THE 
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY, 
 
 A PAPER READ BEFORE THE 
 
 NEW YORK HISTORICAL SOCIETY, 
 
 FEBRUARY 6, 1866, 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN F. AIKEN 
 
 WITH S E L, E O T K D NOTES 
 
 N E W Y H K : 
 
 A . S . B A R N" E S & C M P A N Y 
 
 1877.
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, iu the year 1876, by 
 
 JOHN F. AIKEN, 
 in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
 
 In compliance with current 
 
 copyright law, LBS Archival 
 
 Products produced this 
 
 replacement volume on paper 
 
 that meets the ANSI Standard 
 
 Z39.48-1984 to replace the 
 
 irreparably deteriorated original. 
 
 1987
 
 5"7/ 
 
 **1£ 
 
 4 
 
 TO 
 
 EMILIO OASTELAE, 
 
 OF SPAIN; 
 
 STATESMAN, SCHOLAR, AND ORATOR; 
 
 FRIEND OP AMERICA, OF LIBERTY, AND OP HUMAN PROGRESS; 
 
 THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 
 
 BY THE AUTHOR, 
 
 WITH THE EARNEST WISH THAT HI9 ARDUOUS EFFORTS FOR THE 
 
 WELFARE OF HIS COUNTRY MAY ERELONG. 
 
 UNDER THE SMILE OF HEAVEN, BE ATTENDED WITH AN ABUNDANT 
 AND GLORIOUS HARVEST. 
 
 550000
 
 At a stated meeting of the New York Historical Society 
 held in its Hall, on Tuesday evening, 
 
 The paper of the evening, entitled, " The History of 
 Liberty," was read by Mr. John F. Aiken. 
 
 On its conclusion, the Rev. Samuel Osgood, D.D., sub- 
 mitted the following resolution, which was adopted : — 
 
 Resolved, That the thanks of the Society be presented to 
 Mr. Aiken for his interesting paper, read this evening, and 
 that a copy be requested for the archives of the Society. 
 
 [Extract from the minutes.] 
 
 Andrew Warner, 
 
 Recording Secretary.
 
 I saw the expectant nations stand 
 
 To catch the coming name in turn ; 
 
 I saw from ready hand to hand 
 
 The clear though struggling glory burn. 
 
 And oh ! their joy as it came near, 
 'Twas in itself a joy to see, 
 When Fancy whispered in my ear, 
 That torch they pass is Liberty ! " 
 
 Moohk. 
 
 ' Thou, too, sail on, ship of State ! 
 Sail on, O Union, strong and great, 
 Humanity, with all its fears, 
 With all the hopes of future years, 
 Is hanging breathless on thy fate ! 
 
 Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea ! 
 
 Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee. 
 
 Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears. 
 
 Our faith triumphant o'er our fears, 
 
 Are all with thee, — are all with thee ! " 
 
 Longfellow.
 
 PRE FAC E. 
 
 It is now an acknowledged fact that nowhere 
 
 c x 
 
 among all the nations is there so great a degree of 
 liberty as in the United States. To say this is not 
 to speak boastingly, but truthfully, of our country. 
 Yet this is the result of centuries of trial and expe- 
 rience, for all the conflicts against tyranny in Europe, 
 whether successful or unsuccessful, have been prepar- 
 ing the way for the growth of " the fair consummate 
 flower ' 1 of freedom upon this Western Continent, 
 which shall shed its fragrance over the world. 
 
 In the following pages I have endeavored to show 
 the various experiences through which different na- 
 tions have passed where freedom has struggled for 
 development ; how great eras have powerfully affected 
 the condition of the world, especially the Christian 
 era, and the era of the Reformation, and also the in- 
 fluence of great and successful wars for human rights 
 upon several nations ; 
 
 That the fierce struggle in the Netherlands for
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 civil and religious liberty, and the consequent rise 
 and prosperity of the Dutch Republic, prepared the 
 way for the Great Rebellion, which roused England 
 from the slumber of ages, and that for the bloodless, 
 but most important revolution of 1688, with its un- 
 numbered blessings ; 
 
 That all of these animated our ancestors in the 
 Revolutionary war which, when successful, reacted 
 favorably upon Europe ; 
 
 That in the late terrible struggle for liberty, and 
 the rights of man, the love of freedom, imbibed from 
 ur forefathers, enabled us to crush a gigantic rebel- 
 on whose corner-stone was slavery, and which, if it 
 lad been successful, would have destroyed u this last 
 jest hope of earth ; " 
 
 And lastly, that the result of this war has ani- 
 mated with new zeal the lovers of freedom in Europe 
 so that we already see important changes taking 
 place there. 
 
 It has also been my object to show that under 
 favorable influences our own beloved America will be 
 the most prosperous, happy, and useful of nations. 
 
 I have striven to depict the characters of certain 
 benefactors of their race, in the mild lustre of whose 
 unselfish greatness the triumphs of those who have 
 won a name by trampling upon their fellow mortals 
 seem mean and contemptible. Napoleon the Third in
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 the preface of his life of Julius Ccesar says : " If the 
 precepts of faith raise our soul above the interests of 
 this world, the lessons of history in their turn inspire 
 us with the love of the beautiful and the just, and the 
 hatred of whatever presents an obstacle to the pro- 
 gress of humanity." This elevated sentiment with 
 which the policy of the late French Emperor but ill 
 accorded, contains the true philosophy of history. 
 
 It will be seen that in the appendix I have en- 
 deavored to bring the history of liberty down to the 
 present time by means of historical notes concerning 
 the progress of freedom in Europe, and in this coun- 
 try since the rebellion. The other notes which I 
 have gathered and which are mostly selected, may 
 be considered as explanatory and supplementary. 
 
 It has been my desire to collect together in the 
 appendix such items of interest, and such wholesome 
 sentiments as would stimulate a true patriotism and 
 afford information of an agreeable and suggestive 
 nature, and especially of a practical value to the lover 
 of his country and of human progress, thus bringing 
 the history of liberty home to the hearts and con- 
 sciences of men. 
 
 The selections are all marked as quotations. 
 The articles containing information obtained by 
 me from some reliable source have the authority 
 beneath. I have ventured to insert, in most ex-
 
 10 PREFACE. 
 
 cellent companionship, as the reader will observe, an 
 article of in y own, concerning the late meeting of the 
 Evangelical Alliance, in the form of letters published 
 in the Vermont Chronicle. May not the Evangelical 
 Alliance and the Centennial Exposition, those two 
 national events of such universal interest though so 
 entirely unlike, be regarded as commemorative, the 
 first of religious and the last of civil liberty, while the 
 second Peace Jubilee was a grand international rejoic- 
 ing over the triumph of freedom in America. In 
 treating a subject so vast and comprehensive and so 
 soul-inspiring as the progress of freedom, it seemed 
 to me not inappropriate to make use of the oratorical 
 rather than the essay style. 
 
 With the hope that our republic, now one hun- 
 dred years old, may exist for centuries, and that all 
 the bright dreams and anticipations concerning its 
 future prosperity and greatness may be realized, but 
 feeling that this will depend much upon us of the 
 present generation, I send forth this humble tribute 
 to the priceless value of liberty, hoping that it may 
 help in some slight degree to perpetuate our free 
 institutions. 
 
 Pawlet, Vermont, J. F. A.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 What is Liberty ? Is it an ideal state of being, 
 of a purely ethereal and intangible nature, to be 
 reasoned about and imagined, but never to be en- 
 joyed? Is it some merely practical and material 
 thing, to be obtained by the labor of the hands, and 
 the ordinary workings of the mind ? No ! It is an 
 elevated condition, the offspring of a sublime prin- 
 ciple implanted in the human breast, which being 
 cultivated and fostered, renders man capable of self- 
 government, and makes a state, which is but an 
 aggregate of individuals, able to endure perils from 
 without and from within. 
 
 Behold yonder temple as it slowly rises in beauty 
 and majesty. Long has it been in building. Stone 
 after stone of marble hewn from the quarry, trans- 
 ported from a distance, chiseled with great labor, has 
 been laid on the wall with the nicest care. Stone 
 after stone has been set in its appropriate place with- 
 out effecting any perceptible change either in the
 
 12 HISTORY OF LIBhRTV. 
 
 height or beauty of the structure. Still it rises, and 
 grows in symmetry with every stone. 
 
 So it is with the temple of liberty in the hearts 
 of men. Every noble deed for the welfare of the 
 human race, every generous action toward the 
 downtrodden and oppressed, every just decision in 
 favor of the natural and inalienable rights of man, is a 
 polished stone, set in its appropriate place, and con- 
 tributing to the height and beauty of that lofty and 
 glorious edifice. To the student of history what can 
 be more instructive than to trace the progress of lib- 
 erty ; to the historian and orator what more benefi- 
 cial than to exhibit it to the admiration of their 
 fellow men ; to the philosopher what more elevating 
 than to meditate upon and inquire into its relations 
 to the onward march of civilization ; to the poet 
 what more inspiring than to drink from so pure a 
 fountain, what more ennobling than to sing of such a 
 theme ; to the patriot what more interesting than to 
 witness its struggles, what more satisfying than to 
 behold its triumphs? 
 
 As the Vestal fire in Ancient Rome was by care- 
 ful watchfulness kept ever burning, so this heaven- 
 born flame of liberty descending to us from our 
 fathers, through many a scene of conflict, from many 
 a hardship and distress, and defended by their de- 
 scendants of the present generation on hundreds of
 
 HISTORY' OF LIBERTV. 13 
 
 battle-fields vet moist with their blood, should be 
 fostered in our hearts by knowledge and by medi- 
 tation. 
 
 Thus shall we be better able to appreciate in 
 some degree, its value to ourselves, to our country 
 and to the world, and thus shall we be better able to 
 understand its elevated and its elevating nature.* 
 
 In the Declaration of Independence our patriotic 
 ancestors thus expressed their views, " We hold 
 these truths to be self-evident, that all men are 
 created equal : that they are endowed by their 
 Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among 
 these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness : 
 to secure these rights governments are instituted 
 among men, deriving their just powers from the 
 consent of the governed." 
 
 It would seem as if no truths ought to be more 
 apparent to the mind than these, and yet nearly 
 eighteen centuries have elapsed since the light of 
 Christianity dawned upon the world, and two-thirds 
 of the human race still remain without any knowl- 
 edge of freedom, while even in some of the most en- 
 lightened nations liberty has been of slow growth, 
 and in none has it reached its maturity. 
 
 * On the Thursday evening previous to the reading of 
 this paper, Rev. Dr. Samuel Osgood read a valuable paper 
 upon the character and influence of Washington.
 
 14: HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 The most ancient form of society and of civil 
 government was that of the family. It is reasonable 
 to presume that a large degree of true freedom ex- 
 isted under this method. With the increase of the 
 race liberty does not seem to have made a propor- 
 tionate advance, but to have degenerated into license, 
 so that at the time of the flood it scarcely had an 
 existence. After the earth was repeopled the spirit 
 of liberty revisited it, appearing among the Jews, 
 Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Under the rule of their divinely appointed leaders 
 the Jews had undoubtedly a good degree of freedom, 
 and not until they had proved themselves unworthy 
 of it did it depart from them. Here indeed is the 
 only example of religious liberty furnished us by any 
 of the nations of antiquity. 
 
 How much political and individual liberty there 
 was in the republics of Greece, it is somewhat diffi- 
 cult to state. In Attica there was probably a greater 
 degree than in any of the other Grecian states. 
 
 This is attributable to the constitution framed 
 originally by Solon, and made still more popular by 
 Clisthenes. Let us rapidly trace the progress of 
 freedom here. 
 
 The first advance was made by the appointment 
 of a ruler called the archon, who took the place of 
 the king. The archonship was first filled by the
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 15 
 
 royal family and held for life, then for ten years and 
 finally thrown open to the nobles generally, the num- 
 ber of archons increased to nine, and the period re- 
 duced to one year. It was during: the archonship of 
 Solon that the constitution of Athens underwent a 
 decided change, the results of which have affected 
 civilization, producing an intellectual development, 
 which has been the admiration of succeeding ages. 
 To this broad and free development of the Grecian 
 mind are attributable those works of philosophy and 
 poetry, those wonders of art, and that power of elo- 
 quence which so preeminently distinguished the 
 Athenian Commonwealth. The Grecian states, 
 though bound together by many strong ties, such as 
 language, blood, common religious rites and festivals, 
 which caused them to unite for mutual defence in the 
 time of the Persian invasions, being under different 
 governments, were frequently engaged in intestine 
 strifes. Had this been otherwise, and had all Greece 
 been one republic, it might have continued longer. 
 
 Yet we cannot be too grateful for the example of 
 Greece. The names of Marathon, Thermopylae, and 
 Salamis, those ancient battle-grounds of freedom, 
 where the tide of invasion and barbarism was resisted 
 and turned back, will ever be remembered by the 
 lover of liberty with enthusiasm and gratitude. 
 
 Miltiades. Themistocles and Aristides, Leonidas
 
 16 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 and Epaminondas, Pericles and Demosthenes will be 
 known and honored while patriotism and eloquence 
 are held in regard. 
 
 Next in order of time came the Roman republic. 
 As at Athens, it succeeded a monarchy. Its history 
 is mainly an account of the struggles between the 
 aristocracy and the people, the patricians and the 
 plebeians. 
 
 In this struggle the plebeians gradually gained 
 ground, until finally they obtained nearly an equal 
 share in governing the state. The tribuneship, 
 quaestorship and consulate, all offices of extensive 
 authority, and the latter the highest in the republic, 
 were by degrees thrown open to them, also admission 
 to the senate, permission to intermarry with the pa- 
 tricians, and to hold the highest priestly offices of 
 Pontificate and Augurate. In the year b. c. 300 a 
 law was passed called the Ogulnian law, which per- 
 mitted them to hold these latter offices. 
 
 The passage of this law is considered the estab- 
 lishment of the Roman Constitution. 
 
 " What is called the Constitution of Rome," says 
 Arnold, " as far as regards the relations of patri- 
 cians and plebeians to each other, was in fact per- 
 fected by the Ogulnian law and remained for cen- 
 turies without undergoing any material change. By 
 that law the commons were placed on a level with
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 17 
 
 the patricians, and the contests between these two 
 orders were brought to an end forever."' About the 
 close of the Punic wars, which ended with the de- 
 struction of Carthage, the Roman republic obtained 
 its greatest power, and its inhabitants their highest 
 degree of freedom. In the great civil wars between 
 Marius and Sylla the social privileges of the citizens 
 were to a considerable degree overthrown and were 
 never fully recovered. After Caesar died and the 
 empire was established, the people obtained only a 
 nominal power. How highly the privilege of Roman 
 citizenship was once regarded is well expressed by 
 Shakespeare : 
 
 " To be a Roman once, was greater than to be a 
 king." When, during the latter years of the republic, 
 Verres, the praetor of Sicily, was tried at Rome for 
 numerous offences, one of which was causing an in- 
 nocent Roman citizen to be crucified, Cicero, who 
 was prosecuting him, and who was then a young 
 man, as he thought of the proud position of a Roman 
 citizen in former years, and of the demoralization 
 which had succeeded, causing even the highest 
 privileges to be often disregarded, exclaimed in 
 sadness, " Liberty, once sacred, now trampled 
 upon !" 
 
 What a commentary is it upon the condition of 
 ancient Rome that the Gracchi, one of the Scipios,
 
 18 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 Pompey, Caesar, Cato, and Cicero, all fell by the 
 hand of violence. 
 
 The republics of Greece and Rome, though they 
 have had a mighty influence in all succeeding ages, 
 have proved conclusively that liberty cannot exist in 
 full and lasting vigor, and beauty, without Christianity. 
 
 Soon after the fall of the Roman republic, the 
 most remarkable events which ever took place in the 
 history of the world, and those most important to the 
 interests of humanity occurred : the advent and 
 death of the Saviour. At the latter period nearly 
 the whole world was under the sway of an arbitrary 
 and cruel tyrant, and liberty had forsaken the earth. 
 
 Then dawned a new era, and men experienced 
 that greatest freedom than which all other is com- 
 paratively valueless, freedom from sin, for, 
 
 " He is a freeman whom the truth makes free 
 And all are slaves beside." 
 
 But the darkness did not greatly disappear until 
 the ground was moist with the blood of myriads of 
 believers. 
 
 During the second century of the Christian era a 
 certain degree of liberty prevailed, as at that time 
 the empire of Rome with its hundred million of in- 
 habitants was under a mild rule. 
 
 But this did not last more than eighty years,
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 19 
 
 when despotism and effeminacy again took possession 
 of it, and its decline commenced. 
 
 About the beginning of the fifth century the 
 barbarians from the North made incursions into Italy. 
 Soon, like an avalanche, they poured down over its 
 fertile plains sweeping everything before them. 
 
 The genius of liberty having passed away from 
 Rome, that power which had ruled the world for cen- 
 turies at last gave way.* 
 
 A second epoch now appears, the rise of the Em- 
 pires of the Barbarians. The world would then have 
 been sunk in the darkness of ignorance, and degrada- 
 tion had it not been for the light of Christianity. 
 That light however shone for a long time but feebly, 
 though much of Europe became nominally Christian, 
 and the barbarians bowed before the cross. 
 
 Let us take a cursory glance at the history of 
 liberty in some of the countries of Europe during this 
 formative period of society. 
 
 When Julius Caesar invaded England, it was in- 
 habited by a brave race called Britons. It was not 
 long afterwards invaded by the Angles, Jutes and 
 Saxons. 
 
 These tribes were in time overcome by the Nor- 
 mans, who brought with them the feudal system. 
 
 * The seat of empire had been removed to Constantinople 
 in the early part of the fourth century.
 
 20 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 The first national assembly in England, that we 
 have any record of, is the Wittenagemote, or great 
 council of the Saxons. We have no accurate knowl- 
 edge of the duties of this council, nor how it was 
 gradually changed into the parliament.* 
 
 Shortly after the Conquest by the Normans, this 
 great council ceased to exist, but fortunately emer- 
 gencies sometimes arose, when it was necessary for 
 the sovereign to call together certain influential 
 ones among his subjects, for the purpose of deciding 
 disputed points, and upon them a material part of its 
 duties devolved. This separate court from out the 
 Wittenagemote was called the Aula Regis or Hall of 
 the King, as the King had the sole power of convok- 
 ing it. Fortunately he never dared to entirely relin- 
 quish it, as by so doing he would necessarily have 
 offended the barons, who being six hundred in num- 
 ber, and holding under the feudal system much of the 
 territory of England, were necessarily very powerful. 
 
 At the time of the Conquest the prerogative of 
 declaring peace and war was assumed by the Crown, 
 but the Wittenagemote, which existed for some years 
 
 * " The Wittenagemote of the Saxons was the assembly of 
 wise men ; and was composed of the nobles, high prelates, 
 and great landholders. The Mickelgemote (or great assembly) 
 was the general assembly of the nation. These assemblies are 
 considered by many authors as the foundation of the present 
 British Parliament." — R. G. Parker's Outlines of History.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 21 
 
 after that period, retained the important prerogative 
 of taxation. This right, which, though not always 
 regarded by the sovereign, was virtually acknowl- 
 edged by him, rendered him at times dependent 
 upon his subjects for supplies to carry on war, and 
 was thus the greatest safeguard of their liberties. 
 
 In the reign of king John, the great charter of 
 freedom called the Magna Charta, was forced from 
 that weak and tyrannical monarch by a combination 
 of barons. It begins with these words : " John, by 
 the grace of God king, (here follows a list of the 
 nobles to whom it was addressed, and his other 
 faithful subjects,) " know ye that for the health of 
 our soul and by the advice of, (here sundry persons 
 are enumerated) we have granted and confirmed for 
 us and our heirs forever." It is a fact worthy of 
 notice that all the rights and privileges, which were 
 conceded by John in the Magna Charta, can be traced 
 back to Anglo-Saxon times. This charter was exe- 
 cuted by the king in the presence of his barons, at 
 Runnymede, on June 15, 1215. 
 
 Its most famous sentence reads thus : " No free- 
 man shall be taken, or imprisoned, or disseised, or 
 outlawed, or banished, or anyways injured, nor shall 
 we sentence, nor allow him to be sentenced, unless 
 by the legal judgment of his peers, or by the law of 
 the land/' These are some of the general provisions
 
 22 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 of the Magna Charta : It confirmed the liberties 
 of the church, prohibited unlawful punishments, es- 
 tablished the right of the owner of personal property 
 to dispose of it by will, protected merchants, guarded 
 against delays and denials of justice, appointed as- 
 sizes and circuits for the trial of causes, and asserted 
 and confirmed the liberty of the city of London, and 
 all other cities, boroughs, towns, and parts of the 
 kingdom from which political freedom afterwards 
 spread as from so many centres. From this allusion 
 to cities and towns, it is evident that the barons 
 were not alone in their demands, but that the bur- 
 gesses or representatives of the cities and towns 
 united with them. One noticeable feature of these 
 times and very conducive to the spirit of liberty, was 
 the rise of free cities, which weakened the power of 
 the barons, and gradually undermined the feudal 
 system that had existed for so long a time. 
 
 The most noticeable clause in the Magna Charta 
 reads thus : " We will sell to no man, we will not 
 deny or delay to any man right or justice." This 
 Charter would have been of no lasting benefit to our 
 English ancestors had it not been carefully guarded 
 by them, and hnd they not caused it to be ratified by 
 subsequent charters. 
 
 This was a very important period in the historv 
 of England, for had our ancestors allowed the flick-
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 23 
 
 ering flame of liberty once to expire, they or their de- 
 scendants might never have been able to rekindle it. 
 
 "These charters," says Sir William Blackstone, 
 " from the first concession under King John, had been 
 often endangered and undergone many mutations for 
 the space of near a century, but were fixed in the 
 29th of Edward the Second upon an eternal basis, 
 having in all, before and since this time, as Sir 
 Edward Coke observes, been established, confirmed 
 and commanded to be put in execution by two and 
 thirty several acts of parliament." 
 
 When the liberties of England were threatened in 
 later times, Hampden and other patriots often cited 
 them.* 
 
 * The Thirteenth Century of English History.— The 
 sources of the noblest rivers which spread fertility over 
 continents, and bear richly laden fleets to the sea, are to 
 be sought in wild and barren mountain tracts incorrectly 
 laid down in maps, and rarely explored by travellers. To 
 such a tract the history of our country during the thirteenth 
 century may not inaptly be compared. Sterile and obscure 
 as is that portion of our annals, it is there that we must 
 seek for the origin of our freedom, our prosperitv and our 
 glory. 
 
 Then it was that the great English people was formed, 
 that the national character began to exhibit those peculiari- 
 ties which it has ever since retained, and that our fathers 
 became emphatically islanders, islanders not merely in geo- 
 graphical position, but in their politics, their feelings and 
 their manners. Then first appeared with distinctness that 
 constitution which has ever since, through all changes, pre- 
 served its identity; that constitution of which all the other
 
 24 niSTORT OF LIBERTY. 
 
 We have seen that the people of England by 
 their national assemblies preserved a most important 
 prerogative that of taxation. In France the case 
 was different.* 
 
 free constitutions in the world are copies, and which in spite 
 of some defects deserves to be regarded as the best under 
 which any great society has ever yet existed during many 
 ages. Then it was that the House of Commons, the arche- 
 type of all the representative assemblies which now meet, 
 either in the Old or in the New World, held its first 
 sittings." — Macaulafs History of England. 
 
 Great changes silently effected. — It is remarkable that 
 the two greatest and most salutary social revolutions that 
 have taken place in England, that revolution which in the 
 thirteenth century, put an end to the tyranny of one nation, 
 and that revolution which a few generations later, put an 
 end to the property of man in man, were silently and imper- 
 ceptibly effected. 
 
 They struck contemporary observers with no surprise and 
 have received from historians a very scanty measure of atten- 
 tion. They were brought about neither by legislative regu- 
 lation nor by physical force. Moral causes noiselessly effaced, 
 first the distinction between Norman and Saxon, and then 
 the distinction between master and slave. None can ven- 
 ture to fix the precise moment at which either distinction 
 ceased. — Macaulaifs History of England. 
 
 The Crusades have been generally regarded as condu- 
 cive to the welfare of society, though Gibbon, in his " Decline 
 and Fall of the Eoman Empire," and Smith, in his " Wealth 
 of Nations," take the opposite view. 
 
 * " Parliaments were first introduced into France by 
 Philip IV. (surnamed the Fair), in the beginning of the 
 fourteenth centurv. This mav be considered as the dawning 
 of civil liberty in France." 
 
 "'The States-General consisted of three orders — the
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 25 
 
 There was also a crisis in the constitutional his- 
 tory of that country at about the same period as in 
 England, and during the reign of a monarch of the 
 same name. Before this, however, there occurred a 
 remarkable event which affected the future welfare 
 of Europe as the battle of Gettysburg has that of 
 
 clergy, the nobility, and the commous. The last of these 
 orders was called " Tiers Etat :" they were in fact the repre- 
 sentatives of the people. They were first called into the coun- 
 cils of the government by Philip XIV., (A. D. 1303) but were 
 subjected to great humiliation. While the clergy and 
 nobility were seated, the Tiers Etat, or Commons, were 
 obliged to stand outside of the bar, and to receive and answer 
 the proposition of the king on their knees." — R. G. Parker. 
 "The regal prerogative was extremely limited under the 
 Merovingian princes. The general assembly of the nation 
 had the right of electing the sovereign, and the power of 
 legislation. Under the Carlovingian race the authority ac- 
 quired by Pepin and Charlemagne sunk to nothing in the 
 hands of their weak posterity ; and though the crown had 
 ceased to be elective, the regal dignity was a mere shadow. . 
 Under the third or Capetian race the crown acquired more 
 weight, and many of the sovereigns exerted a proper spirit in 
 restraining the power of the nobles, and in punishing their 
 lawless outrages. To balance the weight of the aristocracy 
 Philip the Fair, introduced the third estate of the national 
 assemblies, which for above four centuries had consisted only 
 of the nobles and clergy. The chief power of the state began 
 now to shift to the scale of the monarch. The national 
 assembly interfered rather to ratify than to decree ; and in 
 the fifteenth century the right of legislation was understood 
 to reside wholly in the crown. The right of taxation seemed 
 to follow of course. The assemblies or states-general were 
 now rarely convened, and from the reign of Louis XIII. were 
 discontinued." —Tytlfir's ffisfory.
 
 26 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 America. It was the great battle of Tours, in which 
 Charles Martel drove back and routed the Mohamme- 
 dan.-, who had crossed the Mediterranean and were 
 ravaging the country with fire and sword. This 
 battle had a most important influence upon the his- 
 tory of liberty, for here contended Christianity and 
 Paganism, Civilization and Barbarism, Freedom 
 and Slavery. The States-General, the national as- 
 semblies of France, which had succeeded to the as- 
 semblies of the field appointed by Charlemagne, 
 passed laws limiting the royal authority, and retain- 
 ing to themselves the power of taxation. As the 
 result a terrible revolution occurred, and when the 
 people had been for a time triumphant, they suffered 
 reverses and the former government was restored in 
 a more arbitrary form than before. Let us now 
 compare the subsequent condition of these two 
 nations. 
 
 In France everything was submitted to the will 
 of the king, and the national assemblies never re- 
 gained the power which they had lost. This ac- 
 counts for the past and present condition of the 
 French people. In England, on the contrary, the 
 national assemblies never entirely lost their import- 
 ance. The Wittenagemote, or great council of the 
 Saxons, was succeeded by the Aula Regis, or Court 
 of the Normans, this by parliament, and the latter,
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 27 
 
 by the assemblies of the lords and commons in two 
 distinct houses. 
 
 But to continue : — At a later period there was 
 another contest in France between the king and the 
 States-General which resulted in the same manner as 
 the former, and for some years afterwards French 
 history presents a most appalling picture. 
 
 The most fatal measure which was taken by the 
 crown to destroy the liberties of the people, was the 
 establishment of a military force, and the allotment 
 of a perpetual tax for its support. After this the 
 people ceased to struggle. There were no more meet- 
 ings of the States-General, and all hope of constitu- 
 tional liberty departed. 
 
 Well has Shakespeare depicted the condition of 
 France at this time : 
 
 "Alas poor country, 
 Almost afraid to know itself ! where nothing 
 But who knew nothing were once seen to smile." 
 
 There was one remarkable opportunity which, if 
 the French had been prepared for liberty, they would 
 readily have embraced. It was when Charles the 
 Seventh preserved his crown through the wonderful 
 appearance upon the scene of action of the Maid of 
 Orleans. During the second invasion of France by 
 the English, the French king, by reason of his ill for- 
 tune in war, was closely besieged within the walls of
 
 28 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 Orleans, and was about yielding to despair, when 
 Joan of Arc appeared in armor at the head of a band 
 of troops, her beautiful hair waving in the wind, her 
 soldiers' bonnet surmounted by white plumes, and 
 bearing in her hand the sword of St. Catharine. At 
 this lovely and heroic sight unbounded enthusiasm 
 seized upon the French. Victory followed. The 
 might of England bowed before the conquering steel 
 of the brave woman, and the gates of Orleans were 
 thrown open, not to admit a besieging foe, but that La 
 Pucelle might triumphantly conduct the king to 
 Rheims where he was soon after crowned in her 
 presence. 
 
 Joan of Arc had finished her mission and was 
 now to enjoy her reward. She had served her king 
 and her country. Her own life was to be the sacri- 
 fice. Having been taken prisoner she was tried on 
 the charge of sorcery, condemned, and burned. She 
 died in the twenty-first year of her age. At the 
 time of the coronation of Charles, the people of 
 France had a golden opportunity to obtain their 
 liberties. 
 
 We will now trace briefly the early history of 
 liberty in Spain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland. 
 
