a so-called federal state 
 (etat Federal). Two bordering states did not 
 become one organized partnership, with a gov- 
 ernment exercising its constitution and its 
 rights over the territory of both, each of which 
 delegated to it certain of their sovereign rights,
 
 APPRAISEMENT OF THE BONDS 49 
 
 as in the case of Switzerland's Eidgenossen- 
 schaft since 1848 or the German Empire since 
 1871. Lithuania and Poland did not possess a 
 new government created by the union superior 
 to the government of each. Therefore their 
 mutual relations were of an international char- 
 acter. In them we find only the community 
 of certain organs in each state, in this case in 
 one physical person, exercising the sovereignty 
 of both states — one ruler. 
 
 But here this personal union was not tempo- 
 ral — accidental — as sometimes happens through 
 rights of heredity converging in one person to 
 form a personal union in the strict sense. In 
 the case of Lithuania and Poland the union was 
 effected by agreement and in time by long en- 
 during custom — a stable union with the same 
 ruler for both states forever, and therefore a 
 real union. 
 
 The union of Lithuania and Poland fully re- 
 sembles the bond of Austria and Hungary of 
 the recent times. Austria-Hungary by the 
 Constitution of 1867 had one ruler, the Em- 
 peror of Austria and King of Hungary; he was 
 vested with the exterior sovereignty of both 
 states; he was also the chief commander of the
 
 50 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 common army. In Lithuania and Poland there 
 was one ruler, the King of Poland and the 
 Grand Duke of Lithuania, but Lithuania and 
 Poland, as well as Austria and Hungary, had a 
 separate government and separate laws. On 
 account of the common interests of both states 
 Austria-Hungary has delegations from both 
 parliaments; Lithuania and Poland had the 
 common convention of the delegates of both 
 states to look after the common affairs. 
 * * * 
 So Lithuania after the Lublin union remained 
 a separate state, but remained in a real union 
 with Poland until December of 1795, when she 
 was finally divided between Russia and Prus- 
 sia. The political history of Lithuania after 
 the Lublin union is closely connected with the 
 history of Poland. The period from the 
 Lublin union till the fall of both extends over 
 more than two hundred years. In 1572 the 
 male Jagelon line of the dynasty of Gediminas 
 ended, and in 1772 there was the first division 
 of Lithuania-Poland. From 1572 until 1673, 
 if we omit Henry of Valois, who was in Cracow 
 only five months, only one man not Lithuanian, 
 Stephan Batory, was the King and Grand
 
 APPRAISEMENT OF THE BONDS 51 
 
 Duke.* The other rulers were from the other 
 branch of the same Lithuanian dynasty. The 
 first male from the female Jagelon line was 
 one of the Vazas, of Sweden, and after them 
 came Michael Wisniowiecki, who is considered 
 as of the other line of Gediminas. Of the 
 others, the first was John Sobieski (1674) and 
 the last was August Poniatowski (1764) both 
 Poles; and between them are two Germans, the 
 Saxon Kurfuersts, August II and Frederick Au- 
 gust III, not counting the Pole Stanislaus 
 Leszczinski, who was proclaimed King and 
 supported for five years by Charles XII during 
 wars with Sweden. 
 
 After the Napoleonic wars and the Congress 
 of Vienna the fate of the Lithuanian nation 
 was determined as follows: All the territories 
 of the Letts and the greater part of the Lithu- 
 anian territory was apportioned to Russia and 
 only the smaller part of Lithuania at the mouth 
 of Niemen, toward the sea beyond the Pregel 
 River, was left to Prussia. 
 
 * He was elected King on the condition that he marry Anna 
 Jagelon, sister of August, who was elected Queen before him.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL OF THE POLISH 
 (AND WITH IT THE LITHUANIAN) STATE ; THE 
 UNION WITH LITHUANIA IS THE TRUE REASON 
 FOR THE GROWTH OF THE POLISH NATION AND 
 STATE, BUT, AT THE SAME TIME, THE CAUSE 
 OF INTERNAL ANARCHY AND THE DOWNFALL 
 OF THAT STATE 
 
 THE cause of the partition of Poland and 
 Lithuania by their neighbors was the 
 same that led Lithuania to the Lublin 
 union, the weakening almost to extinction of 
 the power of the state at home and abroad. 
 The Poles, before forcing upon Lithuania the 
 privileges of the nobility, had extended these 
 privileges beforehand at home and continually 
 invented new privileges. The Grand Dukes 
 and Kings, continually renouncing preroga- 
 tives of their power in behalf of the gentry, 
 finally left to themselves no power either over 
 the gentry or over the other people depending 
 on gentry. As regards the power of the ruler in 
 Lithuania and Poland we observe a counterpart 
 
 52
 
 CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL 53 
 
 of what happened contemporaneously in Ger- 
 many with the imperial power, with the differ- 
 ence that fortunately for Germany the pre- 
 rogatives of the supreme power there were 
 surrendered to the governors of provinces by 
 heredity; to the Kurfuersts, to the Herzogs, 
 and the Grafs; as if in Lithuania the powers of 
 the Grand Duke had been distributed to the 
 smaller Dukes possessing the rights of heredity. 
 In Lithuania and Poland the prerogatives of 
 supreme power were divided among all the 
 members of the nobility possessing estates; 
 e^ ery one of these rich noblemen on his estates 
 w is equal to the German Kurfuerst, Herzog, or 
 G af. Finally, only a shadow of royal power 
 WaS left to the Polish King and Grand Duke of 
 Lithuania — no more power than was possessed 
 by his picture hanging on the wall. The legis- 
 lative power of the convention was destroyed 
 by the introduction of **liberum veto." The 
 army to defend the borders of the state con- 
 sisted of the gentry called together by "pos- 
 polite ruszenie" — the mobilization. But this 
 army could not remain in mobilization more 
 than three months and could not be led 
 over the border more than three miles. It is
 
 54 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 evident that there could be no discipline in 
 such an army; often, as soon as it had collected 
 it dispersed without action. The handful of a 
 regular hired army was independent of the 
 King, and very often collected its pay by force. 
 In one w^ord, there was but a nominal central 
 government. There was a King, a Grand Duke, 
 and the Convention, but their action was para- 
 lyzed — reduced to zero; there existed practically 
 no executive power whatever; the defense of 
 the state from the external foe was practically 
 nil. The only way to accomplish something 
 for the welfare of the land was by the so-called 
 confederacy of the gentry, a kind of an agree- 
 ment for a definite aim. The convention of 
 such a confederacy made its resolutions by the 
 majority vote. But a confederacy was dan- 
 gerous; it always resulted in civil war; against 
 one confederacy there often arose another in 
 complete opposition. Therefore, generally, the 
 government could not have recourse to it. A 
 French publicist of those times, C. C. de 
 Rulhiere, called this liberty, these laws, and 
 the government of which the Poles were boast- 
 ing, barbaric: "Ainsi se sent perpetues depuis 
 un temps immemorial jusqu'a notre age, et chez
 
 CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL 55 
 
 une nation justement celebre, la liberte, les 
 gouvernements et les lois des barbares." * 
 
 The statesmen of Lithuania, long before the 
 downfall of their country, fully understood the 
 perniciousness of those Polish privileges and 
 condemned them, but they were unable to free 
 themselves from them. We have testimony to 
 this effect in the Confederation of Vilna of 
 November 29, 1700, which was signed by all 
 the highest officials of the Supreme Lithuanian 
 Government, from the Lithuanian Chancellor, 
 Duke Charles Radizwill, to the Supreme Com- 
 mander of the Armies of Lithuania (The Great 
 Herman of Lithuania) Duke Michael Korybut 
 Wisniowiecki. By this document the mag- 
 nates of Lithuania renounced and condemned 
 the liberties brought from Poland to Lithuania 
 and wished to return to the absolute power of 
 the Grand Duke as it existed in the times of 
 Gediminas and Vitautas; they declared they 
 were convinced that the Polish liberties were 
 leading to the perdition. But here, as in the 
 times of the LubHn union, what was evidently 
 pernicious to well-educated and broad-minded 
 
 * Histoire de I'anarchie de Pologne et du demembrement . . . 
 par Claude Carloman de Rulhiere, 1807.
 
 56 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 magnates was desired by the egoistic mob of 
 uneducated, short-sighted small gentry of the 
 provinces. 
 
 When the power was scattered in Germany 
 among Herzogs and counts — not an ordinary 
 gentry (Rittern), but the rulers of provinces pos- 
 sessing rights of succession (Landesherren) — 
 there were among them ambitious and able men 
 who, enlarging gradually their wealth and in- 
 fluence, could create centres that in time would 
 unite again the whole wide-spread state and 
 nation. In Lithuania and Poland the reverse 
 happened. In Germany the power of the state 
 was transferred to Landesherren. In Lithuania 
 and Poland that power was simply destroyed. 
 Moreover, the magnates, estate owners, were 
 only the private possessors of real estate, not 
 the rulers of provinces, not Landesherren. 
 There were no centres that could unite the 
 \^' whole land. Therefore both countries, Lithu- 
 ania and Poland, collapsed into anarchy. Po- 
 land, abusing the weakened and half-dead gov- 
 ernment of Lithuania, in 1569 at Lublin broke 
 away and separated by force the provinces of 
 Volynia and Ukraine; the remainder of Lithu- 
 ania she did not make her province, but merely
 
 CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL 57 
 
 forced her into a union, only because she her- 
 self was weak as a military power and did not 
 wish to drive the Lithuanians into war. In 
 1772, 1793, and 1795 the same thing was re- 
 peated by the neighboring states, not only in 
 regard to Lithuania but also in regard to Po- 
 land, with this difference only — that the nego- 
 tiations about the unions were unnecessary. 
 With strong armies to back their decisions 
 strong neighbors did not fear the opposition in 
 Lithuania and Poland; they simply divided 
 them amongst themselves. The titles upon 
 which successful despoilers took the Polish 
 provinces are striking; they are neither more 
 nor less just than those titles upon which Po- 
 land took, at the Lublin union, the Lithuanian 
 provinces, Volynia, Kiev, and others. Prussia 
 and Austria, relying on old meaningless titles, 
 claimed that they were taking back what 
 "justly" belonged to them. But the most 
 adroit, perhaps, were the declarations of Cathe- 
 rine: "Apres les depenses considerables en hom- 
 mes et en argent qu'a coutees a I'empire de 
 Russie son assistance a la Pologne pour la 
 sauver de la fureur de ses propres citoyens . . . 
 il doit paraitre bien modere que sa Majeste se
 
 58 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 borne . . . a se procurer la reparation de 
 dommage" (C. C. de Rulhiere). They di- 
 vided among themselves the Polish provinces 
 because they wished to save Poland from the 
 
 Poles ! 
 
 * * * 
 
 The cause of the downfall of the Lithuanian 
 state, of the misery, of the decrease, and of the 
 weakening of the nation itself is evident. It 
 was association with the Poles. The identifica- 
 tion of the Grand Duke with the King of Po- 
 land; the distribution of Polish privileges among 
 the gentry; the influence of the Poles in Lithu- 
 ania through a King's court, through Polish 
 privileges, and through the Polish church and 
 the schools in Lithuania under its jurisdiction, 
 notably the University of Cracow before the 
 Lublin union, and later the Polish Academy 
 at Vilna: These were the means by which the 
 governmental power of the state in Lithuania 
 was weakened. The higher classes of the na- 
 tion were Polonized, and by the spread of 
 Polonism the patriotism of the nobility and 
 the spirit of nationality was demoralized; this 
 led the Lithuanians to the Lublin union. From 
 that time the influence of the Poles spread
 
 CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL 59 
 
 rapidly in Lithuania. The majority of the 
 gentry accepted the PoUsh language. The 
 greater part of the priesthood, already Polish, 
 now became a powerful factor in Polonizing the 
 people. Lithuanian patriotism, Lithuanian 
 nationaHty was mixed with the Polish. This 
 became a by-word: "gente Lithuanus, natione 
 Polonus." The Polish speech among Lithu- 
 anians became the speech of the educated class. 
 There was real danger that the Lithuanian 
 state would become a Polish province and that 
 the Lithuanian nation would perish with the 
 dying out of the Lithuanian language. On the 
 other hand, Poland became a great world power 
 only after the union with Lithuania. The small 
 Polish nation grew big by the union with Lithu- 
 ania. By the Polonization of the Lithuanian 
 gentry and educated classes the power of the 
 PoHsh literary, artistic, and upper classes, also 
 the influence of PoHsh culture, greatly increased. 
 The names of men of Lithuanian origin adorn 
 PoHsh history and literature, names Hke Mic- 
 kiewicz, Kosciuszko. Lithuanian magnates, 
 such as Radziwills, Pac'es, Sapieha's, and the 
 Czartoryski's, the princes of the Gediminas 
 family now became Polish magnates. Their
 
 6o THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 wealth was helping Polish culture and Polish 
 interests. This is the reason the Poles so 
 highly honor the "Jagellonians" and cling to 
 the Lithuanians, so that when the Lithuanians 
 of our time desire to realize their own inde- 
 pendent destiny the Poles per fas et nefas would 
 retain them in their care. It seems to the Poles 
 that the Lithuanians by fate itself are destined 
 to belong to them, so that they ma}^ grow and 
 become great on the ruins of the Lithuanian 
 nation. 
 
 Nevertheless this union with Lithuania and 
 this invitation to a Lithuanian dynasty to 
 rule over them, which contributed so much 
 toward the growth and fame of the Polish na- 
 tion, was the real cause of the downfall of their 
 state. A foreign dynasty invited to rule by the 
 nobility felt its dependence upon them and 
 did not feel as secure upon the throne as if it 
 had been a native Polish dynasty. We see 
 even in Jagela's hands a weak kingly power. 
 He and his successors felt that they reigned by 
 the grace of the nobility; that this nobility 
 might not choose their son to the succession. 
 Therefore every one of them at the beginning 
 of his reign, to insure the throne to his son,
 
 CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL 6i 
 
 diminished the power and the wealth of the office 
 and oppressed the lower classes for the benefit 
 of the nobility by giving privileges until there 
 remained only a shadow of a King's authority. 
 Among the nobility there sprung up magnates 
 equal to feudal Dukes of other countries. The 
 authority of the King collapsed altogether, 
 and each of the magnates looked out for his 
 own benefit; they began wars among themselves 
 or rose against the King; and during the elec- 
 tion of a King they began to call in the aid of 
 foreign governments. 
 
 This anarchy was increased by the unfor- 
 tunate union with Lithuania, a foreign nation 
 several times larger than Poland. The Poles 
 continually endeavored to incorporate Lithu- 
 ania with Poland, and the Lithuanians during 
 all this time were opposing these efforts; the 
 history of these centuries records continual 
 breaking of the unions by the Lithuanians:* 
 the open siding with Poland's foes in war- 
 
 * In 1655 the Government of Lithuania made a treaty with 
 Sweden against Poland during the latter's war with Charles 
 Gustav; Janusz and Boguslav Radziwills endeavored to separate 
 Lithuania from Poland; Prince Sapieha and his party waged 
 war against the King in 1700; the Russians of eastern provinces 
 in the wars with Moscow sided against Poland and joined the 
 state of Moscow.
 
 62 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 time; religious strife between the Orthodox and 
 CathoHcs; such antagonism between the na- 
 tionahty of the Lithuanians and the Poles, 
 that even such Lithuanians as had adopted the 
 Polish language, until very recent times, en- 
 deavored to accentuate their Lithuanianism.* 
 Therefore the united Lithuanian-Polish state, 
 although in its time the largest in Europe, 
 never showed such a great power abroad as its 
 size warranted; and later on, through mutual 
 strife and anarchy, it gradually grew weaker, 
 until it finally collapsed. 
 
 So the union of Poland with Lithuania led 
 both to anarchy and to final collapse. 
 