 Spain, strange as it may seem, had at an early 
 period great love of liberty. In her national assem- 
 bly, the Cortes, which was possessed of extensive
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 29 
 
 authority, not only the barons appeared, but also 
 representatives from the towns. This seems to have 
 been about the form of compact between the nobles 
 and the king : " We who are each of us as good and 
 who are altogether more powerful than you, promise 
 obedience to your government, if you maintain our 
 rights and liberties ; if not, not." While in that 
 section of Spain called Castile there was a Cortes, in 
 Arragon there was also a Supreme judge called 
 Justiza, the guardian of the people and the controller 
 of the prince, but who was himself controlled by the 
 Cortes. Thus during a large part of the twelfth and 
 thirteenth centuries, both Castile and Arragon were 
 limited monarchies, and the power of the crown was 
 really too limited.* Hence there arose a long con- 
 tinued struggle either secret or open between the 
 people and the barons on one side, and the crown on 
 the other, which finally resulted in the establishment 
 of an arbitrary government. 
 
 In Italy during the first six centuries after the 
 fall of the Roman empire, the barbarians and degen- 
 erate Italians commingled, and from this union arose 
 
 * "In a. i). 1283, Peter the Third, king of Arragon, com- 
 pelled by popular clamor for liberty, granted an instrument 
 called the General Privilege, the provisions of which wore 
 more decided in favor of freedom, and more opposed to 
 arbitrary power than eveu those of the great Charter of Eng- 
 land which was signed sixty eight years before, and which 
 unlike the former has home fruit until the present time."
 
 30 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 a new nation. Afterwards republics sprang up in 
 different parts of Italy, by reason of the spirit of 
 commerce which was friendly to liberty. These re- 
 publics continued from the twelfth to the sixteenth 
 centuries, and rendered that country famous for art, 
 science, and letters. 
 
 In 1530 Charles the Fifth, Emperor of Germany 
 and king of Spain, conquered Italy, and liberty was 
 for centuries cramped and dwarfed.* 
 
 The government of Germany was originally a 
 monarchy elective and limited. By the Constitution 
 of that country called the Golden Bull, the king was 
 only the nominal head of a powerful aristocracy. 
 
 * Of the ancient Constitution of the Scottish Government. 
 "—The legislative power, though nominally resident in the 
 parliament, was virtually in the king, who by his influence 
 entirely controlled its proceedings. The parliament con- 
 sisted of three estates, the nobles, the dignified clergy, and 
 the less barons, who were the representatives of the towns 
 and shires. The disposal of benefices gave the crown the 
 entire command of the churchmen, who were equal to the 
 nobles in number ; and at least a majority of the commons 
 were the dependents of the sovereign. A committee termed 
 the lords of the articles, prepared every measure that was 
 to come before the parliament. By the mode of its election 
 this committee was in effect nominated by the king." — ■ 
 Tytlefs History. 
 
 In the early history of Scotland the names of William 
 Wallace and of Robert Bruce, have a romantic charm as 
 heroes of the liberty of their country. Centuries later the 
 reformed religion, taking deep root in Scotland, made that 
 country a bulwark of religious liberty.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 31 
 
 This condition of things, though not unfavorable to 
 the spirit of liberty in that kingdom, dissipated and 
 divided its strength so far as resistance to foreign 
 nations was concerned. The tyrannical and bigoted 
 House of Austria was a branch of the Germanic Con- 
 federation. 
 
 Switzerland is a name which every lover of free- 
 dom repeats with enthusiasm. About the com- 
 mencement of the fourteenth century, a portion of 
 this mountainous aud romantic country, asserted its 
 independence of the House of Austria. Relying 
 upon God, the brave Swiss prepared to meet the in- 
 solent and haughty foe, who were advancing under 
 Duke Leopold to extirpate the whole nation. As an 
 avalanche sweeps down from the Alps carrying de- 
 struction and desolation in its course, so this band of 
 brothers, rushing down from trieir mountain homes, 
 threw themselves upon the mailed warriors of Austria, 
 and in the battle of Morgarten drove back, routed 
 and destroyed their enemies. They first formed a 
 confederation consisting of the States called the three 
 Forest Cantons. Into this confederacy they gradu- 
 ally admitted other states, until in the course of two 
 centuries the number was increased to thirteen. 
 This was called the Helvetic Confederacy. 
 
 Seventy-one years after the battle of .Morgarten. 
 another Austrian army invaded Switzerland under
 
 32 
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTV 
 
 the command of another Leopold, but met with a sim- 
 ilar fate as the first near Sempach. The battle had 
 been long contested, and the small band of heroes 
 had begun to despair, when a knight of Underwalden, 
 Arnold Winkelreid, willing to sacrifice himself for his 
 country, rushed forward exclaiming, " I will open a 
 passage, provide for my wife and children, dear 
 countrymen and confederates. Honor my race." 
 Grasping several Austrian pikes in his outstretched 
 arms he buried them in his bosom, and bore them 
 down with him in his fall. Thus a breach was 
 opened in the bristling ranks, and the Swiss, charg- 
 ing impetuously over the body of their fallen leader, 
 routed the enemy. 
 
 "Make way for liberty, he cried, 
 Then ran with arms extended wide 
 As if his dearest friend to clasp. 
 Ten spears he swept within his grasp, 
 Make way for liberty, he cried, 
 Their keen points met from side to side ; 
 He bowed among them like a tree 
 A»nd thus made way for liberty." 
 
 The Confederacy of the Swiss Cantons, though by 
 no means faultless, existed for nearly four centuries 
 afterwards in security and honor. 
 
 Having thus briefly considered the history of lib- 
 erty during the dark and a portion of the middle 
 ages, we will notice its condition, its struggles, and its
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 33 
 
 steady growth after the revival of learning in Europe 
 had enlightened the mind, and the Reformation had 
 cleansed the heart. 
 
 During the former period, namely, that of the 
 revival of learning, which followed and was a result 
 of the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in 
 which, though most valuable libraries were destroyed, 
 the scholars of the East were driven to take refuge 
 in the West, carrying with them many ancient manu- 
 scripts of great interest, there were some discoveries 
 which have since proved of the greatest importance 
 to mankind, among which were the art of making 
 paper and of printing, the invention of gunpowder, 
 and the discovery of the magnetic needle. 
 
 As the human mind awoke by reason of the 
 diffusion of knowledge, men began to think for them- 
 selves, not only in respect to their temporal, but also 
 their spiritual concerns. 
 
 There had already been a spirit of religious in- 
 quiry in certain localities, among the Waldenses and 
 the Albigenses, the Lollards and the Hussites, a 
 spirit which no persecution could crush. 
 
 But the light of these early reformers shone in 
 darkness, and the darkness comprehended it not. 
 Many minds had been gradually preparing for a 
 change, when the brighter light of the Reformation 
 dawned. The instrument chosen by God for begin-
 
 34 
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 ning this great work was Martin Luther. As we 
 contemplate his appearance on the stage of history at 
 this particular juncture, how wonderful does it seem. 
 The monk of Erfurt nailed his theses to the door of 
 the Cathedral of Wittenberg, and the world felt the 
 shock. A new impulse seized the minds of men, for 
 the Bible was now no longer a sealed and unknown 
 book. Tyrannical rulers and the haughty pontiff of 
 Rome trembled and turned pale, and liberty, reli- 
 gious and civil, commenced its onward and triumph- 
 ant career.* 
 
 Let us now glance at the results of the Reforma- 
 tion in Germany, Switzerland, Holland, France and 
 England. 
 
 * "When I recall to mind at last, after so many ages, 
 wherein the huge overshadowing train of error had almost 
 swept all the stars out of the firmament of the church ; how 
 the hright and blissful reformation (by divine power) struck 
 hrough the black and settled night of ignorance and anti- 
 •hristian tyranny, methinks a sovereign and reviving jov 
 must needs rush into the bosom of him that reads or hears ; 
 Hid the sweet odor of the returning gospel imbathe his soul 
 with the fragrancy of heaven. Then was the sacred Bible 
 sought out of the dusty corners where profane falsehood and 
 neglect had thrown it, the schools opened, divine and human 
 learning raked out of the embers of forgotten tongues, the 
 princes and cities trooping apace to the new erected banner 
 of salvation ; the martyrs, with the unresistible might of 
 weakness, shaking the powers of darkness, and scorning the 
 fiery rage of the old red dragon.— John Milton on the Refor- 
 mation in England.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 35 
 
 Soon after that event there was a great civil 
 war in Germany, by means of which the Protestants, 
 after a long struggle, seem to have gained freedom 
 to worship God according to the dictates of con- 
 science. 
 
 But erelong another war broke out between the 
 Catholics and the Protestants, which lasted thirty 
 years, by which the latter obtained an equality of 
 civil rights with the former.* The great hero of 
 civil and religious liberty in this protracted struggle 
 was Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, who de- 
 feated and humbled tyrannical Austria on the plains 
 of Lutzen, where he himself, at the age of thirty-eight, 
 after a most brilliant military career, fell covered 
 with wounds. 
 
 Of this hero in the cause of freedom Napoleon 
 said: "Gustavus Adolphus was animated by the 
 principles of Alexander, Hannibal and Caesar." He 
 might indeed have admired the wonderful genius of 
 those men, but he was animated by a higher princi- 
 ple than they, a principle which neither the great 
 Napoleon, nor his distinguished nephew would appre- 
 ciate, the principle of liberty. 
 
 Before engaging in his last great battle, standing 
 in front of his army, he gave out Luther's hymn, 
 
 Treaty of Westphalia one hundred and thirty years 
 from the commencement of the Reformation.
 
 36 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 leading the singing himself, and then, at the critical 
 hour he rushed into the thick of the fight. 
 
 In Switzerland the Reformation was followed by 
 a war in which the reformer Zwingle fell. 
 
 In Holland, the home of the noble ancestors of 
 some present in this assembly, the contest between 
 tyranny and freedom, superstition and religion, was 
 fierce and bloody, but the result was glorious. Its 
 causes can be thus enumerated : " The introduction 
 of a standing army amid a people whose laws and 
 constitution were of a free and popular cast : the 
 increase of a number of ecclesiastical dignitaries ; the 
 attempt to introduce the Inquisition, and the enforc- 
 ing the intolerable edict of Charles the Fifth." For- 
 tunately for this oppressed country, a man appeared 
 at this juncture who was equal to the emergency, 
 and who will always be regarded as among the great- 
 est benefactors of the human race, William, Prince of 
 Orange. 
 
 " I am held," said he, " to be the contriver of 
 conspiracies, but what greater glory can there be 
 than to maintain the liberty of a man's country, and 
 to die rather than be enslaved." 
 
 The character of William is one of the most re- 
 markable furnished us in history. He was a man of 
 ardent piety, and what was rare in that age, of great 
 toleration. He was noted for his firmness, constancy,
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 37 
 
 devotion to duty, and hopefulness. He possessed 
 quick perceptions, and a great knowledge of human 
 nature. His mind was highly cultured, and he was 
 master of several languages. Though frequently so 
 reticent, that he received the name of " the Silent,'' 
 he was an eloquent speaker. He was also a forcible 
 writer, and a person of great industry, and un- 
 bounded capacity for labor. He was a statesman of 
 broad and comprehensive views, and a general of 
 great skill and ability. In familiar conversation he 
 was animated and often merry. In the darkest 
 hours of his country's peril he sometimes manifested 
 an apparent gayety, which was censured by some as 
 the result of flippancy, but which was doubtless as- 
 sumed intentionally for the purpose of driving away 
 sad and despairing thoughts from his own and from 
 others' minds. He bore his people upon his heart 
 continually, and among his last words in death were, 
 " my God, have mercy upon my poor people."* 
 Like our illustrious and lamented Lincoln, he fell a 
 martyr in the sacred cause of liberty, being assassin- 
 ated in the prime of life, in the vigor of his faculties, 
 and in the hour of his country's triumph. 
 
 The result of the rebellion in the Low Countries, 
 a rebellion against the intolerance of that most tyran- 
 nical, cruel and bigoted sovereign, Philip the Second, 
 * Motley's- Dutch Republic.
 
 33 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 of Spain, and his servant the Duke of Alva, equally 
 tyrannical, cruel, and bigoted, was the establishment 
 of civil and religious liberty, and the formation of 
 the Dutch Republic. 
 
 Mr. Broadhead, the distinguished historian, thus 
 eloquently concludes the first volume of his " History 
 of the State of New York : " 
 
 "Yet without undervaluing others, it may con- 
 fidently be claimed that to no nation in the world is 
 the Republic of the West more indebted than to the 
 United Provinces for the idea of the confederation of 
 sovereign States ; for noble principles of constitu- 
 tional freedom ; for magnanimous sentiments of reli- 
 gious toleration; for characteristic sympathy with 
 the subjects of oppression; for liberal doctrines in 
 trade and commerce ; for illustrious patterns of pri- 
 vate integrity, and public virtue, and for generous 
 and timely aid in the establishment of independence. 
 Nowhere among the people of the United States can 
 men be found excelling in honesty, industry, cour- 
 tesy, or accomplishment, the posterity of the early 
 Dutch settlers of New Netherlands. And when the 
 Providence of God decreed that the rights of human- 
 ity were again to be maintained through long years 
 of endurance and war, the descendants of Hollanders 
 nobly emulated the example of their forefathers ; 
 nor was their steadfast patriotism outdone by that
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 39 
 
 of any of the heroes in the strife which made the 
 blood-stained soil of New York and New Jersey, the 
 Netherlands of America." 
 
 In France after the Reformation there was a suc- 
 cession of bloody wars. Before these had com- 
 menced, persons who professed the reformed doc- 
 trines were continually dragged to the stake, but 
 during their continuance, in short intervals of peace, 
 the condition of the Protestants was made more tol- 
 erable by concessions extorted from the crown. Yet 
 this was only a lull before the storm which burst 
 upon the heads of the unsuspecting Protestants iu 
 the horrible massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 The result of the terrible wars in France was on 
 the whole favorable to Protestantism, its leader Henry 
 of Navarre being made king under the title of Henry 
 the Fourth* After a long and glorious reign he was as- 
 sassinated. Thus perished another friend of liberty. 
 
 The people of France did not attempt to obtain 
 any change in the constitution of their country, at 
 this most favorable opportunity, but satisfied with 
 their present glory and happiness, were careless in 
 regard to the future. Hence the civil liberties of 
 the French people were not greatly advanced by the 
 Reformation. 
 
 * Henry still retained his affection and regard for the 
 Protestants.
 
 4:0 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 In England * the Reformation was not immedi- 
 ately succeeded by war, though its influence was 
 soon felt throughout the entire kingdom. The reign- 
 ing monarch at that time was Henry the Eighth, a 
 prince of courage and ability but extremely tyranni- 
 cal. His reign was a very perilous one to the liber- 
 ties of England, and the constitution of that country 
 
 * "Lands were cultivated in England, as in other coun- 
 tries of Europe by serfs or " villains,'' who were bought and 
 sold with the soil. It was during the reign of Henry VII. 
 that the latest laws were enacted that regulated this species 
 of servitude. It was found that the produce of a large estate 
 could be much more advantageously disposed of by the peas- 
 ant that raises it, than by the landlord or the bailiff, who was 
 accustomed to receive it. The practice of granting leases to 
 the peasants began to prevail, and this practice entirely broke 
 the bonds of servitude. It was in a similar manner that 
 villeuage gradually went into disuse throughout the more 
 civilized parts of Europe. Thus personal freedom became 
 almost general in Europe." — R. G. Parker. 
 
 Three great constitutional principles. After describing 
 the prerogatives of the king of England during the middle 
 ages, Macaulay says : " But his power though ample, was 
 limited by three great constitutional principles, so ancient 
 that none can say when they began to exist, so potent that 
 their natural development, continued through many gen- 
 erations, has produced the order of things under which we 
 now live. First, the king could not legislate without the 
 consent of his parliament. Secondly, he could impose no 
 taxes without the consent of his parliament. Thirdly, he 
 was bound to conduct the executive administration accord- 
 ing to the laws of the land, and if he broke those laws, his 
 advisers and his agents were responsible." — Macavlay's His- 
 tort/ of Enr/land.
 
 HISTORY OF I.IBKRTY. 
 
 4-1 
 
 was in great clanger of being overthrown, as the par- 
 liament was in the habit of slavishly submitting to 
 the will of Henry. Fortunately it still retained the 
 power to tax, or rather to concur in the taxation of 
 the people. Fortunately also it was deemed neces- 
 sary by Henry to call frequent parliaments on ac- 
 count of the violent measures into which he was so 
 often hurried, and thus their use was kept up at this 
 very important period. 
 
 In the reign of his excellent son Edward the 
 Sixth, whose life, full of promise, was so early cut 
 off, those acts of parliament contrary to the spirit of 
 the constitution, which had been passed during the 
 reign of Henry, were repealed. 
 
 By reason of the alienation of Henry from the 
 Pope, and his appointing himself the spiritual head 
 of the church, in his own dominions, Protestantism 
 obtained a strong foothold in England, and during 
 the reign of Edward the Sixth, it was the religion of 
 the State.* 
 
 * In order that I may do the character of Henry the 
 Eighth no injustice, I will quote from the historian Froude, 
 who takes a different view of this monarch from that which 
 has generally been accepted by the world as the true one. 
 In concluding the reign of Henry he .-ays : 
 " Beyond and besides the Reformation, the constitution 
 of these islands now rests in large measure on foundations laid 
 in this reign. Henry brought Ireland within the reach of 
 English civilization. He absorbed Wales and the Palatinates
 
 42 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 Alas for England when good Edward died, for 
 Mary's reign was a fearful one for the cause of true 
 religion and of liberty, but they came forth from the 
 fires of martyrdom purified and strengthened.* 
 
 Cheerily rang the bells when Elizabeth ascended 
 the throne, and well they might, for the fearful dark- 
 ness had passed away, and the most remarkable reign 
 in the English annals had commenced. 
 
 into the general English system. He it was who raised the 
 House of Commons from the narrow duty of voting supplies, 
 and of passing without discussion the measures of the Privy 
 Council, and converted them into the first power in the 
 State under the crown. When he ascended the throne so 
 little did the Commons care for their privileges, that their 
 attendance at the sessions of parliament was enforced by a 
 law. They woke into life in 1529, and they became the 
 right hand of the king to subdue the resistance of the House 
 of Lords, and to force upon them a course of legislation 
 which from their hearts they detested. Other kings in times 
 of difficulty summoned their "great councils," composed of 
 peers or prelates, or municipal officials, or any persons whom 
 they pleased to nominate. Henry VIII. broke through the 
 ancient practice, and ever threw himself on the representa- 
 tives of the people. By the Reformation, and by the power 
 which he forced upon them, he had so interwoven the House 
 of Commons with the highest business of the State, that the 
 peers thenceforward sank to be their shadow. 
 
 " His personal faults were great, and he shared, besides 
 them, in the errors of his age ; but far deeper blemishes 
 would be but as scars upon the features of a sovereign who 
 in trying times sustained nobly the honor of the English 
 name, and carried the commonwealth securely through the 
 hardest crisis in its history." 
 
 * In the reign of Mary, from 1553 to 1558, a thousand
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 4:3 
 
 Though like her father Henry the Eighth, Eliza- 
 beth had a very high opinion of the royal prerogative, 
 she yet loved her people, and had an earnest desire 
 for their happiness. 
 
 The spirit of freedom still existed in England, 
 fostered doubtless by the doctrines of the Reformed 
 religion, which Elizabeth herself nominally espoused. 
 
 One of the most interesting exhibitions of this 
 spirit is to be found in the speech of Peter Went- 
 worth, a Puritan, in the House of Commons. 
 
 The Queen after having controlled debates at her 
 pleasure, and limited the jurisdiction of parliament 
 on various occasions, at length declared through the 
 speaker, that no bills concerning religion, except those 
 
 learned Englishmen fled from the stake at home to the happier 
 states of Continental Protestantism. Of these, great num- 
 bers, I know not how many, came to Geneva. There they 
 awaited the death of the Queen ; and then, sooner or later, 
 but in the time of Elizabeth, went back to England. 
 
 "I ascribe to that five years in Geneva an influence which 
 has changed the history of the world. I seem to myself to 
 trace to it, as an influence on the English race, a new the- 
 ology ; new politics ; another tone of character ; the opening 
 of another era of time and of liberty. I seem to myself to 
 trace to it the great civil war of England ; the Republican 
 Constitution framed in the cabin of the May-flower, the 
 divinity of Jonathan Edwards; the battle of Bunker Hill ; 
 the Independence of America." — Rvfus Choate. 
 
 The success of Elizabeth's reign was doubtless due in 
 some measure to her chief counsellor Sir William Cecil, after- 
 wards Lord Burleigh who was a true friend of liberty.
 
 44 HISTORY OF LIBERTT. 
 
 preferred by the clergy, should be debated in the 
 house. 
 
 Wentworth, who, though he had a strong attach- 
 ment to his Queen, by no means agreed with her 
 ideas of the unlimited extent of the royal preroga- 
 tive, among other fearless expressions made use of the 
 following. Addressing the House of Commons, he 
 said : " We are assembled to make or abrogate such 
 laws as may be the chiefest surety, safe keeping and 
 enrichment, of the noble realm of England. T do 
 think it expedient to open the commodities (advan- 
 tages) that grow to the prince and the whole state 
 by free speech used in this place." This noble and 
 fearless man then proceeded to indulge in language 
 which, though perfectly respectful toward his sove- 
 reign, indicated that he believed that the people too 
 had rights, which it was their bounden duty to main- 
 tain and preserve. For this freedom of debate he 
 was condemned to imprisonment, for, (such is the 
 language of the indictment) " the violent and wicked 
 words pronounced by him touching the Queen's ma- 
 jesty." After a month's imprisonment he was re- 
 leased by the clemency of Elizabeth. When brought 
 before a committee of the House to answer for his 
 speech, he said : " I do promise you all, if God 
 forsake me not, that I will never during life hold my 
 tongue if any message is sent wherein God is dis-
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 45 
 
 honored, the prince perilled or the liberties of the 
 parliament impeached." We can hardly conceive 
 of an example of greater moral courage than that of 
 Peter Wentworth, the forerunner of the illustrious 
 patriots who were to suffer and to die for the liber- 
 ties of England. 
 
 Doubtless his sentiments were responded to by 
 many a heart even at that early day.* 
 
 The contest between prerogative and privilege 
 took a perceptible shape in the reign of Elizabeth's 
 successor, James the First, the earliest of the line of 
 Stuarts. One of the most remarkable documents of 
 this period is entitled, " An Apology of the House 
 of Commons made to the king touching their privi- 
 leges." It is thought to have been written by Lord 
 Bacon. The arbitrary character of James, and his 
 high notions of the royal prerogative are shown by 
 the circumstance, that when the Commons sent to 
 him a protestation concerning their rights, and privi- 
 leges, and the jurisdiction of parliament, the king was 
 
 * During the reign of Elizabeth, Scotland, whose brave 
 people had always possessed a certain love of freedom, made a 
 rapid advance in civil and religious liberty. 
 
 Among the distinguished characters of this period the 
 beautiful and gifted Queen Mary and the hard but sturdy 
 reformer John Knox will always stand forth in marked 
 prominence, the one, with all her attractiveness, a represen- 
 tative of tyranny and superstition, the other, with all his 
 repellant severity, an advocate of liberty and religion.
 
 46 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. ■ 
 
 so enraged, that he tore it out of the journal of the 
 House. 
 
 We are now approaching a crisis in the history 
 of England, when there is to occur a conflict between 
 tyranny and liberty so terrible, that it will sunder 
 friends and relatives, cause blood to flow in torrents, 
 strike off the head of the monarch upon the scaffold, 
 and influence the destinies of England and of the 
 world.* 
 
 * " If we consider this question of example in a more ex- 
 tended view, and look to the general effect produced upon 
 the minds of men, it caunot be doubted but the opportunity 
 thus given to Charles to display his firmness and piety has 
 created more respect for his memory than it could otherwise 
 have obtained. It has been thought dangerous to the morals 
 of mankind, even in romance, to make us sympathize with 
 characters whose general conduct is blamable, but how 
 much greater must be the effect when, in real history, our 
 feelings are interested in. favor of a monarch with whom, to 
 say the least, his subjects were obliged to contend in arms 
 for their liberty ! After all, however, notwithstanding what 
 the more reasonable part of mankind may think upon this 
 question, it is much to be doubted whether this singular pro- 
 ceeding has not as much as any other circumstance served 
 to raise the character of the English nation in the opinion of 
 Europe in general.*' — "Fragment of History" by Charles 
 James Fox. 
 
 The example of the Dutch Republic had a great in- 
 fluence upon the English at this time ; also that of the patri- 
 ots of Greece and Rome, as there had recently been a 
 revival of classical learning in Europe. — Encyclopedia Brit- 
 annica. 
 •'The parliament granted an ample supply, the king
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 47 
 
 Charles the First, the son and successor of James, 
 was equally imbued with his immediate predecessors 
 with high sentiments in respect to his prerogative, hut 
 did not possess that love for his people, nor that desire 
 for their honor and welfare, which distinguished 
 them. Hence, after a long and patient though not 
 uncomplaining endurance of almost innumerable op- 
 pressions, a large number of the people, and among 
 them many men distinguished for great ability, were 
 changed from loyal and loving subjects to haters of 
 their ruler. The result of this change was a civil 
 war, by which England secured for herself the great 
 principles of freedom, and handed them down to 
 posterity. 
 
 ratified, in the most solemn manner, that celebrated law 
 which is known by the name of the Petition of Right, and 
 which is the second great charter of the liberties of England. 
 By ratifying that law, he bound himself never again to raise 
 money without the consent of the Houses, never again to 
 imprison any person, except in due course of law, and never 
 again to subject his people to the jurisdiction of courts-martial. 
 The day on which the royal sanction was, after many de- 
 lays, solemnly given to this act, was a day of joy and hope. 
 The Commons, who crowded the bar of the House of Lords, 
 broke forth into loud acclamations. . These acclamations 
 were re-echoed by the voice of the capital and of the nation ; 
 but within three weeks, it became manifest that Charles had 
 no intention of observing the compact into which he had en- 
 tered. The supply given by the representatives of the nation 
 was collected. The promise by which the supply had been 
 obtained was broken." — Mincaulai/'x History of England.
 
 48 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 Among the most remarkable men of the time was 
 the illustrious patriot John Hampden, whose name 
 has since pervaded the world, and will descend among 
 its greatest benefactors.* 
 
 He was noted for his affability and courtesy of 
 manner, which showed itself in private conversation 
 and in parliamentary debate. He was also distin- 
 guished for his wisdom, and he had the rare faculty 
 of leading others w T hile seeming to follow. He pos- 
 sessed exceeding modesty and humility, caring little 
 for office, but desirous of doing something to benefit 
 his fellow men. He had very great power over him- 
 self, and hence over others. His industry was untir- 
 ing, his ability of the highest order, his courage great, 
 and his piety so remarkable that he was ridiculed by 
 "his enemies as too zealous a Christian. While fight- 
 ing for his country, he was wounded in the shoulder. 
 Of this wound he soon after died at a time when it 
 seemed that liberty might be crushed. Thus does a 
 friend describe him as a man and as a soldier : 
 
 " Was he not pious, valiant, wise, and just, 
 Loyall and temperate ? everything that must 
 Make up a perfect harmonic Ye know 
 His constant actions have declared him so. 
 
 So was he truely valiant. I have seen 
 Him in the front of his regiment in green, 
 "When death about him did in ambush lye, 
 And whizzing shott like showers of arrowes five, 
 
 * "•Statesmen of the Commonwealth of England."
 
 HISTOKY OF LIBERTY. 49 
 
 Waving his conq'ring Steele, as if that he 
 From Mars had got the sole monopolie 
 Of never- failing courage ; and so ehcare 
 His fighting men ! 
 
 Farewell, beloved in parliament and field 
 Farewell thy sonldiers' faithfull broken shield !" 
 
 Soon after the death of Hampden the armies of 
 the Puritans were again successful under the lead- 
 ership of that wonderful man Oliver Cromwell, to 
 whose military genius was owing the triumph of the 
 popular cause.* 
 
 Had Charles the First succeeded in crushing the 
 parliament, in taxing his subjects at his own discre- 
 tion, and in forcing upon them forms of worship to 
 which a large number of them were opposed from 
 principle, the liberties of England would have 
 perished. 
 
 John Milton was, by his writings, a most power- 
 ful advocate in the cause of civil and religious liberty 
 during this so important period of English history. 
 
 * Among the other men of this age, distinguished in the 
 House of Commons for their ability and patriotism were Sir 
 John Elliot, John Pym, Henry Marten and Sir Harry Vane. 
 
 The protectorate of Cromwell during which England 
 was the fir?t power in Europe, was only justifiable on the 
 supposition that that country was not then prepared for a 
 republican government and that had such been instituted it 
 could have lasted but a short time, and would have cause*] 
 further bloodshed. .,
 
 50 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 In such words as these, with a sort of prophetic sor- 
 row, he closes his ' : Second Defense of the People."* 
 
 " As for myself to whatever state things may re- 
 turn, I have performed, and certainly with good will, 
 I hope not in vain, the service which I thought 
 would be of most use to the commonwealth. 
 
 " It is not before our doors alone that I have borne 
 my arms in defence of liberty. I have wielded them 
 in a field so w r ide that the justice of those which are 
 no vulgar deeds, shall be explained and vindicated 
 alike to foreign nations and our own countrymen. If 
 after achievements so magnanimous, ye basely fall 
 from your duty, if ye are guilty of any thing un- 
 worthy of you, be assured posterity will speak, and 
 thus pronounce its judgment. " 
 
 Too soon were the fears of the immortal poet, and 
 friend of his race realized.! In the reign of 
 * Mitford's Life of Milton. 
 
 f " The Habeas Corpus act passed by parliament in the 
 reign of Charles II. was very important for the security of 
 personal liberty. By this act every prisoner must be brought 
 before a judge, the cause of his detainer certified, and the 
 judge is authorized and bound to discharge him if the cause 
 of his imprisonment be insufficient or invalid. The viola- 
 tion of this statute is punishable by the highest penalties." — 
 Tytler's History. 
 
 " The twenty-sixth of May, 1679, is a great era in our 
 history. For on that day the Habeas Corpus Act received 
 the royal assent. From the time of the great charter, the 
 substantive law respecting the personal liberty of English- 
 men had been nearly the same as at present ; but it had been 
 inefficacious for waul of a stringent system of procedure.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 51 
 
 Charles the Second, the elevated spirit which actuated 
 the previous generation seems for a time to have 
 departed. That dissolute and contemptible monarch 
 often governed with the assistance of corrupt min- 
 isters, dishonorable magistrates and brutal judges. 
 Sir Matthew Hale, however, was an honorable excep- 
 tion. The people, weary of war, allowed those who 
 would gladly have roused them from their lethargy 
 to be led to the scaffold. 
 
 The noble patriot who had continually before his 
 mind a glorious vision of a state where there was 
 equality and freedom, of a republic foreshadowed by 
 Greece and Rome, but possessing all the elements of 
 lasting greatness, Algernon Sydney, and that other 
 whose highest ambition it was to preserve unimpaired 
 and strengthened the constitution of his country, and 
 to have a limited monarchy, Lord Russel, were both 
 executed for treason. Sir Harry Vane also suffered 
 death upon the scaffold on account of the prominent 
 part he had taken in the great rebellion.* 
 
 What was needed was not a new right, but a prompt and 
 searching remedy, and such a remedy the Habeas Corpus act 
 supplied. The king would gladly have refused his consent 
 to that measure ; but he was about to appeal from his parlia- 
 ment to his people on the question of the succession ; and he 
 could not venture, at so critical a moment, to reject a bill 
 Avhich was in the highest degree popular!" — Macaulay's 
 History of England. 
 
 * " Speaking of the ( 'ovenanters of Scotland, who endured
 
 52 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 James the Second's reign was even more foolish 
 and wicked than that of his brother.* By constantly 
 encroaching upon the rights of his subjects, and by 
 openly espousing Catholicism, he entirely lost their 
 affections, and finally and, most fortunately for them, 
 by his voluntary and ridiculous flight he opened the 
 
 everything in this reign for the sake of religious liberty, 
 Macaulay says : "Driven from the towns, they assembled on 
 heaths and mountains. Attacked by the civil power, they 
 without scruple repelled force by force. At every conven- 
 ticle they mustered in arms. They repeatedly broke out into 
 open rebellion. They were easily defeated and mercilessly 
 punished ; but neither defeat nor punishment could subdue 
 their spirit. Hunted down like wild beasts, tortured till 
 their bones were beaten flat, imprisoned by hundreds, hanged 
 by scores, exposed at one time to the license of soldiers from 
 England, abandoned at another time to the mercy of bands 
 of marauders from the highlands, they still stood at bay in a 
 mood so savage that the boldest and mightiest oppressor 
 could not but dread the audacity of their despair." 
 
 * " He who had expressed just indignation when the 
 priests of his own faith were hanged and quartered, amused 
 himself with hearing Covenanters shriek and seeing them 
 writhe while their knees were beaten flat in the boots. In this 
 mood he became king, and he immediately demanded and 
 obtained from the obsequious estates of Scotland, as the 
 surest pledge of their loyalty, the most sanguinary law that 
 has ever in our islands been enacted against Protestant Non- 
 conformists. 
 
 " With this law the whole spirit of his administration was 
 in perfect harmony. The fiery persecution which had raged 
 when he ruled Scotland as Vicegerent, waxed hotter than 
 over from the day on which he became sovereign." — Macau- 
 fay's History of England.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 53 
 
 way for that bloodless but most important revolution 
 by which he lost the throne. It was immediately 
 ascended by William of Orange and Mary the daugh- 
 ter of James, and a new era at once commenced.* 
 
 Parliament now established on a firm foundation 
 those principles of freedom which are the glory of 
 the English Constitution, William signing with 
 pleasure that new Magna Charta, the Bill of Rights, 
 which permanently secured the liberties of the 
 people. 
 
 He may therefore be regarded as the great friend 
 and defender of civil and religious liberty in England 
 at this most important period. During the reigns 
 
 * " On inviting William and Mary to the throne which 
 had been vacated by James II. the parliament found them- 
 selves in a situation to make conditions, and they availed 
 themselves of the opportunity thus afforded them of giving 
 something like a definite form to the constitution. The fol- 
 lowing important restrictions were accordingly adopted, and 
 have since been incorporated with the fundamental principles 
 of the government of England. 1. The monarch must be of 
 the Protestant faith. 2. The prerogative of the sovereign 
 cannot allow him to suspend the laws, nor interfere with 
 their execution. 3. The monarch cannot levy money, without 
 the consent of parliament. -4. A standing army cannot be 
 kept up iu time of peace, without the consent' of parliament. 
 5. The subjects have a right at all times to petition the 
 crown. 6. Parliament must be frequently assembled. 7. 
 The monarch must not interfere with the elections. 8. Per- 
 fect freedom of speech in debate must at all times be allowed 
 to the members of parliament." — R. G. Parker.
 
 54: HISTORY OF LIBERT V. 
 
 which have succeeded the general liberties of the 
 people have been continually confirmed by acts of 
 parliament. 
 
 Fortunately for the race, liberty was to have a 
 more extended sphere, and a larger development, 
 in a land where tyranny had never been known.* 
 
 In the latter part of the reign of James the First, 
 and about twenty years before the commencement of 
 the civil war in England, the May-Flower, (name 
 emblematic of the spirit of freedom,) landed at Ply- 
 mouth, then a wilderness in the comparatively un- 
 known land of America. In the depth of winter the 
 intrepid band of Pilgrims, a few devoted men and 
 women, began a settlement at this place. Exiles 
 from their native land by reason of religious in- 
 tolerance, they had for eleven years dwelt in Hol- 
 land, where they had had an opportunity to enjoy 
 and study the free republican institutions of the 
 United Provinces, and, what they deemed of still 
 greater importance, to worship God according to the 
 
 * " Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation 
 rousing herself like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her 
 invincible locks ; methinks I see her as an eagle mewing her 
 mighty youth, and kindling her undazzled eyes at the full 
 mid-day beam purging and unsealing her long-abused sight at 
 the fountain itself of heavenly radiance : while the whole 
 noise of timorous and flocking birds, with those also that 
 love the twilight, flutter about, amazed at what she means." 
 —Milton.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 55 
 
 dictates of conscience. The approach of war, and 
 other even more weighty reasons caused them again 
 to emigrate. 
 
 Governor Bradford in i: Young's Chronicles," thus 
 describes the entrance of the Pilgrims into Holland. 
 
 " Being now come into the Low Countries they saw 
 many goodly and fortified cities, strongly walled and 
 guarded with troops of armed men. Also they heard 
 a strange and uncouth language and beheld the differ- 
 ent manners and customs of the people with their 
 strange fashions and attires ; all so far differing from 
 that of their plain country villages, wherein they 
 were bred and born and had so long lived, as it 
 seemed they were come into a new world. But 
 those were not the things they much looked on, or 
 long took up their thoughts, for they had other work 
 in hand, and another kind of war to wage and main- 
 tain. For though they saw fair and beautiful cities, 
 flowing with abundance of all sorts of wealth and 
 riches, yet it was not long before they saw the grim 
 and grizzled face of poverty coming on them like 
 an armed man, with whom they must buckle and en- 
 counter, and from whom they could not fly. But 
 they were armed with faith and patience against him 
 and all his encounters ; and though they were some- 
 times foiled, yet by God's assistance they prevailed. 
 and got the victory."
 
 56 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 And again: " Being thus settled (atLeyden) after 
 many difficulties, they continued many years in a 
 comfortable condition, enjoying much sweet and de- 
 lightful society and spiritual comfort together, in the 
 ways of God, under the able ministry and prudent 
 government of Mr. John Robinson and Mr. William 
 Brewster who was an assistant with him in the place 
 of an elder unto which he was now called and chosen 
 by the church ; so they grew in knowledge and other 
 gifts and graces of the spirit of God, and lived to- 
 gether in peace and love and holiness. And many 
 came unto them from divers parts of England, so as 
 they grew a great congregation. " 
 
 Among the reasons he gives for their removal is 
 the following : " Lastly, and which was not the least, 
 a great hope and inward zeal they had of laying some 
 good foundation, or at least to make some way there- 
 unto, for the propagating and advancing the Gospel 
 of the Kingdom of Christ in these remote parts of the 
 world ; yea though they should be but as stepping 
 stones unto others for performing of so great a 
 work." * 
 
 Thus was the liberty of America born of religion. 
 Stern were the struggles, and terrible the hardships 
 
 * Referring to the motives of our Puritan ancestors who 
 emigrated to this country, the historian Bancroft says, — 
 " Puritanism was religion struggling for the people."
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 57 
 
 the Pilgrims encountered, and many during the first 
 winter fell victims to cold, hunger and disease, but 
 gradually they overcame all obstacles, and founded a 
 colony. This settlement, together with the early 
 ones in Virginia, was the foundation of those colonies 
 which existed for so many years in great prosperity, 
 owing allegiance to the mother country, and glad to 
 perform the part of dutiful children.* The same 
 principles which had been fought for there, and which 
 were so dear to the people of England, were dear to 
 them. How strange does it then seem that the 
 parent should try to oppress her offspring. How 
 strange that England should attempt to force upon 
 her colonies the odious system of taxation without 
 representation, an evil against which the people of 
 that country had always themselves contended. 
 That this attempt to tax the colonies was opposed 
 by some of the greatest orators and statesmen Enj?- 
 land has ever produced is well known. But the 
 warnings of Chatham and Burke were disregarded, 
 and selfishness prevailed.-)- Said Lord Chatham in 
 
 * A marked contrast.—" Lord, for schools everywhere 
 among us — that before we die we may be .so happy, as to see 
 a good school in every plantation in the country."' — Prayer 
 of John Eliot in the General Court of Massachusetts in 1645. 
 
 "1 thank God there are no free schools nor printing. 
 God keep us from both." — Sir William Berkeley, Governor 
 of Virginia in 1070. 
 
 f Fox and Pitt also opposed it.
 
 58 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 the House of Lords, in a speech delivered just before 
 the commencement of hostilities, "America is almost 
 in open rebellion. I rejoice that America has re- 
 sisted. " Again, addressing the ministers of his 
 country, lie exclaimed : " The whole of your politi- 
 cal conduct has been one continued series of weak- 
 ness, temerity, despotism, ignorance, futility, negli- 
 gence, blundering, and the most notorious servility, 
 incapacity and corruption." 
 
 This question of taxing America had been dis- 
 cussed as early as 1765, and ten years before the 
 declaration of Independence Dr. Franklin declared at 
 the bar of the House of Commons, that America 
 would never consent to the Stamp Act. How then 
 are we to account for the strange infatuation of the 
 Mother Country, for the king, the ministry ;ind a 
 large majority in both Houses of Parliament, and of 
 the influential classes in the nation were in favor of 
 forcing taxation upon this country. 
 
 An able and learned writer, William Smyth,* him- 
 self an Englishman, in a series of admirable lectures 
 delivered and published in England and republished 
 in this country, gives the following as in his estima- 
 tion the causes for this peculiar and unparalleled 
 conduct. 
 
 * I am indebted to these lectures of Professor Smyth for 
 many important facts in the constitutional history of Europe.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 59 
 
 " An ignorance of or inattention to the great 
 leading principles of political economy ; high over- 
 weening national pride ; a mean and unworthy 
 money selfishness ; high principles of government, 
 and a certain vulgarity of thinking on political 
 subjects." 
 
 The same writer also makes use of the following: 
 expressions, which if some of the more influential of 
 his countrymen had heeded they would have proved 
 themselves wiser, and better men than their words 
 and actions have since shown them to be. "If I 
 could prepare your minds hereafter to avoid them 
 (the things just mentioned), I should consider it to be 
 one of the greatest objects which these lectures could 
 accomplish." And again he says, with what the light 
 of events then in the future has shown to have been a 
 true knowledge of his countrymen, " I am compelled 
 to believe that if similar questions were to come before 
 us to-morrow we should be not much better or wiser 
 than those who went before." Though exactly simi- 
 lar questions have not arisen, questions of equally 
 vital importance to the interests of mankind have, 
 and Lord Palmerston and the government of England 
 have proved themselves lineal successors of Lord 
 North and the promoters of the American War. On 
 the other hand John Bright, Richard Cobden and 
 their associates, and the humbler classes, numerically
 
 (JO HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 a majority, but possessing comparatively little in 
 fluence, have shown themselves true descendants of 
 Lord Chatham, and the opponents of that war.* 
 
 Here then was a mighty nation, which had just 
 humbled the power of France in a series of brilliant 
 victories, and which was soon again to humble it in 
 the person of Napoleon Bonaparte ; a nation united 
 to its colonies by all those ties of kindred and reli- 
 gion which are esteemed dearest and most sacred 
 among mankind ; which itself for successive ages and 
 
 generations from the most remote period of its known 
 
 i 
 
 * Several years before the late war, Coleman, in his 
 "European Life and Manners," thus writes from London : 
 " I am sorry to say that few events would more gratify many 
 people here than the dissolution of the American Republic, 
 and the defeat of the great experiment of an elective govern- 
 ment." This is also the universal testimony of American 
 travelers during the war. 
 
 The London Daily Xews, which, with the London Star, 
 gave help and encouragement to us by its cheering words 
 whrn we most needed them, in an article on the Alabama 
 Claims, thus alludes to the position assumed by the learned 
 writer " Historicus : " 
 
 '• He maintains that the body of the English people are 
 true to America and to the cause of freedom, and they 
 ought not to be held responsible for a small and clamorous 
 minority which neither represented the spirit of the nation, 
 nor was able to control the policy of the government. Now 
 this is perhaps the most startling passage ever penned even 
 by a writer so forgetful as 'Historicus.' For him to state 
 and for the Tories to print that the Southern sympathizers 
 constituted but "a small and clamorous minority ' must be 
 numbered among; the sis^ns of the times."
 
 HISTORY OF MBKRTT. Q [ 
 
 history had claimed the right of taxation to be in the 
 people, in vindication of which it had also overthrown 
 its own government ; here was such a nation about 
 to make war upon a seemingly defenceless people. 
 
 The result of that struggle the world has long 
 known. Let us hurriedly follow our ancestors as they 
 contend for seven years against tyranny. The civil 
 war begins at Lexington in April, 1775, followed by 
 the battle of Bunker Hill, in the same year. Theu 
 occur at varying intervals of time, the appointment 
 of General Washington to the supreme command, the 
 evacuation of Boston by the British, the declaration 
 of Independence, the disasters of Long Island, and of 
 Fort Washington, and the retreat of our army 
 through the Jerseys. Then the brilliant afTair at 
 Trenton, the success at Princeton, and the arrival of 
 La Fayette, restore their drooping courage.* These 
 again are followed by the reverse at Brandywine, the 
 unsuccessful attack at German town, and the terrible 
 winter at Vnlley Forge. Afterwards occur the battle 
 of Bennington, the surrender of Burgoyne, the vic- 
 tory at Monmouth, the great success of the combined 
 American and French forces, the surrender of Corn- 
 
 * This friend of liberty was then only twenty years old. 
 His arrival and the sympathy and material aid of the French 
 nation at this critical period was a providential circumstance 
 in our national history for which we owe lasting grati- 
 tude.
 
 i">2 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 wallis. and finally the evacuation of New York. This 
 joyful event took place on the twenty-fifth of Novem- 
 ber, 1783, now celebrated as Evacuation Daw and ten 
 days later the remaining British forces embarked 
 from Staten Island and Long Island.* Thus our an- 
 cestors, for seven years of mingled good fortune and 
 disaster, contended against tyranny, and thus their 
 labors were crowned with success, and the American 
 Republic under the guidance of Washington com- 
 menced its career of usefulness and glory. 
 
 The names of the distinguished patriots of this 
 period will ever be cherished in the hearts of the 
 lovers of liberty. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, 
 Alexander Hamilton and Patrick Henry will live 
 while their country lives. Warren and Putnam still 
 speak to us from the sods of Bunker Hill. The ex- 
 amples of Greene. Schuyler. Montgomery, Stark, 
 Sullivan and others have inspired our generals to 
 deeds of immortal fame. The spirit of the Revolu- 
 tion, an unquenchable love of "liberty regulated by 
 law,"' has animated their worthy descendants at Fort 
 
 * We are now beginning to realize the truth and force of 
 the beautiful prediction of the Preserver of his Country : 
 •• The mystic cords of memory, stretching from every battle- 
 field and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone 
 all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the 
 Union, when again touched., as surely they will be. by the 
 better angels of our nature.'" — Lincoln's address to the South 
 in his first Inaugural.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. fi-3 
 
 Sumter, Murfreesboro, Antietam, Gettysburg and 
 Richmond, and in all the battles, sieges, privations 
 and conflicts of the war. both on land and sea. whether 
 physical or moral. " to do and if need be to die for 
 their country." * 
 
 As William of Orange was the guide and father 
 of his people during the contest between tyranny and 
 liberty in Holland, so Washington, uniting in himself 
 great abilities both as a general and as a statesman, 
 led his countrymen safely through the great struggle 
 for liberty and the rights of man. 
 
 George Washington was a man of broad and com- 
 prehensive views, and of great elevation of mind. 
 He loved liberty as his birthright, and he desired it 
 for others because he believed it to be their birth- 
 right. 
 
 His modesty was remarkable, and by reason of 
 his eminence, was especially noticeable on public 
 occasions. Though not distinguished for great learn- 
 ing, he was possessed of consummate wisdom. Unam- 
 bitious of office or of distinction for their own sake, he 
 accepted them for the good of his country. His piety 
 was apparent but unobtrusive. Unshaken by the 
 delusions of party and of faction, and having supreme 
 
 * Gen. Robert Anderson. Hon. Daniel 8. Dickinson and 
 others who hud served their country by sword, voice or pen, 
 were present at the reading ot' this paper.
 
 64: HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 control over his passions, he stood calmly before 
 the nation, worthy of the admiration of his own and 
 of succeeding- generations.* 
 
 The Americans having gained their independence 
 the desire of liberty was infused into the hearts of 
 others. Revolutions followed in several of the 
 nations of Europe. 
 
 First Poland endeavored to shake off the tyranni- 
 cal grasp of Russia, but after a fierce struggle the 
 leader of the revolt, the heroic Kosciusko, fell, War- 
 saw was taken, and the Poles were reduced to sub- 
 mission. The French revolution came next. Its 
 fearful excesses caused Madame Roland, one of its 
 noblest victims, to exclaim beneath the guillotine, 
 apostrophising the statue of Liberty and bowing her 
 
 * " Such a chief magistrate as Washington appears like 
 the pole star in a clear sky to direct the skillful statesman. 
 His presidency will form an epoch, and be distinguished as 
 the age of Washington. Already it assumes its high place in 
 the political region. Like the milky way it whitens along 
 its allotted portion of the hemisphere. The latest genera- 
 tions of men will survey through the telescope of history the 
 space where so many virtues blend their rays, and delight to 
 separate them into groups and distinct virtues. As the best 
 illustration of them, the living monument to which the first 
 of patriots would have chosen to consign his fame, it is my 
 earnest prayer to heaven that our country may subsist even 
 to that late day, in the plenitude of its wisdom and happi- 
 ness, and mingle its mild glory with Washington's." — Fisher 
 Anus.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 65 
 
 head before it : " Oh Liberty, what crimes are com- 
 mitted in thy name." 
 
 Here was shown in a very striking manner the 
 absolute necessity of the guiding influence of religion 
 in a state. The right that some men arrogate to 
 themselves of writing and speaking whatever in their 
 own evil hearts they may choose to write and speak, 
 however vile, traitorous, or blasphemous it may be, 
 however subversive of human or divine government, 
 merits the strong arm of the law, and deserves as it 
 will receive the wrath of the Almighty. 
 
 The spirit of liberty next revisited the classic land 
 of Greece. The descendants of the ancient Greeks 
 rose against the tyranny of the Turks, to which they 
 had been subjected for four centuries. After a bloody 
 revolution they succeeded in throwing ofif the yoke 
 of subjection, and now enjoy the blessings of a limited 
 monarchy resembling that of England. During the 
 progress of their rebellion brave men joined them from 
 Europe and America ; the eloquent voices of Webster, 
 Clay and Everett were raised in their behalf, and 
 Lord Byron, whose loftiest strains were in honor of 
 freedom, engaged in their cause. To him and to 
 Moore, Shelley and Campbell the cause of liberty 
 throughout Europe has been indebted, nor will their 
 words ever cease to inspire the breasts of freemen.* 
 * This love of freedom i^ the redeeming feature in livron
 
 66 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 In Ireland there have been two attempts at re- 
 bellion, both of them unsuccessful. In the former, 
 Robert Emmet fell a victim. His memory has ever 
 since been cherished with great affection by his coun- 
 trymen. His distinguished brother, an exile for 
 freedom, was an ornament to the city and land of his 
 adoption.* 
 
 At a later period the cause of the Independence 
 of Ireland was espoused by some young and gallant 
 spirits. On the failure of this attempt some of the 
 leaders took refuge in the United States, among 
 whom was the gallant and eloquent Meagher, who, 
 with thousands of his countrymen, " marched to 
 the music of the Union," as they heard it played by 
 unseen ringers upon the Harp of Erin. 
 
 Hungary, long oppressed by Austria, asserted her 
 independence, but finally the brave Hungarians were 
 compelled to yield to the superior might of their ad- 
 versary, and Kossuth, their great leader, to fly to 
 other lands.f 
 
 In the year 1S48 a remarkable movement occurred 
 in Europe in favor of a larger liberty. Beginning in 
 
 and Shelley, regarded as powers in the world. There is no 
 more powerful auxiliary to liberty than a pure literature. 
 
 * Thomas Addis Emmet. 
 
 f ''Pardon me, I thought I saw the thousands of my 
 countrymen pass again in review before me, and heard them 
 shout again Liberty or death ! " — Kossuth in England.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 67 
 
 France, it spread rapidly throughout the central and 
 lower portions of Europe, the several states of Ger- 
 many and Italy being especially affected by it, in 
 many of which large concessions were made to the 
 people, which were soon t;iken back by most of the 
 governments which gave them. The King of Sar- 
 dinia, however, Victor Emanuel, never attempted to 
 recall his grants, but rather confirmed and enlarged 
 them. 
 
 The foundations of the limited and beneficent 
 monarchy in whose opening career we feel so deep an 
 interest, were laid by the Emperor Napoleon III. 
 eleven years afterward. In the later history of Italy 
 three names stand forth in marked prominence, 
 that of the enthusiastic and heroic liberator Garibaldi, 
 whose sword helped to sever the bands which bound 
 his country, that of the fearless and eloquent Maz- 
 zini, whose burning words infused into the breasts of 
 the Italians a love of freedom and hatred of des- 
 potism, and that of the sagacious and able Count 
 Cavour, whose liberal and comprehensive mind was 
 greatly influential in framing the new constitr ion of 
 the Kingdom of Italy. 
 
 In France the revolution by a sudden 0' oreak 
 overthrew the throne of Louis Phillipe, who fled in 
 disguise from his kingdom. A republic then arose, 
 but owing to the want of* a true appreciation among
 
 (18 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 the people of the blessings of freedom, it existed but 
 for a short period. 
 
 A few of the ablest writers of the age with refer- 
 ence to civil liberty, have been Frenchmen. Worthy 
 of especial honor are De Gasparin and Laboulaye, 
 whose words of cheer and encouragement during our 
 late fearful struggle for the preservation of our in- 
 stitutions, and the welfare of mankind, wafted by 
 favoring breezes across the Atlantic, have brought 
 comfort to the hearts of thousands.* 
 
 In Germany the love of freedom has been strong, 
 though there are still many hindrances to its pro- 
 gress. This is doubtless the reason why so many of 
 that nation have emigrated to this country. 
 
 To no class of foreigners are we so much indebted 
 for aid in our terrible struggle as to the Germans. 
 The names of Rosecranz, Heintzelman, Sigel, Weifc- 
 zel and others will be held in grateful remembrance 
 by their and our descendants. 
 
 The distinguished scholar and clergyman Rev. 
 Philip Schaff, in a recent visit to Germany, was 
 much impressed by the demonstrations of affection 
 
 * "The whole world, I have just said, is engaged in the 
 contest. The uprising of this people upraises us also : this 
 spectacle of sufferings nobly accepted does us good. We feel 
 that one of those storms which purify the atmosphere is pass- 
 
 g at this moment over our globe." — De Gasparin in 
 
 America before Europe"
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 69 
 
 exhibited toward America among the masses of the 
 people. 
 
 On one very important occasion his remarks rela- 
 tive to the progress of freedom, and the downfall of 
 slavery, were received with tumultuous enthusiasm. 
 
 Alexander II., Czar of Russia, the true and faith- 
 ful friend of America, having seen the evils of slavery 
 in his own vast empire, and feeling that the strongest 
 bulw r ark of a nation is the love of the people for 
 their ruler, by his " imperial manifesto," published 
 March 17th, 1861, provided for the emancipation of 
 millions of serfs, and thus gained for himself a proud 
 name among the world's benefactors. 
 
 Switzerland has been and is still in the enjo\ rnent 
 of a good degree of liberty. She has sympathized 
 heartily with us in our struggle for freedom. One 
 can almost imagine that her lofty mountains have 
 shouted to one another for joy at the triumphs of 
 liberty, and have veiled their heads in clouds when 
 slavery seemed to succeed. 
 
 The condition of Ireland is now an object of 
 especial interest and importance, which is enhanced 
 by the feeling, that the excitement in that country 
 and in England is in a considerable degree the result 
 of the vindication of the free institutions of America 
 in the late civil war. Our friend Professor Gold win 
 Smith, whose admirable address delivered during the
 
 70 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 war in this place you well remember, in an essay cm 
 "Irish History and Irish Character," shows very 
 clearly that Ireland has been and is still an oppressed 
 country. 
 
 One of the abuses which he mentions is that 
 foreign landlords are assisted by the British Parlia- 
 ment in maintaining a system of land laws, which 
 deprive the tenants of their rightful earnings, reduce 
 multitudes of them to pauperism, and are inhuman and 
 barbarous. Hence the condition of the Irish is any 
 thing but prosperous. With a fertile soil and a be- 
 nignant climate they have a poor agriculture. With 
 excellent ports and harbors they have but little com- 
 merce. With the most extensive manufactures in 
 the world in a neighboring sland their supply of 
 home manufactured fabrics is very limited. There- 
 fore they have been and are now emigrating to this 
 country in great numbers. It is estimated that 
 nearly two millions of the Irish people are paupers, 
 and a very small number have the right of suffrage.* 
 
 Daniel O'Connell, — who was indefatigable in his 
 efforts for the good of Ireland, and whose admirable 
 letter, written to his countrymen in America some 
 
 * Earl Mayo, chief secretary for Ireland, in reply to a 
 speech of John Francis Maguire, member of parliament for 
 Cork, March 10th, 1868, on the wrongs of Ireland, adduced 
 this very singular evidence of the prosperity of that country, 
 viz., that the consumption of spirits was increasing.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERT V. 71 
 
 years since, denouncing them for the sympathy with 
 slavery which many of them had, and still have, not- 
 withstanding their love for their own liberties, was 
 circulated by the Loyal League, and helped greatly 
 the cause of freedom, — openly advocated universal 
 suffrage, and opposed the state church, which, sup- 
 ported as it always has been by the public treasury, 
 and compulsory tithes, and entirely at variance with 
 the wishes of a majority of the people, is an injury to 
 the cause of true religion and of liberty.* 
 
 Surely the way to christianize Ireland is not to 
 keep any such institution as that over it, which sa- 
 vors of the spirit of persecution and religious intol- 
 erance, but to remove it, and to spread the Bible far 
 and wide in every hamlet and peasant's cot- 
 Then will Ireland bloom and blossom as the rose. 
 Then will intelligence and virtue prevail. Then will 
 Irishmen understand their rights, and be able to 
 maintain them. Then will the eloquent words of one 
 of her most gifted orators be fully realized in spirit, 
 whether she remains a part of the United Kingdom, 
 or becomes entirely independent. 
 
 When in 1782, Ireland by a resort to arms had 
 extorted from England the independence of her judi- 
 
 * This evil lias now been removed by act of Parliament. 
 The church and State are now separated to the mutual advan- 
 tage of both.
 
 72 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 ciary and parliament. Grattan arose in her House of 
 Commons and said : 
 
 "I am now to address a free people; ages have 
 passed away, and this is the first moment in which 
 you could be distinguished by that appellation. I 
 found Ireland on her knees ; I watched over her with 
 a maternal solicitude. I have traced her progress 
 from injuries to arms, from arms to liberty. Spirit 
 of Swift, spirit of Molyneaux, your genius has pre- 
 vailed. Ireland is now a nation. In that character 
 I hail her, and, bowing to her august presence, I say, 
 'Live Forever!"'* 
 
 In England the cause of liberty, already consid- 
 erably advanced, as we have seen, is making slow but 
 decided progress. 
 
 Several years since, the anti-corn law and the bill 
 for reform in parliament passed after great opposition, 
 principally through the earnest efforts of John 
 Bright and of our distinguished and much lamented 
 friend Richard Cobden. The masses of the English 
 
 * By the passage of the Land Act, the two great questions 
 which have agitated Ireland have now been settled, though 
 there is still great commotion in that distracted country. 
 