 * Vide British Review, February, 1915. Autonomy of Poland 
 and Lithuania. J. Gabrys Lietuviu-Lenku Unija. The Lithu- 
 anian Polish Union.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE SURVIVAL OF THE NATIONAL CONSCIOUS- 
 NESS OF THE LITHUANIANS UP TO THE PRES- 
 ENT DAY THROUGH THE PRESERVATION OF 
 THEIR OWN LANGUAGE, TRADITIONS, AND THE 
 EXPRESSION OF THAT CONSCIOUSNESS IN THEIR 
 LITERATURE; THE RISE AND EXPANSION 
 AMONG THE LITHUANIANS OF THE IDEA OF 
 NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE FROM DANGEROUS 
 FOREIGN INFLUENCE; THE PRESENT CUL- 
 TURAL AND ECONOMIC GROWTH OF THE NA- 
 TION 
 
 ^T the end of the eighteenth century the 
 /-% Lithuanian state collapsed; but the Lith- 
 uanian nation, although very badly im- 
 paired and in the run of centuries decreased 
 by more than half, did not cease to exist. For 
 the state is not the nation. The state is only 
 an institution of a nation; that institution 
 without which the nation can live long, even 
 growing larger and stronger, as did the no- 
 madic IsraeHtes before the occupation of 
 Canaan. A nation can be defined as a com- 
 posite entity with customs, language, and a 
 conscious spirit by which it conceives of itself 
 
 63
 
 64 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 as having a being distinct from that of any 
 other similar group of humanity. No one will 
 say that after the fall of the Polish state, even 
 after the last insurrection of the Poles in 1863, 
 when the Russian Government abolished the 
 last rights of PoHsh autonomy, there was no 
 longer a PoHsh nation. 
 
 There is to-day, as in the case of the Poles, 
 a Lithuanian nation; and there are many other 
 nations which as yet are not actual states, but 
 have their language, their traditions, and a 
 consciousness of their distinctness from other 
 groups of humanity and their peculiar spiritual 
 life. A state is, as we said, a national institu- 
 tion without which a civilized nation cannot 
 easily exist. A state is like the home of a 
 nation, a guarantee of her self-independence; 
 without it a nation, although it exists, is op- 
 pressed by others, robbed and often destroyed; 
 and serving a stranger, frequently forced to 
 defend its very existence, it finds it difficult to 
 achieve anything for the benefit of humanity. 
 
 The life of a nation manifests itself in its 
 traditions, which again are preserved in the 
 national language and reveal themselves in its 
 literature. Given a language and a literature,
 
 NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS 65 
 
 no nation can be considered to be dead or non- 
 existent, for she herself is conscious of her ex- 
 istence. But if it is not also a state, another 
 nation which compelled it to belong to it can 
 oppress it, but cannot say that it as a nation 
 does not exist. 
 
 Nearly all the literature of the European 
 nations, with the exception of the Greeks and 
 Latins, began after the adoption of Christian- 
 ity. Lithuania was the last European nation to 
 accept Christianity. There is evidence in pre- 
 historic times that the Runic writings were 
 known in Lithuania. After the founding of the 
 Lithuanian state the Latin language was used 
 in the Grand Duke's office in transactions 
 with western Europe, and the Slavonian church 
 language in dealings with the Russian Dukes. 
 In 1529 the code of Lithuanian laws was pub- 
 lished in the Slavic language. 
 
 The first books printed in the Lithuanian 
 language, which were of purely religious type, 
 appeared in the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. They were written by the clergy and 
 answered their purposes; for the priests, having 
 to deal with people that understood no lan- 
 guage but the Lithuanian, had to use this Ian-
 
 66 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 guage in their books. Books of the belles- 
 lettres and worldly poetry could not be found 
 at this period, for few of the wealthy people 
 were educated in western Europe and they be- 
 came interested in Latin and various other 
 languages of the West. The first book pub- 
 lishers had established themselves with the 
 higher educational institutions. There had been 
 since 1544 a university at Konigsberg, which 
 was the first in the territory of the Lithuanian 
 nation. Here the first Lithuanian books were 
 printed. 
 
 Two editions of a small catechism in the 
 Prussian language were published in 1545, and 
 in 1547 M. Vaitkunas, pastor of Ragnit, pub- 
 lished the first book in the Lithuanian language 
 containing a short catechism, the first elemen- 
 tary reading, and some hymns. The book was 
 dedicated to the Grand Duke of Lithuania. 
 Luther's Enchiridion, or the Smaller Catechism, 
 was published in the Prussian language in 
 Konigsberg in 1561; in 1579 the same work 
 was translated into Lithuanian by B. Villentas, 
 the pastor of Konigsberg. 
 
 From 1578 we have evidence of official 
 Lithuanian writing.
 
 NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS e-j 
 
 , In the meantime in Vilna, in 1566, the sec- 
 ond edition of the Lithuanian Statute was pub- 
 lished, and in 1588 the third edition, both in 
 the Slavic language. The third edition was 
 translated into the Polish language — a sign of 
 early Polonizing of the higher classes of Lithu- 
 ania. 
 
 About the year 1580 J. Bretkunas, a Lithu- 
 anian pastor of Labguva, later of Konigsberg, 
 translated the whole Bible. 
 
 The Hymn Book, by Bretkunas, was pub- 
 lished in 1589; in 1591 his Postilla (sermons). 
 
 In 16 1 2 L. Sengstock, pastor of Konigsberg, 
 published his Hymnal. About the middle of 
 the seventeenth century the Prussian Lithu- 
 anians had a conspicuous writer, D. Kleinis, 
 pastor of Tilsit. In 1653 he published Gram- 
 matica Lithuanica; in 1666 he pubHshed also 
 in Konigsberg the Hymn Book, one of the best 
 books of the kind in the Lithuanian language. 
 It was republished in 1685, 1705, 1869. In 
 1872 it was revised by Fr. Kurszatis. Up to 
 the present time it is the best of Lutheran 
 hymnals and prayer-books in Lithuanian. 
 
 In the latter part of the sixteenth century 
 Duke M. Radziwill founded a school with the
 
 68 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 Calvin Church in Vilna, and Birze, and the 
 printing establishment at Nesviez. During 
 the Lublin Diet in 1569 the Jesuits obtained 
 permission to come to Lithuania, and in the 
 second year after that they opened their col- 
 lege at Vilna, which in 1578 was changed to an 
 academy, adding to it their printing establish- 
 ment. In Vilna, the heart of Lithuania, a 
 second publishing house arose for the printing 
 of Lithuanian books — CathoUc as well as Prot- 
 estant. 
 
 In 1595 appeared the Catechism of Ledesma, 
 translated by Michael Dauksas, a Samogitian 
 prelate. 
 
 In 1599, in Vilna, appeared Postilla, by the 
 same M. Dauksas. 
 
 In 1600 in Vilna was published the Lithuanian 
 Postilla (Calvinist), by Jacob Morkunas, a 
 newly revised edition. When the first edition 
 was printed is not known. 
 
 In 1605 the Catechism of Ledesma was pub- 
 lished in the eastern TJthuanian dialect. 
 
 At the beginning of the seventeenth centur}'' 
 a famous writer, Reverend Constant Sirvidas, 
 a Jesuit, a professor of the Academy of Vilna 
 and a Lithuanian preacher of Saint John's
 
 NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS 69 
 
 Church, labored in Vilna. Of his books the 
 following were piibHshed in Vilna: in 1629 his 
 Book of Sermons; in 1644, Lenten Sermons, 
 Clavis linguae Lituanicae, a grammar; a dic- 
 tionary, Dictionarium trium linguarum, Lithu- 
 anian, Latin, and PoHsh — only the fourth edi- 
 tion of 1677 remams, the date of the first edition 
 is not known. 
 
 In 1737, in Vilna, appeared Typis Collegii 
 Academici Soc. Jesu Universitas linguarum 
 lituanicae in principali Ducatus ejusdem gram- 
 maticis legibus circumscripta. 
 
 In 1677, in Vilna, the Lithuanian translation 
 of the catechism of Cardinal Bellarmin was 
 published. 
 
 Adalbert Kojalowcz, a professor and rector 
 of the Academy of Vilna, wrote (i) Historiae 
 Lituaniae Pars prior to 1387, which was printed 
 at Danzig in 1650, and (2) Pars altera, printed 
 at Antwerp in 1669. 
 
 In 1705, in Vilna, the book of Gospels and 
 Epistles was published. It was reprinted in 
 171 1, 1750, 1803. This was the best Lithu- 
 anian book of the kind. 
 
 It is noteworthy that the Lithuanian lan- 
 guage in the books printed in Konigsberg, as
 
 70 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 well as in Vilna, is grammatically perfect in 
 phraseology, the selection of words fitting ac- 
 curately to their meaning, etc., which shows 
 that the Lithuanian language was used in 
 literature a century previous to this. 
 
 With the weakening of Protestantism in 
 Vilna the publication of Protestant Lithuanian 
 books in Vilna ceased. 
 
 In the middle of the seventeenth century the 
 city of Keidany became the centre of Protes- 
 tant activity, the seat of the Calvinistic Synod. 
 In 1653, in Keidany, the book, Lithuanian 
 Prayer Book, dedicated to Duke Janusz Radzi- 
 will, was published. In 1553, also in Keidany, 
 Summa or the Explanation of Gospels was pub- 
 lished, and in 1653 -^ Prayer Book for All Year 
 Around. 
 
 From 1657 to 1666, through the efforts of 
 the Calvinistic Synod of Keidany, the Lithu- 
 anian edition of the Bible was printed in Lon- 
 don. 
 
 In 1701 the Calvins of Keidany published in 
 Konigsberg the New Testament in Lithuanian. 
 
 In Prussia, in the eighteenth century, the gov- 
 ernment assisted in a revision toward uniform- 
 ity in the prayer-book. In 1719 Doctor H.
 
 NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS 71 
 
 Lysius, at the order of the government, pub- 
 lished a small catechism of Martin Luther. 
 
 More difficulties were encountered with the 
 hymnals, the work upon them by the Prussian 
 Lithuanian clergy being carried over the greater 
 part of the eighteenth century. After several 
 revisions the consistory of eastern Prussia finally 
 published, in 1791, in Konigsberg, a Hymnal 
 containing five hundred and forty-two hymns. 
 This was revised and repubUshed many times 
 later. 
 
 Along with these religious works there ap- 
 peared in Prussia two well-known writers, 
 Philip Ruhig, pastor of Valterkiemis, who in 
 1747 published the Lithuanian dictionary, and 
 Kr. Donelaitis, the first Lithuanian poetical 
 genius. Among his productions is a great 
 poem, Metu Laikai, The Seasons of the Year, 
 in hexameter. 
 
 His work describes the life of the Lithuanian 
 peasant at the end of the eighteenth century 
 just as Mickiewicz's Pan Tadeusz, written in 
 Polish, tells of the life of the Polonized Lithu- 
 anian gentry from the beginning of the nine- 
 teenth century; each of these works is comple- 
 mentary to the other; but the Mickiewicz
 
 72 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 picture of the Polonized Lithuanian gentry is 
 idealized and adorned in accordance with Polish 
 patriotism. Throughout, the best side is pre- 
 sented. The picture of the life of the gentry 
 as a whole is incomplete; their relations with 
 their bondsmen are hardly mentioned; but 
 the form and style of the whole work is perfect. 
 Donelaitis's picture of the life of the peasants 
 is altogether real, even in respect of their un- 
 cultured language and their unrefined be- 
 havior. 
 
 In the nineteenth century L. Reza, who 
 died in 1840, published Donelaitis's poems, and 
 in 1824 the complete edition of the Old and New 
 Testaments. In the same year he published 
 ^-sop's Fables, and in the following year a col- 
 lection of Lithuanian Songs (Daina) with their 
 German translations. Immanuel Kant, the 
 great German philosopher, expressed high ad- 
 miration for the folk-lore contained therein. 
 F. Kurszatis, who died in 1884, revised and 
 published in 1854 the Lithuanian edition of 
 the New Testament and the Hymnal, as 
 well as the prayer-book for the Prussian army, 
 the catechism for the schools, the German 
 Lithuanian Dictionary, and the Lithuanian
 
 NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS 73 
 
 Grammar in German. From 1849 to il 
 he published in Konigsberg the newspaper 
 Keleivis, which was well liked by the Lithu- 
 anians. 
 
 * * 
 
 In the nineteenth century almost the entire 
 Lithuanian nation, arrested by the unfortunate 
 political tendencies of the Lithuanian Govern- 
 ment, beginning with Jagela and the unions 
 with the Poles, finds itself within the boundaries 
 of the Russian Empire. Only a smaller part 
 of the Lithuanians, Hving at the mouth of the 
 Niemen toward the Baltic Sea as far south as 
 the river Pregel, belonged to Prussia. On the 
 downfall of the states of Lithuania and Poland, 
 Polish patriotism first expanded and intensified, 
 so affecting the Polonized strata of the Lithu- 
 anian nation as to urge them to further Po- 
 lonization. The Vilna educational district, 
 with the University of Vilna and the Polish 
 schools throughout Lithuania, and two PoHsh 
 uprisings against Russia in 183 1 and 1863 
 greatly advanced the vehement Polonization 
 of Lithuania. In 1803 Czartoryski, the Polish 
 aristocrat, a descendant of the Grand Dukes 
 of Lithuania, was appointed president of the
 
 74 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 educational district of Vilna, which extended 
 over almost the whole of Lithuania. He trans- 
 formed the Jesuit Academy of Vilna into a 
 university, and in connection with it also estab- 
 lished a grand seminary for the priests. He 
 ordered the monasteries to maintain elemen- 
 tary schools, about forty in number, through- 
 out Lithuania. All these schools were PoHsh 
 and were under the jurisdiction of the Polonized 
 university; they systematically conducted the 
 Polonization of Lithuania. The University of 
 Vilna, with these other schools, was abolished 
 by the Russian Government only after the 
 Polish uprising in 1830-183 1. The work of Po- 
 lonization of Lithuania was continued by the 
 churches, as before, and by the University of 
 Vilna and its schools. In many parishes the 
 Lithuanian tongue was replaced by the Polish. 
 Priests ignorant of the Lithuanian language 
 were intentionally sent to Lithuanian-speaking 
 parishes, and those speaking Lithuanian were 
 sent to Russian-speaking churches. Each up- 
 rising of the Poles was the cause of greater 
 intensification of Polish patriotism, and drew 
 more and more Lithuanians to the Polish side. 
 Nevertheless, the Lithuanian national spirit
 
 NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS 75 
 
 could not die as long as the language of the 
 nation lived. The glorious Lithuanian national 
 traditions were cherished even by the already 
 Polonized Lithuanians of the upper classes. 
 In the first part of the nineteenth century, and 
 later, we find a whole line of able Lithuanian 
 writers who wrote in Polish, such as Mickie- 
 wicz, J. I. Kraszewski, Narbutt, Kondratowicz, 
 Ign. Chodzko, Odyniec, Mary Radziewicz. 
 Some of their works only belong to Polish Hter- 
 ature because they were written in the PoHsh 
 language: their ideas and purport served to 
 revive the Lithuanian national consciousness. 
 This was the case with Mickiewicz's Grazyna 
 and Konrad Wallenrod; Kraszewski's Plaint of 
 Vitolis, Mindove, Vitautas's Battles, and The 
 History of Lithuania, and Narbutt's History of 
 Lithuania, etc. 
 
 In the nineteenth century Lithuanian writers 
 increase greatly in number. And after 1869, 
 when slavery was abolished by the Russian 
 Government, a great number of peasants' sons 
 joined the ranks of Lithuanian writers. 
 
 We have poems written in those times by 
 Dionysius Poszka, Reverend Anthony Draz- 
 dauskas and Reverend Simon Staneviczus,
 
 76 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 rector of the ecclesiastical seminary at Varniai, 
 etc. 
 
 In 1832, in Prussia, the first Lithuanian 
 periodical was published by Fr. Kalkis. 
 
 The period of 1840 to 1870, of Daukantas 
 (1864), and Bishop Valanczauskis (1875), was 
 a golden one for the Lithuanian literature. 
 Both wrote and published many a Lithuanian 
 book. About this time L. Ivinskis, Dovi- 
 daviczus, Tatare, and Bishop A. Baranauskas 
 began to write, and Reverend A. Juszkeviczus 
 published a collection of 5,600 folk-songs, etc. 
 
 In 1847 L. Ivinskis began to publish his yearly 
 almanacs, so famous among Lithuanians. 
 
 In 1854 a famous linguist, Schleicher, pub- 
 lishes in Prague his great work. The Lithu- 
 anian Grammar (in German). 
 
 In 1880, in Tilsit, Prussia, the Lithuanian 
 Literary Society was organized, whose activity 
 encouraged so much the educated Lithuanians 
 in Prussian and Russian Lithuania to return 
 to the use of the language of their fathers. 
 