 It seems as though the effect of the passage of the Land 
 Act would be beneficial. The laudlords are often obliged to 
 make sacrifices, and tht, tenants are beginning to make im- 
 provements. The next great reform will probably be that of 
 the ballot, and then the Irish people will really be politically 
 emancipated.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 73 
 
 people are not adequately represented in parliament, 
 nor have they the privilege of voting.* 
 
 Sir Morton Peto, in a speech on reform made at 
 Bristol, alludes to this fact as especially worthy of the 
 consideration of his countrymen, that after having 
 put down a most formidable rebellion, our army of a 
 million of men should disappear almost entirely in 
 the ranks of the people far more quietly and quickly 
 than it was raised. 
 
 Said he in conclusion : " If these men can go and 
 
 * "The word borough (or burgh) meant originally a forti- 
 fied town ; but the term was early restricted to those towns 
 which sent burgesses to parliament. Previous to the reform 
 of parliament, which took place a few years ago, several cen- 
 turies had elapsed since the distribution of the representatives 
 among the towns was fixed. Many places, formerly popu- 
 lous, and entitled to be represented, had dwindled into insig- 
 nificance, and yet still retained their original privilege of 
 sending members to the parliament. These were called rotten 
 boroughs. Other cities had in the meanwhile risen into im- 
 portance, with a large and dense population, without enjoy- 
 ing the same privilege. The reform of parliament was 
 effected by taking the undue privilege from the rotten boroughs 
 and bestowing it upon the towns or cities in some proportion 
 to the present population." — R. G. Parker. 
 
 " Some of the principal causes of dissatisfaction that now 
 exist among the poorer classes in England are : 
 
 1st. The disproportion that exists between the great 
 landed proprietors, and the actual cultivators of the g Mind. 
 
 2d. The great burden of the taxes ; and 3d. Tin over- 
 grown revenue of the Established Church with its very 
 unequal and unjust division.*' — R. G. Parker.
 
 74 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 be absorbed in civil life it must show that the country 
 possesses resources such as were never seen before and 
 which nations in Europe would do well to imitate." 
 
 America feels no hatred toward England. No ! 
 the spirit of America is love for mankind. We in- 
 deed feel that we have been injured, and that at a 
 time when friendship from those of our own blood 
 would have been most highly appreciated. 
 
 We feel also that our claims for indemnity for 
 losses upon the sea, so ably set fortli by a descendant 
 of two of our illustrious Presidents, have been treated 
 in too sophistical and narrow a spirit.* 
 
 But we do not, we would not forget that it was 
 from our English ancestors that we, as a people, im- 
 bibed our love for civil and religious liberty. Milton 
 and Hampden, Chatham and Burke, claim kindred 
 
 It seems probable that the State church of England will 
 erelong follow the State church of Ireland into dignified re- 
 tirement. With such opponents as Miall, who against great 
 and long continued opposition lias persistently brought the 
 subject of disestablishment before parliament, and Bright, 
 that champion of human progress, whose clarion voice cheered 
 the hearts of thousands in the North daring the Rebellion, 
 with sach opponents as these and with the tide of civilization 
 and enlightenment against it, this monument of past ages 
 must erelong yield. 
 
 * The proposal on the part of England of a joint commis- 
 sion to arbitrate this important question, followed by the 
 treaty of Washington, seemed to be marked by a desire to do 
 justly.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 75 
 
 with us from their graves, and we delight to hold 
 them in lasting honor. 
 
 Let England be great, wealthy and powerful. 
 Let her commerce cover the seas. Let her provincial 
 territory be unbounded. We do not envy. We re- 
 joice. But we feel that the true greatness of a 
 nation lies not in these things, but in the expansion 
 of its ideas. 
 
 May the golden chain of liberty stretch across 
 the Atlantic, and unite England and America. All 
 hail, then, to the work of reform in England. 
 
 In South America, after the revolution, republics 
 sprang up rapidly in imitation of ours, one of which, 
 Chili, recently vindicated her rights against the as- 
 sumptions of Spain. 
 
 Mexico also was formerly a republic, though by 
 no means a model one, and if the signs of the times 
 are not deceitful she will soon resume her former con- 
 dition. Here it has clearly been shown, that a re- 
 public, in order to be successful, must rest upon the 
 virtue and intelligence of the people. 
 
 Liberia, the African republic, stretches forth her 
 arms to the native tribes, and to all the poor sons of 
 Africa, and welcomes them to the blessings of freedom. 
 Some from the United States are annually emigrating 
 there, though the majority will doubtless prefer to re- 
 main in the land which they have helped to redeem.
 
 76 
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 In Hayti or St, Domingo Toussaint L'Ouverture, 
 by his great military ability, conquered freedom for 
 the blacks, defeating the English and Spaniards in 
 several engagements, but, incurring the enmity of 
 Napoleon, he was captured by treachery and trans- 
 ferred from the position of governor to a dungeon in 
 France, where he perished by starvation, a martyr in 
 the cause of the freedom of his race. The poet 
 Wordsworth has embalmed in immortal verse the 
 fame of this heroic chieftain. 
 
 St Domingo is now a republic. 
 
 In Jamaica, and the British West India islands, 
 slavery was abolished several years since, through 
 the efforts of those distinguished philanthropists Wil- 
 berforce, Clarkson and Buxton,* but yet there has 
 since existed a condition of things scarcely preferable 
 to actual slavery, being a system of caste, in which 
 the planter class has had the supremacy, and greatly 
 oppressed the blacks. 
 
 * " By the act abolishing slavery in the British West 
 India Colonies, all children under six years of age, or born 
 after August 1st, 1834, were declared free : and all slaves 
 above the age of six years were divided into two classes ; 
 one of which was to become free in August, 1838, and the 
 other in August of 1840 ; so that after the latter period, 
 no one was to remain in a state of slavery. The sum of 
 twenty millions of pounds sterling was granted to the owners 
 of the slaves, to indemnify them for their loss." — R. G. 
 Parker's (lutli)ips of History.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. '7 
 
 This system finally culminated in the massacre of 
 a multitude of the oppressed race and the cruel 
 death of that heroic advocate of their rights, George 
 W. Gordon. 
 
 And what was this the result of? I answer, the 
 spirit of slavery which, though slavery itself had been 
 nominally abolished, still remained ; that same spirit 
 which, after contaminating our fair land during all its 
 existence, finally drenched it in blood, massacred its 
 citizens in a quiet town and its soldiers after surren- 
 der on a field of battle, starved them by thousands in 
 loathsome prisons, and basely murdered our President. 
 
 Seeing that such have been its results, should it 
 be tolerated in any form by the American people ? 
 
 Slavery, thank God ! has been nominally abolished, 
 but it is still an enemy to be feared as well as to be 
 hated. Hence if there be any of its spirit yet remain- 
 ing, and threatening evil to any portion of our land, it 
 should be extirpated. Then smiling can we wave our 
 hands and shout to the coming millions to advance. 
 
 The fearfully black cloud which so long obscured 
 the mild blue of the heavens has rolled away. Some 
 cloudlets, however, still hover above our horizon. 
 Sun of freedom, fill them with thy light ere they 
 become portents of a storm ! 
 
 And yet how sublime is the prospect which un- 
 folds itself as we look forward into the future.
 
 78 
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 As when in the still sunset hour one sees the 
 bright orb of day glide calmly down the western sky 
 amid a flood of radiant glory, his soul is enthralled 
 by the enchanting picture, so he who loves thee, 
 Liberty, is enraptured with the wondrous vision, and 
 exultantly exclaims with the poet : 
 
 " Take, freedom, take thy radiant round ; 
 When dimmed revive, when lost return, 
 Till not a shrine through earth be found 
 On which thy glories shall not burn." 
 
 In the farewell address of Washington to his 
 countrymen he cautioned them with great earnestness 
 to beware of factious strife. It is evident that fear 
 of this weighed heavily upon the mind of the Father 
 of his Country as lie looked forward to the future. 
 The result has proved the wisdom of those words. 
 Gradually a political heresy crept in which divided 
 the different sections of the country — the doctrine of 
 state rights. Though this was not an unfavorite 
 theory of a certain class of statesmen before, it seems 
 to have been conceived as a practical measure in the 
 mind of John C. Calhoun, who disseminated it among 
 the brilliant and ambitious spirits of the South, they 
 seizing upon it with avidity. Jefferson Davis in his 
 last speech at Charleston told the inhabitants of that 
 city that he learned this political doctrine from the lips 
 of the revered Calhoun. So far indeed did this doc-
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 79 
 
 trine of the right of a state to disobey or annul an act 
 of Congress infatuate people that the State of South 
 Carolina passed an act, called the "nullification act," 
 which was revolutionary in its nature. Andrew 
 Jackson, then President of the United States, put an 
 immediate stop to these strange proceedings, and 
 thus saved constitutional liberty.* 
 
 But there was another evil, more baneful than 
 this which the republic was obliged to contend 
 against. It was slavery. 
 
 When we consider that the light of Christianity 
 
 dawned upon the earth more than eighteen hundred 
 
 years ago, it would seem almost incredible that "die 
 
 barbarous and hateful institution of slavery should 
 
 * I adjure you as you honor their memory (viz. that of 
 your ancestors), as you love the cause of freedom to which 
 they dedicated themselves, as you prize the peace of your 
 country, the lives of its best citizens and your own fair fame, 
 to retrace your steps. Tell them (the leaders) that compared 
 to disunion all other evils are light, because that brings with 
 it an accumulation of all, declare that you will never take 
 the field unless the star spangled banner of your country 
 shall float over you ; that you will not be stigmatized when 
 dead, and dishonored and scorned while you live, as the 
 authors of the first attack on the constitution of your country. 
 Its destroyers you cannot be. You may disturb its peace, 
 you may interrupt the course of its prosperity, you may cloud 
 its reputation for stability, but its tranquillity will be restored, 
 its prosperity will return, and the stain upon its national 
 honor will be transferred, and remain an eternal blot on the 
 memory of those who caused the disorder. — Jackson's Procla- 
 mation.
 
 80 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 have grown up in the most enlightened country of 
 the world. But so it was, and slavery, and the doc- 
 trine of state rights, which had now taken the form 
 of the right of a state to secede from the Union at 
 pleasure, caused the fearful civil strife which has 
 lately terminated. 
 
 Had the people of the South resisted an illegal 
 and oppressive taxation, they would have been justi- 
 fied, for no people are worthy of the name of freemen, 
 who submit without resistance either by the ballot or 
 by force to injustice and oppression. 
 
 But no such cause existed, and they rebelled 
 against a beneficent government. Many of them, we 
 trust, now realize this fact, and have returned to their 
 allegiance with a fixed determination that the future 
 shall in some degree atone for the past. We have rea- 
 son to be grateful to God that in that struggle slavery 
 and treason were crushed, and that freedom now ex- 
 ists throughout the length and breadth of our fair land. 
 
 I have thus endeavored to trace the progress of 
 liberty from the earliest ages until the present time. 
 Incomplete as I feel that the sketch necessarily is, 
 it would be more so did I not briefly refer in con- 
 clusion to the character and services of the great 
 emancipator, Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 His personal characteristics, though so well 
 known and so often dwelt upon, are worthy of the
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. SI 
 
 profound study and deep reflection of those for whom 
 he lived and died. Me stands with Washington, 
 Hampden, William of Orange, and other great bene- 
 factors of their race, a colossal and beautiful pillar in 
 the temple of liberty. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln had a great heart, and a pow- 
 erful intellect. Though not highly cultured, his mind 
 was one of remarkable originality. As an orator, 
 while by no means graceful, he was eloquent and 
 attractive, and was capable of grasping an important 
 subject in all its bearings. As a writer he had, as the 
 world knows, a large degree of rugged strength, and a 
 peculiar simplicity of style, while he sometimes exhib- 
 ited a fine imagination. Owing to his want of early 
 advantages, his language was at times somewhat im- 
 perfect, but this was more than compensated for by 
 the sound philosophy and lofty sentiment which per- 
 vaded it. So elevated, on some occasions, were his 
 thoughts, and so perfectly adapted to the wants of 
 the people his words, that it seemed as if the guar- 
 dian genius of America, having descended from the 
 blissful realms of perpetual freedom, was bending 
 over him, and inspiring him with 
 
 *• Thoughts that breathe ami words that hum." 
 
 Though eminently serious and thoughtful, he was 
 fortunately endowed by nature with a ("mid of mirth- 
 fulness, by which he sometimes cheered himself and 
 4*
 
 82 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 others, but even this lighter mood, which was perhaps 
 occasionally indulged too far, had a method in it and 
 told for freedom. 
 
 While seeming to follow, and thinking it a high 
 honor to be the servant of the people, he often led 
 public sentiment, and it could be as truly said that 
 the voice of Lincoln was the voice of the people as 
 that the voice of the people was the voice of Lincoln. 
 Their united voice, there is reason to believe, was the 
 voice of God. 
 
 Like other eminent benefactors of their race, he 
 was girded by a higher power with strength for the 
 emergency. Like them also his influence did not 
 cease with the termination of his earthly existence, 
 but, though its character was changed, losing the 
 personal and becoming entirely spiritual, it grows 
 more and more extensive as time passes away. 
 
 " He possessed in a remarkable degree that attri- 
 bute of genius, simplicity, and that characteristic of 
 moral heroism, self-forgetfulness. Standing in the 
 nio-ht of war and desolation on the Rock of Inde- 
 pendence, and waving the torch of liberty, he be- 
 held beneath him the countless generations of the 
 future. He therefore acted with prudence and dis- 
 cretion. Owing to his superior wisdom he held in 
 control those partialities which, though they might be 
 useful in others, would, if pursued by him, have in- 
 jured the cause which ho was anxious to serve.
 
 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 83 
 
 Desirous of being guided by the truth, he gener- 
 ally had an intuitive perception of what was truth. 
 He believed that the Constitution meant life to the 
 nation. Animated by its spirit, and inspired by the 
 genius of liberty, he raised aloft the glitterfng sword 
 of emancipation which flashed forth a heavenly light 
 amid the surrounding gloom, and, like him of Mace- 
 don, cut the knot which had baffled the efforts of the 
 wisest to untie, and the government, the constitution 
 and freedom were saved, and slavery " tottered to 
 its fall." In manner he showed the utmost gentleness 
 and affability, so that no one need fear to approach 
 him. Though occupying the highest position in the 
 land, he delighted to condescend to men of humble 
 station. Indeed, upon his generous mind, grades of 
 society in themselves had no influence, and the man 
 was measured by his soul. 
 
 The groans of the oppressed fell heavily upon his 
 heart, and when an opportunity offered he came to 
 their relief. He regarded every faithful soldier as his 
 friend, and treated him as such. He sympathized with 
 and relieved the sick and wounded. He assisted and 
 consoled the widow and the fatherless. He loved 
 his friends, and was true to them, both in prosperity 
 and adversity, and even if at times they grew cold 
 toward him. He loved his enemies, and did not tri- 
 umph over them. He loved the cause of freedom,
 
 S4 HISTORY OF LIBERTY. 
 
 and to it he paid " the last full measure of devotion." 
 He loved his God. his country, and the human race, 
 and his name will descend to posterity as the great 
 martyr of liberty. 
 
 Let us cherish his memory, honor his precepts, 
 and act in the spirit of that immortal document — 
 which will occupy an equally high position in the 
 history of liberty with the Magna Charta, the Bill of 
 Rights, and the Declaration of Independence — the 
 Proclamation of Freedom. 
 
 Then shall we have a country worthy of Washing- 
 ton and our revolutionary fathers, worthy of Lincoln 
 and the patriots of our own time, worthy of the re- 
 spect of the world.* 
 
 * "Fellow-citizens, we cannot escape history. We of 
 this Congress and this Administration will be remembered in 
 spite of ourselves. Xo personal significance or insignificance 
 can spare one or another of us. The fiery trial through 
 wlijch we pass will light us down in honor or dishonor to the 
 latest generation. We say that we are for the Union. The 
 world will not forget that we say this. We know how to 
 save the Union. The world knows that we do know how to 
 save it. We — even we here — hold the power and bear the 
 responsibility! In giving freedom to the slave, we assure 
 freedom to the free, honorable alike in what we give, and 
 what we preserve. We shall nobly save, or meanly lose the 
 last, best hope of earth. Other means may succeed ; this 
 could not, cannot fail. The way is plain, peaceful, generous, 
 just — a way which if followed, the world will forever applaud, 
 and God must forever bless. 
 
 Dw. 1st, 1802. Abraham Lincoln.
 
 CONTENTS OF APPENDIX. 
 
 1. Changes in Europe and elsewhere since the late Rebellion. — 
 
 Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia. 87 
 
 2. The number who served in the Union Army and in that of the 
 
 Confederacy in the Rebellion. — Horace Greeley in Ap- 
 pendix of " American Conflict." 91 
 
 3. A brief history of slavery. — New American Cyclopaedia. . 92 
 
 4. The leading measures adopted by Congress and sanctioned by 
 
 the nation for securing to the colored people the boon 
 of liberty and full American citizenship. — From the 
 New National Era, Fred Douglass, Editor. . . 94 
 
 5. An Item of History. — Vermont Chronicle 98 
 
 6. Constitution of civil government adopted in the cabin of the 
 
 Mayflower 99 
 
 7. Christianity the great promoter of civil liberty. — Haddock's 
 
 Addresses and Miscellaneous Writings 100 
 
 8. Remarkable prediction of the future greatness of America. — 
 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica, ...... 100 
 
 9. De Tocqueville concerning America. 102 
 
 10. The opinions of eminent foreigners concerning America. 103 
 
 11. From "Prophetic Voices concerning America," by Charles 
 
 Sumner. 110 
 
 12. Land in England and the United States.— New York Times. 113 
 
 13. The State Church of England.— From Discourse of the Rev. 
 
 Charles- Mason U6 
 
 11 Church and State in England. — Vermont Chronicle. . . llo
 
 SO CONTENTS OF APPENDIX. 
 
 15. The Disestablishment Movement. — Independent. May, 1876. 117 
 
 16. Liberation Society. — From speech of Mr. Joseph Chamberlain 
 
 mayor of Birmingham, June, 1876. . . . .117 
 
 17. Traffic in sacred things. — From John Bright's Speech at Bir- 
 
 mingham, January, 1875. ...... 118 
 
 18. The licensing system in England a warning to us. — .Rev. Reuen 
 
 Thomas, in Boston Congregationalism . . . 119 
 
 19. Intemperance an immeasurable evil. — Rev. Julius H. Seelye, 
 
 before the Congressional Temperance Society. . . 121 
 
 20. Brazilian students. Dom Pedro. — Boston Congregationalism 
 
 New York Observer 123 
 
 21. The Amazon and its wonderful valley. — Hartwig. Agassiz. 
 
 Orton 127 
 
 / 22. The Government of the United States. — From the Consti- 
 tution 128 
 
 •. The Government of Great Britain. — R. G. Parker's " Outlines 
 
 of History." 129 
 
 24. The Government of Switzerland. — New American Cyclopaedia. 131 
 
 i 25. Important speech of Mr. Lefevre in the House of Commons 
 
 on the changed attitude of England. . . . 132 
 
 V 26. Important speech of M. Pelletan in the Corps Legislatif of 
 
 France, after the fall of Richmond 133 
 
 27. The Great Day of the Second Peace Jubilee. — Boston Journal. 135 
 
 28. Glimpses of the Evangelical Alliance. — J. F. A., in Vermont 
 
 Chronicle. 140 
 
 29. The opening of the Centennial Exposition. — Bayard Taylor in 
 
 New York Tribune. 146 
 
 ( 
 
 30. Immigration. — From Tileston's Manual. .... 156 
 
 31. The Republics of the world and their number of inhabitants. 
 
 — From Schem's Statistical Tables published in 1872. . 157 
 
 32. Some Important Dates. — From Tytler's History (mostly). . 157
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. — Changes in Europe and Elsewhere since the 
 Late Rerellion. 
 
 In 1865 there were liberal tendencies exhibited in Eng- 
 land, Italy and Spain. In Sweden a new and more liberal 
 constitution was adopted by the Estates. 
 
 In 1866 occurred the great German Italian War, by which 
 Prussia rose, Austria fell, and Italy obtained Venetia which 
 had been so long oppressed. 
 
 The conflict between the progressives and the conserva- 
 tives was carried on this year in nearly every important 
 nation in Europe. Ireland was greatly agitated by the 
 Fenian movement. 
 
 In 1867 the North German Confederation was formed, 
 which rendered Germany so powerful in the late war with 
 France. 
 
 In 1868 in England the progressive party gained ground 
 and obtained an enlargement of the franchise. In Spain 
 the progressive party under the leadership of General Prim 
 made a second unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the gov- 
 ernment. This year was one of great importance to Aus- 
 tria for she then abandoned her system of centralization, and 
 adopted a system of dualism, by which the empire was divi- 
 ded into two administrations with two ministers and two par- 
 liaments, the one at Vienna for the German and Slavic 
 crown lands, the other for Hungary and Transylvania.
 
 8S APPENDIX. 
 
 Croatia unci Slavonia, which latter countries were again rec- 
 ognized as dependencies of Hungary. 
 
 The revised constitution of Austria adopted by the 
 Keichstadr. and approved by the Emperor, was promulgated 
 December 22d, and is one of the most liberal constitutions 
 of Continental Europ*. 
 
 The following advantages were also gained by the party 
 of progress in Europe during 18G8. A revolution in Spain 
 overthrew the throne of Isabella, and as a result universal 
 suffrage was engrafted upon the Spanish constitution. The 
 liberal party obtained a great victory in England. Resolu- 
 tions were passed in the House of Commons in favor of dis- 
 establishing the State church of Ireland, and a liberal 
 cabinet was formed under the leadership of Gladstone. In 
 Austria the concordat of 1855 was abolished, and the prin- 
 iples of civil and religious liberty took deep root through- 
 ut the land. 
 
 Turkey made some liberal reforms in respect to Christians. 
 lR France the rigor of the laws against the press was some- 
 what relaxed. 
 
 In 1869 the liberals in France gained ground by the 
 election, and the emperor made promises of an abandonment 
 of personal and a restoration of constitutional or parliamen- 
 tary government. 
 
 In Great Britain the liberal ministry of Gladstone carried 
 out one of the greatest reform measures in the history of that 
 nation during the present century, the disestablishment of 
 the Anglican church of Ireland. 
 
 In our own country February of this year witnessed the 
 passage of the Fifteenth article of amendment to the con- 
 stitution, giving the right of suffrage to every citizen of the 
 United States without respect to race or color or previous 
 servitude, and early in 1870 it was ratified by three-fourths 
 of the States. 
 
 L870 ! Year long to be remembered. Scarcely had the 
 Plebiscite of the eighth of May confirmed the reigning
 
 APPENDIX. 89 
 
 dynasty of France, and given Napoleon the assurance that 
 the Prince Imperial should succeed him as emperor, when 
 suddenly a little cloud no larger than a man's hand appeared 
 in the southern skv. Upon the flimsy pretext of the 
 Hohenzollern candidature Napoleon and the French Empire 
 declared war against Germany, the result of which was an 
 unparalleled disaster to the French arms, and humiliation of 
 the French nation, while the great emperor, who not long 
 since had seemed a mighty power in Europe, became a captive 
 and an exile. 
 
 The day before the declaration of war by France the 
 dogma of Papal Infallibility was promulgated by the (Ecu- 
 menical Council at Rome, but the close of 1870 beheld the 
 infallible Pontiff divested of his temporal power, and king- 
 Victor Emanuel enter the Eternal city in triumph. 
 
 The year 1871 saw the fall of the Commune, a monster 
 of license, after a terrible struggle, and the establishment 
 of the republic of France with Thiers as President. 
 
 The other prominent events of the year which indicated 
 progress were the adoption of the ballot by the English 
 House of Commons, the abolition of the purchase system 
 in the British army, and Rome made the capital of free and 
 united Italy. Also in this country occurred the ferreting out 
 and punishment of the Ku Klux outrages, which was largely 
 due to the firm and vigorous administration of the Conqueror 
 of the Rebellion. 
 
 Toward the close of the year there was some agitation 
 in England excited by Sir Charles Dilke in favor of a 
 republic. 
 
 In Brazil a bill was passed for the abolition of slavery. 
 From the time of the passage of this law the children born 
 of a slave within the empire were considered free born. 
 This was owing largely to the generous and high-minded 
 policy of the emperor Dom Pedro. 
 
 1872. One of the mosl interesting events of the year 
 was the Geneva Arbitration lor the settlement of the Ala-
 
 90 APPENDIX. 
 
 bama claims, by which the sum of $15,500,000 in gold was 
 awarded to be paid by Great Britain to the United States 
 for losses upon the sea during the rebellion. 
 
 In England Sir Charles Dilke in the House of Com- 
 mons moved an inquiry in regard to the expense of royalty. 
 The ballot act, an important measure for home government, 
 passed. 
 
 The conservatives came into power under the lead of 
 D'israeli, a seeming backward step in the matter of en- 
 lightened progress. 
 
 1873. Home rule was much discussed this year in Ireland. 
 An interesting correspondence took place between the 
 
 Pope and the Emperor of Germany, in which the latter en- 
 deavored to explain to the former certain measures of his 
 government which he deemed necessary for the safety of 
 
 he state. 
 
 McMahon, the distinguished general, was elected Presi- 
 lent of the republic of France in the place of that eminent 
 statesman, historian, and orator, Thiers. At the close of 
 the year Spain was a republic under the lead of the gifted 
 and patriotic Castelar. 
 
 The United States and Switzerland immediately recog- 
 nized the new government. 
 
 1874. An important decision of the Supreme Court of 
 the United States was rendered this year which was of value 
 in confirming the late constitutional amendments. 
 
 The death of Charles Sumner removed from us a strong 
 and beautiful pillar in the temple of liberty. 
 
 Spain went back again to a monarchy and internal 
 dissension. 
 
 1875. .Mr. Plimsoll's attack in the House of Commons 
 upon the government of Great Britain was one of the notice- 
 able events of the year. Bold and excited as it was it turned 
 the attention of the nation to the flagrant wrongs of the 
 seamen, and forced the government to change its selfish 
 policy of sacrificing human life for lucre. The result was
 
 APPENDIX. 91 
 
 the passage after prolonged opposition of the Unsea worthy 
 Ships Bill. 
 
 The death of Vice President Henry Wilson removed 
 another noble champion of human progress from our midst, 
 but the cause still progresses. The death of Horace Greeley 
 which preceded that of Mr. Sumner, was one of the sad 
 and memorable events since "the Great Conflict,"' the his- 
 tory of which he so ably portrayed. 
 
 1876. In Spain, by a vote in the Cortes of 220 yeas to 84 
 nays, the clause of the Constitution establishing religious 
 liberty was passed notwithstanding the prolonged and deter- 
 mined opposition of the Pope. Marvelous ! Japan awakes, 
 China is opening, and Egypt moves. May it prove a glori- 
 ous triumph. — Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia {mostly). 
 
 II. — The number who served in the Union Army and 
 
 IN THAT OF THE CONFEDERACY IN THE REBELLION. 
 
 " The whole number of men from time to time called into 
 the national service during the war (of the Rebellion) was 
 2,688,523. 
 
 As many of these were mustered in twice, and some 
 thrice, while hundreds of thousands deserted who were 
 never under fire, it is probable that not more than 1,500,000 
 effectively participated in suppressing the Rebellion. The 
 total population whence these were drawn, including the 
 available portion of the Southern Blacks, cannot be com- 
 puted higher than 25,000,000, so more than one-tenth of 
 the entire male population of the United States who were 
 not Rebels must have actively participated in the suppression 
 of the Rebellion. 
 
 Of the 1,500,000 who fought on our side, 56,000 fell 
 dead on the field, and 35,000 more arc recorded as dying in 
 hospital of wounds ; while 184,000 perished there by dis-
 
 \)Z APPENDIX. 
 
 ease. It is probable that enough more died after their dis- 
 charge, of diseases or infirmities contracted in the service, 
 to swell our aggregate loss by the war from 280,420 to 
 300,000. Of our whites enlisted one-tenth died in the ser- 
 vice ; of the 1.80,000 blacks, 29,298 died, or nearly one in 
 six. Of these eight in every nine died in hospital, proving 
 the blacks either less hardy than whites, or their exposure 
 far greater. . . If we may presume the losses of the 
 Rebels equal to those of the Unionists (and the percentage 
 of mortality among their wounded was probably greater, 
 because of their inferior hospital service, and sanitary ar- 
 rangements) the actual aggregate loss of life, because of the 
 war, is swelled to 600,000. Add 400,000 crippled or per- 
 manently disabled by disease, and the total subtraction from 
 the productive force of our country because of the Rebellion 
 reaches the stupendous aggregate of 1,000,000 men." — Gree- 
 ley's American Conflict. 
 
 III. — A brief History of Slavery. 
 
 It is hard to realize what a curse to mankind slavery has 
 been. It was in existence at the dawn of history and has 
 continued in some form until the present time. The Phoe- 
 nicans, Assyrians, Persians, Chinese, Greeks and Romans, all 
 practiced it through war, commerce, piracy, and kidnapping. 
 Gibbon estimates the number of slaves in the Roman Empire 
 during the reign of Claudius to be sixty millions. Though 
 Christianity greatly lessened the horrors of slavery, it still 
 continued fostered by conquest and commerce. It was one 
 of the chief causes of the decline of Rome. It was prac- 
 ticed by Christians and by Saracens, they mutually enslaving 
 each other. In fact the word Slave is derived from Slavi, a 
 nation who were continually at war with the Germans, and
 
 APPENDIX. 93 
 
 very many of whom were taken captive. The commercial 
 republics of Italy made great profit in slave-trading. The 
 conquest of England by the Saxons introduced slavery into 
 that country, which was increased by the Norman conquest. 
 During the war at the close of the middle ages, -Mussulmans 
 enslaved Christians and Christians Mussulmans. African 
 slavery belongs almost exclusively to modern times, and was 
 a consequence of maritime discovery in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. Portugal took the lead, but the number of slaves ex- 
 ported yearly from Africa was comparatively small until 
 America was discovered, as Europe did not afford a good 
 field for the labor of black slaves. 
 
 Immediately after this event the slave trade commenced 
 to grow with rapidity, for though the Spaniards also enslaved 
 the Indians, the negroes could perform better the labor which 
 they required. 
 
 Not only the Portuguese and the Spaniards took part in 
 the slave traffic, but even the English engaged in it, and in 
 the times of the Stuarts four English companies were char- 
 tered for the purpose of carrying on the African slave trade, 
 of one of which Charles II. and James II. were members. 
 These companies, with the sanction of parliament, furnished 
 negroes for America. The French, Dutch and other Euro- 
 pean nations also engaged in the traffic. Before 1T7G three 
 hundred thousand negroes had been brought hither. Some 
 of the Colonies remonstrated against it, but unsuccessfully, 
 as the mother country encouraged it. At last in 177'5 the 
 Continental Congress passed a resolution that no more slaves 
 should be imported, but, at the formation of the Constitu- 
 tion in 17SS. Congress resolved not to interdict the traffic 
 before 1808. The fathers of the republic, Washington, 
 Hamilton, Jefferson, Franklin and Jay. were all opposed to 
 slavery as antagonistic to the spirit of free institutions, and 
 to Christianity, and it was their hope and expectation that 
 it would gradually die out. Hence they did not grapple 
 with the evil at the time, and in framing the constitution
 
 9i APPENDIX. 
 
 allowed the system certain advantages. Afterwards slave 
 labor became exceedingly profitable on account of the in- 
 vention of the cotton gin, and the feelings of the people of 
 the South, who had been really opposed to slavery in colo- 
 nial and revolutionary times underwent an entire change. — 
 New American Cyclopaedia. 
 
 They afterwards claimed that the Africans were naturally 
 an inferior race, and endeavored to draw their arguments 
 for holding them in bondage from the Bible. So much 
 enamored had they become of their " peculiar institution," 
 at the time of the breaking out of the rebellion, that 
 Alexander H. Stephens, uttering the sentiment of the 
 South, declared slavery to be the cornerstone of the Con- 
 federacy. It is estimated that forty millions of the African 
 race have been sold into slavery. The spirit of slavery has 
 done great mischief in the South since the war. Its 
 victims have been many more than were slain in the mar- 
 tyrdoms of bloody Mary, and it has kept alive feelings 
 of rancor and bitterness toward the blacks and toward the 
 loyal whites which has greatly hindered emigration and all 
 prosperity. The number of those who have endured the 
 wrongs of slavery during the history of the world must be 
 many millions. J. F. A. 
 
 IV. — The leading measures adopted by Congress and 
 sanctioned by the nation for securing to the 
 colored people the boon of liberty and full 
 American citizenship. 
 
 u The first blow at the ' divine ' institution of slavery was 
 a bill, which became a law in August, 1861, confiscating 
 all property and setting free all slaves used in aid of the 
 rebellion.
 
 APPENDIX. 95 
 
 January 25, 1862, a law was passed prohibiting the use 
 of the jails of this district (Columbia) for the imprisonment 
 of fugitive slaves. 
 
 The great measure emancipating the three thousand 
 slaves of this district passed both Houses of Congress and 
 was signed by the President in April. 1862. 
 
 On the 13th of March, 1862, a bill became a law forbid- 
 ding and punishing the return of fugitive slaves coming in- 
 to our lines, by naval and military officers. 
 
 March 6 of the same year the President had recom- 
 mended the passage of a joint resolution proposing a co- 
 operation between the general government and the slave 
 States for the general abolition of slavery, on the principle 
 of compensation to the owners. During the month a bill 
 covering this suggestion passed both houses, and was signed 
 by the President April 10. 
 
 The bill abolishing the long-existing, odious distinctions 
 in this district against the colored people, such as taxing 
 them for the education of white children and denying them 
 all benefit from the tax, became a law in May. 
 
 June 19, 1862, the President signed a bill, which had 
 passed both houses, prohibiting slavery forever in all the 
 territories of the United States. 
 
 June, 1862, a law was enacted establishing diplomatic 
 relations with the republics of Liberia and Hayti. 
 
 In July of the same year, a law was passed conferring 
 upon colored persons the right to testify in courts of jus- 
 tice ; also prohibiting the inter-State, coastwise slave 
 
 trade. 
 
 In July, 1862, a bill became a law emancipating slaves 
 coming within our lines whose masters were in rebellion, 
 and all slaves found in places captured by our troops. 
 
 July 7, 1862, President Lincoln approved a bill punish- 
 ing the infamous practice of using the American flag for the 
 protection of vessels engaged in the slave trade, in open de- 
 fiance, ;w had grown to bo the practice, of a plain constitn-
 
 96 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 tional provision. Under the provisions of this act one Gor- 
 don, captured while engaged in the slave trade, was tried, 
 convicted and executed. 
 
 July 17, 1862, a law was enacted, authorizing the enlist- 
 ment and military organizations of colored men. 
 
 September 22, 1862, President Lincoln issued a procla- 
 mation declaring that on the first of January ensuing, he 
 should issue another, proclaiming all persons free in such 
 States as might be named. And on that day the immortal 
 declaration declaring all slaves forever free in Arkansas, 
 Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama. Florida, Xorth and 
 South Carolina, and Virginia, was issued. 
 
 March, 1863, a law was enacted incorporating an institu- 
 tion for the education of colored youths, to be located in this 
 District, from which has grown up the Howard University. 
 
 A law was enacted in February, 1864, enrolling all 
 colored men, whether slaves or not, into the national forces, 
 allowing loyal masters a bounty of 8300 for their slaves — 
 afterwards reduced to 8100 bounty. But this was wholly 
 repealed in 1867. 
 
 On the 11th of June, 1864. a bill became a law placing 
 colored soldiers on a footing of- equality in all respects with 
 white soldiers. 
 
 • June 28, 1864, a bill was signed repealing the infamous 
 fugitive-slave law. 
 
 In 1804 a law was passed allowing colored men to con- 
 tract for carrying the mails. 
 
 The year before the act was passed prohibiting all dis- 
 tinctions on account of race or color in the public convev- 
 ances of this District. 
 
 The law creating the Freedman's Bureau was passed early 
 in the year 1865. 
 
 January 27, 1865, the famous thirteenth amendment to 
 the Constitution, which had previously been approved by 
 the Senate, passed the House of Representatives, forever 
 abolishing slavery in the United States.
 
 APPENDIX. 97 
 
 During this year nets were passed repealing the various 
 measures enacted by the southern Status under Johnson's 
 rule designed to reestablish slavery in another form, author- 
 izing the disgraceful apprenticeship system, the law in re- 
 gard to vagrancy, and authorizing the whipping of negroes. 
 
 The same year a law was passed abolishing the system of 
 peonage slavery in New Mexico. 
 
 In December, lSGo, a resolution passed both houses of 
 Congress appointing the joint committee on reconstruction, 
 to whom was referred the credentials of all persons claiming 
 seats from Johnson's reconstructed States, and all measures 
 in regard to reconstruction. 
 
 February 28, 1866, an act was passed declaring that 
 none of the rebel States were entitled to representation in 
 Congress until Congress shall have declared such right. 
 
 In April, 1866, the civil-rights bill, which Johnson had 
 vetoed, became a law by receiving the necessary two-thirds 
 majority. 
 
 June 13, 1866, the fourteenth amendment was passed, 
 making all persons born or naturalized in the United States 
 citizens, prohibiting the States from passing any law which 
 shall abridge the annuities or privileges of such citizens, de- 
 fining who shall be Senators or Representatives, protecting 
 the civil rights of all citizens, declaring that the validity of 
 the public debt shall never be questioned, and prohibiting 
 the United States and the several States from ever assuming 
 or paying the rebel debt, and rendering it illegal and void. 
 
 In December, 1866, Congress passed, over Johnson's veto, 
 an act establishing universal suffrage in this District. 
 
 In January, 1867, a bill was passed declaring that within 
 no territory of the United States should suffrage be denied 
 on account of race, color or former condition. 
 
 In February, 186?, the fifteenth amendment, securing to 
 colored men the right of suffrage, and forever prohibiting 
 its withdrawal, passed both branches of Congress. 
 
 In March, 1869, a law was passed striking the word 
 5
 
 98 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ivhite from all the ordinances of this District, destroying all 
 discrimination against colored men in such laws or ordinances. 
 
 In May, 1870, the bill known as the enforcement act 
 became a law, its object being to protect colored men in all 
 the rights to which other citizen- are entitled. 
 
 In April, 18T1, Congress passed what is known as the 
 Ku-Klux act, giving the President power to protect the 
 loyal people of the South against organized bands of assas- 
 sins, and rendering the people of a comity or city, under 
 certain conditions, responsible for the damages done therein 
 by these outlaws."— New National Era. 
 
 V. — Ax Item of History. 
 
 " Nothing so effectually demonstrates the fact that the 
 world moves, as to note some of the wonderful changes 
 which have taken place in men and things — ideas and in- 
 stitutions — during the last forty or fifty years. A few days 
 ago occurred the fortieth anniversary of the great pro- 
 slavery riot in Boston, when a mob of several thousand 
 headed by "gentlemen of property and standing,'' as repre- 
 sented by the Boston papers, invaded the rooms of the female 
 anti-slavery society, broke up the meeting, and handled Mr. 
 William Lloyd Garrison so roughly that he was glad to find 
 shelter from their rage within the walls of even Seventh 
 street jail, whither he was dragged with a rope about his 
 neck. 
 
 The following inscription made by himself upon the walls 
 of his cell, serves to point the tale : 'William Lloyd Garri- 
 son was put into this jail. Wednesday p. m., October 21, 183.3. 
 to save him from the violence of a respectable and influen- 
 tial mob, who sought to destroy him for preaching the 
 abominable and dangerous doctrine that all men are born
 
 APPENDIX. 00 
 
 free and equal, and that all oppression is hateful in the 
 sight of God. ' Hail Columbia ! ' Cheers for the autocrat 
 of Russia, and the sultan of Turkey ! Reader, let this in- 
 scription remain nil the last slave in this despotic land is 
 loosed from his fetters!'"— Vermont chronicle. 
 
 VI. — Constitution of Civil Government adopted in 
 the Cabin of the May-flower. 
 
 " In the name of God, Amen. We whose names are un- 
 derwritten, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign Lord, 
 King James, by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France 
 and Ireland, king, Defender of the Faith, etc., having un- 
 dertaken for the glory of God, and advancement of the 
 christian faith, and honor of our King and country, a voyage 
 to plant the first colony in the northern parts of Virginia. 
 do, by these presents, solemnly and mutually, in the presence 
 of God, and of one another, covenant and combine ourselves 
 together into a civil body politic, for onr better ordering and 
 preservation, and furtherance of the ends aforesaid, and by 
 virtue hereof to enact, constitute and frame such just and 
 equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices, from 
 time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient, 
 for the general good of the colony, unto which we promise 
 all due submission and obedience. In witness whereof we 
 have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape Cod, the 
 eleventh of November, in the year of the reign of our sov- 
 ereign Lord, king James, of England, France, and Ireland, 
 the eighteenth, and of Scotland the fifty-fourth, An.\o 
 Domini 1620." 
 
 Forty-one names are appended to this heaven-born in- 
 strument.
 
 100 APPENDIX. 
 
 VII. — Christianity the great promoter of civil 
 
 LIBERTY. 
 
 "At the memorable meeting of ' the prelates and barons 
 of the kingdom' at which it was agreed to demand of 
 King John their lost privileges, and which resulted in the 
 signing of ' the Great Charter of the liberties of England,' 
 an archbishop "'led the storm." We glory in the Reforma- 
 tion, as a great advance in the cause of human liberty ; and 
 most justly. But who led the way in the Reformation ? 
 Clergymen and members of the church. It was a reforma- 
 tion in the church, brought about by the spirit of liberty in 
 its own bosom. The first martyrs to that spirit were minis- 
 ters and their adherents. Wickliffe and Huss, and Jerome 
 of Prague, and Luther, were all divines. Was not the Pu- 
 ritan a friend of liberty ? To whom but the clergy and 
 their followers do we owe our own free institutions ? We 
 have no sympathy with clerical usurpation ; no toleration 
 for ecclesiastical pride and luxury and indolence. But 
 let the church and its ministers have their due. They have 
 not eradicated tyranny and iniquity. They have too often 
 indulged and fostered it. But let the mass of free senti- 
 ment, of liberal feeling, which has been expressed by the 
 human mind be ascribed to its true authors; let the sacri- 
 fice of personal interest and of life in the cause of liberty be 
 estimated ; let the clergy and the christian world have the 
 credit of what belongs to them ; and we have no reason, as 
 freemen, to be ashamed of the gospel or the history of its fol- 
 lowers." — Haddock's Addresses and Miscellaneous Writings. 
 
 VIII. Remarkable prediction of the future great- 
 ness of America. 
 
 " Assuming that the number of persons whom a square 
 mile can sustain without pressure is one hundred and fifty
 
 APPENDIX. 101 
 
 at the latitude of fifty degrees, we have twenty-six as the 
 sum which expresses the productiveness of this parallel. 
 Then taking for the sake of simplicity, thirty-five as the 
 index of the productiveness of the useful soil beyond thirty 
 deg. in America, and eighty-five as that of the country 
 within the parallel of thirty deg. on each side of the equa- 
 tor, we have about 4,100,000 square miles, each capable 
 of supporting two hundred persons. It follows that, if the 
 natural resources of America were fully developed, it would 
 afford sustenance to 3,600,000,000 of inhabitants, a number 
 five times as great as the entire mass of human beings exist- 
 ing at present upon the globe. And, what is more surpris- 
 ing, there is every probability that this prodigious popula- 
 tion will be in existence within three, or at most four cen- 
 turies. The imagination is lost in contemplating a state of 
 things which will make so great and rapid a change in the 
 condition of the world. We almost fancy that it is a 
 dream ; and yet the result is based on principles quite as 
 certain as those which govern the conduct of men in their or- 
 dinary pursuits. There are many elements of disorder now 
 operating in Spanish-America, but these are merely the dregs 
 left by the old Spanish despotism ; and the Anglo-American 
 republic is a pole-star to guide the people in their course to- 
 wards freedom and prosperity. Nearly all social improve- 
 ments spring from the reciprocal influence of condensed num- 
 bers and diffused intelligence. "What then will be the state 
 of society in America two centuries hence, when a thousand 
 or two thousand millions of civilized men are crowded into a 
 space comparatively so narrow, and when this immense mass 
 of human beings speak only two languages. We take it 
 for granted that the Portuguese will merge into the Spanish, 
 and it is clear to us that the Russian will never obtain a 
 footing in the New World. Such a state of things may be 
 said to undo the curse of Babel, and restore the great mass 
 of mankind to their pristine facility of intercourse, for the 
 languages spoken by the communities of Europe and Asia
 
 102 APPENDIX. 
 
 will I)o as unimportant then, in the general scale of the 
 globe, as the dialects of Hungary, Finland and Bohemia 
 are in Europe at this day. History shows that wealth, 
 power, science, literature, all follow in the train of numbers, 
 general intelligence and freedom. 
 
 The same causes which transferred the sceptre of civili- 
 zation from the banks of the Euphrates and the Nile to 
 Western Europe must, in the course of no long period, carry 
 it from the latter to the plains of the Mississippi and the 
 Amazon. Society, after all, is in its infancy ; the habitable 
 world, when its productive powers are regarded, may be 
 said hitherto to have been an untenanted waste. If any 
 one suspects us of drawing on our fancy, we would request 
 him to examine thoroughly the condition and past progress of 
 the North American Republic. Let him look at its amazing 
 strides in wealth, intelligence, and social improvements ; at 
 its indestructible libertg ; and above all at the prodigious 
 growth of its population ; and let him answer the question 
 to himself, What power can stop the tide of civilization 
 which is pouring from this single source over an unoccupied 
 world ?"- Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 
 IX. — De Tocqueville concerning America. 
 
 De Tocqueville thus addresses his countrymen during 
 the French Revolution of 1848, in his preface to " Democ- 
 racy in America." 
 
 " Let us look to America, not in order to make a 
 servile copy of the institutions which she has established, 
 but to gain a clearer view of the polity which will be the best 
 for us : let us look there less to find examples than instruc- 
 tion ; let us borrow from her the principles rather than the 
 details of her laws. The laws of the French Republic may
 
 APPENDIX. 103 
 
 be. and ought to be. in many cases different from those 
 which govern the United States ; but the principles on 
 which the American Constitutions rest, those principles of. 
 order, of the balance of power, of true liberty, of deep and 
 sincere respect for right, are indispensable to all republics. 
 they ought to be common to all : and it may be said before- 
 hand that wherever they shall not be found, the republic will 
 soon have ceased to exist." 
 
 X. — The opinions of eminent Foreigners concern- 
 ing America. 
 
 Kindly Letter from the Czar of Russia. 
 
 Mr. President : — At a moment when the people of the 
 United States celebrate the Centennial period of their na- 
 tional existence, I desire to express to you the sentiments 
 with which I take part in this celebration. The people of 
 the United States may contemplate with pride the immense 
 progress which their energy has achieved within the period 
 of a century. I especially rejoice that, during this centen- 
 nial period, the friendly relations of our respective countries 
 have never suffered interruption ; but on the contrary, have 
 made themselves manifest by proofs of mutual good-will. 
 I therefore cordially congratulate the American people, in 
 the person of their President, and I pray that the friendship 
 of the two countries may increase with their prosperity. 1 
 embrace this occasion to offer to you at the same time the as- 
 surance of my sincere esteem and of my high consideration. 
 
 (Signed) Alexander. 
 
 To His Excellency General Grant. 
 Kins. June (>, 187'!.
 
 104 APPENDIX. 
 
 The Emperor of Germany's greeting. 
 
 William, by the grace of God emperor of Germany, king 
 of Prussia, etc., etc., to the President of the United States 
 of America : 
 
 Great and Good Friexd : It has been vouchsafed to 
 you to celebrate the centennial festival of the day upon 
 which the great republic over which you preside entered the 
 rank of independent nations. The purposes of its founders 
 have by a wise application of the teachings of the history of 
 the foundation of nations, and with insight into the distant 
 future, been realized by a development without a parallel. 
 To congratulate you and the American people upon the oc- 
 casion affords me so much the greater pleasure, because, 
 since the treaty of friendship which my ancestor of glorious 
 memory, King Frederick the Second, who now rests with 
 Gud, concluded with the United .States, undisturbed friend- 
 ship has continually existed between Germany and America, 
 and has been developed and strengthened by the ever-in- 
 creasing importance of their mutual relations and by an 
 intercourse becoming more and more fruitful in every do- 
 main of commerce and science. That the welfare of the 
 United States and the friendship of the two countries may 
 continue to increase, is my sincere desire and confident hope. 
 
 Accept the renewed assurance of my unqualified esteem. 
 
 William. 
 Countersigned — Von Bismarck. 
 
 Berlin, June 9, 1876. 
 
 The king of Italy's friendly assurance. 
 Victor Emanuel II, by the Grace of God and the Will of 
 the Nation, King of Italy, to the President of the United 
 States of America, greeting : 
 
 My Dear and Good Friend : On the day upon 
 which the great American Republic celebrates the Centen-
 
 APPENDIX 105 
 
 nial anniversary of its existence, it is our desire to address 
 our congratulations and those of our people to you person- 
 ally, and to the nation over which you preside, and which 
 with admirable ability yon have succeeded in directing to 
 its noble destiny. Neither the distance which separates us, 
 nor any difference of race, will ever weaken in us and in our 
 people that firm friendship which unites us with the brave 
 American nation, with which for one hundred years Italy has 
 had relations productive of mutual esteem. We are inclined 
 to convey to you these sentiments so much the more readily 
 because, for the purpose of the more worthily celebrating the 
 memorable day by the monster exhibition at Philadelphia, 
 you were pleased to invite to the festival all the nations of 
 the earth. Accept the assurances of our highest esteem 
 and friendship, together with the prayers which we offer to 
 God that He may have you, my very dear friend, in His 
 holy keeping. Given at Rome, on the 11th of June, 1876. 
 
 Your good friend, 
 
 Victok Emanuel. 
 Countersigned : Meligari. 
 
 Bismarck's opinion of the American Government. 
 
 " Bismarck himself publicly declared his conviction that 
 popular representation as exemplified in the United States 
 was the only sure and permanent foundation on which the 
 governing system of a great people could rest. It was a re- 
 markable and significant thing that Bismarck, who had so 
 long been regarded by Englishmen as a living symbol of the 
 most dogged and uncompromising toryism, should come to re- 
 ceive as he did. the public and cordial thanks of the English 
 Reform League, (then the most radical organization in Eng- 
 land, composed of men who regard John Bright as slow and 
 conservative) for his practical and complete recognition of 
 the fundamental principles of free government. 1 presume 
 we may take Bismarck's own word for it that he had learned 
 5*
 
 106 APPENDIX. 
 
 his great lesson in the art of government from the teachings 
 of the American war. The echo of Appoinatox rolled along 
 the Rhine. Elbe, the Spree and the Danube." — Lippincotfs 
 Magazine. 
 
 Rev. Dr. Dorner, of Germany. 
 
 In a speech of the Rev. Dr. Dorner of Berlin after his 
 turn from the meeting of the Evangelical Alliance at Xew 
 fork, he said : " Out of the mixed peoples of America is 
 growing a new homogeneous race, full of tire and energy, full 
 of youthful force and enterprise. Christianity has there con- 
 quered a new land. Columbus was encouraged by the hope 
 that the new land would serve to the honor of our Redeemer. 
 That is not accomplished in the sense for which Colum- 
 bus hoped, through the conversion of the heathen, but 
 in a far higher sense. The discovery of America has not 
 only a chronological but also a philosophical connection 
 with the Reformation ; for as it were a new land arose from 
 out the sea, to serve as a bulwark and a reserve for the 
 church of the Reformation." 
 
 It is an interesting fact that Rev. Dr. Joseph P. Thomp- 
 son, for many years the honored pastor of the Broadway 
 Tabernacle in Xew York City, has recently delivered by in- 
 vitation a course of lectures in Berlin on " the History and 
 Progress of the United States.'' These lectures have been 
 received by the Germans with very great favor, and the "Art 
 Saloon" where they were delivered was crowded with intel- 
 ligent and enthusiastic listeners. 
 
 Rev. Dr. Parker, of England. 
 
 " It is not very agreeable to my patriotic impulses, to 
 say, and yet I must say it. that America in, in my opinion, 
 on the point of laying its Iannis on the supremacy of the 
 world. England has « magnificent history, but America has 
 a still more magnificent future." 
 
 Public statement made by Rev. Dr. Parker in Exeter
 
 APPENDIX. 107 
 
 Hall, London, after his return from the meeting of the 
 Evangelical Alliance. 
 
 An English Liberal on tin' Promise of Ann rim. 
 
 "Thomas Hughes, in reviewing in the London Academy 
 Mr. IngersoU's 'Fears for Democracy,' remarks: "The 
 study of democracy in America has been one of no ordinary 
 difficulty up to a very recent date. Their political literature 
 has been so confident and jubilant, and has so steadily ig- 
 nored or treated so lightly, the facts which seemed of the 
 gravest moment to Englishmen, that serious men turned 
 aside from it in despair. All this is now changed. The diffi- 
 culty is rather nowadays to find in the speeches or writings 
 of the foremost men. or even in the newspapers or maga- 
 zines of America, any of that jubilant talk, which used to 
 be so common, as to the absolute perfection of their institu- 
 tions, and the almost infallible political wisdom of " the 
 fathers." This tone, excusable enough in a voting nation, — 
 conscious of its own powers, but which has never made its 
 proofs, — has gradually disappeared since the war ; till, at 
 last, our cousins have come to speak of their own political 
 and social short-comings with a frankness and severity which 
 is taking the bread out of the mouths of their candid friends 
 on this side of the Atlantic. To their well wishers, among 
 whom we desire to be reckoned, the change is full of hope. 
 A nation which, on the eve of a centenary so full of promise 
 as that of the United States, seems bent before all things on 
 probing its own weak places, is giving the surest pledge that 
 its manhood will not disgrace its youth.' As regards the 
 vaticinations of Ingersoll, who thinks all the trouble came 
 from the anti-slavery movement. Mr. Hughes disagrees. 
 He thinks the civil war and its issue prove that " under all 
 the superficial evils of American public life there does exist 
 still a healthy public conscience, which, though not easily 
 aroused, when roused, can sweep aside the wire-puller'.- and
 
 L08 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 politician's machinations like cobwebs.' Traces of the 
 same public conscience he perceives in 'the collapse of the 
 soft money movement."' Rutland Herald. 
 
 Pierre Duval, of France. 
 
 "For my own part, when I wander through the streets 
 of a great city of the Union, through streets which the day 
 before were rilled with a noisy and restless multitude, when 
 I find myself alone in the broad alleys, where the day before 
 I was crowded, pushed and impeded at every step ; when 
 I find silence, rest and emptiness reigning every where 
 except in the churches ; when I consider that this mass of 
 people has withdrawn itself to pray and commune to- 
 gether, I am filled with awe ; I confess it ; I become seri- 
 ously and religiously impressed ; I comprehend why this 
 people is a great people ; I understand why for the past 
 century it has been a free, yes, the freest people that exist." — 
 
 From Pierre Duval on the influence of the Sabbath 
 upon liberty in America. 
 
 Victor Hugo, of France. 
 
 "Victor Hugo made a eulogistic speech on America at a 
 large meeting in Paris. He declared " that America was 
 indebted to France for the abolition of slavery. France, he 
 said, would be indebted to America for amnesty, and the 
 twentieth century would witness the United States of Amer- 
 ica clasping the United States of Europe in a brotherly 
 embrace/' The orator was enthusiastically applauded. Mr. 
 Hugo's orations, no less than his poems and novels, proclaim 
 him the most imaginative of Frenchmen."— A 7 ". Y. Observer. 
 
 Von Beust, of Austria. 
 
 " : Viexxa, July 6 3 1869. — The American minister, John 
 Jay, gave a dinner on the -itb. All the ambassadors at the 
 court of Vienna were present. Count Von Beust proposed
 
 APPENDIX. 109 
 
 the health of President Grant, who. he said, was the chief 
 of a great republic, whose brave soldiers had reconquered the 
 Union, and whose swords were now turned to olive branches. 
 Minister Jay expressed an opinion that the Anglo-American 
 treatv would prevent wars hereafter by the establishment of 
 an international court of arbitration. Count Von Beust, in 
 reply, doubted the ability of any power to restrain the 
 natural quarrelsomeness of mankind, and said that hitherto 
 mediation had only been tolerated and arbitration rejected. 
 He expressed his sincere belief that the United States were 
 friendly toward all powers, and concluded by drinking to the 
 long life and prosperity of the great republic. Speeches 
 were made by other prominent personages, in all of which 
 the most friendly sentiments were expressed toward the 
 United States." — Telegraphic Message. 
 
 Castelar, of Spain. 
 
 "Nations are like bee-hives. Each nation contributes 
 to fabricate the honey of universal life. Ideas, wherever 
 scattered, reforms, wherever matured, change the human 
 conscience. When from our narrow horizon we turn our 
 eyes to the whole planet, we see that the continents are ruled 
 by universal and incontestible laws. 
 
 " Asia is the immemorable land of the past, the patri- 
 archal land of the empires, the theocracies, the castes. Eu- 
 rope is the volcanic land of the present, the arena of com- 
 bat between the ancient powers and the new ideas. 
 
 "'America, and especially Saxon America, with its im- 
 mense virgin territory, with its republic, with its equilibrium 
 between stability and progress, with its harmony between 
 liberty and democracy, is the continent of the future — the 
 immense continent stretched by God between the Atlantic and 
 Pacific, where mankind may plant, essay, and resolve all 
 social problems. (Loud cheers). 
 
 ••The present moment is supreme and anguishing. The
 
 110 APPENDIX. 
 
 last years of the nineteenth century which are fast approach- 
 ing may be as grave and as solemn as the last years of the 
 eighteenth century in which was installed the first French 
 revolution. 
 
 "Europe has to decide, whether she will confound her- 
 self with Asia, placing upon her lands old altars, and upon 
 the altars old idols, and upon the idols immovable theocra- 
 cies, and upon the theocracies despotic empires, or whether 
 she will go by labor, by liberty, and by the republic to collab- 
 orate with America in the grand work of universal civiliza- 
 tion." 
 
 From speech of Castelae on the royal message, in the 
 Spanish Cortez, 1871. 
 
 XL — From " Prophetic Voices concerning America," 
 by Charles Sumner. 
 
 "There shall come a time in later ages, when ocean 
 shall relax his claims, and a vast continent shall appear, and 
 a pilot shall find new worlds, and Thule shall be no more 
 the earth's bounds." — Seneca's Medea, 1100 years before 
 Columbus. 
 
 " The daylight, hastening with winged steps, 
 Perchance to gladden the expectant eyes 
 Of far olf nations in a world remote." — Petrarch ; 
 efore Columbus. 
 
 " Men shall descry another hemisphere, 
 Since to one common centre all things tend ; 
 So earth by curious mystery divine 
 "Well balanced hangs amid the starry spheres. 
 At our Antipodes are cities, states 
 And thronged empires, ne'er divined of yore : 
 But see, the sun speeds on his western path 
 To glad the nations with expected light." — Pulci : 
 before Columbus.
 
 APPENDIX. Ill 
 
 " Religion stands on tiptoe in our land 
 Ready to puss to the American strand.*' — George 
 Herbert. 
 
 " When New England shall trouble new Spain. 
 When Jamaica shall be lady of the isles and the main ; 
 When Spain shall be in America hid, 
 And Mexico shall prove a Madrid ; 
 When Africa shall no more sell out their blacks 
 To make slaves and drudges to the American tracts ; 
 When America shall cease to send out its treasure, 
 But employ it at home in American pleasure ; 
 When the Xew World shall the old invade, 
 Nor count them their lords but their fellows in trade ; 
 
 Then think strange things have come to light, 
 Whereof "but few have had a foresight." — Sir Thomas 
 Browx ; he died in 1682. 
 