 In March of 1883 there begins to appear in 
 Ragnit, later in Tilsit, Prussia, the monthly, 
 Auszra, or The Dawn, to voice the patriot- 
 ism of the new era in Lithuania. The appear-
 
 NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS ^j 
 
 ance of Auszra is the starting-point of the 
 Lithuanian national consciousness, and of 
 the organized national attempt for liberation 
 from injurious foreign influences. 
 
 Some call this period the revival. The term 
 is not strictly correct. The consciousness of 
 the Lithuanian nationalism and individuality 
 had never ceased to exist. The nation there- 
 fore was not asleep. But national conscious- 
 ness was passive; the nation did not defend it- 
 self. There had been no idea that foreign 
 influences were dangerous. But in the middle 
 of the nineteenth century, when the Poloniza- 
 tion had reached its highest mark in Lithuania 
 and the real peril of the extinction of the Lithu- 
 anian language became apparent, the more in- 
 telligent minds foresaw the danger to the na- 
 tion itself. Then did the nation understand 
 that it had been heretofore in a false position 
 and energetic persons began the work of or- 
 ganizing the nation. The movement started 
 with the defense of the Lithuanian language 
 and later concerned itself with the other aban- 
 doned interests of the nation. Before, there was 
 passive consciousness in the nation, now there 
 was full understanding; and to ward off" the dan-
 
 78 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 ger the political programme was drawn up, pos- 
 itive action outlined, and organization perfected. 
 
 Auszra appears in Prussia, because after 
 the Polish insurrection of 1863 the Lithuanian 
 publications were forbidden in Russia. Only 
 after forty years of hardest unequal struggle 
 of the nation in behalf of the press was the ban 
 on the press lifted by Russia in 1904. The 
 martyrs of the Lithuanian national ideal had 
 suffered exile and imprisonment in Siberia and 
 other distant Russian provinces. 
 
 We have seen that the political union with 
 the Poles greatly injured the Lithuanian na- 
 tion; almost the entire upper class adopted the 
 Polish speech; entire districts of the territory 
 inhabited by Lithuanians in the south and east 
 became Polonized or Russianized. Neverthe- 
 less the Lithuanian idea — the national con- 
 sciousness — remained unimpaired to the last. 
 When, after long bondage, there sprang up 
 numerous Lithuanian educated men from the 
 peasant stock, these would not adopt a foreign 
 tongue. Turning to a pure national ideal they 
 counted every foreign influence over their 
 nation as dangerous, and began to urge entire 
 rejection of Polonism; though many who had
 
 NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS 79 
 
 adopted the Polish language before began to 
 renounce their Lithuanian nationalism, stand- 
 ing with the Polish nation and proclaiming 
 themselves Poles. 
 
 Since 1883, however, Lithuanian literature, 
 and with it the new national ideal, spread with 
 unbounded force through Lithuania. As time 
 went on new poets, writers of fiction, scientific 
 writers, philologists, and other writers appeared. 
 
 During the Russian revolution of 1905 the 
 national consciousness in Lithuania was so 
 strong and wide-spread throughout the land 
 that it was possible to call a national conven- 
 tion from all parts of Lithuania. This national 
 convention was held on December 4 and 5, 
 1905. It was there resolved by the district 
 and county conventions to remove from Lithu- 
 ania all Russian office-holders and to introduce 
 a Lithuanian government everywhere.* 
 
 The resolutions of this national convention 
 
 * During the twenty years previous to the lifting of the ban 
 against Lithuanian Hterature imposed by the Russian Govern- 
 ment (1886-1905), five Lithuanian publishing houses flourished 
 in the United States. Through the efforts of J. Panksitis, D. T. 
 Boczkowski, A. M. Milukas, A. Olszewski, Lithuanian Alliance 
 of America, and Society of Lithuanian Patriots, over four hun- 
 dred works were published, including masterpieces of Lithuanian 
 literature and translations of the classic of the English and 
 other literatures.
 
 8o THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 were disseminated in all Lithuania immediately 
 after the return of the delegates from the con- 
 vention. Only by the proclamation of martial 
 law and with the help of the army did the Rus- 
 sian Government subdue this movement of the 
 Lithuanians. But although the old order of 
 the government was resumed, more freedom 
 remained in the land; the Lithuanian language 
 was still used in the schools and in some lower 
 government institutions. Lithuanians were per- 
 mitted to take governmental offices in Lithuania. 
 
 Lately, after the revolution of 1905 and 
 after the national convention at Vilna, the 
 Lithuanian nation, enjoying more liberty, rose 
 considerably, both spiritually and economically. 
 
 The national consciousness and the desire 
 of full independence mastered the entire na- 
 tion. Literary and economic societies were 
 founded; private, elementary, and high schools 
 were established, as well as banks of credit and 
 trade exchanges. Farming associations, co- 
 operative trade associations, educational, scien- 
 tific, and artists' societies were founded. Lately, 
 the Lithuanian nation has grown considerably 
 in power, educationally and materiall}', and has 
 perfected its cultural and political life.
 
 v^ 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 PRESENT NATIONAL ASPIRATIONS OF THE LITHU- 
 ANIANS: THE POLITICAL UNITY AND INDE- 
 PENDENCE OF ALL PARTS OF THE LITHUANIAN 
 NATION NOW UNDER DIFFERENT GOVERN- 
 MENTS (RUSSIAN AND GERMAN); FREEDOM 
 FROM FOREIGN INFLUENCES ; THE PRESERVA- 
 TION OF ONE AND SOLE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE 
 AS THE NATIONAL TONGUE ; RELATIONS WITH 
 THE POLES, WHITE RUSSIANS, AND LETTS 
 
 WE have learned of the past; let us 
 endeavor to examine the present 
 aims of the Lithuanian nation. Now 
 the Lithuanian nation is alive, self-conscious, 
 and eager to be completely free of foreign 
 tutelage, to become independent, to realize 
 itself. The ideal of every nation is the political 
 union of all parts of the nation in a single 
 independent state. Political unions forcing 
 different nations to combine into one state are 
 mistakes or misfortunes; they bring one or 
 several of those united nations to destruction. 
 The peril of such unions is demonstrated to us 
 by history. Even when populous and power-
 
 82 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 ful nations receive into their state large foreign 
 elements and assimilate them by force or by 
 lapse of time and the influence of life, they 
 themselves degenerate into a different nation 
 and lose their former character and being. 
 The Latin nation which founded the world- 
 wide state of Rome perished by mixture with 
 the conquered nations, and degenerated into 
 several new and previously non-existent na- 
 tions; neither French, nor Italians, nor Rou- 
 manians are the old Latin nation that founded 
 Rome. The Bohemian nation has been for a 
 long time in a union of German nations, has 
 continuously accepted on her throne a succes- 
 sion of German princes, and finally entered 
 wholly into a personal union with Austria in 
 1526. But what advantage did she gain ? She 
 completely lost her kingdom and her inde- 
 pendence. Her territory, that formerly had 
 embraced Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, now 
 is half Germanized and even divided between 
 several German states; eventually she found 
 herself almost without hope of ever regaining 
 her independence. The same thing happened 
 to Lithuania. The error of Algirdas with re- 
 lation to the Russians and the still greater error
 
 PRESENT NATIONAL ASPIRATIONS 83 
 
 of Jagela with relation to the Poles led us to 
 the same consequences as the Bohemians ar- 
 rived at. If after this war our nation is not 
 permitted to unite and to organize as a state, 
 in the course of future ages there may remain 
 only a small remnant of us, without hope, as 
 in the case of the Eastern nations: the Copts of 
 Egypt, the Syrians, Phoenicians, and Assyr- 
 ians. Denationalization of the foreign nations 
 received into a state is being accomplished in 
 the interests either of the dynasty or of the ruHng 
 classes of the compound state for the alleged 
 strengthening of the state, which these classes 
 or dynasties consider as their property. For- 
 merly the nations that found themselves in a 
 foreign state were always denationalized. The 
 same fate will befall such nations in the future. 
 And the Lithuanian nation, to be free from 
 such a danger, must necessarily separate itself 
 from the foreign nations and organize its own 
 state. Therefore the well-defined aim of our 
 patriots should be not the rebuilding of the 
 Lithuania that existed in the past, not the 
 union with other nations, whether Poles, White 
 Russians, or Russians, but the uniting of all 
 parts of the territory inhabited by the Lithu-
 
 84 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 anian people which are now distributed among 
 the neighboring states, and out of this united 
 territory, the making of a new Lithuanian state 
 free of foreign influences. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary that Lithuanians 
 renounce all those parts of their former states 
 which are inhabited by pure White Russians 
 or Poles; but all the territory inhabited by 
 the Lithuanians must be united. From the 
 future Lithuania should be separated those 
 districts that are Lithuanian in a broad ethno- 
 graphical way; where there formerly lived 
 people of the same Lithuanian race using the 
 Lithuanian language, but who a very long 
 time ago adopted the White Russian or Polish 
 language, as, for instance, the territories of 
 Jacvingi to the south from the Niemen; or 
 the eastern countries of the government of 
 Vilna, where there is no wide area using the 
 Lithuanian language, and therefore no hope 
 of return to the Lithuanian language of their 
 forefathers. The more of those denationalized 
 sections that we receive into a Lithuanian 
 state the greater White Russian influence they 
 will exercise on the pure Lithuanian nation. 
 We must satisfy ourselves with the border-
 
 PRESENT NATIONAL ASPIRATIONS 85 
 
 lands where the Lithuanian language is used 
 widely, if not entirel}^, wherever these border- 
 lands are absolutely necessary for the natural 
 and strategical frontiers of the state. The 
 state should include not onl}'^ the ethnographic 
 parts of Lithuania that belonged till lately 
 to Russia, but also the terrain at the mouth 
 of the Niemen, now under Prussia, where the 
 Lithuanian language is used. Control of the 
 mouth is essential to the future Lithuanian 
 state, because the Niemen is the only navigable 
 river that flows through Lithuania; the mouth 
 of the Niemen is Lithuania's only exit to the sea 
 and to all the world; and as the regions about it 
 are inhabited by Lithuanians, to take it from 
 Lithuania would he maliciously to shut off Lithu- 
 ania from communication with the world. 
 
 The Lithuanian state should comprise the 
 territories inhabited by the Lithuanian race 
 for thousands of years. If there are some 
 stretches with inhabitants who accepted other 
 languages, there remain between them other 
 stretches where the Lithuanian language of 
 their forefathers is preserved; and these very 
 same people, even though they use a different 
 language, are by race and blood Lithuanians,
 
 86 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 as much so as those of the centre of Lithuanian 
 territory. They will not imperil the true Lithu- 
 anian nationalism; but without those border- 
 lands Lithuania cannot possess any satisfac- 
 tory natural frontiers to her national terri- 
 tory. 
 
 * * * 
 
 Let us by no means form a nation of many 
 languages. To do that would be to take the 
 road to disorder, denationalization, and final 
 national annihilation. A nation with several 
 languages can exist only through one common 
 religion, for which it is persecuted by others; 
 or through one government that has developed 
 in the course of ages: as soon as this govern- 
 ment falls, it is impossible to gather together 
 the parts that speak different languages. Let 
 us Lithuanians rather renounce those that are 
 denationalized already, and let us remain with 
 one language, the language that was not bor- 
 rowed from the foreigner, but was constructed 
 by our race and was formed through ages to- 
 gether with the formation of our Lithuanian 
 nation. The language is the life of our nation; 
 in it is preserved the living spirit of our fore- 
 fathers. We cannot, we should not, accept
 
 PRESENT NATIONAL ASPIRATIONS 87 
 
 any Polish or White Russian language as OUJ" 
 national language. We should remember that 
 by introducing a few languages in a given terri- 
 tory we greatly burden the people in their 
 educational work and in their affairs with the 
 government. Not long ago, when Russia was 
 agitated by the question of Poland's autonomy, 
 the Poles demanded that the government of 
 Souvalki should belong to their autonomous 
 territory, and that the Polish language should 
 be used in common with Russian in this terri- 
 tory of the Lithuanian language, so that each 
 Lithuanian citizen would have been obliged 
 to know three languages, Lithuanian, Polish, 
 and Russian; otherwise, he would have been 
 left actually without rights, and could not 
 have taken part even in his township affairs. Is 
 it reasonable to demand of the peasants a knowl- 
 edge of so many languages, that in other coun- 
 tries is not demanded of even the well-educated 
 people ? Is it necessary to impose such a non- 
 sensical burden on those people in or^er to 
 satisfy the fantastic dreams of Polish poli- 
 ticians ? 
 
 Such is our attitude toward foreign lan- 
 guages and relations to our neighbors. Neither
 
 88 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 with Poles nor with Russians should we have 
 any political ties. The Lithuanian nation 
 has already been bound to both of them by 
 such ties for several hundreds of years. Let 
 that suffice. 
 
 We have no special economic interest in 
 Poland. Ours is an agricultural country, Po- 
 land is the same. Our exports we shall market 
 better in other countries of western Europe. 
 Up to now we received our imports mainly 
 through Riga and Moscow. It would be more 
 wholesome for Lithuania if the cultural ties 
 with Poland were broken altogether. United 
 with Poles, we should fear undesirable influences 
 and the weakening of our independence. It 
 is clear, then, that the uniting of Poland and 
 Lithuania is not to the interest of Lithuanians. 
 We have spoken before about receiving White 
 Russians into the Lithuanian state. The Poles 
 and Russians are foreigners to us; let each of 
 us therefore live by ourselves, and if there is a 
 need for economic relations they could be ar- 
 ranged according to the practices of other neigh- 
 boring, sovereign and independent states. 
 
 On the other hand, our relations with the 
 Letts should be closer. If Lithuania and Lett-
 
 PRESENT NATIONAL ASPIRATIONS 89 
 
 land both become states, then a union of both 
 these states would be mutually advantageous. 
 Lithuanians and Letts are people of the same 
 race, even their names are of the same linguistic 
 origin. Our languages even now are so closely 
 akin to one another that they differ no more 
 than various German dialects of the south 
 and north. The only difference is that history 
 has united the German dialects of north and 
 south, and divided the Lithuanian and Lettish. 
 True, history has made us different nations; we 
 could not be fully united, for then each one 
 would wish to have the upper hand, and we 
 should mutually injure ourselves. But we 
 could live together in two states, united on 
 equal terms, each one attending to its internal 
 affairs, and in external affairs both acting to- 
 gether, each exerting on the other a useful 
 national influence. In our economic affairs 
 we would agree. We occupy contiguous terri- 
 tory, the Letts holding the seacoast. In a 
 union with the Letts we would reap the bene- 
 fit of the sea trade, and their seaports would 
 have a larger hinterland. If both nations were 
 independent of foreigners and united more 
 closely, the mutual cultural influence would
 
 90 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 strengthen them against foreign encroach- 
 ment, would purify and strengthen the Lithu- 
 anian-Lettish spirit, and also the language of 
 both. The national traditions forgotten by the 
 one or the other would revive by mutual influ- 
 ence. We are the only two sister-nations in the 
 world, and neither one is populous.
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 IS LITHUANIA, AS A STATE, POSSIBLE? ABILITY OF 
 LITHUANIANS FOR STATESMANSHIP; THE RIGHT 
 TO INDEPENDENCE OF NATIONS WHICH HAVE 
 LOST OR HAVE NEVER HAD THEIR OWN GOV- 
 ERNMENT; THE FATE OF SMALL NATIONS IN 
 FOREIGN STATES (VIZ., RUSSIA); HAVE THE 
 LITHUANIANS A SUFFICIENT NUMBER OF EDU- 
 CATED MEN TO CONDUCT THE GOVERNMENT OF 
 STATE? AREA AND POPULATION OF LITHUANIA 
 COMPARED WITH THE DIFFERENT INDEPEN- 
 DENT EUROPEAN STATES 
 
 IS Lithuania as a state possible ? 
 That the Lithuanian nation can organ- 
 ize a state and direct it is amply demon- 
 strated by its history. The Lithuanian nation 
 in this has shown greater abilities than many 
 other European nations. With the exception of 
 the Franks it is the only example in Europe of 
 a comparatively small nation organizing itself 
 into a state and taking under its dominion na- 
 tions many times larger than itself. And in its 
 many conquests it is not submerged after mix- 
 ture with those conquered nations, as happened 
 
 91
 
 92 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 in the case of the Franks. Lithuania has estab- 
 Hshed her government over others and has 
 composed a code of laws (Lithuanian Statute, 
 1529) when other European nations with older 
 states than hers were making only feeble at- 
 tempts in this direction. The Lithuanian 
 statute is not the amateur creation of an in- 
 dividual, such as Sachsenspiegel (about 1230 
 A. D.), but an authoritative code of laws pub- 
 lished by a state. 
 