 " Westward the star of empire takes its way ; 
 The first four acts already past, 
 A fifth shall close the drama of the day ; 
 Time's noblest offspring is the last." — Bishop Berke- 
 ley, 1726. 
 
 "And you will then see how the earth will be beautiful ! 
 What culture ! What new arts and new sciences ! What 
 safety for commerce ! Navigation will precipitate all the 
 peoples toward each other. A day will come when one 
 will go in a populous ami regulated city of California, as 
 one goes in the stage coach of Meaux." — Marqlis D'Ar- 
 genson, 1745. 
 
 " We have no news public or private : but there is an 
 ostrich egg laid in America, where the Bostonians have 
 canted three hundred chests of tea into the ocean ; for thev
 
 112 APPENDIX. 
 
 will not drink tea with our parliament. . Lord Chatham 
 talked of conquering Amerii i in Germany. I believe Eng- 
 land will be conquered son day in Xevv England or Ben- 
 gal." — Horace Walpole, Feb. 24, 1774. 
 
 " Many hundred years must roll away before we shall be 
 corrupted. Our pure, virtuous, public spirited federative 
 republic will last forever, govern the globe, and introduce 
 the perfection of man.'' — John Adams to Thomas Jeffer- 
 
 son, Nov. 15, 1813. 
 
 " You will at this time have decided the greatest revolu- 
 tion of the globe ; namely, if it is America which is to reign 
 over Europe, or if it is Europe which is to continue to reign 
 over America. I will wager in favor of America, for the 
 reason, merely physical, that for five thousand years, genius 
 has turned opposite to the diurnal motion, and travelled 
 from the East to the West." — Abbe G-aleani, July 25, 1778. 
 
 " They (the Americans) are now but little short of half 
 our number. To this number they have grown from a 
 small body of original settlers by a very rapid increase. 
 The probability is that they will go on to increase, and that 
 in fifty or sixty years they will be double our number and 
 form a mighty empire, consisting of a variety of States, all 
 equal or superior to ourselves, in all the arts and accomplish- 
 ments which give dignity and happiness to human life." — ■ 
 Dr. Kichard Price, 1776. 
 
 " I will not, I cannot, enter into the merits of the cause, 
 but I dare say the American Congress, in 1776, will be 
 allowed to be as able and enlightened as the English conven- 
 tion was in 1688; and that their posterity will celebrate the 
 centenary of their deliverance from us, as duly and sincerely 
 as we do ours from the oppressive measures of the house of 
 Stuart."' — Robeivt Burns, U88.
 
 APPENDIX. U3 
 
 "When an energetic and powerful nation, to which 
 everything presages high destinies, stretching its arms upon 
 the two oceans, Atlantic and Pacific, shall direct its vessels 
 from one to the other by an abridged route— it maybe in 
 cutting the Isthmus of Panama ; it may be in forming a 
 canal communicating as has been proposed by the river St. 
 John and the lake of Nicaragua— it will change the face of 
 the commercial world and the face of empires. 
 
 " Who knows if America will not then avenge the out- 
 rages she has received, and if our old Europe, placed in the 
 rank of a subaltern power, will not become a colony of the 
 New World."— Abbe Gregolre. 
 
 "The Americans of the United States, whatever they 
 do, will become one of the greatest peoples of the earth ; they 
 will cover with their offshoots almost all North America"! 
 The continent which they inhabit is their domain; it cannot 
 escape them. 
 
 Then will there arrive a time when there will be seen in 
 North America 150,000,000 of men, equal together, who 
 will all belong to the same family, who will have the same 
 point of departure, the same civilization, the same language, 
 the same religion, the same habits, the same manners, and 
 one in which thought will circulate in the same form, and 
 paint itself in the same colors. All else is doubtful, but this 
 is certain. Here is a fact entirely new in the world, of 
 which imagination can hardly seize the extent."— Alexis 
 
 DE TOCQUEVILLE. 
 
 XII. — Land in England and the United Sti 
 
 A.TES. 
 
 " A very interesting compilation has been made recently 
 by The London Spectator from the statistics of The Doom,, lav
 
 114 APPENDIX. 
 
 Book as to the number of freeholders in England, and the 
 
 size of their estates. It appears that in England arid Wales 
 something like one million of persons own land, and that 
 forty-three thousand hold more than a hundred acres, while 
 two hundred and eighty gentlemen own 5,424, 764 acres, or 
 a little less than one-sixth of the whole inclosed soil of Eng- 
 land and Wales. These gentlemen are mainly of the highest 
 ability, owning each from about 5,000 acres up to over 
 47,000 acres, the average being 19,378 acres. 
 
 "If a comparison in this matter be made with the United 
 States, we are obliged merely to take the farming properties 
 of the United States, as the small freeholds near the cities 
 are not enumerated in our census. This, however, is a 
 proper comparison, as the estates of the English nobility are 
 nearly all agricultural properties. In 1870 there were 
 2,655,985 farms in the United States, in all probability each 
 owned by a separate person, so that our number of free- 
 holders is more than two and a half times that of England 
 and Wales. The whole number of acres of land, both im- 
 proved and unimproved, was 407,735,041 ; the average size 
 of the farms being 153 acres. 
 
 "In any one division of acres, however, the largest num- 
 ber was between twenty and fifty— being 847,614 farms. 
 Of farms over a hundred, there were 584,847, or more than 
 thirteen times as many as in England. Of farms beyond a 
 thousand acres, there were, in this country, only 3,720, the 
 largest being in California. If we look over the list of the 
 large English estates, we find that the rental will average 
 some eight dollars per acre, so that the two hundred and 
 ei o lltv gentlemen mentioned above enjoy an income from 
 real estate of some forty million dollars, or an average of 
 about -S147.S.38 each. Among these gentlemen we find the 
 Duke of Norfolk, with 15,270 acres, aud an income of over 
 one in ill ion dollars; Sir James W. Ramsden, with a property 
 of 8,589 acres, and an income of about $835,000 ; the Duke 
 of Northumberland, with an estate of 181,616 acres, with a
 
 APPENDIX. 115 
 
 rental of about 1809,000; the Earl of Derby, with 47,269 
 acres, and a rental of some 8708,000; Sir L. Palk, with 
 10,109 acres, and an income of about $546,000. These are 
 the largest landholders with the greatest rentals, but there 
 are a great number of others, with incomes from $30,000 up 
 to $200,000, the average being, as we said before, nearly 
 $150,000 each. When it is considered that this forty mil- 
 lions of dollars comes from real estate in the country alone, 
 and does not include the rental from such immense prop- 
 erties as that of the Duke of Westminster in London, or 
 others similarly situated, and no income from personal prop- 
 erty or commercial undertakings, we can judge how vast a 
 proportion of the solid wealth is accumulated in England in 
 a few hands. This wealth is of the most permanent and 
 safe description, and could hardly be affected by anything 
 but a general revolution. These two hundred and eighty 
 gentlemen could, if political influence and property were 
 identical, return four times the number of members of par- 
 liament which are returned by London itself, and exercise 
 more direct influence on legislation than the whole popula- 
 tion of Scotland. The contrast with this country is cer- 
 tainly remarkable, where our 'territorial democracy' num- 
 bers over two and a half millions and the average size of the 
 estates is 153 acres. This subdivision of land in the United 
 States, not carried to the extreme of the Erench division, is 
 undoubtedly one of the secrets of our past success, and the 
 element which, in the future, will contribute most to the 
 intelligence and prosperity of the people. We suffer, it is 
 true, certain defects from the lack of a wealthy class of men 
 necessarily interested in public affairs, but we shall ulti- 
 mately derive compensation for these defects by the greater 
 prosperity of the greater number." — New York Times.
 
 116 APPENDIX. 
 
 XIII. — The State Church of England. 
 
 The State Church of England, however excellent it may 
 be as a religious institution, as a political establishment is 
 an impediment to progress in that country. It is a vast sys- 
 tem of patronage. The crown appoints the two arch- 
 bishops and twenty-six bishops. Then out of twelve thou- 
 sand livings, thirteen hundred are at the disposal of the 
 bishops, one thousand of the cathedrals, seven hundred of 
 the two universities, over a thousand of the higher officers 
 of state, fourteen hundred of three hundred peers and ba- 
 ronets, and six thousand five hundred are in the hands of 
 four thousand private patrons, leaving only about seventy 
 to the people. — From Discourse of Rev. Charles Mason. 
 
 XIV. — Church and State in England. 
 
 "The Archbishop of Canterbury has a yearly salary 
 amounting to $60,000. The bishops of York and London 
 receive $50,000 each, and $40,000 are paid to the Bishop of 
 Durham, and the unique sum of $25,000 each to the remain- 
 ing twenty-three bishops. In addition to these noble allow- 
 ances, there are gratuities of palatial mansions, or rent-free 
 estates, accorded to each of these eminent clerical officials. 
 Then there are deans, arch-deacons, rural deans and other 
 dignitaries to be handsomely provided for, nearly all of 
 whom hold more than one office. These prodigious expendi- 
 tures, coupled with the monopoly of the sale of ' livings,' 
 have created a growing dissatisfaction with the governmental 
 protection of the church, which advanced statesmen like 
 Bright and Gladstone not only recognize, but would take 
 immediate measures to reform altogether." — Vermont 
 Chronicle.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 117 
 
 XV.— The Disestablishment Movement. 
 "The disestablishment movement in England grows and 
 grows. A liberation society was organized some years ago, 
 for the purpose of agitating the question and enlightening 
 the public mind on the subject. Two years ago a special 
 fund of $200,000 was created, and the work was carried on 
 on a larger scale. At the last annual meeting, held a few 
 days ago, it was reported that nearly a thousand meetings 
 have been held during the past year, some three hundred 
 more than in previous years. Two million five hundred 
 thousand copies of the society's publications have been issued. 
 The income of the year shows an increase of above £1,000. 
 the amount being £15,449 18s. 7d. The great success of 
 the voluntary system in America and Scotland is fast weak- 
 ening the venerable fallacy that Christianity cannot live with- 
 out government support. In spite of the sweet lumiuous- 
 ness of Matthew Arnold, it is plain that the interests of 
 religion do not demand an establishment. Besides the pow- 
 erlessness of the Establishment to protect itself against any 
 heresy from Romanism, rationalism has alienated many of 
 its best friends among the Dissenters. The only interests 
 that would suffer by disestablishment are the interests of 
 those who live by the Establishment. Hence the tears." — 
 Independent, May, 1876. 
 
 XVI. — Liberation Societt. 
 
 "At the annual meeting of this society, the object of 
 which is to effect the severance of Church and State, An. 
 Joseph Chamberlain. Mayor of Birmingham, presided and 
 made the principal speech, in the course of which he said : 
 
 'Persecution is not inherent in religion. It is only im- 
 ported into it when it becomes connected with the State.
 
 118 APPENDIX. 
 
 Established religion lias always been, and will always be, 
 
 intolerant. Social union in this country would be easy 
 enough if it were not for the traditional exclusiveness which 
 has been handed down from a time when the State did not 
 confine its interference to the patronizing of one sect, but 
 undertook to persecute all the rest. The State Church 
 has been an institution for the sanction of political in- 
 justice, and for the perpetuation of political abuses. It 
 is not a society for the promotion of goodness. It is part 
 of. a vast mutual assurance against all change to which the 
 landlord, the publican, and every vested right and priv- 
 ilege can be exposed. But, unfortunately, you and I are 
 partners in the concern. We have been sleeping partners 
 for too many years, receiving none of the profits of the 
 transactions which are carried on. The time has come 
 when we may ask the people of this country, and the work- 
 ing classes especially, whether national property cannot be 
 better applied than to the frustration of objects which they 
 have at heart, and the delay of reforms upon which they 
 have set their minds.'" — New York Observer, June, 1876. 
 
 XVII. — Traffic m Sacred Things. 
 
 " Half the livings are private property and may be and 
 are often bought and sold in the open or the secret market. 
 We sell cotton on the exchange at Liverpool ; you sell 
 metals in the exchange at Birmingham ; but all over the 
 country there is going on from day to day a traffic in the 
 most _ied and solemn offices in the church of England." — 
 John' Bright's Speech at Birmingham in January, 1875.
 
 APPENDIX. 119 
 
 XVIII. — The Licensing System en England a Warn- 
 ing to us. 
 
 "In the United States this system is a problem working 
 itself out tentatively. In England it is no longer a problem 
 — no longer does it remain in the region of inquiry, or ques- 
 tion, as to what the results may be. The issues of it are 
 patent everywhere — in every city, town, village and hamlet 
 of the land ; and to the last degree they arc pernicious. 
 The experience of one country ought to furnish guidance 
 and warning to the intelligence of another country, and 
 may be of very special value when the countries themselves 
 have so much in common. The system of issuing licenses 
 for the establishment of saloons where men may legally con- 
 gregate for drinking purposes, is practically a plan for 
 creating vested interests of the most odious kind. These 
 drinking saloons soon acquire a prescriptive right to exist. 
 They become property, and property has its rights. These 
 rights must be defended. The principle which protects 
 property of one kind, throws its aegis around property of all 
 kinds ; necessarily so. Once admit that men in the com- 
 munity have a legal right to property in investments which 
 are inseparable from demoralization, and there is no end to 
 the multiplication of houses established for the purpose of 
 demoralizing society, under the plea of meeting a necessity. 
 
 Those benevolent persons who are of opinion that the 
 word "'license,' when applied to the sale of intoxicants, 
 means limitation and legislative control, have only to study 
 the working of the license laws in England, to arrive at an 
 exactly opposite conclusion. 
 
 Theoretically, licensed drinking-houses in England hem- 
 some proportion to the number of inhabitants ; practically, 
 the inhabitants are treated with the most utter disregard: 
 so much so that it is computed that, taking the country at 
 large, there is one drinking house to every forty adult per- 
 sons: and as one-third at least of the people never enter
 
 120 APPENDIX. 
 
 such houses, it may be said, without exaggeration, that 
 there is one drinking house to every twenty-seven of the 
 adults who use them. No one can estimate the frightful 
 amount of misery, ami worse than misery, demoralization of 
 soul, that such a fact implies. The appeals to the hearts of 
 men and women have too often been made from the mate- 
 rial miseries which intemperance brings — too little regardful 
 of the fact that below this depth there is a deeper depth — 
 that these palpable miseries are but the sign of a demor- 
 alized condition of soul that no language can adequately 
 represent. Heartlessness, hopelessness, the death of all self- 
 respect, the annihilation of all respect for others, a moral 
 impenetrability which no revivalist in creation can break 
 in upon — these are the most horrifying effects of a vice 
 which is regarded as legalized when once its traffickers are 
 licensed. 
 
 So much for the victims. But what of public senti- 
 ment, and what of the men who are in the forefront of this 
 gigantic conspiracy against the peace and morals of the 
 nation ? There is nothing but warning in the reply to this 
 question. In England public sentiment on the drinking- 
 saloon business seems to be thoroughly alcoholized. The 
 nation is degraded by it, from the throne to the poor-house. 
 Everybody deplores the universal drunkenness of English 
 workmen ; yet no national action for arresting the spread of 
 intemperance has ever in late years been possible. Manu- 
 factured wines and spirits are used everywhere — in gilded 
 drawing-rooms, in quiet parlors, in cosy kitchens, in church 
 vestries ; and on all occasions — at births, marriages, at 
 deaths, at morning calls, at evening parties, at dinners, at 
 suppers, at every species of sociable that can be named. 
 
 Nothing has so tended to lower the standard of morals 
 in England as the influence of this ubiquitous alcohol. And 
 the great brewers, many of whom are members of Parlia- 
 ment, and other brewers who aspire to that and similar 
 honors, are the proprietors of the great majority of these
 
 APPENDIX. 121 
 
 licensed bouses. And whenever their interests are attacked 
 in Parliament, these men can afford to spend thousands 
 upon thousands of pounds in the defence of their 'vested 
 rights.' Millions of money are sunk in this business, until 
 the brewers' corporation has become the most formidable 
 interest in Great Britain. Legislation is paralyzed. States- 
 men dare not touch the question. Almost to a man. the 
 drinking-saloon fraternity voted for Mr. D'israeli's party at 
 the last election, solely because Mr. Gladstone's government 
 had made some feeble effort to legislate restrictively on this 
 question. 
 
 These are some of the effects of a license law : the in- 
 definite multiplication of drinking-houses, the gradual but 
 sure degradation of the men who frequent them, the cor- 
 ruption of the public conscience, and the creation of a 
 powerful corporation who eventually, by their esprit de 
 corps, and by their wealth, block the way of all reformatory 
 legislation, and make any national movement for the sup- 
 pression or limitation of drinking-houses all but impossible. 
 I have said nothing as to the enormous burden of taxation 
 which attends this wholesale demoralization of the poorest 
 of the people in England. Let the citizens of New Eng- 
 land resist the beginnings of all license laws. They are 
 only a delusion and a snare." — Rev. Reuen Thomas, in 
 Boston Congregationalist. 
 
 XIX. — Intemperance an Immeasurable Evil. 
 
 "When you take such words as some of the English 
 judges, noted for the clearness of their views and the calm 
 precision of their statements, have spoken of the relation of 
 intemperance to crime ; when you hear Justice Coleridge 
 say. ' There is scarcely a crime conies before me that is not 
 caused directly or indirectly by strong drink;' and Justice
 
 122 APPENDIX. 
 
 Guriiev: 'Every crime has its origin, more or less, in drunk- 
 enness ; ' and Justice Patterson, 'If it were not for this 
 drinking, you [the jury] and I would have nothing to do;' 
 and Justice Alderson, 'Drunkenness is the most fertile 
 source of crime, and if it could be removed the assizes of the 
 country would be rendered mere nullities;' and Justice 
 Wightman, 'I rind in the calendar that conies before me 
 that the one unfailing source, directly or indirectly, of most 
 of the crimes that are committed is intemperance," — when 
 we add to these words of the English judges the testimony 
 of those familiar with criminal records here ; when we find 
 the city clerk of Boston declaring that of the offenders 
 transported in the Henry Morrison to the Deer Island 
 reformatories and other penal city institutions, eighty per 
 cent are victims of strong drink ; when we find the Massa- 
 chusetts State Board of Charities, in their official report. 
 1866, declaring that intemperance is ' the chief occasion of 
 crime,' and that 'probably more than eighty per cent of the 
 criminals in this State come within the intemperate class ; * 
 when we find a distinguished judge and district attorney in 
 Suffolk county — Hon. George K. Sanger — for many years 
 familiar with the criminal courts of the Commonwealth, 
 declaring that ' there are very few cases of crime into which 
 the use of intoxicating liquors does not more or less enter ; ' 
 when we push our inquiries with a similar result all over 
 this country and over the civilized globe; and when we find 
 also that intemperance is the fruitful source of pauperism 
 as well as of crime, and that the cost of pauperism and 
 crime to this Commonwealth alone is more than four mil- 
 lions of dollars per year ; when we find that disease is so 
 certain an attendant upon intemperance that no life insu- 
 rance company will grant a policy to an individual addicted 
 to it, and that, according to the carefully prepared tables of 
 life insurance, the average length of life of the intemperate 
 is twenty years less than that of other men; when we add 
 to this fearful picture but a glimpse of the want and wretch-
 
 APPENDIX. 123 
 
 edness of home and family, the degeneration of children, the 
 dangers to society, the peril to every interest of the life that 
 now is, and the woe threatened in the world to come — I say, 
 if it be possible to paint this picture in too fearful colors, if 
 it be possible to give this tremendous reality too terrible 
 representation, I believe we have got to wait for the imagina- 
 tion, transcending that of Dante or Michael Angelo. which 
 shall show itself adequate to the task,'' — Rev. Julius II. 
 Seelye, before the Congressional Temperance Society. 
 
 XX. — Brazilian Students. Dom Pedro. 
 
 "In 1873 there were fifteen Brazilian students in Cornell 
 University, N. Y. These started a monthly publication in 
 the Portuguese language, called the 'Aurora Brasilevia,' 
 with the especial purpose of circulating in their own conn-, 
 try, educational and other news from the United States." — 
 Congregationalist. 
 
 The Emperor of Brazil, Dom Pedro, who has lately vis- 
 ited this country, is one of the most liberal and enlightened 
 of sovereigns, and has labored ardently for religious liberty 
 in Brazil. Here is a pleasant picture of this good man, and 
 noble representative of South America : 
 
 " We have never had on our shores a more enterprising 
 visitor than the Emperor of Brazil, or one who has excited 
 more hearty admiration for his republican manners and 
 habits. From the day that he landed until the present time 
 he has steadily refused to allow any demonstrations in recog- 
 nition of his imperial position, and he has daily gone about 
 his business of learning all that be ean about our country 
 and its institutions, showing that he came here to see and 
 not to be *pp\\. lie has not rudely, but respectfully and
 
 124 APPENDIX. 
 
 modestly, declined formal receptions, while he has freely 
 mingled with the people at various social gatherings, as if 
 he were one of the people. He took a somewhat conspicuous 
 part at the opening of the International Exhibition, but this 
 could not be avoided, inasmuch as Brazil has a share in the 
 enterprise, and there was no one, next to our own President, 
 who could with propriety take the place which was assigned 
 to him. 
 
 "He has been an industrious sight-seer. The day after 
 he landed he improved his time from early morn until mid- 
 night in seeing what he could of our city and its institutions, 
 and after another day of laborious sight-seeing started at 
 evening for the Pacific Ocean. He returned in time for the 
 opening of the Exhibition, spending a day or two at Wash- 
 ington on his way back. On Friday morning, with the 
 Empress and his suite of sixteen persons, he left again for 
 the West, intending to go down the Mississippi to New 
 Orleans, and return by the way of Mobile, Montgomery, 
 Atlanta and Knoxville. The tour will be completed by 
 visits to Niagara Falls, Toronto, Montreal, Quebec, the 
 White Mountains, Boston, Saratoga, Albanv and New 
 York. 
 
 "We hope that the Emperor may receive as pleasing im- 
 pressions from his visit as he has made by his presence 
 among us, and we only add the wish that he may find time 
 to enjoy at least one quiet Sabbath before he leaves, so as to 
 be able to understand more fully the influence of the reli- 
 gious principles which are among the controlling influences 
 of American society, and which distinguish our country 
 from those in which priestly power usurps the place of gen- 
 uine religious sentiment." — JV". V. Observer. 
 
 The same paper, in a later issue, says: " Dom Pedro has 
 been sight-seeing in and around New York. He has visited 
 the numerous city institutions on the islands in the East 
 River. On Saturday before breakfast he visited the Western 
 Union Telegraph Company's establishment, thoroughly in-
 
 APPENDIX. 125 
 
 specting it, and spending some time in the tower viewing 
 the city. After breakfast he inspected the internal economy 
 of Columbia College, going from there to the Academy of 
 Design. The Superintendent of the Academy, T. Addison 
 Richards, conducted the imperial party through the galleries. 
 At the Cooper Institute Mr. Peter Cooper himself did the 
 honors, and in his progress through the various departments 
 of the Art School the Emperor was presented with a wood 
 block executed by one of the lady pupils, and a number of 
 proof impressions of their works. After a visit to the Astor 
 Library, the party returned to the Buckingham Hotel. 
 
 "He spent Sunday in visiting Harlem Bridge, attending 
 the Catholic church of St. John the Evangelist, dining and 
 driving and visiting Gilmore's Garden in the evening. On 
 Monday morning Dom Pedro visited the Xew York Institu- 
 tion for the instruction of the Deaf and Dumb. He seemed 
 much interested in all that he saw, and made many inqui- 
 ries. One of the deaf mutes, a highly cultivated lady, wel- 
 comed him as follows : ' I am most happy to aid in extend- 
 ing a welcome to Dom Pedro II. of Brazil, not because he is 
 an emperor, but because during the whole of his long reign 
 his manhood has become him better than his crown. As 
 the only American sovereign he seems nearer to us than any 
 ruler of the Old World, and his sway in the great ' Land 
 of the live coal ' has been more nearly in accordance with 
 the spirit of our institutions than that of many a ruler 
 elected by the people. It is unfortunate that his visit to us 
 should be at a time when most of our pupils are at their 
 homes, for I am sure he would be interested in an assembly 
 such as daily gathers within these Avails, and which for num- 
 ber has not its peer in the whole world. True, we have 
 specimens here before him. hut a cup of water impresses one 
 differently from an Amazon or a Niagara.' Other pupils 
 exhibited their progress in intellectual culture and in me- 
 chanical pursuits. 
 
 " On Monday evening a special meeting of the American
 
 126 APPENDIX. 
 
 Geographical Society was held at Chiekering Hall, the occa- 
 sion being the reception tendered to the Emperor of Brazil : 
 Dr. A. Petermann. of Gotha, the German geographer ; Dr. 
 E. A. Nordenskjold, of Stockholm, the Arctic explorer; 
 and Dr. ('. H. Berendt. The house was crowded with a 
 large and brilliant throng of ladies and gentlemen. Ad- 
 dresses were made by Judge Daly, Bayard Taylor and Dr. I. 
 I. Hayes, papers were read by Dr. Berendt and Dr. A. 
 Petermann ; and Dom Pedro, upon being elected a member 
 of the Society, read an address as follows : 
 
 "'Although sincere gratitude's voice is always silent, I 
 will not hesitate to utter my thoughts to the American Geo- 
 graphical Society for the honor it confers on me in the 
 presence of men so prominent in geographical science, and 
 such indefatigable explorers of a region where man, rivaling 
 as it were with nature, feels that labor is his greatest glory 
 and more solid base of happiness. In so solemn an occasion, 
 however, it is my duty to express how in my country we 
 prize geographical studies, which will bring to light its ele- 
 ments of wealth, and will secure for it — I speak as a Brazil- 
 ian, but without partiality — a future brilliant and useful to 
 all nations with which Brazil has always endeavored to main- 
 tain cordial friendship. I trust the American Geographical 
 Society will allow me to send here a feeling adieu to all the 
 people of the United States, who welcomed me with so much 
 kindness, and to explain to them at the same time how sorry 
 I am that a motive, doubly regretable, has not permitted 
 my remaining longer among them, to see and examine as 
 much as I desired, notwithstanding the means employed by 
 this great nation to overwhelm time.' "
 
 APPENDIX. 127 
 
 XXI. — The Amazon, and its Wonderful Valley. Bra- 
 zil and the Brazilians. The Republic of Ven- 
 ezuela. 
 
 ''The valley of the Amazon is the great forest of the 
 globe. This mighty river, rising in the small mountain 
 lake of Lauricocha, only sixty miles from the Pacific, runs 
 clear across the breadth of the continent, almost on the line 
 of the equator, and empties into the Atlantic. Its whole 
 length is 2,740 miles, following its windings, or 2,050 
 miles in a straight line. From north to south its tributa- 
 ries stretch 1,750 miles. At a distance of 2,000 miles above 
 its mouth it has a breadth of a mile and a half, afterwards 
 it spreads to ten miles, then expands until it presents to the 
 Atlantic a front of one hundred and eighty miles. The 
 lake which is the source of "the main stream lies just below 
 the limits of perpetual snow. For the first five hundred 
 miles the stream flows through a deep valley, before reach- 
 ing the level of the great plain. 
 
 The region drained by the Amazon dwarfs that of any 
 other river. The Mississippi drains an area of a million 
 and a quarter square miles, the Amazon almost twice as 
 much, a space equal to two-thirds of all Europe. Into this 
 basin the United States might be packed without touching 
 its boundaries. It would hold the basins of the Mississippi, 
 the Nile, the Danube, and the Hoang-Ho." — Hartwig's 
 Polar and Tropical World*. 
 
 Of the basin of the Amazon Agassiz says, " Its woods 
 alone have an almost priceless value. Nowhere in the 
 world is there finer timber, either for solid construction or 
 for works of ornament. The rivers which flow past these 
 magnificent forests seem meant to serve first as a water 
 power for the saw-mills which ought to be established on 
 their borders, and then as a means of transportation for 
 material so provided ; yet all the lumber used is brought 
 from Maine.
 
 12S 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Setting aside the woods as timber what shall I say of the 
 mass of fruits, resins, oils, coloring matter, textile fabrics, 
 which they yield ? What surprised me most was to find that 
 a great part of this region was favorable to the raising of 
 cattle. An empire might esteem itself rich in any one of 
 the sources of industry which abound in this valley." 
 
 Orton says of this valley of the Amazon : " It possesses 
 the most agreeable and enjoyable climate in the world, with 
 a brilliant atmosphere only equaled by that of Quito, and 
 with no changes of seasons. Life may be maintained with as 
 little labor as in the garden of Eden, Perhaps no country 
 in the world is capable of yielding so large a return for agri- 
 culture. Nature, evidently designing this land as the home 
 of a great nation, has heaped up her bounties of every de- 
 scription ; fruits of richest flavors, woods of the finest grain, 
 dyes of gayest colors, drugs of- rarest virtues, and left no 
 sirocco or earthquake to disturb its people." 
 
 Travelers universally speak highly of the courtesy of the 
 Brazilians. The empire of Brazil is a peaceful and promis- 
 ing nation. 
 
 "' The Kepublic of Venezuela continues to advance rap- 
 idly along the path of progress under the presidency of that 
 really extraordinary man, Gen. Guzman Blanco, who well 
 deserves the gratitude of the friends of liberty and civiliza- 
 tion, for what he has done in behalf of hisconntrv. 
 Everything, indeed, points to a bright national future as the 
 result of so beneficent an administration as that country at 
 present enjoys." — New York Witness. 
 
 XXII. — The Government of the United States. 
 
 1. Legislative powers are vested in Congress which con- 
 sists of Senate and House of Representatives. 
 
 The senate is composed of two senators from each state, 
 who are chosen by the legislature thereof for six vears.
 
 APPENDIX. 129 
 
 The house of representatives is composed of members 
 chosen every second year by the people of the several states. 
 Xo person can be a senator under thirty years of age, or 
 a representative under twenty-five years of age. To be a 
 representative one must also have been seven years a citizen 
 of the United States, and when elected must be an inhabit- 
 ant of the state in which he is chosen, and to be a senator 
 he must have been nine years a citizen of the United 
 States, as well as an inhabitant of the state where he is 
 chosen. 
 
 The number of representatives shall not exceed one for 
 every thirty thousand inhabitants. Each state shall have at 
 least one representative. The Vice President of the United 
 States shall be president of the senate. 
 
 2. The executive power is vested in the President. He 
 is chosen for a term of four years, and with the Vice Presi- 
 dent is elected as follows : — 
 
 Each state shall appoint a number of electors equal to 
 the number of senators and representatives to which it is 
 entitled. 
 
 These electors shall meet in their respective states and 
 vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall 
 not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; 
 and they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and 
 of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign 
 and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government. 
 Then the President of the senate shall open these certifi- 
 cates in the presence of the senate and the house of repre- 
 sentatives, and the votes shall be counted. The person who 
 has the largest number of votes shall be President. 
 
 The President is commander-in-chief of the army and 
 navy. II e can make treaties, with the advice and consent 
 of the senate. He can also nominate and appoint ambassa- 
 dors, and other public ministers. He shall also see that 
 Hi- laws be faithfully executed. These are a few of the 
 more important of his functions. 
 6-
 
 130 APPENDIX. 
 
 The President must not be less than thirty-five years of 
 age, and must have resided in the country fourteen years. 
 He must also be a native born citizen. Before entering upon 
 his office he takes the following oath : 
 
 "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully 
 execute the office of President of the United States, and 
 will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend 
 the constitution of the United States." 
 
 3. — The judicial power of the United States is vested in 
 the Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as Congress 
 may establish. — From the Constitution. 
 
 XXIII. — The G-overxmext of Great Britain. 
 
 "The monarch of England derives his (or her) authority 
 in right of his birth ; but the legislative or law-making 
 branch of the government is vested in two separate and dis- 
 tinct bodies, called respectively the House of Lords and the 
 House of Commons. The lords are called peers of the realm ; 
 the commons, members of Parliament. The peers are 
 created by the monarch : the members of Parliament are 
 chosen by the people. On the accession of a sovereign, he 
 selects some distinguished individual as his prime minister 
 to whom he delivers the seals of office ; and this selection is 
 made indifferently from the nobility or from among the 
 people. The monarch is generally influenced in this selec- 
 tion by the known principles and opinions of the individual 
 thus selected on some popular subject on which the nation 
 is divided. If a majority of the Parliament is found on any 
 question to be opposed to the minister, the minister usually 
 resigns, and another is selected whose opinions are more in 
 accordance with the will of the majority of Parliament. If 
 the minister is supported by a majority of the House of Com- 
 mons, and is opposed by a majority of the House of Lords, 
 the monarch may at his option change the majority in the
 
 APPENDIX. 131 
 
 House of Lords by creating new members, (or, in the lan- 
 guage of the public prints, < a new batch of peers ') in such 
 numbers as to outvote those who have opposed his minister. 
 But if the monarch is disposed to support his minister, in 
 the case of a majority against him in the House of Com- 
 mons, he may dissolve the Parliament and order a new elec- 
 tion. On the meeting of the new Parliament, if a majority 
 of the House of Commons is still found to be against the 
 minister, the minister, warned by the fatal example of his 
 predecessors, resigns his office ; and the sovereign, yielding 
 to the popular will, appoints his successor from the ranks of 
 the opposing majority. 
 
 "The prime minister of Great Britain is appointed im- 
 mediately by the sovereign ; who delivering to him the seals 
 of office, commands him to form 'the cabinet' or executive 
 council. The cabinet, thus formed, constitutes the counsel- 
 ors of the sovereign, and are responsible for all his acts. 
 
 '•'The House of Lords consists of all the five orders of 
 nobility — namely, dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and 
 barons — who have attained the age of twenty-one years, and 
 labor under no disqualifications ; of sixteen representative 
 peers of Scotland ; twenty-eight representative peers from 
 Ireland ; two English archbishops and twenty-four bishops ; 
 and four representative Irish bishops. 
 
 "The House of Commons consists of six hundred and 
 fifty-eight members ; of which five hundred are sent tor the 
 counties, universities, cities and boroughs of England, fifty- 
 three from Scotland, and one hundred and five from Ire- 
 land." — E. G. Parker's Outlines of History. 
 
 XXIV. — The Government of Switzerland, 
 
 The present federal constitution of Switzerland which 
 superseded the federal contract -.>f August 7. 1815, and
 
 132 APPENDIX. 
 
 changed the federal union of states into a federal republic, 
 was promulgated Sept. 12, 1848. It provides that all the 
 rights of sovereignty which are not expressly transferred to 
 the confederacy, are exercised by the twenty-five cantons 
 and half cantons. 
 
 Among the prerogatives of the federal government are 
 the right of declaring war, of concluding peace, of treaties, 
 and of sending diplomatic representatives. The formation 
 of separate alliances between the cantons, without special 
 permission, is prohibited. The constitution of every canton 
 is guaranteed, if it is republican in form, if it has been 
 adopted by the people, and if it can be revised on the de- 
 mand of a majority of the citizens. All Swiss are equal 
 before the law, and the former relation of subjects as Avell 
 as all privileges of place or birth are abolished. All Swiss 
 who are christians have the right of settling in any canton, 
 and of acquiring full civil rights. All recognized Christian 
 denominations enjoy liberty of religious worship. Liberty 
 of the press, of petition, and of association is guaranteed ; 
 but the Jesuits and all religious orders and associations 
 which are affiliated to them are prohibited. — New American 
 Cyclopaedia. 
 
 XXV. — Important Speech of Mr. Lefevre in the 
 House of Commons on the changed attitude of 
 England. 
 
 As evidence of the great change which has been going 
 on among the influential classes of England since our late 
 war, I will quote from the speech uf Mr. Shaw Lefevre, 
 made March 8, 1868, in a debate in the British Hou.se of 
 Commons on the Alabama claims. 
 
 "In the future, friendship between the two countries 
 must rest on the basis of mutual justice. The papers to
 
 APPENDIX. 133 
 
 which he alluded were laid before the House in the autumn 
 of 1805. When in Parliament, in 1866, Lord Derby stated 
 ill another place that he fully approved of the correspond- 
 ence of Lord Russel and of the arguments by which he had 
 defended the course of England. In that House no objec- 
 tion was made to the course taken by their late government, 
 only one or two members having ventured to express inci- 
 dentally their regret that arbitration had not been accepted. 
 He himself having a strong opinion on that subject, had 
 framed a motion early in the session of 1866, after consult- 
 ing with a few who thought as he did, and having done so, 
 he went about to see how it would be met by other members 
 of the House. He found that if the discussion came on it 
 would elicit so strong an expression of disapproval of arbi- 
 tration, that after consultation with his friends he thought 
 it better not to. progress with it, feeling confident that the 
 subject must come on again, at some future time, and in the 
 meantime it was not wise to commit the House too strongly 
 against it. If any thing at that time seemed more improba- 
 ble, than even Household Suffrage coming from a conserva- 
 tive government, it was that they should offer arbitration for 
 the settlement of the Alabama claims. 
 
 " Their whole attitude in their speeches seemed to render 
 it impossible. But it seemed that office brought a sense of 
 responsibility, which was wanting before. Perhaps also the 
 changes with respect to reform and to the mode of looking at 
 American questions were not as unconnected with one an- 
 other as might at first appear. The hostilities of certain 
 parties in this country to the federal cause were due mainly 
 to a dread of its institutions, to an instinct that in the suc- 
 cess of the north was in col red the success of popular govern- 
 ment. It was homage paid to the American Constitutions. 
 On the success of the north there followed an immediate neces- 
 sity for an advance toward democracy here, and it was only 
 right that it should be accompanied by a very different tone 
 toward America. He had no desire to taunt the honorable
 
 134: APPENDIX. 
 
 members with either one change or the other. He rejoiced 
 in both. They were both equally beneficial to the country 
 and to the honorable members opposite, but it was right in 
 estimating our present position that we should bear this 
 change in mind." 
 
 XXVI. — Important Speech of M. Pelletan in the 
 Coeps Legislatif of France after tHe fall of 
 Richmond. 
 
 It is well known, nor can it be forgotten, what the 
 attitude of Napoleon and of the French Empire was toward 
 us in the hour of our extremity. 
 
 It is, however, amusing to read of the conduct of the 
 chief legislative assembly of France when publicly informed 
 of the capture of Richmond, and the downfall of the Con- 
 federacy, in a speech by the distinguished orator M. de Pel- 
 letan. Though this was the great event of the age, all men- 
 tion of it had been carefully omitted in the Emperor's ad- 
 dress to the Deputies. 
 
 Thus did this advocate of liberty announce its triumph 
 to its enemies : 
 
 " The speech from the throne passed over America in 
 silence ; your draft address maintains the same reserve ; the 
 Yellow Book itself contains on this subject nothing but a 
 pure white page. Now it seemed to us that the American 
 question was one of sufficient importance to be treated of 
 otherwise than with reticence. However, there is now no 
 occasion for discussion, because while I am speaking the 
 news arrives that the victorious swords of Grant and Sher- 
 man have settled the question. 
 
 " Richmond is taken !" (Interruption.) 
 
 A Voice. " So much the worse !"
 
 APPKNDIX. 135 
 
 M. Pelletan. " The pro-slavery rebellion is crashed and 
 the American Republic is restored in all its majestic unity.'' 
 (Further interruption.) 
 
 M. Pelletan. " Do not murmur so loud. I conjure you ; 
 they may hear us on the other side of the Atlantic.*' (Ex- 
 clamations and noise.) 
 
 Several voices. " Make an end of it." 
 
 M. Pelletan. '"For the last four years North America 
 has borne the burden of the most terrible civil war that 
 ever ravaged a nation, and during- the whole course of this 
 cruel trial she never for a single instant entertained the idea 
 of suspending liberty." (Ah, Ah !) 
 
 "She never dreamed of invoking the principle of public 
 safety, or opening that door through which all political crimes 
 make their way. But more ; it has renewed its executive 
 power under — we may almost say — the very fire of the enemy, 
 and that without violence and without disturbance — (inter- 
 ruption) — and it has done this so orderly and calmly that 
 this page of American History is the page of honor of the 
 nineteenth century." (Confused and increasing noise.) 
 
 M. Pelletan. " President Lincoln " — (cries of " Divide ! 
 Divide ! ") 
 
 " President Lincoln felt that he held the fate of the New 
 World in his hands, and he lifted up his heart to the height 
 of his destiny ; he has abolished slavery (Redoubled cries of 
 "Divide!") and he has restored the glorious American 
 Republic." 
 
 (Confused and tumultuous noise.)
 
 136 APPENDIX. 
 
 XXVII. — The Great Day of the Second Peace 
 Jubilee. 
 
 The World's Peace Jubilee. — Sixty Thousand people in 
 the Grand Coliseum. — Reception of the President. 
 The ninth day of the Jubilee (Tuesday, June 25, 1872) 
 was the greatest of all. The day opened ominous of a storm, 
 and the intermittence of cloud and sunshine were enough 
 to frighten away the timid, but the attractions which the 
 programme offered were enough to subvert all obstacles of 
 the weather, aided by the fact that the greater portion of the 
 seats for the affair were sold before the morning opened. . . 
 " The first musical notes which resounded through the 
 huge edifice were those of the celebrated band of the Ninth 
 Regiment New York National Guard, numbering eighty of 
 the most skillful performers of New York under the leader- 
 ship of Mr. D. L. Downing. . . Nothing of especial interest 
 occurred in the morning out of the ordinary run of events. 
 In the afternoon, however, the comparative quiet and mo- 
 notony was transformed into a scene of bustle and confusion 
 which has never been equaled in this or probably any other 
 city on this continent on any like occasion. 
 
 "As early as two o'clock the corridors began to be filled 
 with a jostling and eager crowd, and the auditorium was 
 half full. . . At three o'clock when the opening notes of 
 the afternoon performance were sounded, the gathering 
 almost defies description. Nothing like it has ever been 
 seen in this or any other city. Every available space in the 
 great structure had an occupant. The crowd filled the cor- 
 ridors and overflowed both the aisles, climbing upon the tim- 
 bers near the big drum, packed all the slips and made one 
 grand living mass of fifty thousand people. 
 
 " The hearts of the executive committee were full of joy, 
 and Mr. Gilmore was supremely happy. The highest hopes 
 of the Jubilee projectors ami managers had received a ful-
 
 APPENDIX. 137 
 
 fillment which had hardly heen dreamed of, at least not 
 often. . . It was ten minutes past three when the expect- 
 ant crowd, gathered at the westerly entrance of the Coliseum, 
 were cheered by the appearance of the bannerets of the 
 Lancers crossing West Newton Street Bridge. Colonel 
 Ushers, the United States Marshal of this district, was in 
 waiting to conduct the Presidential party to the municipal 
 reception room. . . The, scene at the President's entry was 
 certainly in the highest degree imposing. The sea of human 
 heads, the great chromo of colors of the feminine toilet, the 
 decorations under the roof moved gently to and fro by the 
 rain breaths drifting in through the open windows — and the 
 indescribable hum which arose from the throng, all these 
 were very impressive; but none so much so as the scene upon 
 the stage. The chorus seats were almost fully occupied, 
 and the ladies seemed to have adorned themselves specially 
 for the occasion. From a distance the great sloping stage 
 resembled an immense flower bed. In the centre presently 
 blossomed a great red and blue flower, the Marine Band of 
 Washington, — and by and by a line of red across the entire 
 stage dotted with black announced the entry of the Grena- 
 diers of England. The audience, though not fully compre- 
 hending which was which, cheered lustily, and the Prussians 
 next appeared, their metal helmets shining brilliantly as they 
 advanced down the long aisle. Close behind them came the 
 nodding pompons of the band of Grandfather Thiers. The 
 Prussians and French were drawn up at the rear of the 
 orchestra, nearly in line with each other, the scarlet streak 
 of grenadier ran down from them and joined them and itself 
 to the marines, who, as the President and attendant gentle- 
 men entered, burst into the familiar notes of ' Hail to the 
 Chief.' All the bands joined in the harmonious welcome, 
 and the audience was overcome with this preliminary mel- 
 ody. There have been few such spectacles in the annals of 
 modern music : never any in the history of musical festivals 
 in America. The inspiring welcome was rung out with
 
 13S APPENDIX. 
 
 hearty good-will, and the people hardly knew which most 
 to applaud, the bands or the President, who was invisible to 
 most of them. The programme selected for the day was 
 admirably calculated to show President Grant and everybody 
 else of what material the Jubilee is made. 
 
 " It introduced all the elements brought forward at the 
 previous concerts, including the several foreign bands which 
 were assembled together in the same concert for the first time. 
 
 " The chorus, however, had comparatively little to do 
 except to look on approvingly and applaud prettily the 
 efforts of the foreign musicians. . . The assembling of 
 the several foreign bands and the United States Marine band 
 on the stage at the opening of the concert was of itself quite 
 an interesting little event, and the appearance of the several 
 organizations in their handsome uniforms made a striking 
 picture. Owing to a slight misapprehension in the organ 
 department as to the order in which the bands were to 
 enter, Prussian ears were saluted by the strains of the Mar- 
 seillaise, which was intended of course for the French musi- 
 cians. ' Hail to the Chief ' was performed by the com- 
 bined bands under Mr. Gilmore's direction in compliment to 
 the President, and the musicians then withdrew. The 
 choristers, who seemed nearly as numerous as during the 
 early days of the Jubilee, or at least the seats were uearlv 
 as full, sang with excellent effect the fine chorus from 
 Handel's 'Judas Maccabaeus,' 'See the conquering hero 
 comes,' the bouquet of artists sustaining the duet. The 
 national song entitled 'Homage to Columbia,' both words 
 and music of which were written for the occasion by the 
 distinguished vocalist Madame Ermina Rudersdorff was the 
 next sensation. . . The song was sung by Madame Ru- 
 dersdorff herself, the accompaniment being furnished by the 
 Grenadier Guard's band, under the direction of Mr. 
 Godfrey. 
 
 "The English band remained upon the stage, and under 
 the direction of their accomplished leader. Mr. Godfrey,
 
 APPENDIX. 1 39 
 
 gave :i splendid performance of an elaborate pot pourri. en- 
 titled ' Reminiscences of Bellini,' which included many of 
 the principal airs from ' I Puritani,' ' Norma." ' La Sonam- 
 bula," 'Beatrice di Tenda,' etc., with solos from a variety 
 of instruments, including the cornet played by Mr. McGrath, 
 the clarionet by Mr. Spencer, and the euphonium by Mr. 
 Lawford. In response to a loud encore, The Fest March 
 from 'Wagners Tannhauser,' was given in a manner which 
 elicited a fresh outburst of applause. 
 
 "The great audience gave Madame Peschka Leutna, a 
 hearty welcome, when she appeared in company with Mr. 
 Charles Koppitz of this city to sing an aria and variations by 
 Adam, to which Mr. Koppitz added a finely played flute 
 obligate 
 
 " Strauss and one of his most charming waltzes, the 
 ' Kunstler Leben,' formed the next feature. As usual the 
 famous waltz maker was received with great enthusiasm. 
 The musicians seemed inspired to their best efforts, and this 
 means, in reference to such an orchestra, very much. The 
 waltz was played with gloriously fine effect and to a vocifer- 
 ous encore a response was made with the delicious Pizzicato 
 polka. There was still another encore and this time the 
 beautiful ' Blue Danube waltz ' was elicited. During the 
 performance of the Kunstler Leben Waltz Mr. Gilmore and 
 Mr. Zerrahn took their places in the orchestra, Mr. Gilmore 
 presiding over a pair of cymbals, and Mr. Zerrahn manipu- 
 lating a bass drum. They stood beside each other. Zer- 
 rahn holding in one hand the music from which both were 
 to play while he swung the drumstick with the other. Gil- 
 more kept his eye upon the music before him, and played 
 like an artist, while Zerrahn showed an ability to wield a 
 drumstick, as well as he does a baton. . 
 
 " The band of the Kaizer Franz Grenadier Regiment of 
 Germany. Herr Saro, leader, took their places upon the stage 
 at the beginning of the second part of the concert, and were 
 handsomely received by the audience.
 
 140 APPENDIX. 
 
 "As they entered the organ pealed forth the strain of 
 'Die Wacht am Rhein,' which appeared to be more pleasing 
 to the national tastes than the previous selection. . . After 
 the retirement of the band of the Kaizer Franz Gren- 
 adier regiment, the band of the Garde Eepublicaine of 
 Paris made their appearance, and under the leadership of 
 M. Paulus executed several pieces of music with accustomed 
 skill. Their reception was extremely hearty and their efforts 
 elicited tumultuous applause." . . 
 
 (After several pieces played by the French band and the 
 celebrated Anvil chorus) "the well known religious hymn 
 called ' Federal Street' was finely sung under the direction of 
 its composer. Dr. Henry K. Oliver, and a large number of 
 the audience united with the chorus. . . 
 
 " The ' Star Spangled Banner ' was given in the same 
 manner which made it so large a feature at the first concert. 
 
 "The colored Jubilee singers from Fisk University, 
 Nashville, Tennessee, came forward amid much applause and 
 sang two of the peculiar religious melodies of the South. 
 
 " The concert was brought to a terminus shortly before 
 half-past six o'clock by an orchestral performance of a mil- 
 itary march, called the 'Prussian Prize,' Mr. Gilmore con- 
 ducting." — Boston Journal. 
 
 XXVIII. — Glimpses of the Evangelical Alliance. 
 
 New York, October 13, 1873. 
 The Evangelical Alliance is over. It has been a great 
 and glorious gathering, whose influence will be felt as long 
 as the Christian religion exercises its benign sway. By it a 
 new and higher impulse will be given to earnest souls, and 
 a grander unity to the Church universal. Your readers 
 have doubtless read reports of these great meetings : but
 
 APPENDIX. 141 
 
 possibly I may be able to give them glimpses of some of 
 the scenes. 
 
 Let ns go together to the Association Hall, on the corner 
 of Twenty-fourth street and Fourth Avenue, so called 
 because it is in the building erected for the use of the Young 
 Men's Christian Association. The outside entrances are 
 thronged with persons eager for admittance. If the meeting 
 has already commenced the room is crowded, not a few being 
 obliged to stand. The sides of the galleries are draped with 
 flags of different nations intertwined in the flag of our conn- 
 try. On the platform are seated as noble-looking a body 
 of men as one will often find. In the chair is Dr. Woolsey, 
 late President of Yale College, whose great dignitv and 
 gentle courtesy attract the admiration of all. Among the 
 foreign delegates are certain of the most noted ; the others 
 occupy the front seats of the Hall. 
 
 That tall man sitting to the right of the chairman, with 
 an English look — his hair and whiskers inclining to 
 grey, and having a very pleasant expression of countenance, 
 evidently from his appearance a man of intellectual power, 
 which is clearly demonstrated by his words, is the Dean of 
 Canterbury. The younger and shorter man who sits by his 
 side with no marked individuality in his appearance, re- 
 minding one of an ordinary business man, is Lord Alfred 
 Churchill. Behind them, the old gentleman with a very 
 foreign look, small in stature, with long grey hair and side 
 whiskers, is the venerable Dorner, the leading theologian of 
 Germany. 
 
 The young man who sits close by, evidently a German, 
 tall, slender, scholarly in appearance, in the vigor of life, 
 and full of promise for the future, is Prof Christlieb, 
 of Bonn University. Prussia. This elderly gentleman, 
 sitting behind, listening so intently, is Pastor Fisch, of 
 Paris ; that large and lion-like looking man, with brown, 
 bushy hair, is Rev. Frank Coulin, of Geneva ; those two 
 noble looking men. with faces full of strength and benignity,
 
 142 APPENDIX. 
 
 are Dr. Arnot, of Edinburgh, and Dr. Stoughton, o. 
 London ; that scholarly and refined face close by is that 
 of Rev. Mr. Marston, of London. Besides these, are many 
 other delegates, all bearing their nationality strongly marked 
 in their features. Here, too, are noble representatives of 
 our own country. We distinguish the well-known faces of 
 Rev. Dr. Adams, Prime, Dexter, Hopkins, and other leading 
 clergymen and scholars of various denominations, all 
 evidently listening with great interest to the papers or discus- 
 sions of the day. 
 
 Having, by dint of perseverance, looked in at Association 
 Hall, let us go over to the other meeting, which is being 
 held at the same time in the spacious Methodist Episcopal 
 Church near by. We find this church also thronged by an 
 earnest and highly intellectual audience. And, now, of all 
 the meetings, which was the most attractive ? Well, it is 
 difficult to say, but, judging from the eagerness which was 
 shown by the multitude, the meeting on Tuesday after- 
 noon, Oct. 7th, was regarded with as much interest as any, 
 the Sunday services excepted. Long before the time for 
 commencing, the doors of the Madison Square Presbyterian 
 Church were thronged to hear the famous pulpit orators. 
 Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, and Rev. Dr. Joseph Parker of 
 • London. The subject upon which they were to speak was, 
 the best method of preaching. Mr. Beecher spoke with re- 
 markable originality, force and beauty. Dr. Parker, who is a 
 young man, perhaps not over forty, of great physical vigor, 
 and with a loud and deep voice, evidently interested the 
 vast thronsr of ea?er listeners much. 
 
 But, referring again to the Tuesday afternoon meeting, 
 the multitude who were unable to obtain admission at Dr. 
 Adams' church, though they were too late to enter, were 
 even better fed than the others, for they were informed that 
 if they would go over to Association Hall, both of the 
 distinguished speakers would address them there, and they 
 also had the additional pleasure of listening to an im-
 
 APPENDIX. 143 
 
 promptu but most admirable speech from the distinguished 
 pulpit orator, Eev. John Hall. 
 
 Among the most important and interesting of the papers 
 read were those of Prof. Dorner, Prof. Christlieb, Prof. 
 Leathes, Dr. Payne Smith, Dean of Canterbury, Dr. Noah 
 Porter, President of Yale College. ex-Presidents Woolsey 
 and Hopkins, and that of Rev. Dr. Storrs, of Brooklyn, 
 which was heard by an immense and delighted audience, 
 and universally pronounced magnificent. Before conclu- 
 ding, I will simply allude to the Brahmin, Sheshadri, whose 
 simple, manly, heartfelt eloquence has interested every 
 one. Wherever this convert from heathenism has preached 
 or spoken, he has been listened to by large numbers and 
 with the most earnest attention. His peculiar dress, consist- 
 ing of a white turban, which he generally wore except when 
 prayer was being offered, and a loose drab gown, open in 
 front, disclosing a large amount of white linen, singles 
 him out from all others. His complexion is swarthy, and 
 almost as dark as that of a negro. His face is pleasant. 
 and his voice clear and melodious. Every word which he 
 uttered could be distinctly heard in the remotest part of the 
 house. He represented in the Alliance the first fruits of 
 India. 
 
 The address of welcome by Rev. Dr. Adams, was in every 
 way worthy of the sublime occasion, the opening of the grand- 
 est religious convocation of the present century. Indeed, so 
 noble has been its aim and object, and so harmonious have 
 been its meetings, such an amount of talent has been col- 
 lected from the different nations of the earth and united 
 in the great work of effecting lasting union among Chris- 
 tian laborers, that the Redeemer's Kingdom may advance 
 without let or hindrance, that these meetings of the Evan- 
 gelical Alliance may be rightly regarded as the grandest 
 religious convocation the world has seen since the day of 
 Pentecost.
 
 144 APPENDIX. 
 
 New Yor.K, October 14, 1873. 
 
 Although the week-day meetings of the Evangelical 
 Alliance were of exceeding interest and importance, the Sun- 
 day meetings were of even greater value, not only by reason 
 of their more sacred nature, being especially religious in 
 their character, but as a proof and a sample of that union 
 which it was the object of the great conference to inaugurate. 
 
 It was my privilege to listen, in the forenoon of Sun- 
 day. Oct. 5th, to a clear, forcible and spiritual discourse, 
 preached by Rev. Dr. Stoughton, of London, in Rev. Dr. 
 Adams' church, upon ' The Holy Spirit — his Personality, 
 Presence and Power.' The grand idea of the discourse, with 
 which it closed, was, that as through the benign influence 
 of the Holy Spirit a closer union was now being formed be- 
 tween Christians, so this same mighty influence was ready 
 and waiting to bless men with a spiritual awakening, and 
 that he earnestly hoped such a glorious result would follow 
 from the meetings which were now held. He desired Chris- 
 tians to pray earnestly that these gatherings to promote 
 Christian union and harmony might not only accomplish 
 that noble object, but might be instrumental in the salvation 
 of thousands. 
 
 In the afternoon the Lord's Supper was administered in 
 Rev. Dr. Adams' church. The circumstances were verv pecu- 
 liar. On either side of the officiating minister sat men of 
 different denominations and of various churches. After Dr. 
 Adams had made a few very appropriate remarks, the Dean 
 of Canterbury, who assisted in the breaking of the bread, 
 added some tender and beautiful thoughts. He was followed 
 by the Hindoo convert, Sheshadri. who spoke with great ear- 
 nestness, and with evident sincerity, of the wonderful love 
 of Christ. Rev. M. Prochet, of Genoa, also spoke of the 
 communion of saints, through their blessed Lord. Appro- 
 priate prayers were offered by Rev. Dr. Angus, of London, 
 nd by Bishop Schweinitz. of the Moravian church. While 
 le vast congregation were partaking of the wine, svmbol of
 
 APPENDIX. 145 
 
 the blood shed upon Calvary for each soul, the pastor re- 
 peated from memory many comforting and beautiful passa- 
 ges of Scripture. 
 
 It was indeed a wonderful occasion, one which, in its 
 significance and import, will have an abiding influence. 
 Never before did Christian fellowship seem so real and actual 
 as when the Dean of Canterbury, representing the great and 
 illustrious in rank and fortune of England, and the Hindoo 
 convert, representing the very ends of the earth, mingled at 
 the throne of grace their supplications with those from all 
 countries and all nations who call upon the Lord Jesus 
 Christ in sincerity and in truth. 
 
 At an early hour on Sunday evening, the Academy of 
 Music and Steinway Hall were crowded with those eager to 
 listen to their foreign brethren. Perhaps some of your 
 readers may never have been in the Academy of Music. 
 To such, a word of description may not be displeasing. 
 There are several entrances to this magnificent hall, which 
 certainly is worthy of such an occasion as this. The stage 
 extends across the entire front of the house, and is capable 
 of seating two hundred people. The three galleries are 
 semicircular, and rise one above the other. The sides are 
 lined with crimson damask, fringed with gold. On either 
 side of the room, fronting the space allotted to musicians, 
 but which at meetings of this nature are occupied by 
 reporters of the press, are twelve departments, separated by 
 pillars and hung with damask curtains. These are consid- 
 ered to be the most desirable seats in the house. Suspended 
 from the centre of the lofty ceiling, which is beautifullv 
 frescoed, is a magnificent chandelier, with three circlets of 
 lights rising one above the other, the largest circlet being at 
 the top. These circlets are connected by strings of glass 
 prisms, which are radiant with light, and exhibit the colors 
 of the rainbow. The entire hall is illuminated by this sin- 
 gle chandelier, which seems a beautiful emblem of the light- 
 giving presence of the Sun of Righteousness. Before the
 
 146 APPENDIX. 
 
 service commenced, and while the audience was assembling:, 
 by a magic touch from some unseen hand, a flood of light 
 was poured over the vast assembly. 
 