 It was said by an American daily paper that 
 the Lithuanians, who had not formed a state 
 of their own for over five hundred years and 
 were only a part of Poland, now desired to be- 
 come a state. The implication is that the Lith- 
 uanians, who lost their statehood so long ago, 
 should not even now possess it and that the 
 most appropriate place for Lithuanians would 
 be within the borders of a Polish kingdom. 
 Every one can see in whose interest such ideas 
 are spread. Five hundred years ago in Lithu- 
 ania Vitautas was reigning, and he was the 
 most powerful monarch in all eastern Europe. 
 But here, perhaps, one remembers the dis- 
 position made by Jagela in Krevo. If history 
 is understood in such a way then there is no
 
 LITHUANIA AS A STATE 93 
 
 use in argument. I have demonstrated that 
 Lithuania was a sovereign state until 1795 and 
 only after the union of Lublin (1560) had she 
 a real union with Poland. 
 
 If we deny the rights of a nation to be also 
 a state on such grounds, then Nor^vay in 1905, 
 without the least right, had desired to be in- 
 dependent, and separated from Sweden. From 
 the union of Colmar (in 1397) Norway was, 
 without an interval, in union with Denmark. 
 The Norwegian nation has acquired the Dan- 
 ish language, has forgotten its own Norwegian 
 language; and it is only one hundred years 
 since Sweden took Norway from Denmark by 
 war in January, 18 14. According to the author 
 of the opinion quoted about Lithuania, Nor- 
 way, if she does not wish to be with Sweden, 
 should be returned to Denmark. Finally, the 
 Norwegian nation is not numerous. On the 
 declaration of its independence it had in its 
 territory 2,240,000 inhabitants (according to 
 statistics of 1900), and these same people did 
 not know Norwegian, but were using the Dan- 
 ish language, just as some Lithuanians now 
 speak Polish in Lithuania. And yet Norway is 
 now independent.
 
 94 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 Hungary and Bohemia, when the rights of 
 succession to the throne of both states rested 
 with Archduke Ferdinand, brother of Emperor 
 Charles V, entered into union in 1526 and have 
 remained in such a relation to Austria, as Lithu- 
 ania had to Poland, up to our times. Only in 
 1867 did Austria grant to Hungary the present 
 satisfactory constitution. After the collapse of 
 the Bohemian uprising at the White Mountain, 
 near Praga, in 1620, Bohemian independence 
 was altogether destroyed and the Bohemian 
 nation was the slave of Austria until now. 
 The Allied states, however, warring on the 
 Central Powers, recognize the just Bohemian 
 aspirations; they recognize the necessity of 
 freeing the Slovaks, who never have formed an 
 independent state, but belonged for over one 
 thousand years to Hungary. Not long ago 
 Slovak Louis Kossuth was the great patriot 
 of Hungary. 
 
 Serbians, Bulgarians, Roumanians, Greeks 
 have been under the severest oppression since 
 the victorious migrations of the Turks to 
 Europe after the fall of Adrianople (1365), 
 Kosovo battle (1389), and the capture of Con- 
 stantinople (1453); only in 1829 some of them,
 
 LITHUANIA AS A STATE 95 
 
 and only in a small part of territory inhabited 
 by them, gained their partial independence. 
 The Congress of Berlin (1878) pushed slightly 
 forward the work of liberating and uniting 
 these nations. Even now, Serbia, Bosnia, 
 Herzegovina, and Croatia may not have the 
 right to unite for the sole reason that for many 
 centuries they were exploited and oppressed 
 by others, although all these provinces are 
 parts of a single Serbo-Croatian nation. The 
 Roumanians of Transylvania and Bessarabia 
 are the same as the inhabitants of Moldavia 
 and Wallachia; why should not they, being all 
 Roumanians, possess the right to unite and 
 govern themselves ^ 
 
 The peoples of Italy had been disunited since 
 the fall of Rome. What right had the Italian 
 patriots in 1860-1870 to abolish all the small 
 states existing up to that time in Italy and to 
 form from them one Italy that had no existence 
 before, and to unite therein Italian peoples, 
 which until then had been always divided into 
 small dukedoms and little republics, or ruled 
 by foreign conquerors ? 
 
 All agree that the Finnish nation should be 
 independent, although Finland never was a
 
 96 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 separate state. One hundred years ago Rus- 
 sia, by war, took her from Sweden and granted 
 her autonomy; before that Finland was only 
 part of Sweden. 
 
 If the Lithuanian nation should belong to 
 the Pohsh state for the reason that one hun- 
 dred years ago Lithuania was in union with 
 Poland, so much more should Poland belong 
 to the Russian state, because during the entire 
 last century she was part of Russia. But all 
 agree that the Polish nation has a right to form 
 its own independent state; then why should 
 the Polish politicians menace the freedom of 
 other nations.? The Lithuanian nation has the 
 same rights to the union of all its parts and to 
 independence as have all the other nations 
 cited. To Lithuanian demands for indepen- 
 dence the bureaucrats of Imperial Russia re- 
 joined that in that case it would be necessary 
 to grant independence to the Samoyeds. In 
 other words, there are in Russia larger and 
 smaller nations not of Russian extraction, and 
 the Russian state would suffer by returning to 
 them or granting them their former indepen- 
 dence. To this we answer, that there is no use 
 in speaking about the independence of Samo-
 
 LITHUANIA AS A STATE 97 
 
 yeds, Chukchi, and Kamchadales who live in 
 Siberia on the shores of Behring Sea, so long as 
 these people themselves do not propose it and 
 are not conscious of having certain objects, 
 to satisfy which they would need indepen- 
 dence. We appreciate the difficulty of the 
 Russian statesmen in the solving the riddle of 
 foreign nationalities in such a way that they 
 shall not injure those nations or the Russian 
 nation. Independence will not be needed by 
 all the foreign nations of Russia, especially 
 those that are very small and hold a difficult 
 geographical position; for such, autonomy will 
 suffice, or even more or less home rule. But 
 we cannot refrain from demanding that which 
 belongs to us and which is practicable; to do 
 otherwise would be to sin against justice; being 
 injured by others we should injure ourselves. 
 
 Some Pan-Germans, answering the Lithu- 
 anian demands for independence, called Lithu- 
 anians "Bauervolk," the peasant nation, im- 
 plying that they had too few intelligent men, 
 skilful in administrative work, to direct the 
 state. Our answer is: The Bulgarians and 
 Serbians on the formation of their states were 
 a peasant people, and had fewer educated men
 
 98 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 than the Lithuanians now possess. Let us 
 take, for example, the Bulgarians; from 1878, 
 the year of the Congress of Berlin, until 1912, 
 thirty-four years, they have become a complete 
 nation, and only lately they conquered their 
 former lords, the Turks ! The Bulgarian edu- 
 cated classes and their statesmen are not in- 
 ferior to the corresponding classes of Turkey. 
 Without independence, would the Bulgarians, 
 under the Turkish rule, have progressed so 
 much ? Armenia was doomed to remain under 
 Turkey, after the Berlin Congress. Could 
 she be compared now to Bulgaria .? True, 
 the Germans have not found many educated 
 Lithuanians in the conquered territory of Lithu- 
 ania lately, but we should remember the cir- 
 cumstances. Before the war there were a con- 
 siderable number of educated Lithuanians in 
 Lithuania, but they were mostly of the younger 
 generation, under obligation to serve in the 
 Russian army. True, there were not too many 
 Lithuanians experienced in the administrative 
 branch of government, and those few who 
 were in the heart of Russia, because until the 
 first revolution (1905) Lithuanians absolutely 
 were not admitted to any government position
 
 LITHUANIA AS A STATE 99 
 
 in their own country, Lithuania. At the be- 
 ginning of the war all the younger generation 
 were drafted into the army. In the Russian 
 army there were numerous officers, doctors, 
 and other well-educated Lithuanians. Upon 
 the occupation of Lithuania by the German 
 army, the Russian Government had ordered 
 evacuation not only by the regular govern- 
 mental officials but by the officials of counties, 
 districts, private schools, banks, factories, and 
 indeed by all inhabitants. The German army 
 of occupation has found only those in Lithu- 
 ania who could not be brought to leave their 
 country except by force, and whom the Rus- 
 sian army had no time to drive out. If there 
 were some educated Lithuanians in the govern- 
 mental positions or private institutions, they 
 had to move upon the transfer of said institu- 
 tions to Russia; otherwise they would have 
 been left without the means of living. Not- 
 withstanding the present lack of educated 
 Lithuanians now in Lithuania, Lithuanians 
 have their educated classes in Europe as well 
 as in America; they have a number of officials 
 experienced in the administration in Russia 
 or in Lithuania, even officers of the army;
 
 100 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 they have educated men working in the edu- 
 cational spheres and in manufacture. In the 
 period of greater freedom, since 1905, Lithu- 
 anians organized and were conducting their 
 private institutions of learning, their factories, 
 their trade, and their credit institutions. After 
 the war, when the Lithuanian nation is al- 
 lowed to organize as an independent state, all 
 the educated classes of that nation will return 
 to Lithuania, Even now, during a state of 
 war when the future of Lithuania is uncertain, 
 educated Lithuanians in Russia are organizing 
 for the return to their Motherland. To that 
 end all the energies of educated Lithuanians 
 in America will also be turned. Their present 
 state of mind indicates that numerous edu- 
 cated Lithuanians of America will return to 
 Lithuania even at risk of great loss in order 
 to help their Motherland in her first steps 
 toward independence. We acknowledge that 
 such doubts about Lithuania have arisen 
 in the minds of certain statesmen without 
 ill-will toward Lithuanians; but we must not 
 forget that the hidden desire of the stronger 
 nations to hold the weaker ones in subjection 
 though the latter would possess their national
 
 LITHUANIA AS A STATE loi 
 
 self-consciousness and desire to be independent, 
 is not without influence, and very often sug- 
 gests objections against the freedom of the 
 weaker nations. It is hard for a man, a member 
 of a self-conscious but subjected nation, to 
 witness the degradation and the injuries of 
 his nation; but it is also difl&cult for a member 
 of a great and powerful nation, especially for 
 an individual directing the affairs of one, to 
 understand the needs of the weaker nations. 
 Seeing their nation powerful and exalted, it is 
 natural for them scornfully to regard those 
 that are weak and always humiliated, as not 
 worthy of anything better. They forget that 
 all men have the same nature; that in all na- 
 tions there are bad and good traits, and that 
 the power of the great nations depends mainly 
 on the extent of their population. Even among 
 nations there are Diveses who feast sumptu- 
 ously, and there are famished Lazaruses; but it 
 IS difficult to find Samaritans to extend their 
 helping hands to the wounded nations; nearly 
 every stronger nation, able to harm a weaker 
 nation, yields to the temptation to do so. But 
 democracy in all the phases of human life, even 
 in the policies of states and in the affairs of
 
 102 THE UTHUANIAN NATION 
 
 nations, always progresses and expands. The 
 slogan of the present war was the overthrow 
 of the arrogant conquerors. Great honor is 
 due the statesman who said that Hberty should 
 be returned even to those that were conquered, 
 because **no people must be forced under 
 sovereignty under which it does not wish to 
 live."* Surely, the time must come when the 
 slavery of nations will be abolished as humanity 
 in its progress arrived at the abolition of indi- 
 vidual slavery. 
 
 As to the territory of Lithuania, her area 
 and the number of inhabitants are not at all 
 too small for the formation of a state. I will 
 quote the statistics for both from The States- 
 man's Year-Book of 1914. The area is com- 
 puted in the English square mile. Within the 
 boundaries of Lithuania is the whole govern- 
 ment of Kovno, two-thirds of the government of 
 Vilna, not all the government of Souvalki, but as 
 much is included from the Grodno Government 
 as is left out of Souvalki Government. There- 
 fore, we shall compute all the Souvalki Govern- 
 ment and shall not count the Grodno Govern- 
 
 * President Wilson's notable communication to the Russian 
 people, June, 1917.
 
 LITHUANIA AS A STATE 
 
 103 
 
 ment. The area under Prussian rule is nearly 
 half as large as the Souvalki Government. 
 
 
 Area 
 Square 
 Miles 
 
 Population 
 
 Population 
 
 per Square 
 
 Mile 
 
 Kovno Government 
 
 Two-thirds Vilna 
 
 Souvalki and part Grodno 
 
 Governments 
 
 Prussian-Lithuania 
 
 Whole Lithuania about. . 
 
 15,518 
 10,787 
 
 4,750 
 2,375 
 
 1,819,000 
 1,326,600 
 
 693,000 
 300,000 
 
 116 
 121 
 
 143 
 
 33,430 
 
 4,138,600 
 
 125 
 
 average 
 
 Now we quote the area and inhabitants of 
 the Lettland: 
 
 
 Area 
 Square 
 Miles 
 
 Population 
 
 Population 
 
 per Square 
 
 Mile 
 
 Courland Government. . . 
 One-half Livonia Gov- 
 ernment 
 
 10,435 
 8,787 
 5,661 
 
 758,800 
 740,000 
 625,000 
 
 72 
 
 84 
 
 109 
 
 One-third Vitebsk Gov- 
 ernment 
 
 Whole Lettland 
 
 24,883 
 
 2,123,800 
 
 85 
 
 average 
 
 
 Let us now compare the statistics of smaller 
 European states, excluding the seven largest 
 states. I do not speak of San Marino, Andora,
 
 104 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 Monaco, Lichtenstein; those are anomalies: 
 their people do not form a separate nation and 
 have no other raison d'etre; they are curiosities 
 of history. Nor should I mention the smaller 
 duchies in the German Empire having hun- 
 dreds of square miles and a few hundred thou- 
 sand inhabitants. These are merely adminis- 
 trative parts of Germany, and their Dukes are 
 the heads of counties with the right of succes- 
 sion. But let us take the states whose popula- 
 tions have the significance of a nation. 
 
 Greece before the war of 1912-1913 had an 
 area of 25,000 square miles and a population of 
 2,700,000. In 1 88 1, even with the recently ac- 
 quired Thessaly, there were only 1,974,000 in- 
 habitants. 
 
 Serbia before the war of 1912-1913 had an 
 area of 18,650 square miles and a population of 
 2,912,000, of whom 163,000 were not Serbians. 
 Only after the last war did Serbia equal Lithu- 
 ania, with an area of 33,890 square miles and 
 4,548,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Bulgaria before the war of 1912-1913 had 
 an area of 33,647 square miles with 4,337,000 
 inhabitants — an area and population almost 
 equal to Lithuania.
 
 LITHUANIA AS A STATE 105 
 
 Denmark has an area of 13,580 square miles 
 (including the territory of Faroe Islands, north 
 of England, 540 square miles) and a population 
 of 2,775,000. 
 
 Norway has an area of 124,445 square miles 
 and 2,392,000 inhabitants; Holland an area of 
 12,650 square miles and 6,000,000 inhabitants; 
 in 1829 there were only 2,613,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Belgium has an area of 11,373 square miles 
 and 7,400,000 inhabitants; Switzerland an area 
 of 15,976 square miles and 3,781,000 inhabi- 
 tants, of whom 565,000 are foreign residents. 
 
 Portugal has an area of 34,254 square miles; 
 Bavaria an area of 29,290 square miles and 6,- 
 890,000 inhabitants; and newly created Albania 
 has an area of about 11,000 square miles, with 
 about 800,000 inhabitants. 
 
 But if Lithuania should form a federation 
 with Lettiand then there would be a large and 
 respectable state; Lithuania with 33,430 square 
 miles, 4,138,000 inhabitants, Lettiand with 
 24,880 square miles, 2,123,000 inhabitants; 
 both together, 58,300 square miles, 6,260,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Sweden has a population of 5,600,000. 
 