 The first meeting at the Academy of Music was one of 
 great interest, as was also that at Stein way Hall, which was 
 crowded to its utmost capacity. The addresses of the Dean 
 of Canterbury and Sheshadri, who spoke at both places, 
 seemed to have a peculiar interest to the audience. Toward 
 the close, General Clinton B. Fisk being called for, made an 
 impromptu address of great beauty and eloquence. One of 
 the most interesting and soul-elevating features of these vast 
 gatherings has been the singing, when thousands have joined 
 their voices in such familiar w r ords as : 
 
 " Blest be the tie that binds 
 Our hearts in mutual love." 
 
 Though the meetings of Sunday evening, Oct. 5th, 
 were exceedingly large, they were exceeded in numbers and 
 in interest by those of the last evening of the Alliance, Sun- 
 day evening, Oct. 12th. The Academy of Music at seven 
 o'clock was filled to its utmost capacity. Even at that early 
 hour, many 'were standing in the entrances, not being able 
 to get even a glimpse of the speakers. The services and 
 exercises of the evening were tender and deeply impressive. 
 Mayor Havemeyer presided, and Kev. Dr. Crosby introduced 
 the speakers, whose voice, clear and full, could be heard by 
 every one with the utmost distinctness. In fact, there was 
 little difficulty in hearing any of the speakers. 
 
 Appropriate farewell addresses were given by several 
 of the delegates. Among the most impressive were those of 
 Dr. Arnot, of Edinburgh, Professor Christlieb, of Bonn, 
 Prussia, Sheshadri, and the Dean of Canterbury, who made 
 the closing addresses of the delegates. 
 
 Rev. Dr. Schenck, of the Episcopal church, a w r orthy 
 representative of the evangelical portion of that body, then 
 gave the parting address, which was uttered in a clear and
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 147 
 
 sonorous voice, and which, hy its lofty eloquence and its 
 affectionate spirit, made a most happy impression upon all. 
 
 Rev. Dr. Adams then led the vast congregation in 
 prayer, kneeling before the Sovereign of the universe, and 
 committed the strangers whose presence in this land had 
 been so delightful to all earnest souls, to the guardian and 
 protecting care of Him who controls the winds and the 
 waves. After benediction by Bishop Janes, of the Metho- 
 dist church, the people dispersed, and the work of the Evan- 
 gelical Alliance was finished. 
 
 Thus terminated a meeting which, on account of the 
 harmony of its proceedings and the grandeur of its object, 
 will long be remembered." — J. F. A., in Vermont Chronicle. 
 
 XXIX.— The opening of the Centennial Exposition. 
 
 "Philadelphia, May 10.— The American people may 
 justly congratulate themselves. Energy, and a power of 
 steady endurance rarely so tested before, have atoned for all 
 manner of indifference, negligence, and accidental hinder- 
 ance ; the elements, threatening until the last moment, 
 became gloriously benign and radiant ; a hundred thousand 
 people met under the dappled dome of the May-day sky, 
 and with prayer, grand orchestral music, and still grander 
 choral song, brief and fitting official formalities, and the 
 closing jubilation of bells, cannon, instruments, and voices, 
 the International Exhibition of 1876 was opened. It was a 
 superb, a wonderful success. No such spectacle has ever 
 before been witnessed in this country — probably none 
 grander in all the essentials of expressive show anywhere 
 in the world, since the triumphs of the Caesars came to an 
 end. Thus auspiciously begins the commemoration of the 
 Centennial vear.
 
 148 APPENDIX. 
 
 THE MORNING. 
 
 Never were the aspects of a day so earnestly scanned. 
 The great crowds of last night, as they gathered in the cor- 
 ridors of hotels, under awnings, and in the abundant places 
 of refreshment near the grounds, talked of little else than 
 the weather. It rained dismally, and the wind almost took 
 on the rawness of a northeast storm. But at the Transcon- 
 tinental (which was filled to its utmost capacity), I met 
 Probabilities, just arrived from Washington. 
 
 To my daring question, "What will be the weather to- 
 morrow?" he answered in the calmest tone: "Possibly 
 cloudy — certainly no rain." With that oracle I made two 
 members of the Centennial Commission happy. 
 
 The early morn was overcast, and the blithe music of 
 the chimes floated far over the land in the damp air. But 
 the veil slowly lifted ; the wind came out of the west, and 
 specks of clear blue began to brighten and broaden. By 
 eight o'clock the transformation was complete ; the leaden 
 canopy of the past two days receded into a soft pearl-grey 
 background of air, against which the sun-touched banners 
 sparkled like tongues of flame. There was no longer a 
 doubt of the day. People were already arriving from all quar- 
 ters of the compass ; in fact, they seemed to spring up out 
 of the ground in every variety of ready-made costume. 
 Every street car was bursting with its load ; country vehi- 
 cles, decorated wagons, and private carriages thronged 
 Belmont- avenue and that of the Republic at an early hour. 
 Governors of States, officers of the army and navy, foreign 
 and native exhibitors, happy guests with tickets, and con- 
 tented guests with silver half-dollars in their pockets, gen- 
 tlemen, scholars, bummers, and adventurers jostled each 
 other in whatever direction one looked. When I compared 
 the street-pictures with those offered by Vienna, on that 
 raw and chilly May morning of 1873, I knew that the scene
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 149 
 
 to come would surely make me proud and satisfied as an 
 American. 
 
 INSIDE THE GROUNDS. 
 
 At nine o'clock, when the gates were opened to the public, 
 the inward flow began, but it was some time before it kept 
 pace with the increasing flow from without. The invited 
 guests were first admitted half an hour later at the southern 
 entrance of the Main Building : but when I reached that 
 point only a few minutes afterward, I found such a crowd 
 of dignitaries with their ladies, chorus-singers, musicians and 
 officials connected in some way with the Exhibition, that 
 both time and endurance Avere required to pass the gate. 
 Only one door of the building was opened, and hundreds of 
 gentlemen and ladies surged and perspired for some time 
 under the portal before they could reach the shadowy quiet 
 of. the interior. From the opposite portal, on the northern 
 side, our way passed under the great platform erected for 
 the orchestra and chorus— a cool, dark passage, out of which 
 we emerged into a bath of sunshine, and a vision of start- 
 ling, almost stunning character. An innumerable crowd on 
 either hand, kept back by ropes and lines of policemen, 
 which swayed out until they nearly touched in the centre, 
 and blocked our passage ; the two Pegasuses. their ugliness 
 hidden under masses of climbing and clinging humanity ; 
 the rising platform and whole front of the Memorial Hall 
 equally heaped and crowned, the 900 singers and 200 musi- 
 cians getting into place in the rear ; lines of men clear 
 against the sky, on every roof and pinnacle— these were the 
 first prominent features of the view. Reaching the plat- 
 form at last, where Mr. Dixey, the Master of Ceremonies, 
 and a score of efficient aids, set the thronging guests to 
 order, I found the best possible situation for studying the 
 scene more in detail.
 
 150 APPENDIX. 
 
 VIEWS FROM THE PLATFORM. 
 
 There is no great public spectacle in my memory with 
 which I can compare it. The parallel lines of the two halls 
 framed the picture on the north and south ; but to the east 
 and west, over a few detached buildings, there was only a 
 fringe of pale green tree-tops against the sky. All this 
 space, nearly half a mile in length by at least twp hundred 
 and fifty yards in breadth, seemed to be filled with people. 
 The greatest crowd within view at any time could not have 
 been much less than 100,000 persons. 
 
 It was already evident that the thoughtless eagerness of 
 the masses to get nearer the central point of interest would 
 lead to trouble, if not to danger. The space reserved for 
 the Press, immediately under the speaker's platform, was 
 invaded by hundreds who broke through the lines, and re- 
 porting soon became anything but a pleasant occupation. 
 It seemed quite impossible to restrain the tremendous im- 
 pulse of the crowd. Gen. Hawley, prominent by his strong, 
 manly face, a little pale from the weight of the responsi- 
 bility resting on him, gave a few quiet orders, the effect of 
 which was soon visible. It seemed as if the efforts of the sin- 
 gle line of policemen to stay the surging mass and the slowly 
 stretching rope would be like Mrs. Partington's attempt to 
 mop up the Atlantic Ocean ; but they worked manfully, 
 and all together, and the avenue for guests became clear 
 again. The unhappy spectators in front could not really 
 help themselves ; each man was the head of a line, a thou- 
 sand men deep, resting upon him. Had they not sincerely 
 respected the authority which restrained them, they might 
 have instantly swept away the representatives of the law ; it 
 was like a strong horse submitting to the will of a child. 
 When the first backward push was made there were screams 
 of terror and suffering, and presently a man in a dead faint 
 was handed over the rope. Fortunately, there was no more
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 151 
 
 serious accident, and I saw no signs of riotous resistance in 
 that part of the crowd. 
 
 The appearance of such a mass of humanity was some- 
 thing remarkable. It took on a strange, enormous individ- 
 uality, now seemingly agitated by a general tremulous 
 motion, now writhing and undulating like the muscles under 
 the scaly skin of a dragon. Out of the vast dark sea of heads 
 arose the two granite pedestals, upon each of which some 
 thirty or forty persons had climbed, and there were daring 
 boys on the bronze backs of the horses, clinging to their 
 stumpy wings, or perched on the heads of the Muses. One, 
 who came near sliding off the bevel of the base (from which 
 he would have dropped upon the crowded heads below), 
 and regained his place by a feat of strength, was rewarded 
 by hearty applause. The sun burued upon all with a sultry 
 fire which denoted more rain in store ; but every cloud 
 brought a cool and grateful breeze from the West. 
 
 ARRIVAL OF GUESTS. 
 
 All this while there was a constant stream of invited 
 guests from the Main Building, through the narrow lane 
 between the two great masses of people, and up the steps of 
 the platform. They must have numbered, in all. hardly 
 less than 4,000 ; and a company at once so distinguished 
 and so picturesque has never before been seen in this coun- 
 try. They came with an irregularity which was far more 
 quaint than any intentional contrast could have been — 
 Spanish and French officers, Japanese in cocked hats. Con- 
 gressmen and Senators in full dress and the most noncha- 
 lant reverse, diplomatic uniforms, Egyptians, Norse, Chinese, 
 ladies with lifted parasols, soldiers, and even broad -brimmed 
 Quakers. Many famous persons passed undiscovered, but 
 the people were sharp-eyed, and never failed to give notice 
 of every one whom they detected. Gen. Sherman was one 
 of the first to be popularly hailed ; then, after a few politi-
 
 152 APPENDIX. 
 
 cians, Gen. Hancock succeeded to the greeting. A little 
 after ten, the Emperor and Empress of Brazil — the latter in 
 morning costume of pale blue silk — came out from under 
 the musician's gallery. Dom Pedro's fine, frank, intelligent 
 face, and towering stature, were at once recognized, and he 
 was heartily cheered along the way. He lifted his hat and 
 bowed repeatedly, with a bright, friendly smile, as if he felt 
 the existence of a hearty good-will among the people. 
 
 Not long afterward, a gentleman with a grayish beard 
 had nearly reached the steps, when somebody called out : 
 " Blaine ! " and then followed a burst of cheers. Secretary 
 Bristow was not recognized until after the ceremonies were 
 over, when the call of his name brought an equal response. 
 On the right, a man with a dusky face became conspicuous 
 for his efforts to penetrate the crowd, and the air of com- 
 bined strength and dignity with which he resisted its jost- 
 ling. The policemen helped him over the ropes, somebody 
 said : "Fred Douglass !" and he was loudly greeted as he 
 mounted the platform. 
 
 There was a temporary interruption in the arrivals, 
 caused by the irresistible rush of the crowd on the right, 
 between the Main Hall and the bronze horses. The police- 
 men lost their ground ; a company of the Boston Cadets 
 was sent to their aid, and for a few minutes there was a 
 scene of great confusion. The Cadets charged gallantly 
 into the very heart of the crowd ; bayonets glittered, blue- 
 and-white uniforms became scattered among the dark civil- 
 ians, and the brave young fellows seemed to be getting the 
 worst of it for a little while. A detachment of cavalry sol- 
 diers went to their aid, and a company of armed seamen 
 from the Congress formed a wall on the opposite side. After 
 that there was peace until the close. I could not learn that 
 any one was injured, beyond the usual pommeling in such 
 cases ; but it is a marvel that there were not many deaths 
 from pressure and heat. 
 
 /
 
 APPENDIX. 153 
 
 THE CEREMONIES. 
 
 At a quarter past ten, Theodore Thomas turned his back 
 upon us, lifted his arms and brought down the first crash of 
 music. The eighteen national airs, however, only reached us 
 in fragments ; the wind instruments were equal to the task, 
 but the strings gave only a half-audible hum. The piano 
 passages were simply silence, at such a distance, and with 
 such a multitude between. When " Hail Columbia " closed 
 the performance, all eyes waited for President Grant to 
 appear, but it was about a quarter before eleven when he 
 came upon the platform, apparently from the rear, for I did 
 not discover him among the arriving guests. 
 
 Gen. Hawley first addressed a few words to the multi- 
 tude, which had an instant quieting effect, and Wagner's 
 Inauguration March began. A good deal of it was inaudi- 
 ble ; but you will have a report of its character from a com- 
 petent authority, and I need not attempt to give even the 
 semi-impression it made upon all who occupied the platform. 
 
 Bishop Simpson began his prayer in a low voice, which 
 grew clearer and stronger as he proceeded. It was an 
 earnest and fervent utterance, and the vast crowd, very few 
 of whom could hear anything of it, were respectfully silent, 
 many who were far out of ear-shot uncovering their heads. 
 But when the chorus rose, and the first word of Whittier s 
 hymn fell from a thousand lips, the pulse of the multitude 
 began to beat. Strong, distinct, and sweet, the lines 
 floated far and wide on the soft air, notaword indistinguish- 
 able. Mr. Paine's music seemed to me surprisingly fine. 
 Mr. Sidney Lanier, who sat beside me, said : " It has the 
 noble simplicity of an old Gregorian chant." Would that 
 the poet could have been present ! His earnest words never 
 before entered so many souls, clad in such a glorious garb of 
 sound. The impression was so deep and universal that the 
 applause at its close became unwelcome to the ear.
 
 154 APPENDIX. 
 
 Mr. Welch, in making his presentation speech, was 
 heard only in the immediate neighborhood of the platform. 
 His tall, erect figure and dignified head, however, was well 
 known to the people, and they gave him three cheers at 
 the close. 
 
 I wish some of the critics who were made so unhappv by 
 Mr. Lanier's cantata could have heard it sung to Mr. Dud- 
 ley Buck's music. The words suffered "a sea-change" into 
 another tongue ; the stanzas relieved each other, and unex- 
 pected dramatic felicities were recognized by the mind 
 through the ear. I never before heard a chorus sing with 
 the pure and changeful expression of a single voice. The 
 choruses in Handel's oratorios, given at Sydenham twenty 
 years ago, under Da Costa's direction, were surpassed by the 
 performance of to-day. It was original in the perfection of 
 the execution no less than in the conception of both poet 
 and composer. 
 
 The effect upon the audience could not be mistaken. 
 When Mr. Whitney began his bass solo, 
 
 " Long as thine Art shall love true lov«," 
 
 every word, with its faintest modulation of expression, was 
 distinctly heard by at least 15,000 persons. At the close, 
 the applause was so great that the chorus, already under 
 way, was suddenly stopped to allow an encore for the solo — 
 a thing almost unprecedented, on an occasion of the kind. 
 At the end of the Cantata, the thousand members of the 
 chorus rose by one impulse, and gave three cheers — either 
 for Mr. Thomas, Mr. Buck or Mr. Whitney, perhaps for all 
 three. It was a thoroughly inspiring scene, and lent its fire 
 to the remaining proceedings. 
 
 General Hawley spoke in a chest-voice, so robust and 
 well managed that I estimate he was heard by probably 
 8,000 of the audience. His address of presentation was re- 
 ceived with tremendous cheering. Then President Grant 
 arose and stepped to the front of the platform. He has
 
 APPENDIX. 155 
 
 grown quite stout of late, but looks well, and his face im- 
 proved wonderfully as he smiled upon the crowd. There 
 was a scattered, irregular fire of cheering until Genei'al 
 Hawley gave the signal with a wave of his arm. and the great 
 multitude shouted together. The President read Ids reply 
 from a printed copy, in an ordinary conversational tone. 1 
 was within twenty feet of him, and I could not catch a sin- 
 gle word. When he pronounced the Exhibition opened, the 
 signal was given. A flag ran up the staff on the main build- 
 ing, the chimes began, the cannon boomed from George's 
 Hill, and the orchestra and chorus pealed forth the majestic 
 Hallelujah Chorus. The strong harmonies of the last, how- 
 ever, drowned all other sounds — if, indeed, any one could 
 think of listening for them. It was just noon ; the sun 
 was shining, the air was full of diffused light, and all nature, 
 in breeze and foliage and play of colors, seemed to join in 
 the jubilee. 
 
 THE PKOCESSION. 
 
 With the cessation of the chorus, Mr. Dixey took his 
 stand, to arrange the order of the official procession through 
 the buildings. Mr. Goshorn gave his arm to President 
 Grant, who immediately gave his other arm to the Empress 
 of Brazil. The Emperor followed with Mrs. Grant. There 
 was, of course, no announcement of these chief personages ; 
 those that followed were summoned to their places. But 
 the platform had become so crowded, and all the policemen 
 so occupied in desperately holding back the struggling 
 masses, that not even the diplomatic bodies could get into 
 their proper places. The prescribed order of the procession 
 was soon violated by eager American statesmen and their 
 impatient ladies ; presently members of the crowd which 
 had besieged the Press, shutting out air and view, joined 
 the current, and the line at last became so hopelessly mixed 
 that I also trusted myself to it, much in advance of the 
 proper place.
 
 156 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 On entering the main hall, the distraction constantly 
 increased. There were ropes drawn in some places ; in 
 others the exhibitors and their friends considerately kept 
 their stand ; but at every step there were accessions from 
 somewhere, interruptions of the line of march, and finally a 
 chaotic mixture, in which only the Presidential party was 
 spared. The latter walked rapidly up the main aisle to the 
 eastern end, then returned by the southern side aisle, taking 
 a rapid glance at the American, Dutch, Brazilian and Eng- 
 lish departments. Externally, the American part was in 
 tolerable order ; but there is still a hideous waste of dirt, 
 boards, packing-paper and straw, extending the whole dis- 
 tance in its rear. 
 
 In the western half, France, Germany, Spain, Egypt, 
 Switzerland, Norway, and Japan were rapidly visited, and I 
 believe all the Commissioners were duly greeted in passing. 
 Before reaching the western entrance there was no longer a 
 procession. Streams of impatient outsiders forced their 
 way through the files of soldiers and poured into the Hall. 
 The invited guests were separated, mixed, and tangled on 
 every side, and only a stalwart guard of soldiers kept a little 
 free space for the President, Emperor, and Centennial Com- 
 mission. 
 
 • I may say, generally, that the Exhibition is much further 
 advanced than was that at Vienna on the opening day; that 
 the show, while not quite so brilliant, is fully as varied and 
 interesting, and that the spectacular effect is all that could 
 be achieved in such a space. 
 
 The way across the open space to the Machinery Hall 
 was kept clear by two files of soldiers, and when the partv 
 had entered the latter hall, the remainder of the task was 
 accomplished without interruption. This was the closing, 
 and, in many respects, the most interesting act of the open- 
 ing ceremonies. In the centre of the great hall Mr. Corliss, 
 proud and satisfied, stood beside his colossal engine. After 
 a rapid inspection and the necessary instruction, President
 
 APPKNPIX. 
 
 157 
 
 Grant and Emperor Dom Pedro took hold of the separate- 
 objects (I never could understand machinery, and don't 
 know whether they were cranks, valves, or wheels) and the 
 force of 2,000 horses was smoothly and silently exerted. 
 North and South America started the machinery of the 
 
 world. 
 
 Here ended my vision of the great spectacle, and here 
 ends, to-day, my capacity to write more. 
 
 At half-past four the withheld rain returned ; but all 
 was gloriously over. Those who sped homeward in storm 
 had a picture of entire brightness to cheer their memories. " 
 Bayard Taylor, in New York Tribune. 
 
 XXX. — Immigration. 
 
 From Ireland to America from May, 1847, to January, 
 
 « 1869 1,597,805 
 
 " Germany 1,536,649 
 
 " England 498,578 
 
 " Scotland 100,595 
 
 " France 74,405 
 
 " Switzerland 62,608 
 
 " All other countries 168,351 
 
 Total, 4,038,991." 
 -From Tilesion's Manual. 
 
 XXXI. —The Republics of the World and their 
 Number of Inhabitants. 
 
 - Republics- population. 
 
 Argentine Republic 1,833,142 
 
 Bolivia 1,987,352
 
 15S APPENDIX. 
 
 Central American Republics — population. 
 
 Guatemala 1,180,000 
 
 Sun Salvador 000,000 
 
 Honduras 350,000 
 
 Nicaragua 400,000 
 
 Costa Rica 135,000 
 
 Chili 2.084,960 
 
 Colombia (United States of) 2,990,000 
 
 Ecuador 1,040,000 
 
 France 36,594,845 
 
 Hayti 572,000 
 
 Liberia 718,000 
 
 Mexico 9,173,052 
 
 Orange Free State 40,000 
 
 Paraguay 1,137,439 
 
 Peru 3,199,000 
 
 St. Domingo 136,500 
 
 Switzerland 2,669,095 
 
 Transvaal Republic 300,000 
 
 United States of America 38,555,983 
 
 Uruguay 387,421 
 
 Venezuela 1,269,600 
 
 Total 107,353,389 
 
 — Schem's Statistical Tables, for 1872. 
 
 XXXII. — Some Important Dates. 
 
 " Charles Martel defeats the Saracens at Tours. . . a.d. 732. 
 
 Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the West 800. 
 
 The good Alfred becomes King of England 872. 
 
 He composed a code of laws and divided England into 
 
 counties, hundreds and ti things 
 
 The University of Cambridge was founded by Edward 
 
 the Elder in 915. 
 
 William the Conqueror and the Battle of Hastings. . . .1066.
 
 APPENDIX. 159 
 
 Conquest of Ireland by Henry II a. d. 1172. 
 
 Magna Charta signed by King John 1215. 
 
 The deputies of boroughs first summoned to par- 
 liament 1254. 
 
 End of the Empire of the Saracens 1258. 
 
 End of the Crusades 1291. 
 
 Beginning of English parliaments 1293. 
 
 Sir William Wallace noblv supports the liberty of Scot- 
 land 1296. 
 
 Establishment of the Swiss Republics 1307. 
 
 Robert Bruce defeats the English at the battle of Ban- 
 
 nockburn 1314. 
 
 Gunpowder invented 1340. 
 
 Battle of Cressy 1346. 
 
 Battle of Agincourt 1415. 
 
 John Huss condemned and burned 1416. 
 
 Jerome of Prague condemned and burned 1416. 
 
 Paper first made. from linen rags 1417. 
 
 Joan of Arc brings victory to France 1428. 
 
 Invention of the art of printing 1440. 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella unite Arragon and Castile 1479. 
 
 Battle of Bosworth 1485. 
 
 End of the Moorish Kingdom of Grenada 1491. 
 
 America discovered by Columbus 1494. 
 
 Sebastian Cabot lands in North America 1499. 
 
 The Reformation in Germany begun by Luther 1517. 
 
 Sweden and Denmark embrace the Protestant faith. . .1524. 
 
 Peace of Cambray 1529. 
 
 The famous league of Smalcald which was the formal 
 banding together of nine sovereign princes of Ger- 
 many and eleven free cities in defence of religious 
 liberty 1530. 
 
 The Reformation in England 1534. 
 
 The Interim granted by Charles V. to the Protestants. 1548. 
 The treaty of Passau and the establishment of Luther- 
 
 anism 1552.
 
 160 APPENDIX. 
 
 The massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24. . .a. d. 1572. 
 
 The commencement of the Dutch Republic 1579. 
 
 The world circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake 1580. 
 
 William I. Prince of Orange murdered at Delft 1584. 
 
 Virginia discovered bv Sir Walter Raleigh 1584. 
 
 Mary Queen of Scots beheaded at Fotheringay 1587. 
 
 Destruction of the Spanish Armada 1588. 
 
 Henry IV. [the Great] made king of France 1589. 
 
 Presbyterian Church Government established in Scot- 
 land 1592. 
 
 Edict of Xantes, tolerating the Protestants in 
 
 France 1598. 
 
 The Gunpowder Plot discovered 1605. 
 
 Henry IV. assassinated 1610. 
 
 Hudson's Bay discovered 1610. 
 
 Settlement of Virginia by Sir Walter Raleigh 1616. 
 
 Landing of the Pilgrims 1620. 
 
 League of the Protestant Princes against the Emperor 
 
 of Germany 1626. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus killed in the battle of Lutzen 1632. 
 
 The Solemn League and Covenant established in Scot- 
 land 1638. 
 
 The famous Long Parliament meet the 3d of No- 
 vember 1640. 
 
 The Irish Rebellion and massacre of the Protestants 
 
 October 23 1641. 
 
 Beginning of the Civil War in England 1642. 
 
 Victory of Xaseby 1644. 
 
 The peace of Westphalia which terminated the thirty 
 
 years' war 1648. 
 
 Execution of Charles 1 1649. 
 
 The revolution under William of Orange 1688. 
 
 Abdication of James II. December 1688. 
 
 Battle of Blenheim 1704. 
 
 Battle of Culloden 1746. 
 
 General Wolfe takes Quebec ^759
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 161 
 
 Montreal and Canada taken by the British A. d. 1760. 
 
 Poland dismembered by Russia, Prussia and Austria. .1772. 
 
 Battle of Bunker Hill. June 17 1775. 
 
 The Americans declare their independence. July 4 . .1776. 
 
 The surrender of Burgoyne. October 17 1777. 
 
 League between France and America. October 30 ..1778. 
 Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. October 18 . .1781. 
 Independence of United States declared. January 20. . 1783. 
 George Washington becomes first President of the 
 
 United States 1789. 
 
 The French Revolution 1792. 
 
 Robespierre guillotined 1794. 
 
 Rebellion in Ireland 1798. 
 
 Bonaparte declared first consul. Dec. 25 1799. 
 
 Union of Britain and Ireland 1800. 
 
 Bonaparte declared chief consul for life 1802. 
 
 Bonaparte crowned Emperor of France. Dec. 2 1804. 
 
 Battle of Trafalgar, and death of Nelson. Oct. 21 . .1805. 
 The British Parliament vote the abolition of the slave 
 
 trade. June 10 I 806 - 
 
 Battle of Jena and total defeat of the Prussians. 
 
 October 14 I 806 - 
 
 Abolition of the slave trade in the United States. 
 
 January 1 1808 - 
 
 Bonaparte divorces Josephine. January 16 1810. 
 
 Population of the United States, 7,239,903 1810. 
 
 War declared by the United States against Great Britain. 
 
 June 18 1812. 
 
 The burning of Moscow. September 14 1812. 
 
 The Spanish Inquisition abolished by the Cortes 1813. 
 
 Commodore Perry captures the British Squadron on 
 
 Lake Erie. September 10 1813. 
 
 Battle of Leipsic. October 19 1813. 
 
 Paris capitulates to the allies. March 30 1814. 
 
 Napoleon sails for the Island of Elba. April 28 1814. 
 
 Inquisition restored in Spain. July 18 1814.
 
 162 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 British squadron on Lake Champlain captured by Com- 
 modore McDonough. September 11 a. d. 1814. 
 
 The British defeated at New Orleans. January 8 1815. 
 
 Bonaparte sailed from Elba, February 26,— lands in 
 
 France, March 1,— enters Paris March 26 1815. 
 
 Battle of Waterloo. June 17 and 18 1815. 
 
 Bonaparte landed at St. Helena. October 13 1815. 
 
 The American Colonization Society organized Jan. 1 . .1817. 
 
 Commercial treaties between the United States and 
 
 Great Britain and Sweden ] 818. 
 
 The first steamship sails for Europe. May 1819. 
 
 A revolution occurred which gave a free constitution 
 
 to the Spanish nation 1820. 
 
 Population of the United States, 9,625,734 1820. 
 
 Dom Pedro, son of the King of Portugal declared Em- 
 peror of Brazil 1822. 
 
 The Era of Enlightenment. 
 
 Accession of Henry VII of England a. d. 1485. 
 
 Henry VIII 1509. 
 
 Edward VI 1547. 
 
 " Mary 1553. 
 
 " Elizabeth 1558. 
 
 " James 1 1603. 
 
 " Charles 1 1625. 
 
 Beginning of the commonwealth of England 1649. 
 
 Beginning of the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell 1654. 
 
 Beginning of the Protectorate of Eichard Cromwell . . 1658. 
 Accession of Charles II 1660. 
 
 " James II 1685. 
 
 " William and Mary 1689. 
 
 " Victoria 1837. 
 
 A brief Rebellion Record. 
 Surrender of Fort Sumter, in the afternoon of April 14, 1861.
 
 APPENDIX. 163 
 
 Battle of Gettysburg, commenced in the morning of 
 
 July 1, ended in the afternoon of July 3. . .a. d. 1863. 
 
 Surrender of Vicksburg, 9 A.M. July 4 1863 
 
 Fort Sumter repossessed by the Union, February 18 . .1865 
 Surrender of Gen. Lee and the close of the rebellion, 
 
 April 9 1865. 
 
 Death of President Lincoln at 7 22 a.m. April 14 . . . .1865. 
 Emancipation Proclamation, January 1 1863. 
 
 Wicliffe. the first translator of the Bible into English, 
 and hence one of the chief promoters of religious liberty, 
 died a. d. 1387. 
 
 The King James' translation of the Bible was published 
 a. d. 1611. 
 
 Language cannot express of what inestimable value this 
 has been to the world." — From Chronological Tables of 
 Tytler's History (mostly).
 
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