 Roumania covers 50,720 square miles and
 
 io6 THE LITHUANIAN NATION 
 
 has a population of 7,000,000. In 1899 she had 
 only 5,956,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Lithuania's geographical position, especially 
 if she is federated with Lettland, could be 
 envied by many nations. One has only to look 
 at the map of Europe. The territory of Lithu- 
 ania-Lettland is in the very centre of Europe 
 on the way of the best communication by sea 
 between eastern Europe (Russia) and all the 
 western world; the navigable rivers of Niemen 
 and Dvina flow through all this territory; her 
 ports are Memel, Libau, Vindau, Riga. Would 
 it not be better if Lithuania, possessing the 
 largest autonomy, should remain united with 
 one of her neighboring large states, for instance 
 Russia .? Such a question is most injudicious. 
 No nation voluntarily goes under foreign rule. 
 If Lithuania's independence is possible, then 
 only a fool or a traitor would vote against her 
 independence. The nations are wronged and 
 eliminated not in their independence, but in 
 their subjection to other nations. If Lithuania 
 has any commercial or other affairs in Russia 
 or Germany then these affairs could be safe- 
 guarded better by international treaties, Lithu- 
 ania being independent from both of them
 
 LITHUANIA AS A STATE 107 
 
 rather than a slave of either of them. The ideal 
 of the future of the Lithuanians is a complete, 
 united Lithuania, a free Lithuania; if possible, 
 in confederation with the equally independent 
 and undivided Lettland.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 AMERICAN SYMPATHY FOR THE 
 LITHUANIANS 
 
 The American Relief Fund for Lithuanian War 
 Sufferers, under its principal patron, late Cardinal 
 Farley of New York, collecting funds for war suf- 
 ferers, petitioned President Wilson to aid the Lithu- 
 anian war sufferers. A delegation of this fund, 
 with the aid of General Collins, of Elizabeth, 
 N. J., had an audience with the President early in 
 June asking him to proclaim by executive order the 
 day on which funds were to be collected for the 
 Lithuanian war sufferers. President Wilson, at this 
 audience as well as in his letter to the fund's secre- 
 tary, expressed his sympathy for the Lithuanians 
 but stated that without the resolution of Congress 
 he could not do this. 
 
 The American Relief Fund for Lithuanian War 
 Sufferers arranged for a series of mass-meetings in 
 and around New York. This was done in Penn- 
 sylvania by the Lithuanians with the aid of Con- 
 gressman Casey. The purpose being to bring the 
 misery of Lithuania to the notice of Congress, which 
 soon thereafter passed a resolution empowering the 
 President to proclaim a Lithuanian day for No- 
 vember I, 1916. 
 
 A Central Committee for the Relief of the Lithu- 
 109
 
 no APPENDIX 
 
 anian War Sufferers was organized to collect funds 
 on this day. The sum of ^200,000 was collected. 
 
 LITHUANIANS INVOKE THE AID OF 
 PRESIDENT WILSON 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., June 6th, 1916. 
 The following resolution was drawn up by Alder- 
 man Gaynor, of New York City, N. Y., and was 
 presented by him and adopted at a mass-meeting 
 of the American Relief Fund for Lithuanian War 
 Sufferers, duly called and held at Brooklyn, N. Y., 
 Monday, June 6th, 1916. 
 
 Whereas, In the great conflict between the nations 
 of Europe, our Fatherland has been devastated and its 
 inhabitants oppressed and large numbers slain as inno- 
 cent sufferers of the war; and. Whereas, The United 
 States of America, being the greatest of the neutral 
 powers of the world, wields a mighty influence with the 
 combatant forces; 
 
 Now, THEREFORE, We, the Rcv. A. M. Milukas and 
 the Rev. M. Pankauskas, duly authorized delegates of 
 the American Relief Fund for Lithuanian War Sufferers, 
 having migrated from our native land of Lithuania to 
 this land of freedom and independence, and ever pledging 
 our loyalty to this, our adopted country, sincerely be- 
 lieving and protecting the principles of America, being 
 nevertheless in sympathy with our unfortunate brothers 
 in the Fatherland, in the name of our people earnestly 
 pray and implore His Excellency, Woodrow Wilson, Presi- 
 dent of the United States of America, and the members 
 of his official family, to use their best efforts, powers, and
 
 THE WH ITE HOUSE 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 June 10, 1916 
 
 My dear Mr. Mllu}sa8: 
 
 I looked up the matter you mexrtioned 
 to me atout the Issuance of proclaniatioiis for 
 Polish and Jewish relief from my office and find 
 that such proclamations were Issued, as you 
 stated, hut "both in pursuance of special reso- 
 IVitions "by the Senate request iiig that I set a 
 day aside for those purposes. I have in no 
 case felt at liberty to issue such a proclama- 
 tion on my o-wn initiative; that is the reason 
 that niy recollection in that matter was so clear. 
 
 I am none the less sincerely sorry 
 that I oannot comply with a request to which my 
 heart accedes. 
 
 Cordially and sincerely yours. 
 
 Rev. A. M. Miluikas, Secretary, ^ ^ *^ 
 American Relief Fund 
 
 For Lithuanian War Sufferers, 
 Etespeth, Long Island, New York.
 
 APPENDIX III 
 
 influence to bring about an ending of this great war, or 
 at least to alleviate the suffering and to safeguard the 
 rights, homes, and lives of oppressed Lithuania by diplo- 
 matic negotiations, as in their wise discretion may seem 
 best; 
 
 And Be It Further Resolved, That a copy of this 
 resolution, engrossed and authenticated by the President 
 and Secretary of the American Relief Fund for Lithuanian 
 War Sufferers, be forwarded to His Excellency, the Presi- 
 dent of the United States of America, and he be asked to 
 set a day apart for the contributions of our people and the 
 friends of our undying race, the Lithuanians, to aid them 
 to survive this great conflict. 
 
 Attest: Rev. B. Zindzius, President. 
 
 A. M. MiLUKAS, Secretary. 
 
 THE AMERICAN RELIEF FUND FOR LITHU- 
 ANIAN WAR SUFFERERS PLEADING FOR 
 LITHUANIA 
 
 RESOLUTIONS PETITIONING BOTH HOUSES OF CON- 
 GRESS TO EXPRESS SYMPATHY FOR LITHUANIA, 
 IRELAND, UKRAINIA, BOHEMIA, POLAND, ETC. 
 
 During the months of June and July of 1916 the 
 American Relief Fund for Lithuanian War Sufferers 
 arranged for a series of mass-meetings in the States 
 of Nev\^ York, New^ Jersey, Connecticut, and Penn- 
 sylvania : in W^aterbury, Bridgeport, Newr Haven, 
 Brooklyn, New York, Elizabeth, etc. We wish to 
 call especial attention to the first of these meetings 
 — at Newark, N. J. 
 
 On June 17, 1916, the mass-meeting at Newark,
 
 112 APPENDIX 
 
 N. J., was addressed by Major-General F. J. Col- 
 lins, of Elizabeth, N. J.; City Solicitor M. Eraser, 
 and Rev. A. Milukas, secretary of the American 
 Relief Fund for Lithuanian War Sufferers, the latter 
 presiding. More than five thousand Lithuanians 
 unanimously adopted the resolutions of the Amer- 
 ican Relief Fund. 
 
 These mass-meetings were addressed by the offi- 
 cers of the American Relief Fund for Lithuanian 
 War Sufferers (Revs. A. Kodis, J. Shestokas, A. 
 Milukas, M. Pankauskas). 
 
 The following resolutions were unanimously 
 adopted: 
 
 Whereas, In the great conflict between the nations of 
 Europe, our Fatherland has been devastated and its in- 
 habitants oppressed and large numbers slain as innocent 
 sufferers of the war; and 
 
 Whereas, The United States of America, being the 
 greatest of the neutral Powers of the world, wields a 
 mighty influence with the combatant forces; 
 
 Now, therefore, we, the Lithuanians of Waterbury,* 
 Conn., gathered at the mass-meeting under the auspices 
 of the American Relief Fund for the Lithuanian War Suf- 
 ferers, having migrated from our native land, Lithuania, 
 to this land of freedom and independence, and ever pledg- 
 ing our loyalty to this, our adopted country, sincerely be- 
 lieving and living up to the principles of America, being 
 nevertheless in sympathy with our unfortunate brethren 
 in the Fatherland, in the name of our people earnestly 
 pray and implore our State's representatives in both 
 
 * Or Bayonne, Bridgeport, New Philadelphia, New York, 
 Brooklyn, Long Island City, Newark, New Haven.
 
 APPENDIX 113 
 
 Houses of Congress to use their best efforts, powers, and 
 influence to bring about an ending to this great war, and 
 to alleviate the suffering and to safeguard the rights, 
 homes, and lives of the oppressed Lithuania by diplo- 
 matic negotiations, as in their wise providence may deem 
 best. 
 
 And Be It Further. Resolved, That a copy of this 
 resolution, engrossed and authenticated by the officers of 
 the American Relief Fund for Lithuanian War Sufferers 
 (Rev. B. Zindzius, president; Rev. M. Pankauskas, vice- 
 president; Rev. A. Kodis, financial secretary; Rev. J. 
 Shestokas, treasurer; and Rev. A. M. Milukas, secretary); 
 also Messrs. Frank Luza and Anthony Karpaviczus,* be 
 forwarded to the Representatives from our State in both 
 Houses of Congress of the United States of America, and 
 they be asked to pass a resolution setting apart a day for 
 contributions to our suffering brethren, and that American 
 diplomatic agents be directed to use their best efforts at 
 the Peace Conference for the restoration of independence 
 to Lithuania, as well as to other oppressed nations, as 
 Ireland, Ukrainia, Bohemia, Poland, etc. 
 
 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD 
 
 House of Representatives 
 
 Friday, July 21, 1916, pp. 13 191, 13 192 
 
 Aid for Lithuanians 
 
 Mr. Flood. Mr. Speaker, I ask unanimous con- 
 sent to take affairs to designate a day on which the 
 people of this country may express their sympathy 
 
 * In other localities other names were substituted.
 
 114 APPENDIX 
 
 by contributing toward the relief of the Lithuanians 
 in the war zone. 
 
 The Speaker. The gentleman from Virginia asks 
 unanimous consent to take up House Resolution 
 258 to designate a day for taking up collections for 
 the Lithuanians in the war zone. Is there objec- 
 tion ? 
 
 Mr. Mann. Let us have the resolution reported. 
 
 The clerk read as follows: 
 
 House Resolution 258 
 
 Whereas, In the various countries now engaged in 
 war there are four millions of Lithuanians, the great ma- 
 jority of whom are destitute of food, shelter, and cloth- 
 ing; and 
 
 Whereas, Millions of them have been driven from 
 their homes without warning, deprived of an opportunity 
 to make provision for their most elementary wants, 
 causing starvation, disease, and untold suffering; and 
 
 Whereas, The people of the United States of America 
 have learned with sorrow of this plight of millions of 
 human beings and have most generously responded to 
 the cry for help wherever such an opportunity has reached 
 them; 
 
 Therefore be it resolved. That in view of the misery, 
 wretchedness, and hardships which these four millions 
 of Lithuanians are suffering the President of the United 
 States be respectfully asked to designate a day on which 
 the citizens of this country may give expression to their 
 sympathy by contributing to the funds now being raised 
 for the relief of the Lithuanians in the war zone. 
 
 The Speaker. Is there objection } 
 
 Mr. Mann. Reserving the right to object, I
 
 APPENDIX 115 
 
 would like to inquire whether the Committee on 
 Foreign Affairs proposes also to report a resolution 
 into the House in reference to the American citi- 
 zens whose property has been destroyed and many 
 of whose families have lost a member, all having 
 been driven out of Mexico — whether we are going 
 to do anything for our own citizens driven out of 
 Mexico while we are doing something for foreign 
 citizens. 
 
 Mr. Flood. When the time arrives the Committee 
 on Foreign Affairs will report a resolution to take 
 care of American citizens who have been in Mexico 
 and whose rights of property and person have been 
 invaded. 
 
 Mr. Mann. American citizens who have been 
 driven out of Mexico and starving to death. 
 
 Mr. Flood. None of them are starving. 
 
 Mr. Mann. Oh, yes; many of them have noth- 
 ing to live on except charity. 
 
 Mr. Flood. The government has provided money 
 to bring them out, all who are in there; and my in- 
 formation is that those who are staying there are 
 getting along comfortably. 
 
 Mr. Mann. We have appropriated money to 
 bring them out, brought them up to the border, 
 and dumped them down, and there they are. Their 
 property has been lost and they have nothing to 
 live on; while we very properly are donating money 
 for the Lithuanians abroad, we are doing nothing 
 for our own people.
 
 ii6 APPENDIX 
 
 Mr. Flood. Our people are being taken care of. 
 If the gentleman desires to introduce a resolution 
 and have it referred to the Committee on Foreign 
 Affairs I assure him that the committee will promptly 
 consider it. 
 
 Mr. Cannon. What does the gentleman mean by 
 saying that they are being taken care of.? 
 
 Mr. Flood. I do not think any of them are suf- 
 fering. 
 
 Mr. Cannon. Oh, in the hearing before the Com- 
 mittee on Appropriations to consider a bill to pay 
 the expenses of bringing American citizens out, it 
 appeared that nothing is added by way of sub- 
 sistence. They are released, substantially, when 
 they get into American territory and dumped upon 
 the charity of the communities where they are 
 brought. 
 
 Mr. Flood. Does the gentleman know of any 
 American citizens brought out of Mexico who are 
 now suffering for something to eat ? 
 
 Mr. Cannon. Oh, the evidence showed that they 
 came out without property and that all the gov- 
 ernment is doing is to get them out. I do not know 
 their names. 
 
 Mr. Flood. No; and they are not suffering. 
 They are taken care of just as indigent people in 
 this country are taken care of, and this resolution 
 does not propose that the government shall take 
 care of the Lithuanians. It simply proposes to 
 allow charitable Americans who feel so disposed to
 
 APPENDIX 117 
 
 make contributions to a fund and to relieve their 
 suffering. 
 
 Mr. Cannon. I am in no sense opposing the 
 gentleman's resolution. I have no doubt that the 
 gentleman has Lithuanians in his district. 
 
 Mr. Flood. Not a single one. 
 
 Mr. Cannon. Well, there are a great many in 
 my district, and a great many throughout the 
 North. But there are many French people, there 
 are many Irish, there are many Belgians, there are 
 many English, though not so many, and there are 
 many Austrians and Hungarians, and why does not 
 the gentleman bring in a resolution suggesting to 
 the good people of America that wherever there is 
 suffering in the war zone on the other side of the 
 water they have the liberty to, and it is suggested 
 that they do, contribute to relieve that suffering, 
 because evidently from the standpoint of humanity 
 and Christianity and charity there is as much need 
 for the relief and suffering among those people 
 where they are fighting in concord or where they 
 are fighting each other. I shall not object to the 
 gentleman's resolution, but I suggest there are a 
 hundred million people in this country, and it 
 might be well to appeal to their charity, that 
 all of the suffering in the war zone may be re- 
 lieved. 
 
 Mr. Flood. The committee that reported this 
 resolution will be glad to consider any such resolu- 
 tion that the gentleman suggests.
 
 ii8 APPENDIX 
 
 Mr. Britten. Mr. Chairman, will the gentleman 
 yield ? 
 
 Mr. Flood. Yes. 
 
 Mr. Britten. Did I understand the gentleman to 
 say in reply to my colleague from Illinois (Mr. 
 Mann) that the Americans still living in Mexico are 
 living there comfortably ? 
 
 Mr. Flood. Yes. 
 
 Mr. Britten. What information has the gentle- 
 man or his committee that Americans living in 
 Mexico are living there comfortably to-day ? 
 
 Mr. Flood. I have information that comes from 
 the State Department that there are no Americans 
 who are suffering. 
 
 Mr. Britten. Then, why did we appropriate 
 $300,000 to bring them out, if they are living there 
 comfortably ? 
 
 Mr. Flood. Mr. Speaker, we appropriated the 
 money so that in case there was any trouble there 
 which would endanger their lives, they might es- 
 cape it. 
 
 Mr. Britten. The gentleman says that they are 
 living in a comfortable condition in Mexico, and 
 yet we appropriate $300,000 to improve those con- 
 ditions by taking them away from there. 
 
 Mr. Flood. And some of them are living in com- 
 fortable conditions here in this country. 
 
 Mr. Britten. Are we making their conditions more 
 comfortable in this country than in Mexico .? 
 
 Mr. Flood. I do not know about that. At the 
 present time those in Mexico may be more com-
 
 APPENDIX 119 
 
 fortable than those here, but at the time the appro- 
 priation was made it was necessary to bring them 
 out of Mexico. 
 
 Mr. Britten. Why ? 
 
 Mr. Flood. I stated why to the gentleman, and 
 if he desires to object to the resolution, let him ob- 
 ject to it, but I am not going to reply to any more 
 silly questions. 
 
 Mr. Britten. The silliness all comes from that 
 side of the House. 
 
 Mr. Ferris. Mr. Speaker, I demand the regular 
 order. 
 
 The Speaker. The regular order is demanded. 
 
 Mr. Stafford. Mr. Chairman, I would like to 
 inquire of the gentleman about the character of the 
 resolution. The resolution we passed the other 
 day providing for a national tag day for the benefit 
 of the Americans was a concurrent resolution ^ 
 
 Mr. Flood. It was. 
 
 Mr. Stafford. Why did not the gentleman in 
 this instance adopt the policy that these resolu- 
 tions calling upon the President to name a tag day 
 should be concurrent rather than a mere House 
 resolution, as this is .? 
 
 Mr. Flood. Mr. Speaker, the gentleman will re- 
 call that there was a Senate resolution, not a con- 
 current resolution, in reference to the Syrians and 
 the Jews and the Poles and a concurrent resolution 
 in reference to the Americans. The gentleman from 
 Pennsylvania (Mr. Casey), who introduced this 
 resolution, simply introduced the House resolu-
 
 120 APPENDIX 
 
 tion, and the President having issued proclama- 
 tions on Senate resolutions therefore the committee 
 thought he could just as readily issue his proclama- 
 tion on a House resolution, and reported the House 
 resolution instead of a concurrent resolution. 
 
 Mr. Stafford. Does not the gentleman think 
 that in these matters both bodies should approve 
 the calling upon the President to name a day for a 
 tag for such a purpose ? 
 
 Mr. Flood. I think not. A concurrent resolution 
 may give more dignity, though I do not think it 
 makes any difference. 
 
 The Speaker. Is there objection ? 
 
 Mr. Buchanan {pi WVmo'is). Mr. Speaker, reserv- 
 ing the right to object — 
 
 Mr. Ferris. Mr. Speaker, I demand the regular 
 order. 
 
 The Speaker. The regular order is demanded. 
 
 Mr. Buchanan (of Illinois). I do not desire to 
 object, but I am seeking information, the same as 
 others. 
 
 The Speaker. But the Chair is bound to pursue 
 the rules of the House. 
 
 Mr. Buchanan (of Illinois). I would like to ask 
 who controls the territory in which these people 
 are ? 
 
 The Speaker. Is there objection. (After a 
 pause.) The Chair hears none. The question is on 
 agreeing to the resolution. 
 
 The resolution was agreed to.
 
 APPENDIX 121 
 
 PROCLAMATION OF THE PRESIDENT 
 
 Whereas, I have received from the House of 
 Representatives of the United States a resolution, 
 passed July 21, 1916, reading as follows: 
 
 Whereas, In the various countries now engaged 
 in war there are four millions of Lithuanians, the 
 greater majority of whom are destitute of food, 
 shelter, clothing, and 
 
 Whereas, Millions of them have been driven 
 from their homes without warning, deprived of an 
 opportunity to make provisions for their most ele- 
 mentary wants, causing starvation, disease, and 
 untold suffering; and 
 
 Whereas, The people of the United States of 
 America have learned with sorrow of this plight of 
 millions of human beings, and have most generously 
 responded to the cry of help whenever such an op- 
 portunity has reached them; 
 
 Therefore he it resolved. That in view of the misery, 
 wretchedness, and hardships which these four mil- 
 lions of Lithuanians are suffering the President of 
 the United States be respectfully asked to designate 
 a day on which the citizens of this country may give 
 expression to their sympathy by contributing to the 
 funds now being raised for the relief of the Lithu- 
 anians in the war zone. 
 
 And whereas, I feel confident that the people of 
 the United States will be moved to aid a people 
 stricken by war famine, and disease;
 
 122 APPENDIX 
 
 Now, therefore, I, Woodrow Wilson, President of 
 the United States, in compliance with the request 
 of the House of Representatives thereof, do appoint 
 and proclaim Wednesday, November i, 1916, as a 
 day upon which the people of the United States may 
 make contributions as they feel disposed for the aid 
 of the stricken Lithuanian people. 
 
 Contributions may be addressed to the American 
 Red Cross, Washington, D. C, which will care for 
 proper distribution. 
 
 In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand 
 and caused the seal of the United States to be af- 
 fixed. 
 
 Done at the City of Washington, this thirty-first 
 
 day of August, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
 
 nine hundred and sixteen, and of the Independence 
 
 of the United States the one hundred and forty-first. 
 
 (Signed) Woodrow Wilson.
 
 APPENDIX 123 
 
 APOSTOLIC DELEGATION 
 
 United States of America 
 
 18 II Biltmore Street, 
 Washington, D. C, October 8, 1917. 
 
 No. 4348-e. 
 
 This No. should be prefixed to the answer. 
 
 Rev. Fathers B. Zindzius, J. Shestokas, and A. 
 
 KODIS, 
 
 Of the American Relief Fund for Lithuanian 
 War Sufferers. 
 
 Reverend dear Fathers. 
 
 I sent your check of 30,000 Lire to the Holy Father 
 through His Eminence, Cardinal Gasparri, Secre- 
 tary of State to His Holiness, and asked him to 
 take charge of its being dispensed for the relief of 
 the Catholic Lithuanians who inhabit the territory 
 which was occupied or is occupied by belligerent 
 armies. 
 
 In answer I have received a letter from His 
 Eminence, the Cardinal Secretary of State, who in- 
 forms me that he has transmitted the sum in ques- 
 tion to the Executive of the Lithuanian Committee 
 of Lausanne, Switzerland, to be distributed in 
 favor of the Lithuanian war sufferers. 
 
 His Eminence also asks me to tell you that His 
 Holiness was very much pleased by your devotion, 
 and that he encourages you to continue the good
 
 124 APPENDIX 
 
 work which you are doing, and that he sends you 
 his ApostoHc blessing. 
 
 With the kind regards and best wishes, I beg to 
 remain, Reverend Fathers, 
 
 Sincerely yours in Christ, 
 
 (Signed) John Bonzano, 
 Archbishop of Melitene, Apostolic Delegate. 
 
 (Extract from the article in Free Lithuania, describing the activi- 
 ties of American Relief Fund for Lithuanian War Sufferers.) 
 
 AMERICAN LITHUANIANS' PETITION TO 
 HIS HOLINESS POPE BENEDICT XV 
 
 We, the Roman Catholic Lithuanians, kneeling 
 at the throne of His Holiness, wish to express our 
 filial devotion to the Apostolic See and our gratitude 
 for all the favors that His Holiness has shown to- 
 ward the Lithuanian nation. 
 
 Your HoHness ! It is the great misery of our be- 
 loved brothers in Lithuania that has forced us to 
 approach your tender heart. Since the outbreak 
 of the European conflict our country has been the 
 arena of many struggles between the Russian and 
 German armies, and has become almost entirely 
 devastated. Our fathers and brothers are forcibly 
 enrolled in the two opposing belligerent armies, 
 while destitute aged people, women, and children 
 have no shelter and are enduring untold sufferings 
 of hunger and cold, many of them prematurely hav- 
 ing already gone to their graves. It is especially
 
 APPENDIX 125 
 
 hard for the little ones who, on account of lack of 
 the proper food, cannot withstand the hardships of 
 the war. 
 
 Although the sufferings of Lithuania are much 
 greater than those of Belgium and Poland because 
 the two great armies several times have crossed 
 and recrossed the Lithuanian plains, destroying and 
 confiscating everything on their way, nevertheless 
 the charitable hand of the world, while helping 
 others, as Belgium, Poland, etc., has not been ex- 
 tended to Lithuania. Many individuals of different 
 nationalities have contributed for the suffering 
 Lithuanians, but as those donations were trans- 
 mitted through the Polish Committee in Vilna, they 
 did not reach the Lithuanian sufferers, the money 
 being used for the establishment of Polish schools in 
 Lithuania for the purpose of Polonizing our nation. 
 
 It is a sad fact that Lithuania has been lately so 
 little known to the world that even the name of 
 Lithuania has been erased from the map of Europe, 
 and not having representatives either at the courts 
 of the Great Powers or with the Apostolic See there 
 has been no way by which Lithuanian rights could 
 be defended, nor the misfortunes of that country 
 told to the world. 
 
 From the very beginning of the war we have or- 
 ganized relief committees among our own people, 
 but on account of the great army of destitutes we 
 are lacking power and means to bring the neces- 
 sary relief to them.
 
 126 APPENDIX 
 
 Therefore, forced by the necessity and prompted 
 by your generous heart toward suffering humanity, 
 we most humbly ask Your HoHness to set apart a 
 day in which the CathoHc people, by generous do- 
 nations in the churches, could show their charity 
 to the starving widows and orphans of Lithuania. 
 
 We pray you. Holy Father, to bless us and our 
 country and further extend your paternal care. 
 
 This petition was obtained at and indorsed by 
 the convention of representatives from the Lithu- 
 anian National Council of America, Lithuanian 
 National Fund for the War Sufferers, Lithuanian 
 Roman Catholic Federation of America, Lithuanian 
 Roman Catholic Total Abstinence Alliance, Lithu- 
 anian Roman Catholic Federation of Labor, Lithu- 
 anian Roman Catholic Women's Alliance of Amer- 
 ica, and Knights of Lithuania, held on January 
 lo-ii, 1917, at Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 It was voted that a copy of this petition, through 
 the delegates, Rev. J. J. Jakaitis and Doctor J. J. 
 Bielskis, be presented to the Apostolic Delegate, 
 His Excellency Mgr. John Bonzano, of Washing- 
 ton, D. C, for transmission to His Holiness Pope 
 Benedict XV. 
 
 Rev. John J. Jakaitis, 
 President of the Lithuanian National 
 Fund for the War Sufferers. 
 Dr. Julius J. Bielskis, 
 President of the Lithuaiiian National 
 Council of America.
 
 APPENDIX 127 
 
 AMERICAN LITHUANIANS' DECLARATION 
 
 (handed to the president of the united states; 
 the apostolic delegate and the ambassadors 
 of the european countries at washington, 
 d. c, in the month of january, i917.) 
 
 The Lithuanian nation, a separate branch of the 
 Indo-European race, has been dwelHng since pre- 
 historic times on the southwest coast of the Baltic 
 Sea in the basin of Niemen. 
 
 Of all nations living on the Baltic coast, Lithu- 
 ania alone was a powerful state in the thirteenth 
 century. In the fourteenth century the boundaries 
 of the Lithuanian state reached from the Baltic 
 Sea to the Black Sea. In times of her political 
 strength Lithuania stopped the advance of the Teu- 
 tons toward the east (1410), and by thus checking 
 the advance of the Teutons, assisted in maintain- 
 ing the equiHbrium of Europe. From the other 
 side Lithuania, with her own breast, protected 
 Europe's Christian civilization from the onflow of 
 the Tartar hordes. 
 
 Lithuania in such times did not know slavery. 
 For ages she formed her own political traditions and 
 her own independent customs. Although in the 
 sixteenth century, on account of the wars with the 
 Muscovites, Lithuanian noblemen were forced to 
 form a political union with the Poles (similar to 
 that now existing between Austria and Hungary),
 
 128 APPENDIX 
 
 nevertheless, up to the partition of Poland and 
 Lithuania (latter part of eighteenth century) not 
 only did Lithuania maintain her national individ- 
 ualism, but she succeeded also in maintaining her 
 own political self-government. 
 
 Later, on, in times of great pressure from the side 
 of Russia, although all Lithuanian presses were 
 closed, and no papers or books were printed in the 
 country from 1864 to 1904, the Lithuanian desire 
 and hope for independence was not subdued. The 
 vision of independence was kept alive in the peas- 
 ant songs and in the literature printed outside the 
 Russian boundaries. 
 
 In the year 1905 the Lithuanian nation played a 
 great part in the movement for the emancipation 
 of different nationalities composing the Russian 
 Empire. The same year (November 21 and 22) 
 about two thousand Lithuanian delegates from all 
 parts of Lithuania gathered in the city of Vilna, 
 the old capitol of Lithuania. All Lithuanian po- 
 litical parties were represented and the delegates 
 unanimously demanded political freedom for Lithu- 
 ania. 
 
 Later, severe suppression on the part of Russia 
 prevented the attainment of independence. Never- 
 theless, the Lithuanians gained the right in some 
 degree to cultivate the field of literature and edu- 
 cation, and during ten years of peaceful cultural 
 work the people have shown unusual skill and adapt- 
 ness in writing and in organizing schools and edu-
 
 APPENDIX 129 
 
 catlonal societies. Periodicals and literature in 
 general have circulated throughout the country, 
 educational and economic institutions have sprung 
 up, and the people have built up their own com- 
 merce and industry. 
 
 The great European war has found Lithuania 
 thus building itself up, while at the same time 
 politically divided between the two powerful gov- 
 ernments of Russia and Germany. Lithuanians 
 have been forced in retreating to devastate their 
 own native country, and in advancing have been 
 compelled to waste the country of their brothers 
 who are forced to serve in the armies of one or the 
 other of the belligerents. 
 
 At this critical moment, when the world is called 
 upon to solve a very important problem, namely, 
 that of establishing a humane, and assuring a last- 
 ing peace. We, the Empowered Representa- 
 tives OF THE Lithuanian Nation, assume the 
 privilege and duty of declaring that it is our sin- 
 cere belief that lasting peace can be established only 
 if every living nation be given the right to deter- 
 mine her own destiny. 
 
 IN THE NAME OF OUR NATION WE DECLARE 
 THAT; 
 
 Whereas, Lithuanians, since prehistoric times have 
 dwelt in the same place without seeking to add to their 
 territory by any form of conquest, and 
 
 Whereas, Lithuania has shown great power of organ- 
 ization and ability to rule herself upon her own soil, and
 
 130 APPENDIX 
 
 Whereas, political freedom of Lithuania has become 
 an inalienable attribute of the Lithuanian life and spirit, 
 and 
 
 Whereas, Lithuania has had a glorious political part 
 and has made signal sacrifices on behalf of humanity, and 
 
 Whereas, Lithuania, in the thirteenth century, was 
 wholly united under one government, and for centuries 
 maintained its union and independence, and 
 
 Whereas, united and politically independent Lithu- 
 ania could accomplish her cultural and national ideals, 
 and be of real benefit to the whole of humanity, and 
 
 Whereas, divided and repressed Lithuania would be 
 a constant menace ever threatening European peace. 
 
 Therefore, Be It Resolved: That we, the empow- 
 ered representatives of the Lithuanian nation, demand 
 of the representatives of the governments that will, at 
 the close of the war, negotiate peace: 
 
 (i) That ethnographical Lithuania be united in one 
 political body, and 
 
 (2) That united Lithuania be given absolute political 
 independence, and 
 
 Be It Further Resolved: That the Reverend John 
 Zilius and Doctor Julius J. Bielskis be, and they hereby 
 are, empowered and instructed to present a copy of this 
 declaration to the ambassadors of all European countries, 
 and to publish this declaration in such manner as they 
 deem to be to the best interests of the Lithuanian people. 
 
 Lithuanian National Council of America, 
 By Its Component Representatives: 
 
 Lithuanian Roman Catholic Alliance of America, 
 
 By 
 National Fund, 
 
 By
 
 APPENDIX 131 
 
 Lithuanian Roman Catholic Federation of America, 
 
 By 
 Lithuanian Total Abstinence Alliance, 
 
 By 
 Lithuanian Federation of Labor, 
 
 By 
 Lithuanian Roman Catholic Women's Alliance of 
 America, 
 By 
 Knights of Lithuania. 
 
 President, Dr. Julius J. Bielskis, 
 
 53 Capital Ave., Hartford, Conn. 
 Secretary, Dr. Fr. Augustaitis, 
 614 W. Mahanoy Ave., Mahanoy City, Pa. 
 
 CONVENTION OF THE LITHUANIANS OF 
 AMERICA 
 
 March 13-14, 1918, a convention of the Lithu- 
 anians residing in the United States of America 
 was held at the Madison Square Garden Theatre, 
 New York City. The 1,500 delegates, representing 
 1,000 organizations and colonies, assembled for the 
 purpose of declaring their determined will regard- 
 ing the future of their mother country, Lithuania. 
 
 The following resolutions were adopted: 
 
 Whereas, The Lithuanian Nation forms an ethno- 
 graphic, cultural, economic, and political inseparable 
 body; and 
 
 Whereas, The historic past of Lithuania and the pres-
 
 132 APPENDIX 
 
 ent democratic development of the world reaffirms to 
 the Lithuanian Nation the undeniable right to re-estab- 
 lish its own sovereign State; and 
 
 Whereas, In the question of its ultimate political des- 
 tiny the Lithuanian Nation maintains the right to fol- 
 low its own national ideals; and 
 
 Whereas, Nations can successfully pursue their cul- 
 tural courses and develop their economic resources only 
 when in possession of their full political freedom; and 
 
 Whereas, Every nation has an inherent right to decide 
 its own political destiny; and 
 
 Whereas, The present war conditions have rendered 
 the recognition of Lithuanian political freedom of inter- 
 national importance and therefore it becomes a subject 
 to be deliberated upon at the international peace con- 
 gress; and 
 
 Whereas, Only the international congress can give a 
 true guarantee of the political sovereignty of Lithuania 
 and not any warring nation striving now to enslave Lithu- 
 ania; and 
 
 Whereas, Our highly esteemed President, Woodrow 
 Wilson, adheres to the principle declared by him to the 
 United States Senate, January 22, 1917, that 
 
 "No peace can last, or ought to last, which does not 
 recognize and accept the principle that governments de- 
 rive all their just powers from consent of the governed, 
 and that no right anywhere exists to hand people about 
 from sovereignty to sovereignty a's if they were property." 
 
 Therefore, the Convention of the Lithuanians of 
 America, after grave consideration of the present political 
 situation of Lithuania, resolved, 
 
 L — To respectfully request the President of the United 
 States and the allied as well as the neutral governments 
 of the world, to recognize the following demands: 
 
 I. That for the full and unhindered development of 
 Lithuania it is necessary that Lithuania become a sover-
 
 APPENDIX 133 
 
 eign and independent democratic state within its own 
 ethnographic boundaries, with the necessary economic 
 corrections. 
 
 2. That the independence of Lithuania be assured by 
 the international peace congress, and that delegates of 
 Lithuania be given right to take part with full deliberative 
 powers. 
 
 IL — That these resolutions be respectfully presented 
 to our highly esteemed President, Woodrow Wilson, who 
 has unceasingly championed protection of the rights of 
 small and subject nationalities, and to all allied and neu- 
 tral governments. 
 
 Be It Further Resolved, That the President, Wood- 
 row Wilson, and the nations of the world, be respect- 
 fully requested that the right to a separate and delibera- 
 tive representation at the impending international peace 
 conference be given to the representatives of the people of 
 Lithuania. 
 
 LITHUANIANS PLACE THEIR HOPES OF 
 INDEPENDENCE ON PRESIDENT WILSON 
 AND POPE BENEDICT XV 
 
 The mass-meeting of Lithuanian residents of 
 counties of Queens and Nassau, of the State of New 
 York, was held on September 23, 191 7, at the 
 Parochial Hall of Transfiguration Church, Hull 
 Avenue and Remsen Place, Maspeth, New York 
 City. 
 
 The addresses were made by Rev. A. M. Milukas, 
 rector of Transfiguration Church, Rev. Dr. A. 
 Maliauskis, of Chicago, and Mn A. Novicki, of
 
 134 APPENDIX 
 
 Maspeth. The following resolutions were unani- 
 mously adopted: 
 
 Whereas, The aggressions and outrages of autocracy 
 against the liberty of the people forced the United States 
 to take arms to defend the peoples' rights and liberty on 
 land and sea. 
 
 Whereas, The United States being morally, physic- 
 ally, and materially one of the most powerful countries 
 can accomplish great things in this direction. 
 
 Whereas, The United States entered the war with all 
 her powers will bring the victory for democracy. 
 
 Whereas, During this war the small nations suffered 
 the most and some of them are entirely devastated. 
 
 Whereas, Lithuania on eastern battle-front for three 
 years serving as a battle-field and contributing half a 
 million of her sons for the Allied armies, thereby taking 
 an active part in the war for liberty and justice. 
 
 Whereas, The most appreciated words of President 
 Wilson in the recent note to Russia and also the proclaimed 
 principle of nationalities by the Allies assure the restora- 
 tion of liberty for the small nations. 
 
 Whereas, We are especially grateful to President Wil- 
 son as well as His Holiness Pope Benedict XV for their 
 efforts to restore the freedom of peoples living in the ter- 
 ritories of the former Poland, that is the historical dual 
 Polish-Lithuanian state, but the experience of centuries 
 has amply proved that the union of peoples of different 
 nationality and race, as are Lithuanians and Poles, under 
 their dual and independent governments, could produce 
 only a continuous strife, disorder, and anarchy, the prin- 
 cipal cause of the final fall of both those united nations. 
 
 Therefore be it resolved. That we, the Lithuanians of
 
 APPENDIX 135 
 
 the State of New York having immigrated from our na- 
 tive land, Lithuania, to this land of liberty, and ever 
 pledging our loyalty to this our adopted country, sin- 
 cerely believing and living up to the principles of the 
 United States of America, being nevertheless in sympathy 
 with our brothers in Lithuania. 
 
 (i) We appeal to the Congress of the United States 
 through the representatives of our State, that the Congress 
 of the United States discussing peace terms should include 
 the demand for the restoration of Lithuania not in union 
 with Poland, but as a separate state. 
 
 (2) That the Government of the United States support 
 the rights of all nations participating or affected in this 
 war, be they large or small. That these rights can only 
 be satisfactorily adjusted after considering the just 
 claims of the representatives of respective nations. 
 
 (3) We earnestly pray and implore the representatives 
 of our State in both Houses of the United States Con- 
 gress to bring to pass the above measure. 
 
 Be it further resolved, That Dr. J. J. Bielskis, be, and he 
 hereby is, empowered and instructed to present a copy 
 of this resolution to the representatives of the State of 
 New York in both Houses of the United States Congress 
 at Washington, D. C. 
 
 A. M. MiLUKAS, President. 
 rcg^^ I A. NoviCKi, Secretary. 
 
 Sworn and subscribed before me this 4th day of 
 October, 19 17. 
 
 Kazimier Brusak, Notary Public. 
 
 Notary Public, Kings Co.; Kings Co. Reg. 
 
 No. 9032; Kings Co. Clerk's No. 203.
 
 136 APPENDIX 
 
 House of Representatives, U. S. 
 committee on military affairs 
 Washington, D. C, October lo, 1917. 
 Rev. a. M. Milukas. 
 
 Dear Sir: I have your copy of resolutions adopted 
 by Lithuanians and I am heartily in sympathy with 
 the ideas they convey. Am sorry Congress is not 
 in session or I would have them put in the Con- 
 gressional Record. 
 
 If there is any way in which I can be of service 
 to you, I shall be glad. 
 
 Sincerely, 
 
 Geo. R. Lunn. 
 
 July 4th, 1918. 
 His Excellency President Woodrow Wilson, 
 White House, Washington, D. C. 
 
 As it behooves good American Roman Catholics 
 of Lithuanian descent we began this day with pray- 
 ers in our church for the success of our armies on 
 the field of battle, and for the welfare of our dear 
 boys in our country's service. Now we are to start 
 on New York's loyalty parade, proudly carrying in 
 front of us Old Glory, and our church service flags 
 with 106 stars out of 500 male membership. We 
 turn to greet you as our Chief Commander, pledging 
 our lives and properties on the altar of our country. 
 
 We hope and pray that in the near future you, 
 Mr. President, as the leader of victorious allies will
 
 APPENDIX 137 
 
 be able to vindicate the violated democracy, to re- 
 store with our Holy Father the Pope, the right and 
 justice, and that among other things you will help 
 to re-establish on the shore of the Baltic Sea a free 
 and independent Lithuanian state. 
 
 A. M. MiLUKAS, Rector, 
 
 Alex Grabauskas , ^ 
 
 / rustees, 
 
 Simon Cerebejus 
 
 Of Transfiguration Church, Mas- 
 pet h, L. I., New York City. 
 
 , , y^ o Washington, July 6, 19 18. 
 
 My Dear Sir: ^ j j > y 
 
 Allow me to acknowledge the receipt of your 
 telegram of July 4th and to say that I shall have 
 pleasure in bringmg it to the attention of the 
 President. 
 
 In his behalf let me thank you and all those con- 
 cerned for your friendly and patriotic assurances. 
 Sincerely yours, 
 
 J. P. Tumulty, 
 Secretary to the President. 
 Rev. A. M. Milukas, 
 
 Maspeth, Long Island, N. Y.
 
 138 APPENDIX 
 
 THE RESOLUTION OF THE 
 LITHUANIAN NATIONAL COUNCIL 
 
 We, the Lithuanian National Council, represent- 
 ing the central organizations, comprising about 
 750,000 Lithuanians of America, in a joint session 
 held November 27th, 1918, in the Hotel McAlpin 
 in the City of New York, have unanimously adopted 
 the following resolution: 
 
 1. Whereas, Provisional Government of Lithu- 
 ania has been duly elected by the State Council of 
 Lithuania, consisting of Professor Augustinas Vol- 
 demaras as Premier and Minister of Foreign Affairs; 
 Martinas Ychas, ex-member of Russian Duma from 
 Lithuania, as Minister of Treasury; Doctor Alexas 
 Alekna as Minister of the Interior; Major-General 
 Zukauskis as Minister of War; Doctor Jokantas as 
 Minister of Education; Engineer Stasys Liands- 
 bergis as Minister of Communication; Count Alex- 
 ander Tyskevicius as Minister of Agriculture; Judge 
 Krisciukaitis as Minister of Justice; Attorney Petras 
 Leonas, ex-member of Russian Duma from Lithu- 
 ania, as State Comptroller. 
 
 2. Whereas, The newly elected Government of 
 Lithuania possesses confidence of the majority of 
 the people and is able to maintain justice, to pre- 
 serve peace and order in the country and to per- 
 form necessary reconstruction work until the Con- 
 stitutional Assembly shall be convened at Vilnius. 
 
 3. Whereas, In Lithuania there has been
 
 APPENDIX 139 
 
 formed an army consisting of 60,000 men or more to 
 enforce peace and order and to support Provisional 
 Government. 
 
 Therefore Be It Resolved, i. That we, represen- 
 tatives of the Lithuania National Council, recog- 
 nize the authority of the Provisional Government 
 and hereby pledge our fervent support to it. 
 
 2. That we respectfully request President Wood- 
 row Wilson, the Government and the people of the 
 United States to recognize the independence and 
 sovereignty of the Lithuanian nation and her Pro- 
 visional Government as the legal and official rep- 
 resentative body of Lithuania. 
 
 3. That representatives of the Government of 
 Lithuania shall be admitted to deliberations, de- 
 cisions and actions at the Peace Conference. 
 
 4. That we fully believe in principles of democ- 
 racy as expressed by President Woodrow Wilson 
 and are staunch supporters of creating a League of 
 Nations and that the Lithuanian nation shall be 
 admitted to the membership. 
 
 5. It is further Resolved, That a copy of these 
 resolutions be sent to President Woodrow Wilson, 
 Secretary of State Robert Lansing, and Chairmen 
 of the Foreign Relations Committee of the Senate. 
 
 J. S. LoPATTO, Chairman. 
 V. F. Jankauskas, Secretary.
 
 140 APPENDIX 
 
 LITHUANIANS IN AMERICA PROVE THEIR 
 
 PATRIOTISM TO THEIR ADOPTED 
 
 COUNTRY 
 
 Treasury Department 
 
 second federal reserve district 
 
 Brooklyn Liberty Loan Committee 
 
 Headquarters District 93, 102 Montague Street, 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 October 23, 1918. 
 
 St. George's Church, 
 
 207 York Street, Brooklyn. 
 Rev. a. p. Kodis: 
 
 Beg to advise you that total subscriptions re- 
 ceived from your church amount to ^10,950 for the 
 Fourth Liberty Loan. 
 
 Thanking you for your co-operation, we are 
 Yours for the Fourth Liberty Loan, 
 J. M. Heatherton, 
 
 Chairman Precinct 93. 
 
 P. S. — Your additional subscriptions received 
 to-day make a total amount of ^41,950. 
 
 Similar letters were received by nearly a hundred 
 of the Lithuanian Roman Catholic rectors in this 
 country. The official figures of the Liberty Loan 
 Committee show that Lithuanians are ahead of 
 many more numerous nationalities of the U. S. A. 
 in their patriotic works.
 
 APPENDIX 141 
 
 LITHUANIANS AT THE INTERNATIONAL 
 CONFERENCE 
 
 June 27-29, 1916, at the International Conference, 
 Lausanne, Switzerland, where twenty-eight nations 
 were represented, five accredited Lithuanian dele- 
 gates were present — three from Lithuania and two 
 from the United States of America. During a ses- 
 sion of the conference a long Lithuanian declaration 
 was read, which, after reciting the historical events 
 in the Lithuanian state, presented the following 
 conclusion: 
 
 "Relying on these bases, the Lithuanian nation with its 
 own traditions, culture, national ideals and its individu- 
 ality, believe that the only way a nation can survive is 
 to acquire its own rights in all domains of life, and that 
 the nation should direct its own destiny. The young 
 Lithuania presenting the facts that for centuries Lithu- 
 ania was an independent state, and now asking for her 
 own rights, it is not her object to impose on the rights of 
 those nations which were included and formed a part of 
 the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 
 
 "The Lithuanian nation, which for centuries experi- 
 enced so much disappointment, sees the guarantee of her 
 future and the sufficient guarantee of her freedom only 
 in the complete independence of Lithuania." 
 
 Over 200,000 Lithuanian refugees in Russia who 
 were forced to abandon their homes and flee to 
 unknown countries, to be scattered in all parts of 
 Russia, called a conference at Petrograd, May 27,
 
 142 APPENDIX 
 
 191 7, to consider, through their delegates, the situ- 
 ation of their mother country, Lithuania. 
 
 The following is a conclusion of the adopted 
 resolutions: 
 
 Be It Resolved: i. That the ethnographic Lithuania 
 be established into an independent state, continually 
 neutral. 
 
 2. The independence and neutrality of Lithuania must 
 be guaranteed at the Peace Congress. 
 
 3. Lithuanian representatives must be admitted to the 
 Peace Congress. 
 
 LITHUANIA SEPARATED FROM RUSSIA 
 
 In 1915 Germany took the v^^hole of Lithuania 
 from Russia, established custom-houses and fixed 
 the boundaries between Lithuania, Germany, and 
 Poland. The people of this country are being called 
 citizens of Lithuania. 
 
 The only tie that bound Lithuania to Russia was 
 the Czar, as he had the title of Grand Duke of 
 Lithuania, but now that he is deposed, ipso facto, 
 Lithuania becomes separated from Russia. Russia 
 is now a republic, and the hands of Lithuania are 
 again freed. 
 
 In the latter part of 191 7 Germany transferred 
 the reins of government in Lithuania from the Ger- 
 man military to the Lithuanian civil government. 
 
 The Lithuanian Diet was called September 18-22, 
 1917, at the city of Vilna; 215 delegates, represent-
 
 APPENDIX 143 
 
 ing all parts of the country and all political parties 
 in Lithuania, assembled to confer concerning the 
 destiny of Lithuania. The Valstijos Taryba (State 
 Council) composed of 20 persons, representing all 
 political parties, was organized. 
 
 A NATION MARTYR 
 
 (Rev. Dr. A. Maliauskis, in Philadelphia Press, 1916.) 
 
 The fearful European War has throttled with its 
 bloody hand the innocent, unoffending, peacefully 
 abiding, and patiently bearing Lithuanian people 
 under the rule of both Germany and Russia. 
 
 The idol of war, the inhuman desires of the op- 
 pressors, are threatening the Lithuanian nation 
 with final destruction. 
 
 Because many are not familiar with the misfor- 
 tunes of Lithuania we will briefly attempt to in- 
 form them. 
 
 Lithuanians are neither Slavs nor Germans, but a 
 separate branch of an Indo-European people. The 
 Lithuanian language is far more ancient than the 
 Slavonian and has a pedigree of nobility strikingly 
 resembling the archaic Sanscrit. 
 
 During the Middle Ages when Lithuania was 
 governed by her own rulers, Mindaugas, Gediminas, 
 Algirdas, Kestutis, Vitautas, Jagela, she was one 
 of the most powerful nations of Europe. 
 
 Her boundaries extended from the Baltic to the
 
 144 APPENDIX 
 
 Black Sea. The Poles, her neighbors, wishing to 
 strengthen their domain, invited Jagela, the Lithu- 
 anian ruler, to the throne of Poland (1385). From 
 that time Lithuania and Poland had a common 
 King. 
 
 In 1569 a confederation was formed between 
 Poland and Lithuania. Poles, however, proved to 
 be not pleasant companions. They took away from 
 Lithuania the rich provinces of Podolia, Volynia, 
 and Kiev. That stirred up an internal discord 
 which naturally weakened the mutual power of both 
 nations. Finally Russia, Prussia, and Austria, tak- 
 ing advantage of that internal strife, toward the 
 close of the eighteenth century divided among 
 themselves the both nations. The large portion of 
 Lithuania was seized by Russia, the smaller by 
 Prussia. 
 
 From that time started a long and incessant op- 
 pression, Germany striving to Germanize Lithu- 
 anians and Russia to Russianize them. 
 
 In Russia there prevails a national orthodox re- 
 ligion. The fact of being orthodox implies being a 
 Russian. Russia overran Lithuania with its or- 
 thodox priests with the purpose of proselytizing 
 Lithuania to the national orthodox religion, and 
 thereby striving to induce them to be Russianized. 
 
 But the rude orthodox priests of Russia by their 
 conduct incurred rather the hatred of the people 
 than the conversion which they sought. 
 
 The Russian Government, however, attempted
 
 APPENDIX 145 
 
 even stronger means of Russianizing Lithuanians. In 
 1864 she strictly prohibited the study of the Lith- 
 uanian language and abolished the Lithuanian press. 
 
 But the people, however, were anxious for edu- 
 cation. They could not forget their lost liberty. 
 Secretly and by stealth they brought Lithuanian 
 literature from Prussian Lithuania and disseminated 
 it among the people. Secretly and by night, hid- 
 den from Russian police and gendarmes, they read 
 these books and papers and taught their children 
 to read. 
 
 Woe befell them whom the Russian Government 
 found teaching to their children their own language 
 or spreading the Lithuanian literature. Upon such 
 they imposed enormous fines, imprisoned them, or 
 even sent them to Siberia, where they were com- 
 pelled to meet death by murderous hand or ferocious 
 beasts. 
 
 Thus suffered Lithuania for forty years. Finally 
 the Russian Government was convinced that not- 
 withstanding its ferocious persecutions and pro- 
 hibition of literature and education almost all the 
 Lithuanians were able to read and write in their 
 own tongue. 
 
 At the outbreak of the revolution the Russian 
 Government, in order to gain the Lithuanian good- 
 will and at the same time in order to prevent them 
 joining the revolution, on the loth of April, 1904, 
 allowed the restoration of the Lithuanian press. 
 
 Lithuania suffered not less even in the economic
 
 146 APPENDIX 
 
 line. Russia, forming commercial treaties with 
 Germany, did not consider Lithuania. Lithuania 
 is almost exclusively an agricultural country. The 
 sources of its wealth are almost entirely in agri- 
 culture. But, thanks to commercial treaties, Lithu- 
 ania could not sell its produce in Germany nor pro- 
 cure from Germany necessary machinery or other 
 implements by reason of the exorbitant tariff, so 
 that Lithuanians were unable to sell their products 
 for obtainable profit and were obliged to pay ex- 
 orbitant prices for inferior machinery and other 
 implements manufactured by Russia. 
 
 The union of endeavor for economic improvement 
 was greatly discouraged and hindered by the Rus- 
 sian Government, and although through great 
 pressure organization could be perfected, still they 
 were not sure of permanent existence. Any higher 
 official or governor has legislative, executive, and 
 judicial power in Lithuania. This was abolished in 
 England in the fourteenth century. Those officials 
 can dissolve any organization according to their 
 whim, though without any reason. 
 
 All officials throughout, from the lowest to the 
 highest, were Russians sent from Russia, knowing 
 neither the customs of the people nor the demands 
 of the country, though the most learned Lithuanian 
 could not be an official in his own country. 
 
 The conditions have not improved even during 
 the war. The leading paper of Russia, Novoje 
 Vremia, time and again deplores that Russia is
 
 APPENDIX 147 
 
 weak and not able to withstand the German in- 
 vasion because being composed of many national- 
 ities, whilst Germany is one. 
 
 And, above all, that paper maintains that Russia 
 must exert her utmost power to abolish after the 
 war a plurality of nations and have all nations com- 
 bined in one. 
 
 Of the same opinion is the strongest nationalist 
 party. Hence while Lithuania's children are shed- 
 ding their blood in defense of the Russian Power, 
 Russia is planning a final destruction for the Lithu- 
 anians. 
 
 Germany has the same designs over Lithuania. 
 Professor Dr. T. Kochler, in the Vossische Zeitung, 
 No. 145, of 1916, philosophically explains how to 
 denationalize Lithuania. The renowned German 
 writer, Dr. P. Rohrbach, in his work Russland und 
 Wir (Russia and We), (Stuttgart, 191 5), writes that 
 the aim of Germany is to Germanize Lithuania. To 
 accomplish this the government is to buy the 
 Lithuanian lands and to have them colonized by 
 Germans. When there will be in Lithuania more 
 Germans than Lithuanians then the denationaliza- 
 tion will be easily accomplished. Of the same 
 opinion is the German statesman, Broderic Kur- 
 mahlen, in his work. New Eastern Country, pub- 
 lished in Berlin in 1915. 
 
 Thus each promises to Lithuania nothing but 
 final destruction. 
 
 Because the great magnanimous American peo-
 
 148 APPENDIX 
 
 pie have for their ideal the liberty and humanity of 
 all nations, the martyred Lithuanian nation is sup- 
 plicating for aid in the hope that the noble American 
 people, with their authoritative word, will help 
 Lithuania to destroy the iron bonds and throw 
 aside the oppressing yoke of the strangers. 
 
 1,000,000 LEFT HOMES AS RUSSIANS 
 RETIRED 
 
 LITHUANIAN PRIEST DESCRIBES HEAVY TRIALS OF 
 GREAT ARMY OF REFUGEES 
 
 A movement to help the hundreds of thousands of 
 Lithuanians, Letts, Poles, and Jews who were swept 
 along with the retiring Russian armies will be un- 
 dertaken here by Rev. Dr. Anthony Maliauskis, a 
 Lithuanian priest, w^ho reached here on Wednes- 
 day on the Norwegian steamer Frederick VIII. 
 Before he left Russia he went from Vilna to Petro- 
 grad and obtained first-hand information regarding 
 the conditions of these refugees, estimated at more 
 than 1,000,000 men, women, and children. Accord- 
 ing to the best estimates accessible, these refugees 
 include some 500,000 Lithuanians and 200,000 Jews. 
 More than 160,000 families are involved in this 
 exodus caused by the eastern war. 
 
 "A Russian general staff officer told me," said 
 Dr. Maliauskis, "that as these great crowds of 
 refugees were swept onward by the retiring move- 
 ments of the troops many of them fell exhausted
 
 APPENDIX 149 
 
 and died of hunger by the roadside. Others tried 
 to ward off starvation by eating every green thing 
 to be found in the fields and forests. Even the 
 grass and shrubs by the roadside were devoured. 
 In the stress and confusion of the time it was im- 
 possible for the military to afford any aid whatso- 
 ever, as the latter could not provide for its own 
 needs. 
 
 "Some of the few Russian refugees found friends 
 or relatives, it is said. But the other homeless ones, 
 many of whom were swept forward to points as 
 distant as Moscow and even farther, found that no 
 provision could be made to shelter so vast a num- 
 ber or to feed them. A majority of them were from 
 the Russian Lithuanian provinces of Kovno, Su- 
 valki, and Vilna. 
 
 "I was told that thousands of women and chil- 
 dren were living in fields and forests without food, 
 many of them ill from privation and exposure on 
 the long and weary flight. All are helpless, for 
 everything they own has been wiped out. With 
 conditions as they are at present, and the vast num- 
 ber of persons to be cared for, it is extremely doubt- 
 ful if they can expect any aid from Russian charity 
 in the immediate future. 
 
 "The plight of these refugees from the eastern 
 battle-front appears to be far worse than anything 
 of the kind that afflicted the people of Belgium. I 
 have come over here to make an appeal direct to 
 the Lithuanians to aid them. There are about
 
 ISO APPENDIX 
 
 500,000 Lithuanians in America and 10 per cent of 
 them are in New York. . . . 
 
 "The condition of many of the people in the 
 Lithuanian provinces of Russia, who have been 
 buffeted back and forth between the two great 
 forces in two invasions and many battles, is not a 
 great deal better than that of the refugees. In 
 many cases their homes and property are lost, and 
 they are without resources of any kind except the 
 bare land." — New York Times, October 30, 191 5. 
 
 400,000 FARMS RUINED BY FOE IN 
 LITHUANIA 
 
 150,000 Starving and Penniless Civilians Liv- 
 ing IN Cellars and Dugouts 
 
 Geneva, May 18. — The Lithuanian Bureau at 
 Lausanne has made public statistics received from 
 the region of Lithuania occupied by the Germans. 
 From these it appears that 150,000 civilians are 
 penniless and starving, living in cellars and dugouts. 
 
 Four hundred thousand farms in that region are 
 reported to have been devastated. The death-rate 
 is said to be growing alarmingly on account of the 
 unsanitary conditions under which the people are 
 living. — New York Times, May 19, 191 7.
 
 APPENDIX 151 
 
 CASE OF LITHUANIA FOR 
 INDEPENDENCE 
 
 United States Senator Lodge in Favor of 
 Free Lithuania 
 
 We read in the Congressional Record, vol 57, 
 December 3, 1918: 
 
 Mr. Lodge. Mr. President, I have here a state- 
 ment of the committee representing the Lithuanian 
 associations in this country. Lithuania is a coun- 
 try for which, I am sure, any one who has examined 
 the facts feels deepest sympathy, which I hope will 
 be given independent government and freedom in 
 the terms of peace. I desire to present in their 
 behalf to the Senate their case for independence, 
 as they call it, and ask that it be printed as a public 
 document and be referred to the Committee on 
 Foreign Relations. 
 
 The Vice-President. Without objection, it is 
 so ordered.
 
 152 APPENDIX 
 
 LITHUANIAN ORGANIZATIONS IN AMER- 
 ICA ENGAGED IN THE WORK OF RE- 
 STORING THE INDEPENDENT STATE 
 OF LITHUANIA 
 
 Lithuania National Council, representing: 
 
 Lithuanian Roman Catholic Alliance of America, 
 National Fund (raised over ^400,000), Lithu- 
 anian Roman Catholic Federation of America, 
 Lithuanian Total Abstinence Union, Lithu- 
 anian Federation of Labor, Lithuanian Roman 
 Catholic Women's Alliance of America, and 
 Knights of Lithuania. 
 
 Council on Lithuanian National Affairs. 
 
 Society of Lithuanian Patriots. 
 
 Lithuanian Labor Council. 
 
 Lithuanian Alliance of America. 
 
 Lithuanian National League. 
 
 Lithuanian Independence Fund. 
 
 Lithuanian National Fund. 
 
 Lithuanian Development Corporation. 
 
 Young Men's Circle. 
 
 Lithuanian National Treasury. 
 
 American Relief Fund for Lithuanian War Sufferers. 
 
 Liberation Fund of Lithuania. 
 
 Lithuanian Soldiers Aid Association. 
 
 Lithuanian Relief Fund for War Orphans and 
 Widows. 
 
 Lithuanian Central War Relief Committee.
 
 APPENDIX 153 
 
 Lithuanian American Relief Committee. 
 Lithuanian CathoHc Truth Society. 
 Lithuanian Priests Association. 
 Lithuanian Educational Society Motinele. 
 
 BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS PUBLISHED IN 
 BEHALF OF INDEPENDENT LITHUANIA 
 
 "Lithuanica." Published under the auspices of 
 American Relief Fund for Lithuanian War 
 Sufferers, Zvaigzde, Philadelphia, Pa., 1916. 
 
 "A Memorandum upon the Lithuanian Nation," 
 Paris, 191 1. 
 
 "A Sketch of the Lithuanian Nation," Paris, 
 1912. 
 
 *'The Lithuanian, Ruthenian, Jewish and Polish 
 Questions," London, 191 5. 
 
 "Lithuania and the Autonomy of Poland," London, 
 
 1915- 
 "The Lithuanian Review," Philadelphia, Pa. 
 "Pro-Lithuania," Lausanne, Switzerland. 
 "The Misery of the Lithuanian Refugees in Russia," 
 
 Lausanne, Switzerland, 1915. 
 "Sidelights on Life in Lithuania," Washington, D. C. 
 "Free Lithuania." A collection of articles on 
 
 Lithuania and Lithuanians, A. Milukas & Co., 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa., 1917.
 
 154 APPENDIX 
 
 "Lithuania in Retrospect and Prospect," by John 
 Szlupas, M.D., New York, Lithuanian Press 
 Association of America, 1915. 
 
 "Essay on the Past, Present and Future of Lithu- 
 ania," by John Szlupas, Stockholm. 
 
 "The Lithuanians." Address of Charles L. Brown, 
 President Judge, Municipal Court, Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., January 4, 1917. 
 
 "Lithuania: Facts Supporting Her Claim for Re- 
 establishment as Independent Nation," Dr. 
 J. J. Bielskis, Washington, D. C. 
 
 "Case of Lithuania for Independence," Washing- 
 ton, D. C, 1918. (Also Congressional Record, 
 S. Doc. 305.) 
 
 French 
 
 "Memoire sur la Nation Lituanienne." 
 
 "La Nation Lituanienne," Paris. 
 
 "Lituaniens et Polonais," par A. Jakstis, Paris, 1913. 
 
 "L'Eglise Polonaise en Lituanie," par Mgr. C. 
 
 Propolanis, Paris, 1914. 
 "La Situation de I'Eglise Catholique en Lituanie," 
 
 par Dr. J. Gabrys, Paris, 191 5. 
 "La Lituanie Religieuse," par A. Viskontas, Ph.D., 
 
 D.D., Geneve, 1917. 
 "La Lituanie russe au point de vue statistique et 
 
 ethnographique," par A. Viskontas, Geneve, 
 
 1917.
 
 APPENDIX 155 
 
 "La Lituanie," par A. Vilimavicius, Geneve, 1918. 
 "La Lituanie, le territoire occupe, la population et 
 
 I'orientation de ses idees," par A. Vilimavicius, 
 
 Geneve, 1918. 
 "Justice Allemande," par C. Rivas, Geneva-Nancy, 
 
 1918. 
 
 "Occupation Allemande en Lituanie," par C. Rivas, 
 Geneva, 1918. 
 
 "La Lituanie dans le passe et dans le present," par 
 W. St. Vidunas, Geneve, 191 8. 
 
 "La Lituanie sous la Botte allemande," par M. 
 Ragana, Paris, 1917. 
 
 "Ober-Ost, le plan annexionniste allemand en Litu- 
 anie," par C. Rivas, Lausanne, Switzerland, 
 1917. 
 
 "Les SoufFrances du peuple Lituanien," par P. L. 
 K., Lausanne, Switzerland, 1917. 
 
 "Pro Lituania," Lausanne, Switzerland. 
 
 "Carte de la Lituanie," Lausanne, Switzerland. 
 
 "La Haute Trahison de 44 Polonais," Lausanne. 
 
 "Les Lituaniens d'Amerique," Lausanne, 1918. 
 
 "L'Etat Lituanien et le Gouvernement de Suvalkai 
 (Suvalki)," Lausanne, 1918. 
 
 "Observations du Delegue du Conseil National 
 Lituanien," Lausanne, 1918. 
 
 "La Lituanie sous le Joug Allemand 1915-1918. 
 Le plan annexionniste allemand en Lituanie.
 
 iS6 APPENDIX 
 
 C. Rivas, Librairie Centrale des Nationalites," 
 Lausanne, 1918. 
 "Le Principaux Artisans de la Renaissance Nationale 
 Lituanienne, Hommes et Choses de Lituanie, 
 avec preface de Mr. Charles Rivet," Lausanne, 
 1918. 
 
 Lithuanian Catholic Truth Society 
 Rev. F. Jaksztys, President, 
 
 29 Davis St., Harrison, N. J. 
 Rev. a. Kodis, Treasurer, 
 
 207 York St., Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 Rev. a. M. Milukas, Secretary^ 
 
 94 Hull Ave., Maspeth, L. L
 
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